Letter doi:10.

1038/nature24640

Mild oxidation of methane to methanol or acetic

acid on supported isolated rhodium catalysts
Junjun Shan1*†, Mengwei Li1*, Lawrence F. Allard2, Sungsik Lee3 & Maria Flytzani-Stephanopoulos1

An efficient and direct method of catalytic conversion of methane formation of liquid oxygenates. The suppression of formic acid
to liquid methanol and other oxygenates would be of considerable and CO2 formation is notable upon decreasing pO2 from 4 bar to 2 bar,
practical value. However, it remains an unsolved problem in and the selectivities for methanol and acetic acid increase appreciably.
catalysis, as typically it involves expensive1–4 or corrosive oxidants The selectivity is even higher at longer times (6 h) at a pO2 of 2 bar
or reaction media5–8 that are not amenable to commercialization. (Fig. 1b). Under these conditions, the yield of acetic acid exceeds
Although methane can be directly converted to methanol using 13,000 μmol gcat−1, with approximately 60% selectivity. With increasing
molecular oxygen under mild conditions in the gas phase, the reaction time, the yield of acetic acid increases continuously while
process is either stoichiometric (and therefore requires a water maintaining high selectivity, clearly showing that acetic acid is much
extraction step)9–15 or is too slow and low-yielding16 to be practical. less prone to over-oxidation than are formic acid or methanol. The
Methane could, in principle, also be transformed through direct calculated conversion of methane at t = 6 h is about 4% (Extended Data
oxidative carbonylation to acetic acid, which is commercially Table 1). The highest acetic acid selectivity was achieved with a pO2 of
obtained through methane steam reforming, methanol synthesis, 0.5 bar; however, the yield was rather low, indicating an oxygen-limited
and subsequent methanol carbonylation on homogeneous operation. By optimizing the preparation method of the Rh-ZSM-5
catalysts 17,18. However, an effective catalyst for the direct catalyst (see Methods), the yield of acetic acid can reach approximately
carbonylation of methane to acetic acid, which might enable the 22,000 μmol gcat−1 at t = 3 h (Fig. 1c).
economical small-scale utilization of natural gas that is currently The acidity of the zeolite has been reported to promote the selecti­
flared or stranded, has not yet been reported. Here we show that vity of Cu-ZSM-5 catalysts for acetic acid12. To suppress the formation
mononuclear rhodium species, anchored on a zeolite or titanium of acetic acid and tune the catalyst selectivity towards methanol, we
dioxide support suspended in aqueous solution, catalyse the used Na-ZSM-5. As shown in Fig. 1d, Rh–Na-ZSM-5 can selectively
direct conversion of methane to methanol and acetic acid, using convert methane to methanol, and adding Cu2+ to the solution can
oxygen and carbon monoxide under mild conditions. We find further suppress the formation of formic acid (the role of Cu is dis-
that the two products form through independent pathways, which cussed in the Methods). Although CO is not a reactant in the conver-
allows us to tune the conversion: three-hour-long batch-reactor sion of methane to methanol, its presence was found to be necessary
tests conducted at 150 degrees Celsius, using either the zeolite- for the catalyst to function. Methanol was also the exclusive product
supported or the titanium-dioxide-supported catalyst, yield around on rhodium/titanium dioxide catalysts, which lack the acidity of
22,000 micromoles of acetic acid per gram of catalyst, or around H-ZSM-5. The importance of this finding is twofold: it demonstrates
230 micromoles of methanol per gram of catalyst, respectively, with that modulating the acidity of the support can be used to tune the
selectivities of 60–100 per cent. We anticipate that these unusually formation of the desired product (acetic acid or methanol), and also
high activities, despite still being too low for commercial application, shows that the confinement effect of the zeolite is not relevant in
may guide the development of optimized catalysts and practical these reactions—an important result that could allow for a variety
processes for the direct conversion of methane to methanol, acetic of oxide supports.
acid and other useful chemicals. These findings were subject to further mechanistic investigation.
We prepared supported rhodium catalysts using relatively simple First, analysis of the liquid after 12 h of reaction found only a trace
procedures. The main effort was to atomically disperse the rhodium amount of rhodium present, which we attributed to dissolution of the
species, which was achieved using a heat treatment protocol on the few rhodium nanoparticles present on the external surface of the zeolite
zeolite (ZSM-5) supports, and by anchoring rhodium precursor species (see Methods). However, methane conversion did not proceed fur-
on reduced titanium dioxide (titania) assisted by ultraviolet irradiation ther in solution after filtering out the catalyst. Therefore, the reaction
(see Methods). Rhodium loadings of 0.5 wt% and 0.6 wt% were used is clearly heterogeneous. The state of the active rhodium species was
on the ZSM-5 and titanium dioxide supports, respectively. also explored. Figure 2a and b show aberration-corrected high-
The catalysts were suspended in water and tested in a batch reactor angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy
under a total pressure of CH4, CO, and O2 of less than 30 bar. The (ac-HAADF/STEM) images of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5.
reactions were immediately activated and catalytic, as measured by Here, and as illustrated in further detail in Extended Data Fig. 2,
catalyst turnover (Fig. 1). The light-off temperature—the temperature contrast points consistent with the imaging of single rhodium atoms
at which the catalytic reaction was initiated—was approximately 110 °C are found (circled). At lower magnification, part of the rhodium was
in the case of Rh-ZSM-5. When the temperature was increased from found as nanoparticles on the external surfaces of the zeolite (Extended
130 °C to 150 °C the yield of liquid oxygenate increased substantially, Data Fig. 3a–f). After sputtering the top surface layer of the zeolite
although it decreased above 170 °C owing to over-oxidation to CO2. particles, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirms the pres-
Low temperatures and low partial pressure of oxygen (pO2 ) are desirable ence of rhodium species inside the zeolite micropores (Extended Data
to suppress the over-oxidation. Figure 1a shows the effect of pO2 on the Fig. 3g and h).
1
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, USA. 2Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee 37831, USA. 3X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, USA. †Present address: NICE America Research, Inc., Mountain
View, California 94043, USA.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.

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 RESEARCH Letter

a HCOOH 1.0 b HCOOH 13,514

1.0
8,000 7,753 14,000
CH3OH CH3OH
7,000 CH3COOH 12,000 CH3COOH

5,840
0.8 0.8

5,482
CO2 CO2

Acetic acid selectivity

Acetic acid selectivity

6,000

Product (μmol gcat–1)

4,957
10,000
Product (μmol gcat–1) 5,000 0.6 0.6
8,000

5,482
4,000

4,600
0.4 6,000 0.4

3,650
3,000

1,670
1,519
4,000

2,099
2,000 1,224

1,670
1,519
0.2 0.2

1,104
1,012
790

701
2,000

573

790

701

573
1,000

412

446
412
234
34

0
0
0

0
0 0.0 0 0.0
4 bar O2 2 bar O2 2 bar O2 0.5 bar O2 1 2 3 6
1h 1h 3h 1h Reaction time (hours)
c 1.0 d 1,000
HCOOH 21,295 HCOOH
1.0
CH3OH CH3OH
20,000
CH3COOH CH3COOH
0.8 800
CO2 CO2 0.9

Acetic acid selectivity

Product (μmol gcat–1)

Methanol selectivity
15,000
Product (μmol gcat–1)

550
0.6 600 0.8

430
0.7
10,000
7,020

0.4 400

289
5,482

5,010

0.6

230
5,000 0.2 200
2,068
1,670

0.5

99
86
57
701

573

0
0

0
0
0 0.0 0 0.4
0.5 Rh-ZSM-5 Optimized 0.5 Rh-ZSM-5 0.5 Rh–Na-ZSM-5 0.6 Rh–TiO2 0.5 Rh–Na-ZSM-5
3h 3h 3h 3h 1 h, with Cu2+

Figure 1 | Catalytic performance of supported rhodium catalysts in the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 at 2 bar O2 with varying reaction time (b); 0.5 wt% Rh-
conversion of methane to oxygenates. Reaction conditions: 20 mg ZSM-5 and optimized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 at 2 bar O2 and 3 h reaction time (c).
catalyst, 0.5–4 bar O2, 5 bar CO, 20 bar CH4, 20 ml water, 0.5–6 h reaction d, Product yields and methanol selectivity for 0.5 wt% Rh–Na-ZSM-5 with
time, 150 °C reaction temperature. a–c, Product yields and acetic acid and without Cu2+, as well as on 0.6 wt% rhodium/titanium dioxide, at
selectivity for 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 with varying p O 2 and reaction time (a); 2 bar O2 and varying reaction time.

Diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy using By contrast, static air calcination favours the formation of rhodium
CO as a probe molecule (CO-DRIFTS) was performed on various active oxide nanoparticles. Extended Data Fig. 4a also shows that Rh-ZSM-5
Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts under ambient conditions, as shown in Fig. 2c reduced in H2 is much more active than Rh-ZSM-5 calcined in air.
and d. Dicarbonyl species are formed on isolated rhodium cations, Furthermore, no activity was found on silica-supported rhodium or
whereas on rhodium nanoparticles CO binds in both atop and bridged rhodium oxide nanoparticles. We therefore conclude that the active
configurations19. The absorption peaks at 2,116 cm−1 and 2,049 cm−1 sites are the isolated mononuclear rhodium species inside the zeolite
are attributed to the symmetrical and asymmetrical stretching of micropores.
CO from the isolated mononuclear RhI(CO)2 species19, whereas the Linear combination fitting of X-ray absorption near edge struc-
peak at 2,082 cm−1 is attributed to either the atop binding of CO on ture (XANES) data of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed shows that rhodium
rhodium nanoparticles or isolated RhI(CO)3 species19,20. The broad is mostly in the +1 oxidation state (Extended Data Fig. 5b), whereas
peak centred at 1,885 cm−1 is assigned to bridged CO on rhodium 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 (without washing) consists of 60% Rh+ and 40%
nanoparticles19. Applying a recently reported titration method19, we metallic rhodium, which is comparable to the amount estimated from
estimated the portion of isolated rhodium to be 50%. Moreover, for DRIFTS. Extended Data Fig. 6 shows extended X-ray absorption fine
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed (see Methods), the peaks at 2,082 cm−1 and structure (EXAFS) data of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed, and the quantita-
1,885 cm−1 were difficult to see, indicating the dominance of isolated tive analysis reveals that there is no distinct Rh–Rh bonding (Extended
mononuclear RhI(CO)2 species. As shown in Extended Data Fig. 4a, the Data Table 2). XANES and EXAFS data were also collected for the same
selectivities of the parent 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 and the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM- catalysts suspended in water, to mimic the reaction conditions, and no
5washed samples are similar, and their activities were also comparable, noticeable difference was found. Therefore, these measurements also
indicating that they possess the same active sites. Similar spectra were support the single-site distribution of isolated Rh+ cations.
also obtained for the optimized Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst, comprising isolated It has been reported that C–H bond activation can proceed over
rhodium cations. Hence, the optimized Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst shows supe- an isolated transition-metal centre, yielding M–CH3 species23. Here,
rior catalytic activity because of the greater number of isolated rhodium we hypothesize that isolated Rh+ cations facilitate the activation of
species inside the micropores (Fig. 1c). methane in water by O2 to form Rh–CH3 species, which can be fur-
Figure 2d shows CO-DRIFTS spectra of Rh-ZSM-5 upon H2 and ther functionalized under our reaction conditions. This hypothesis is
static air treatment. For the latter, the RhI(CO)2 peaks are absent and supported by our catalysis measurements. As shown in entries 2 and
a single broad peak centred at 2,045 cm−1 appears, which is assigned 3 of Table 1, when using only CH4 with CO or only CH4 with O2, no
to atop binding of CO on rhodium/rhodium oxide nanoparticles21. oxygenates were formed. In entry 4, after exposure to CH4 and O2 at
This finding is corroborated by ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) absorp- 150 °C for 1 h, the reactor was cooled to less than 10 °C and purged with
tion spectroscopic characterization of the O2- and H2-treated samples He several times, then 5 bar CO was added and the catalyst was heated
(Extended Data Fig. 5a). It is suggested that the heat treatment during to 150 °C for 1 h. In this case, 23 μmol gcat−1 of acetic acid was formed.
the preparation step controls the type of rhodium sites. It has been Methane can therefore be activated by O2 to form Rh–CH3 species,
reported that H2 heat treatment of Fe-ZSM-5 during the preparation which can be further functionalized by CO to produce acetic acid.
step favours the formation of isolated iron cations22. Similarly, isolated Assuming a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of rhodium to methyl group, this
Rh+ cations were obtained here by reducing the precursors in H2. corresponds to ~23 μmol gcat−1 Rh–CH3. On the basis of DRIFTS and

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 Letter RESEARCH

a b Table 1 | Liquid oxygenates produced on bare ZSM-5 and

as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5
Product (μmol gcat−1)
* **
Catalyst Conditions CH3OH HCOOH CH3COOH
ZSM-5 CH4 + O2 + CO, 0 0 0
150 °C, 1 h
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 CH4 + CO, 150 °C, 1 h 0 0 0
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 CH4 + O2, 150 °C, 1 h 0 0 0
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 CH4 + O2, 150 °C, 1 h; 0 0 23
purge, addition of
2 nm 2 nm CO, 150 °C, 1 h
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 CH4 + O2 + CO, 1,224 7,753 4,957
c d 150 °C, 1 h
RhI(CO)2 *After impregnation, all samples were vacuum dried at 60 °C, followed by reduction in 5% H2 at
550 °C for 3 h at a heating rate of 3 °C min−1.
Atop **In all tests, the same partial pressures (in bar) of the reactants were used: CH4, 20; CO, 5; O2, 4.
Rh-ZSM-5 O2
Absorbance (a.u.)

Absorbance (a.u.)

20 mg catalyst suspended in 20 ml water was used.

Bridged RhI(CO)2
1.0 wt% Rh
which can be further hydrolysed to methanol26. Similarly, our experi-
0.5 wt% Rh
ments suggest that Rh–CH3 can form Rh–OCH3 species by the inser-
0.5 wt%
Rhwashed
Rh-ZSM-5 H2 tion of an oxygen atom in the presence of CO ligands that bind with
rhodium. The formed Rh–OCH3 will be hydrolysed to produce metha-
2,100 2,000 1,900 1,800 2,150 2,100 2,050 2,000
nol. Furthermore, isotope-labelling measurements with 13CO confirm
Wavenumber (cm–1) Wavenumber (cm–1)
that the methyl-group carbon is derived solely from methane, not from
Figure 2 | TEM images and CO-DRIFTS spectra of various carbon monoxide, suggesting that CO is acting as a co-catalyst. It has
Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts. a, b, ac-HAADF-STEM images of a thin edge of been reported that, in the catalytic oxidation of methane to methanol
an as-synthesized Rh-ZSM-5 flake. Isolated rhodium atoms are marked
with hydrogen peroxide, a reductant is required to regenerate the cop-
with white circles. c, CO-DRIFTS spectra of 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, 0.5 wt%
Rh-ZSM-5 and 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed; an additional washing step was per catalyst3. It is likely that CO can also regenerate Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts
applied to the latter sample before the hydrogen reduction step to remove to preserve the Rh+ active sites. In addition, Fig. 1d indicates that, for
rhodium species from the external surface of the zeolite; d, CO-DRIFTS the formation of methanol, acidity of the zeolite support is not required.
spectra of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 (bottom trace) and 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 The conversion of methane to oxygenates may therefore occur via
calcined in air (top trace). See Methods for further details. a two-step reaction pathway: methane activation followed by M–CH3
functionalization (Extended Data Fig. 7). In the first step, methane is
activated in the presence of O2 on isolated Rh+ cations under mild con-
XANES measurements, for as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, about ditions to produce Rh–CH3. The exact mechanism responsible for this
25 μmol gcat−1 (approximately 55%) of Rh is present as isolated cations, activation is not clear and warrants further investigation. The formed
which agrees well with the formation of about 23 μmol gcat−1 Rh–CH3. Rh–CH3 can then be functionalized via two independent reaction
By contrast, the formation of 4,957 μmol gcat−1 of acetic acid (entry 5 pathways: oxygen insertion to produce methanol, or CO insertion to
of Table 1) shows that, when all three gases are present, the reaction is produce acetic acid. After the hydrolysis step, isolated Rh+ species are
not stoichiometric, but clearly catalytic with a closed cycle. available for the next catalytic cycle.
According to various reports8,24,25, CO may insert directly into Further investigation of the Rh–CH3 functionalization step, for
Rh–CH3 bonds through carbonylation insertion to form Rh–COCH3 which CO is required, is necessary to guide the design of new and
species, which can be further hydrolysed to acetic acid in water. As more efficient methane oxidation catalysts and processes, especially
discussed in Methods, isotope labelling measurements with 13CO were for direct methane-to-methanol conversion. More immediate practical
used to confirm its insertion. However, our measurements also show value may be offered by the acetic acid production pathway, as dilute
that such insertion requires acidity of the zeolite support. As shown in solutions of acetic acid could serve as nutrient streams to microbes,
Fig. 1d, when using Rh–Na-ZSM-5 the yield of acetic acid was greatly which can convert and sequester them into highly concentrated lipid
reduced compared with that obtained using Rh-ZSM-5; the former products27.
contains far fewer Brønsted acid sites12. Similar observations were made
for the rhodium/titanium dioxide sample (Fig. 1d); there is no forma- Online Content Methods, along with any additional Extended Data display items and
Source Data, are available in the online version of the paper; references unique to
tion of acetic acid in this case. The Brønsted acid sites of the zeolite are these sections appear only in the online paper.
therefore necessary for the formation of acetic acid.
To determine whether methanol is a reaction intermediate in received 18 August 2016; accepted 2 October 2017.
the formation of acetic acid, we also performed catalytic tests using
methanol, CO and O2 as the reactants. 1 mM methanol in 20 ml water, 1. Hammond, C. et al. Direct catalytic conversion of methane to methanol in an
aqueous medium by using copper-promoted Fe-ZSM-5. Angew. Chem. Int.
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cating that methanol is not a reaction intermediate in the conversion Cu/Fe/ZSM-5 for catalytic methane oxidation: from synthesis to catalysis.
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acid are produced through independent reaction pathways (Extended tricopper complex for efficient catalytic conversion of methane into methanol
Data Fig. 7). at ambient temperature and pressure. Energy Environ. Sci. 9, 1361–1374
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the M–CH3 bond in the presence of a CO ligand to form M–OCH3, to a methanol derivative. Science 280, 560–564 (1998).

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 RESEARCH Letter

7. Chepaikin, E. G. et al. Functionalisation of methane under dioxygen and carbon 23. Olivos-Suarez, A. I. et al. Strategies for the direct catalytic valorization of
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13. Starokon, E. V., Parfenov, M. V., Pirutko, L. V., Abornev, S. I. & Panov, G. I. Acknowledgements The financial support of this work by the Department
Room-temperature oxidation of methane by α-oxygen and extraction of of Energy, DOE/ARPA-e grant DE-AR0000433, under subcontract from MIT,
products from the FeZSM-5 surface. J. Phys. Chem. C 115, 2155–2161 (2011). is gratefully acknowledged. The XAS work used resources of the Advanced
14. Beznis, N. V., van Laak, A. N. C., Weckhuysen, B. M. & Bitter, J. H. Oxidation of Photon Source, a US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science, User
methane to methanol and formaldehyde over Co-ZSM-5 molecular sieves: Facility operated for the DOE Office of Science by Argonne National Laboratory
tuning the reactivity and selectivity by alkaline and acid treatments of the under contract DE-AC02-06CH11357. Aberration-corrected electron
zeolite ZSM-5 agglomerates. Micropor. Mesopor. Mater. 138, 176–183 (2011). microscopy research at Oak Ridge National Laboratory was sponsored by the
15. Shan, J. et al. Conversion of methane to methanol with a bent mono(μ-oxo) US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
dinickel anchored on the internal surfaces of micropores. Langmuir 30, Vehicle Technologies Office, Propulsion Materials Program.
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16. Narsimhan, K., Iyoki, K., Dinh, K. & Román-Leshkov, Y. Catalytic oxidation of
methane into methanol over copper-exchanged zeolites with oxygen at low Author Contributions J.S. conceived the research, designed the experiments,
temperature. ACS Cent. Sci. 2, 424–429 (2016). characterized the samples and drafted the manuscript. M.L. conceived the
17. Paulik, F. E. & Roth, J. F. Novel catalysts for the low-pressure carbonylation of research and performed catalytic evaluation. M.F.-S. conceived the research and
methanol to acetic acid. Chem. Commun. 1578a (1968). designed the experiments. L.F.A was responsible for the STEM characterization.
18. Lin, M. & Sen, A. Direct catalytic conversion of methane to acetic acid in an S.L. helped with the XANES and EXAFS measurements and the interpretation of
aqueous medium. Nature 368, 613–615 (1994). the results. All the authors discussed the results and participated in writing the
19. Matsubu, J. C., Yang, V. N. & Christopher, P. Isolated metal active site manuscript.
concentration and stability control catalytic CO2 reduction selectivity.
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 3076–3084 (2015). Author Information Reprints and permissions information is available at
20. Ivanova, E. & Hadjiivanov, K. Polycarbonyls of Rh+ formed after interaction of www.nature.com/reprints. The authors declare no competing financial
CO with Rh–MFI: an FTIR spectroscopic study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 5, interests. Readers are welcome to comment on the online version of the
655–661 (2003). paper. Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard
21. Kroner, A. B. et al. Time-resolved, in situ DRIFTS/EDE/MS studies on to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
alumina-supported rhodium catalysts: effects of ceriation and zirconiation on Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to
rhodium–CO interactions. ChemPhysChem 15, 3049–3059 (2014). M.F.-S. ([email protected]).
22. Forde, M. M. et al. Light alkane oxidation using catalysts prepared by chemical
vapour impregnation: tuning alcohol selectivity through catalyst pre-treatment. Reviewer Information Nature thanks E. Pidko and the other anonymous
Chem. Sci. 5, 3603–3616 (2014). reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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 Letter RESEARCH

Methods were collected in a PHI VersaProbe II system equipped with a monochromatic

Catalyst preparation. The Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts were prepared in several steps. Al Kα source and a double-focusing hemispherical analyser. The XPS system
First, the ammonium form of the zeolite, NH4-ZSM-5, with Si:Al ratios of 15 and was also equipped with an argon ion sputtering gun to sputter the sample for
100, purchased from Alfa, was used without further modification. Preliminary depth-profile analysis. XPS samples were prepared by loading the catalyst powder
catalysis tests found that catalysts synthesized from ZSM-5 with a Si:Al ratio of onto a Cu foil. XPS data analysis was performed with CASA XPS software.
15 were more active than those synthesized from ZSM-5 with a Si:Al ratio of Ac-HAADF/STEM images of Rh-ZSM-5 were obtained with a JEOL 2200FS-AC
100. The former was adopted for use, therefore ZSM-5 herein refers to the zeolite (S)TEM instrument at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, fitted with a CEOS GmbH
with a Si:Al ratio of 15. Inductively coupled plasma elemental analysis showed corrector on the probe-forming lenses and operating at 200 kV for all analyses. The
that the concentrations of Cu and Fe in the purchased NH4-ZSM-5 were 0 and samples for high-resolution imaging were prepared by dispersing the Rh-ZSM-5
0.002 wt%, respectively. Such a low concentration of Fe impurities does not pro- powder in water and adding a few drops onto copper grids supported on carbon
duce any detectable products under our reaction conditions. In the second step, films. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis data were obtained using a Bruker-AXS
residual water was removed from the internal pores of the zeolite by drying in a 30 mm2 silicon-drift detector system. Trial imaging experiments allowed the
vacuum oven at 120 °C for 3 h. Rh precursors were then introduced by incipient determination of the most appropriate beam conditions to minimize loss of the
wetness impregnation with a Rh(iii) nitrate solution (99%, Sigma-Aldrich) into the zeolite crystal structure when scanning the sample for the best thin edges of powder
dehydrated NH4-ZSM-5. After impregnation, the samples were dried in a vacuum support particles to examine. An incident probe with a nominal 14-pA current at
oven at 60 °C overnight, then reduced in 5% H2 (balanced in helium) at 550 °C for a convergence semi-angle of 26.5° was used (mag mode 9C on the JEOL 2200FS
3 h at a heating rate of 3 °C min−1, and subsequently labelled as ‘as-synthesized instrument). In comparison, catalyst samples with more stable support materials
Rh-ZSM-5’. For clarity, Rh-ZSM-5 here refers to the catalyst that was reduced in are typically imaged with beam currents of 41 pA to achieve 0.07 nm resolution for
5% H2, unless otherwise noted. For comparison, part of the samples after drying single-atom imaging on stable supports. The large beam convergence semi-angle
in the vacuum oven were calcined in static air at 550 °C for 3 h instead of reducing for HAADF imaging results in a focal depth of only a few nanometres, and atoms
in a hydrogen atmosphere; these are labelled as ‘Rh-ZSM-5 O2’. An additional outside of a given focus point gradually reduce in contrast, so it was expected
washing and filtration step was applied to some samples before the reduction to that the Rh atoms in the ZSM-5 material would be rather difficult to image, since
remove the Rh species present at the pore mouths on the external surface of the they would probably be not only at different z-height positions in the lattice, but
zeolite; these are labelled as ‘Rh-ZSM-5washed’. In this washing and filtration step would also be affected by the simultaneous degradation of the cage structure of the
the zeolite was washed dropwise with deionized water, filtered and then dried in zeolite while the electron beam was forming the scanned image. Any atom motion
a vacuum oven at 60 °C overnight. Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts with different nominal Rh during imaging also degrades the contrast. Nevertheless, images were obtained as
loadings were prepared. The concentrations of Rh were determined by inductively illustrated in Extended Data Fig. 2 (and Fig. 2a and b), which shows both the raw
coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP–OES). image and the processed image of a thin edge of a ZSM-5 flake, clearly amorphized
A large fraction of the rhodium is stabilized in single ion form by this prepa- by the incident beam, in which the eye can select contrast points in the raw image
ration, with the remainder forming nanoparticles on the external surface of the that are enhanced in the processed image.
zeolite. X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, and DRIFTS measurements were conducted on a Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS50
of the same catalyst after use in the reaction, are shown in Extended Data Fig. 1. FTIR spectrometer and a Praying Mantis high temperature reaction chamber.
Neither the impregnation nor the reaction conditions caused any changes in the The CO adsorption on various samples was measured at room temperature. Pure
ZSM-5 crystal structure. Furthermore, we also used Mordenite zeolite (MOR) CO was introduced into the DRIFTS cell at a flow rate of 10 ml min−1. This was
with a Si:Al ratio of 10, to prepare Rh–MOR by similar methods. The catalytic followed by a He purge at a flow rate of 20 ml min−1 to remove gas-phase CO from
tests showed that Rh–MOR exhibits similar catalytic performance to the ZSM-5 the cell before DRIFTS measurements. UV–Vis absorption spectra were collected
based catalysts. in the range of 200–800 nm using a Jasco V570 UV–Vis spectrophotometer.
To prepare the optimized Rh-ZSM-5, an additional washing and filtration step XANES and EXAFS data were obtained at beamline 12-BM at the Argonne
was first applied to samples before the reduction to remove the Rh species present National Laboratory. The data for Rh-ZSM-5 at the Rh K-edge in the fluorescence
at the pore mouths on the external surface of the zeolite; the sample was then dried mode were collected at room temperature. To avoid the influence of Rh nanoparti-
in a vacuum oven at 60 °C overnight. The same impregnation, washing, drying cles present on the external surface of the zeolite, the majority of Rh-ZSM-5 EXAFS
steps were then repeated four times, followed by reduction in 5% H2 at 550 °C for samples were pre-washed with deionized water as described above. Approximately
3 h to obtain the final catalytic material. five consecutive scans were run for each sample to improve the signal-to-noise
We also prepared several Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts by using Rh(iii) chloride as a pre- ratio. EXAFS data processing and analysis were performed using the IFEFFIT
cursor instead of Rh(iii) nitrate. The catalytic tests showed similar activity for the package.
samples prepared with Rh(iii) chloride as for those prepared with Rh(iii) nitrate, Catalytic evaluation. Batch-reactor tests were conducted at a fixed methane pres-
indicating that the presence of the Cl in the impregnation step does not affect the sure of 20 bar and a typical charge of 20 mg catalyst suspended in 20 ml water in
activity of the catalysts following reduction in H2 at 550 °C. a Parr reactor. The other two gases, O2 and CO, were used at lower partial pres-
The sodium-ion-exchanged 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst was prepared by mixing sures, 0.5–5 bar, and the temperature was varied over the range of 100–170 °C.
1 g of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 in 36 ml of a 2.44 M solution of sodium acetate at 80 °C Liquid product analysis was performed using 1H NMR, and gaseous samples were
for 12 h. Samples were then filtered and washed with hot deionized water, followed analysed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.
by drying in a vacuum oven at room temperature overnight. This procedure was The catalytic tests were performed in a Parr high-pressure micro reactor (series
repeated twice to obtain the sodium-ion-exchanged Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst. 4590), which has a maximum working pressure of 1,000 psi, and a maximum
A commercial titanium oxide, TiO2 (Millenium, G5, anatase) was used to pre- working temperature of 350 °C. The maximum liquid volume is 35 ml. A magnetic
pare TiO2-supported isolated Rh cation catalysts. The preparation involves first the stir bar was used to continuously stir the solution during the reaction, and an oil
deposition of Rh species onto TiO2 via deposition–precipitation, using an aqueous bath was used to heat the reactor. A K-type thermocouple was inserted into the
solution of Rh(iii) nitrate. The desired amount of Rh(iii) nitrate solution was added Parr reactor to directly measure the temperature of the liquid.
dropwise into the TiO2 suspension, which was maintained at a temperature of 80 °C During the reaction, a certain amount of catalyst was added into 20 ml deionized
and a pH of 8.5. The suspension was further held at 80 °C for 3 h, the solids were water followed by ultrasonic sonication for 1 min. The reactor vessel was pressur-
filtered and transferred to an ethanol solution, and then the slurry was exposed ized using 0.5–4 bar O2, 5 bar CO and 20 bar CH4. The reactor was then placed
to ultraviolet irradiation with an 8 W black light lamp centred at 365 nm. During in an oil bath that was pre-heated to the desired temperature, and the solution
the irradiation process, Rh cations are anchored on certain surface sites of the was heated to a certain temperature for a certain period of time under constant
titanium dioxide28. Excess Rh, weakly bound on the surface, can be readily removed stirring. After the reaction, the reactor was removed from the oil bath and cooled
by hydrochloric acid. Starting from 2.5 wt% Rh/TiO2 using the deposition– with ice. Once the temperature of the reaction solution was below 10 °C, the gas
precipitation method, ultraviolet irradiation for 3 h can anchor ~0.6 wt% Rh as composition was analysed by both gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to
single atoms on this support, on the basis of our characterization. check for CO2 formation, and the liquid was collected in a vial after filtering out the
Catalyst characterization. After preparation, Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts were characte­ solid particles. It should be noted that CO2 originates from two different reactions,
rized by XRD, ac-HAADF/STEM, XPS, DRIFTS, UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy, namely the over-oxidation of liquid oxygenates and the direct conversion of CO to
XANES and EXAFS. CO2 through CO oxidation. The amount of CO2 formed from CO was determined
XRD patterns were collected on a PANalytical X’Pert Pro instrument using from a separate experiment using identical reaction conditions but without CH4.
nickel-filtered Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.54056 Å). The measurements were taken at The amount of CO2 originating from CH4 was then calculated by subtracting the
45 kV and 40 mA in a continuous mode and a 2θ range from 10° to 60°. XPS data CO2 produced as a result of CO oxidation from the total amount of CO2 formed.

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 RESEARCH Letter

The carbon balance, including all CH4 and CO derived products, was over 97% pores and decrease the activity. For Rh-ZSM-5 O2, the presence of rhodium oxide
for the catalytic tests conducted. nanoparticles suppresses the activity. Moreover, for 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed, ICP
The concentration of oxygenates in the liquid was quantified by NMR. 1H NMR analysis shows that the residual Rh loading is ~0.13 wt%; that is, ~75% Rh species
spectra were measured on a Bruker AVANCE III 500 spectrometer. The measure- were removed by the additional washing step. Clearly, washing not only removes
ment was calibrated using a 1% tetramethylsilane (TMS)/CDCl3 internal standard. the Rh species on the external surface but also some Rh precursor species from
Typically, 0.6 ml liquid was mixed with 0.1 ml of D2O to prepare a solution in an the zeolite micropores, which will form isolated Rh cations after the reduction
NMR sample tube for the measurement. The signal of protons from the solvent step. Therefore, the content of active sites in 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed is between
H2O is much higher than that from the products. Therefore, all 1H NMR spectra 0.1 wt% Rh and 0.5 wt% Rh in the ZSM-5. The yields of oxygenates for 0.5 wt%
were recorded using a pre-saturation solvent suppression technique to suppress Rh-ZSM-5washed are also between these two values. In other words, the intrinsic
the dominant H2O signal. The typical products—methanol, formic acid and acetic catalytic activity of Rh-ZSM-5washed per Rh atom is comparable to Rh-ZSM-5 with-
acid—were quantified by comparing the 1H NMR signal against calibration curves out washing. If the washing step is performed after the reduction, the anchored Rh
for each molecule. species cannot be removed by the mild washing step.
In this study, each single data point in conversion measurements was repeated Extended Data Fig. 4b shows the product yields and selectivity to liquid
at least three times under the same conditions. The uncertainties of these meas- oxygenates at various reaction times with p O 2  = 4 bar, using the as-synthesized
urements were typically below 10%. The average value of these results is presented 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst. At t ≤ 0.5 h, the selectivity to liquid oxygenates is close
in the paper. to 90%, but the yield of acetic acid (1,976 μmol gcat−1) is lower than that of formic
Extended results and discussion. Extended Data Fig. 1 shows XRD patterns of acid (9,263 μmol gcat−1); that is, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 is more active for the oxidation
bare ZSM-5, as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, as well as 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 after of methane to formic acid under these conditions. With increasing reaction time,
1 h and after 3 h of reaction at 150 °C. XRD patterns of as-synthesized Rh-ZSM-5 the yield of acetic acid continuously increased, whereas the yield of formic acid
show no observable difference compared with bare ZSM-5, indicating that the dropped noticeably because it was over-oxidized to CO2. Methanol is similarly
impregnation of Rh does not change the lattice structure of ZSM-5. The XRD affected. However, acetic acid is more difficult to oxidize than the other liquid
patterns of Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts after the 1 h and 3 h reaction tests are preserved, oxygenates, in agreement with the effect of oxygen shown in Fig. 1. After 2 h, the
suggesting that the methane oxidative conversion reaction does not alter the lattice selectivity to liquid oxygenates dropped to 45% and CO2 became the dominant
structure of ZSM-5. Previous studies of zeolite stability have reported that under oxidation product. The selectivity to acetic acid compared to the other liquid
hydrothermal conditions the framework of certain types of zeolites is prone to oxygenates was highest under these conditions (51%).
hydrolysis of the siloxane bond, which leads to the destruction of the framework, Extended Data Fig. 5a shows the UV–Vis absorption spectra of bare ZSM-5
for example the HY zeolite29. However, the stability of zeolites under hydrothermal (bottom trace), as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 (top trace), and 0.5 wt%
conditions is heavily affected by the type of framework. For example, zeolite Y Rh-ZSM-5 O2 (middle trace). Compared to bare ZSM-5, as-synthesized 0.5 wt%
becomes amorphous after treatment in water at 200 °C for 6 h, whereas the frame- Rh-ZSM-5 exhibits one additional absorption band centred at 265 nm. A similar
work of ZSM-5 remains unmodified under the same conditions30. Similarly, based absorption band has been observed in organometallic Rh(i) compounds and is
on XRD, under our reaction conditions the zeolite lattice structure of Rh-ZSM-5 assigned to the Rh+ cations33. Therefore, we assigned this absorption band to
catalyst does not change. In addition, Extended Data Fig. 1 also shows that no isolated Rh+ cations anchored on the internal walls of the zeolite. For 0.5 wt%
diffraction peaks related to Rh oxide or metallic nanoparticles are present31, indi- Rh-ZSM-5 O2, a much broader absorption band centred at 620 nm is present.
cating well dispersed Rh species. The latter peak may be assigned to Rh(iii)/Rh(iv) oxides34. Clearly, for 0.5 wt%
Extended Data Fig. 2 shows ac-HAADF/STEM images of a thin edge of the Rh-ZSM-5 treated with H2, UV–Vis absorption data show that a larger portion of
as-synthesized Rh-ZSM-5 flake, where it is possible to image the Rh atoms. Rh species are isolated Rh+ cations, whereas for 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 calcined in
Extended Data Fig. 2a is the raw HAADF/STEM image, and Extended Data static air, the majority of Rh species are Rh oxides.
Fig. 2b is the image after five-point smoothing and small contrast enhancement. Extended Data Fig. 5b shows the normalized XANES spectra of 0.5 wt%
Here, an incident probe with a nominal 14-pA current at a convergence semi- Rh-ZSM-5washed, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed suspended in water, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-
angle of 26.5° was used (that is, mag mode 9C on the JEOL 2200FS instrument). As 5washed after reaction, as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 O2,
shown in the images, contrast points consistent with the imaging of single Rh atoms as well as various Rh standards. XANES data of Rh-ZSM-5 were collected at room
are circled. Extended Data Fig. 3a–f show ac-HAADF and bright-field image pairs temperature in fluorescence mode. For 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed suspended in
of various 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts at higher magnification. Extended Data water, the measurement was performed in aqueous conditions after dispersing
Fig. 3a and b show the images of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, whereas the catalyst powder in deionized water at room temperature. Approximately five
Extended Data Fig. 3c and d are the images of the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts consecutive scans were collected for each sample to improve the signal-to-noise
after use in the reaction, and Extended Data Fig. 3e and f show the images of ratio. Four standard samples, Rh2O3, Rh(ii)2(CH3COO)4, Rh(i)2(μ-OH)2(C8H12)2
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed. These HAADF and bright-field image pairs were and Rh foil, were used as reference samples. The XANES data of the standards
acquired simultaneously. TEM images clearly show that, for the samples with- were collected in the transmission mode at room temperature. The absorption
out the additional washing step, there are a few Rh nanoparticles present on edge of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed clearly shows that Rh species in Rh-ZSM-5 are
the external surface of the zeolite, whereas for Rh-ZSM-5washed there are no Rh not metallic but are in the cationic state. Linear combination fitting was performed
nano­particles present on the external surface of the zeolite. This observation is and found no metallic Rh, only cationic Rh in the +1 oxidation state. The linear
consistent with the CO-DRIFTS findings (Fig. 2c). combination fitting of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed after reaction shows 80% Rh+
Extended Data Fig. 3g and h show photoemission features of Rh 3d (Fig. 3g) and 20% metallic Rh. For as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, the fitting shows
and Si 2p (Fig. 3h) of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 before and after Ar+ that it consists of 60% Rh+ and 40% metallic Rh, whereas for 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5
sputtering. Extended Data Fig. 3g shows that, before sputtering, no photoemission O2, Rh is in the +3 oxidation state. Moreover, XANES spectra collected with the
peak of Rh was observed for the as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 sample. This catalyst sample suspended in water are similar to those for the sample in the absence
means that the amount of Rh on the external surface of the zeolite is below the of water.
detection limit of XPS. To study the Rh species anchored on the internal walls of Extended Data Fig. 6 shows the Rh K-edge EXAFS data of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-
Rh-ZSM-5, the oxide surface layers of ZSM-5 must be removed15. After Ar+ ion 5washed, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed suspended in water, and Rh foil. EXAFS data
sputtering for 5 min, sufficient layers of silica on the external surface of Rh-ZSM-5 of Rh-ZSM-5 were collected at room temperature in fluorescence mode. EXAFS
were removed, and the Rh 3d feature arising from the Rh species anchored on data of Rh-ZSM-5 suspended in water were collected at room temperature in
the internal walls of zeolite was clearly identified in Extended Data Fig. 3g32. fluorescence mode after dispersing the zeolite powder in water. EXAFS data
Conversely, the photoemission feature of Si 2p (Extended Data Fig. 3h) shows no of Rh foil were collected at room temperature in the transmission mode. Five
difference before and after Ar+ ion sputtering. consecutive scans were collected for each sample to improve the signal-to-noise
Extended Data Fig. 4a shows the yields of liquid oxygenates on Rh-ZSM-5 ratio. The quantitative analyses for Rh–O and Rh–Rh contributions are shown
catalysts with different Rh loadings, as well as 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed and in Extended Data Table 2. The analyses reveal that there is no distinct Rh–Rh
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 O2. The data demonstrate that among the samples 0.1 wt% bonding in 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed, indicating the presence of isolated Rh cations
Rh-ZSM-5, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 and 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 O2, on the micropore walls of the zeolite. Moreover, the relatively short Rh–O bond
0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 exhibits the best catalytic performance. Compared to 0.1 wt% length in Rh-ZSM-5, 1.99 ± 0.03 Å (compared to a Rh–O bond length of 2.70 Å in
Rh-ZSM-5, it is likely that 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 has more active sites, thereby zeolite-supported Rh nanoclusters35) confirms that the Rh–O bonds in Rh-ZSM-5
explaining its superior activity. By contrast, 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 is inferior owing are not attributed to zeolite-supported Rh nanoclusters. This bond length is also
to the presence of rhodium particles, which may partially block access to the zeolite comparable to the Rh–O bond length observed in isolated Rh complexes anchored

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© 2017 Macmillan Publishers Limited, part of Springer Nature. All rights reserved.
 Letter RESEARCH

on HY zeolite36. EXAFS measurements performed in the presence of water also operating conditions to improve the stability of the Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst, or finding
show that water does not affect the isolation properties of Rh cations. a way to regenerate the catalyst, is a key objective for future applications of this
Extended Data Fig. 7 shows the possible reaction pathway of oxidative methane type of catalyst.
conversion to methanol and acetic acid on Rh-ZSM-5. In the first step, CH4 can The alternative explanation of stability loss due to metal leaching is not relevant
be activated on the mononuclear Rh+ cation in the presence of O2 and water to to our catalyst and reaction conditions. Rh leaching from 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 was
form Rh–CH3 species. The formed Rh–CH3 species can be further functionalized checked by ICP–OES analysis of the reaction liquid at different reaction times.
either through an oxygen-insertion reaction to form Rh–OCH3 or a carbonylation Aqueous-phase Rh was not detected throughout the course of reaction for the
CO-insertion reaction to form Rh–COCH3. Subsequent hydrolysis of Rh–OCH3 conditions in Fig. 1a. Similarly, no Rh leaching was detected for 0.6 wt% Rh/TiO2
and Rh–COCH3 gives methanol and acetic acid as products, respectively, and catalyst. Furthermore, as shown in Extended Data Fig. 1, the zeolite structure
regenerates the Rh+ catalyst, which closes the catalytic cycle. remains intact after reaction and no desilication or dealumination was observed
Extended Data Fig. 8a shows the Rh K-edge EXAFS spectra and fitting of the by ICP analysis. Only after longer reaction times (t = 12 h) was there a trace amount
as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst without washing. EXAFS spectra clearly of Rh in the water after the reaction, attributed to the leaching of the few rhodium
show Rh–Rh bonding, indicating the presence of Rh nanoparticles in the as- nanoparticles on the external surface of the zeolite particles, as mentioned previ-
synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst without washing. The Rh K-edge EXAFS ously. Notably, our washing experiments also found that it is extremely difficult to
spectra and fitting of 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed are shown in Extended Data remove anchored Rh species from the zeolite support after the hydrogen reduction
Fig. 8b. The presence of Rh nanoparticles in 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed is obvious in step. It has been reported that metal cations anchored in the micropores of ZSM-5
the EXAFS spectra. Furthermore, Extended Data Fig. 8c shows Rh K-edge EXAFS are very stable against leaching, thus leaching of rhodium cations is not expected
spectra and fitting of the used 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed catalyst. The sample was under our mild reaction conditions38,39. Even under extremely harsh hydrothermal
obtained after methane conversion reaction using the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed conditions, with high pressures of between 140 and 150 bar at 350 °C, the majority
sample at 20 bar CH4, 5 bar CO, 2 bar O2 and 150 °C for 3 h. The EXAFS spectra of anchored cations cannot be leached out40.
show Rh–Rh bonding (coordination number = 0.6 ± 0.2), indicating the formation To identify the carbon source in the oxygenates, isotope-labelled 13CO was used
of some Rh clusters during the methane conversion reaction. Quantitative analyses under typical reaction conditions using 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 and 0.6 wt% Rh/TiO2.
1
for the Rh–O and Rh–Rh contributions in Extended Data Fig. 8 are shown in H NMR confirms the formation of liquid oxygenates, which were further analysed
Extended Data Table 2. by 13C NMR. For 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, formic acid, methanol and acetic acid are the
The possibility of homogeneous reaction was investigated on Rh-ZSM-5 liquid products. Among them, CH313COOH is the only labelled liquid oxygenate
catalysts. After a 1-h reaction using 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5, the zeolite particles were present. No formation of 13CH3OH, 13CH3COOH or H13COOH was identified. For
removed by centrifugation and an additional 1-h reaction was run under the same Rh/TiO2, methanol is the only liquid oxygenate, and no labelled 13CH3OH could
conditions using the collected reaction liquid. We did not observe any increase be detected using 13C NMR. These measurements confirm that the methyl group
in liquid oxygenates after the additional 1-h test. Although after longer reaction carbon is derived solely from methane, not from carbon monoxide, whereas acetic
times (t = 12 h) there was a trace amount of Rh in the water after the reaction, attri­ acid is formed through carbonylation insertion of CO.
buted to the dissolution of the few rhodium nanoparticles present on the external Data availability. The main data supporting the findings of this study are available
surface of the zeolite particles, our testing also found that such small amounts of within the article and its Extended Data. Extra data are available from the corre-
Rh species in the water are not active. We conclude that the catalytic reaction under sponding author upon request.
the conditions reported here is heterogeneous.
The Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst was inactive in solvents other than water, for example
28. Yang, M., Allard, L. F. & Flytzani-Stephanopoulos, M. Atomically dispersed
in ethylene glycol. Furthermore, using alkaline (pH = 10) or acidic media (pH = 2) Au–(OH)x species bound on titania catalyze the low-temperature water-gas
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conversion of methane to methanol and acetic acid. zeolites for biofuel upgrading reactions at the liquid–liquid interface in
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A similar effect has been reported before, and was attributed to the prevention of 31. Su, J. et al. Highly sensitive methane catalytic combustion micro-sensor
the over-oxidation of products to formic acid1. It is likely that the presence of Cu based on mesoporous structure and nano-catalyst. Nanoscale 5, 9720–9725
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loss probably owing to Rh atom diffusion and aggregation. Indeed, Rh nanoclusters highly efficient catalysts for upgrading phenolic biomolecules. ACS Catal. 5,
2727–2734 (2015).
were formed in the used 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed catalyst as shown by EXAFS in 40. Robin, T. F., Ross, A. B., Lea-Langton, A. R. & Jones, J. M. Stability and activity of
Extended Data Fig. 8c, whereas the fresh catalyst mostly comprised mononuclear doped transition metal zeolites in the hydrothermal processing. Front. Energy
Rh species. Preventing the sintering of isolated Rh atoms by proper tuning of the Res. 3, 51 (2015).

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RESEARCH Letter

Extended Data Figure 1 | XRD patterns of bare ZSM-5, as-synthesized

0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 and 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 after 1 h and after 3 h of
reaction at 150 °C. XRD patterns of as-synthesized Rh-ZSM-5 show
no observable difference compared with pure ZSM-5, indicating that
the impregnation of Rh does not change the lattice structure of ZSM-5.
The XRD patterns of Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts after the 1-h reaction and the
3-h reaction are preserved, suggesting that the oxidative conversion of
methane to liquid oxygenate products does not alter the lattice structure
of ZSM-5.

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 Letter RESEARCH

Extended Data Figure 2 | Aberration-corrected HAADF/STEM images (Fig. 2a in main text). The images are of a thin edge of the as-synthesized
of as-synthesized Rh-ZSM-5. a, Raw HAADF/STEM image. b, HAADF/ Rh-ZSM-5 flake, where it is possible to image the Rh atoms. Contrast
STEM image after five-point smoothing and small contrast enhancement points consistent with the imaging of single Rh atoms are circled.

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RESEARCH Letter

Extended Data Figure 3 | TEM images and XPS characterization of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 before and after Ar+ ion sputtering.
Rh-ZSM-5. a, b, Ac-HAADF (a) and bright-field (b) image pairs, h, The Si 2p photoemission spectra of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5
acquired simultaneously, of as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5. before and after Ar+ ion sputtering. Before sputtering, no photoemission
c, d, Ac-HAADF (c) and bright-field (d) image pairs of 0.5 wt% Rh- peak of Rh was observed on Rh-ZSM-5. After Ar+ ion sputtering for
ZSM-5 after use in the reaction. e, f, Ac-HAADF (e) and bright-field (f) 5 min, a Rh 3d feature arising from the Rh species anchored on the
image pairs of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed. The ac-HAADF images show that internal walls of the zeolite was clearly identified. XPS characterization
there are a few Rh nanoparticles on the external surface of zeolite for the therefore confirms the presence of Rh species inside the micropores of
samples without washing, whereas for the sample of Rh-ZSM-5washed there the zeolite.
are no Rh nanoparticles present. g, The Rh 3d photoemission spectra of

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 Letter RESEARCH

Extended Data Figure 4 | Catalytic performance of various Rh-ZSM-5 reaction times with a p O 2  of 4 bar, using the as-synthesized 0.5 wt%
catalysts in the direct conversion of methane to liquid oxygenates. Rh-ZSM-5 catalyst. Reaction conditions: 20 mg catalyst, 20 bar CH4, 5 bar
a, Yields of liquid oxygenates on Rh-ZSM-5 catalysts with different CO, 4 bar O2, 150 °C, and various reaction times. All data points were
Rh loadings, as well as 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed and 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 O2. replicated three times and average values are reported with uncertainty
Reaction conditions: 20 mg catalyst, 20 bar CH4, 5 bar CO, 4 bar O2, below 10%.
150 °C, 1 h. b, Product yields and liquid oxygenate selectivity at various

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RESEARCH Letter

Extended Data Figure 5 | UV–Vis absorption spectra and XANES Rh-ZSM-5washed, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed suspended in water, 0.5 wt%
spectra of various samples. a, UV–Vis absorption spectra of bare ZSM-5 Rh-ZSM-5washed after reaction, as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5,
(bottom trace), as-synthesized 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 (top trace), and 0.5 wt% 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 O2, as well as various Rh standards (Rh+: [Rh(μ-OH)
Rh-ZSM-5 O2 (middle trace). b, Normalized XANES spectra of 0.5 wt% (COD)]2, Rh2+: [Rh(CH3COO)2]2, Rh3+: Rh2O3).

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 Letter RESEARCH

Extended Data Figure 6 | EXAFS characterization of 0.5 wt% at room temperature in fluorescence mode. EXAFS spectra of
Rh-ZSM-5washed samples under different conditions and Rh foil Rh foil were collected at room temperature in the transmission mode.
standard. a, Rh K-edge EXAFS spectra of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed, Rh Note that in these cases, radial distances are given without phase
foil, and the fitting of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed. b, Rh K-edge EXAFS correction. Quantitative analyses of Rh–O and Rh–Rh contributions in
spectra of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed, 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed suspended in 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed are shown in Extended Data Table 2, Entry 1.
water, and Rh foil. EXAFS spectra of the Rh-ZSM-5 sample were collected

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RESEARCH Letter

Extended Data Figure 7 | Possible reaction pathways of the catalytic

conversion of methane to methanol and acetic acid on Rh-ZSM-5.
The conversion to methanol and acetic acid follow independent reaction
pathways. See the main text for more information.

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 Letter RESEARCH

Extended Data Figure 8 | EXAFS characterization of various Rh-ZSM-5 of used 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed catalyst. The sample was obtained after
catalysts. a, Rh K-edge EXAFS spectra and fitting of 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 methane conversion reaction using the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5washed catalyst at
without washing. EXAFS spectra clearly show Rh–Rh bonding, indicating 20 bar CH4, 5 bar CO, 2 bar O2 and 150 °C for 3 h. EXAFS spectra clearly
the presence of Rh nanoparticles in the 0.5 wt% Rh-ZSM-5 sample without show Rh–Rh bonding, indicating the formation of Rh clusters during the
washing. b, Rh K-edge EXAFS spectra and fitting of 1.0 wt% Rh-ZSM- methane conversion reaction. The quantitative analyses for Rh–O and
5washed. EXAFS spectra clearly show Rh–Rh bonding, indicating the Rh–Rh contributions in these samples are shown in Extended Data
presence of Rh nanoparticles. c, Rh K-edge EXAFS spectra and fitting Table 2.

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 RESEARCH Letter

Extended Data Table 1 | Calculated conversion of methane at different reaction times

Data from Fig. 1b. #Reaction conditions: 20 mg catalyst, 2 bar O2, 5 bar CO, 20 bar CH4, 20 ml water, 150 °C. +The products are: HCOOH, CH3OH, CH3COOH, and CO2. *The amount of CH4 charged into
the reactor is calculated from 20 bar of CH4 at RT. The volume of gas is 15 ml, which corresponds to 12 mmol CH4.

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 Letter RESEARCH

Extended Data Table 2 | Quantitative analyses of Rh–O and Rh–Rh contributions as measured by EXAFS

Data from Extended Data Figs 6 and 8. a, CN, coordination number; b, R, distance between absorber and backscattered atoms.

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