Beowulf 

(/ˈbeɪ.ɵwʊlf/; in Old English [ˈbeːo̯wʊlf] or [ˈbeːəwʊlf])[1] is the conventional title of an Old

English heroic epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set inScandinavia, commonly
cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature. It survives in a single
manuscript known as the Nowell Codex. Its composition by an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet is
dated between the 8th[2][3] and the early 11th century.[4] It fell into oblivion for many centuries,
and its existence did not become widely known again until it was printed in 1815.

In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been
attacking the resident warriors of the mead hall of Hroðgar (the king of the Danes),Grendel's
mother, and an unnamed dragon. After the first two victories, Beowulf goes home
to Geatland and becomes king of the Geats. The last fight takes place fifty years later. In this
final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death, his servants bury him in a tumulus in
Geatland.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century, after the Anglo-Saxons had
begun migration and settlement in England, and before the beginning of the 7th century, a time
when the Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic
kinsmenin Scandinavia and Northern Germany. The poem could have been transmitted in
England by people of Geatish origins.[5] It has been suggested that Beowulf was first composed
in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, as Sutton Hoo also shows close connections
with Scandinavia, and also that the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffings, were descendants
of theGeatish Wulfings.[6][7] Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred, or
with the court of King Canute.

The poem deals with legends, i.e., it was composed for entertainment and does not separate
between fictional elements and real historic events, such as the raid by King Hygelac into Frisia,
ca. 516. Scholars generally agree that many of the personalities of Beowulf also appear in
Scandinavian sources (specific works designated in the following section). [8] This does not only
concern people (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga,Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but
also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and some of the events (e.g., the Battle on
the Ice of Lake Vänern). As far as Sweden is concerned, the dating of the events in the poem
has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the barrowsindicated by Snorri
Sturluson and by Swedish tradition as the graves of Ohthere (dated to c. 530) and his
son Eadgils (dated to c. 575) in Uppland, Sweden.[9][10][11] In Denmark, recent archaeological
excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings,
i.e., Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, exactly the time period
of Beowulf.[12] Three halls, each about 50 metres long, were found during the excavation.[12]

The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and

the Scyldings in Beowulfare based on real people in 6th-century Scandinavia.[13] Like
the Finnsburg Fragment and several shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been
used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as Eadgils and Hygelac,
and about continental Germanic personalities such as Offa, king of the continental Angles.

19th-century archeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was

buried at Uppsala, according to Snorri Sturluson. When Eadgils' mound (to the left in the photo)
was excavated in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a
powerful man was buried in a large barrow, c 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave
offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and
a tafl game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth
with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the
Middle East which were probably part of a casket. This would have been a burial fitting a king
who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. Ongenþeow's barrow (to the right in the
photo) has not been excavated.

SOURCES AND ANALOGUES

There are five main categories in which potential sources and/or analogues are

included: Scandinavian parallels, classical sources, Irishsources
and analogues, ecclesiastical sources, and echoes in other Old English texts.

STORY

The main protagonist, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, the king of
the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills both
Grendel and Grendel's mother, the latter with a magical sword.

Later in his life, Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by
a dragon whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the
dragon with the help of his thegns, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the
dragon into its lair, at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf dares join him.
Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried in a tumulus by the sea.

Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great
distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts.
The poem also begins in medias res ("into the middle of affairs") or simply, "in the middle",
which is a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poem begins with Beowulf's
arrival, Grendel's attacks have been going on for some time. The poet who composed Beowulf,
while objective in telling the tale, nonetheless utilizes a certain style to maintain excitement and
adventure within the story. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages are spoken of,
as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valor.

BATTLES

1st BATTLE: GRENDEL

Beowulf begins with the story of King Hroðgar, who built the great hall Heorot for his people. In it
he, his wife Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating,
until Grendel, an outcast from society who is angered by the singing, attacks the hall and kills
and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. But Grendel dares not touch the
throne of Hroðgar, because it is described as protected by the powerful God. Hroðgar and his
people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's
permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar.

Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall
and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, who bears no weapon as this would be
an unfair advantage over the unarmed beast, has been feigning sleep and leaps up to clench
Grendel's hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf's
retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades can not pierce Grendel's skin as
he is immune to human weapons. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the
shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die.

2nd BATTLE: GRENDEL’S MOTHER

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in
Heorot. Grendel's mother appears and attacks the hall. She kills Hroðgar's most trusted
warrior, Æschere, in revenge for Grendel's death.

Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Beowulf
prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferth.
After stipulating a number of conditions to Hroðgar in case of his death (including the taking in of
his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. He
is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel's mother. However, she is unable to harm Beowulf
through his armour and drags him to the bottom of the lake. In a cavern containing Grendel's
body and the remains of men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother and Beowulf engage in
fierce combat.

At first, Grendel's mother appears to prevail. Beowulf, finding that Hrunting cannot harm his foe,
discards it in fury. Beowulf is again saved from his opponent's attack by his armour and,
grasping a mighty sword of the giants from Grendel's mother's armoury (which no other man
could have hefted in battle), Beowulf beheads her. Traveling further into the lair, Beowulf
discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head. Beowulf then returns to the surface and to his
men at the "ninth hour" (l. 1600, "nōn", about 3pm).[17] He returns to Heorot, where Hroðgar
gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom.

3rd BATTLE: THE DRAGON

Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in
Beowulf's life, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of an unnamed dragon at Earnaness.
When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning
everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but when Beowulf is
wounded by the dragon, his warriors run away in fear. Only one of the warriors, a brave young
man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf dies from his
wounds.

After he is cremated, Beowulf is buried in Geatland on a cliff overlooking the sea, where sailors
are able to see his tumulus. The dragon's treasure is buried with him, in accordance with
Beowulf's wishes, rather than distributed to his people. There is a curse associated with the
hoard.
Structured by funerals

It is widely accepted that there are three funerals in Beowulf.[18] The funerals are also paired with
the three battles described above.[18] The three funerals share similarities regarding the offerings
for the dead and the change in theme through the description of each funeral. Gale Owen-
Crocker (Professor of Anglo-Saxon, University of Manchester) in The Four Funerals in
Beowulf (2000) argues that a passage in the poem, commonly known as “The Lay of the Last
Survivor” (lines 2247-66), is an additional funeral.[18] The funerals are themselves involved in the
ritual of hoarding: the deposition of sacrificial objects with both religious and socio-economic
functions.[19]
Scyld Scefing (lines 1–52)

The first funeral in the poem is of Scyld Scefing (translated in some versions as "Shield
Shiefson") the king of the Danes.[20] The first fitthelps the poet illustrate the settings of the poem
by introducing Hrothgar’s lineage. The funeral leads to the introduction of the hero, Beowulfand
his confrontation with the first monster, Grendel. This passage begins by describing Scyld’s
glory as a “scourge of many tribes, a wrecker of mead-benches.” [20] Scyld’s glory and
importance is shown by the prestigious death he obtains through his service as the king of the
Danes.[18] His importance is proven once more by the grand funeral given to him by his people:
his funeral at sea with many weapons and treasures shows he was a great soldier and an even
greater leader to his people.[18] The poet introduces the concepts of a heroic society
through Scyld. The possessions buried with the king are elaborately described to emphasize the
importance of such items.[18] The importance of these earthly possessions are then used to
establish this dead king’s greatness in respect to the treasure.[18] Scyld’s funeral helps the poet
to elaborate on the glory of battle in a heroic society and how earthly possessions help define a
person‘s importance. This funeral also helps the poet to develop the plot to lead into the
confrontation between the protagonist, Beowulf, and the main antagonist,Grendel.
Hildeburg’s kin (lines 1107–24)

The second funeral in the poem is that of Hildeburg’s kin and is the second fitt of this poem.
[20]
 The funeral is sung in Heorot to celebrateBeowulf's victory over Grendel. It also signifies the
beginning of the protagonist’s battle against Grendel's mother. The death of Hildeburg’sbrother,
son(s), and husband are the results of battle. The battle also leads to Scyld’s death and mirrors
the use of funeral offerings for the dead with extravagant possessions.[20] As with the Dane’s
king, Hildeburg’s relatives are buried with their armour and gold to signify their importance.
[18]
 However, the relatives’ funeral differs from the first as it was a cremation ceremony.
Furthermore, the poet focuses on the strong emotions of those who died while in battle.[20] The
gory details of “heads melt[ing], gashes [springing] open...and the blood [springing] out from the
body’s wounds” [20] describes war as a horrifying event instead of one of glory.[18] Although the
poet maintains the theme of possessions as important even in death, the glory of battle is
challenged by the vicious nature of war. The second funeral displays different concepts from the
first and a change of direction in the plot that leads to Beowulf's fight against Grendel's Mother.
Lay of the Last Survivor (lines 2247–66)

"The Lay of the Last Survivor" is arguably an addition to the other three funerals
in Beowulf because of the striking similarities that define the importance of the other burials.
[18]
 The parallels that identify this passage with the other three funerals are the similar burial
customs, changes in setting and plot, and changes of theme. The lament appears to be a
funeral because of the Last Survivor’s description of burial offerings that are also found in the
funerals of Scyld Scefing, Hildeburg’s kin, and Beowulf.[18] The Last Survivor describes the many
treasures left for the dead such as the weapons, armour and gold cups [20] that have strong
parallels to Scyld’s “well furbished ship...,bladed weapons and coats of mail,”[20] Hildeburg’s
Kin’s “blood-plastered coats of mail [and] boar-shaped helmets”[20] and Beowulf's treasure from
the dragon.[20]
An additional argument towards viewing this passage as a funeral lies in the statement,
“tumbling hawk [and] swift horse”[20] mentioned in the poem. This is an animal offering which
was a burial custom during the era of the poem.[18] Moreover this passage, like the other
funerals, signifies changes in setting and plot.[18] One can also argue that it is the 3rd part to the
poem since it describes the settings during the time lapse for the final battle between Beowulf
and the Dragon. The poet also describes death in battle as horrifying, a concept continued from
the second part of the poem, through the Last Survivor’s eyes.[18]
Beowulf’s funeral (lines 3137–82)

The fourth and final funeral of the poem is Beowulf's funeral. After the final battle against the
dragon, Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies. The greatness of Beowulf's life is
demonstrated through this funeral, particularly through the many offerings of his people.[18] In
addition, the immense hoard of the dragon is buried with the hero. The poet also bestows on
Beowulf more significance than the others through his description of the cremation.
[18]
 “Weohstan’s son (pause) commanded it be announced to many men (pause) that they
should fetch from afar wood for the pyre.” [20] for their leader’s funeral. The dragon’s remains are
thrown into the sea, a parallel toScyld’s burial in his ship. Beowulf's funeral is the fourth fitt of
the poem and acts as an epilogue for the hero who is the, “most gracious and fair-minded,
kindest to his people and keenest to win fame.” [20]