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Teknologi

A Review on Ultrasonic Tomography for Monitoring Corrosion of Steel

Pipe
Noor Amizan Abd.Rahmanab, Prof Dr Ruzairi Hj. Abdul Rahim a*
aProtom-i Research Group, Infocomm Research Alliance, Control and Mechatronic Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,81310Skudai,
Malaysia.
b
Institut Latihan Perindustrian Bukit Katil Melaka.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Article history Abstract

Received : Infrastructure development currently developing fast. Designing a dwelling or premises is currently
Received in revised form : implemented quickly controlling construction costs in addition to the guidance in the planned development.
Accepted : The architecture consists of a main ingredient of steel used in the pile also on whether the drainage system
connecting point to point or destination. The study was conducted focusing on steel pipes that are exposed
Graphical abstract to corrosion. This problem is considered serious because steel pipe not only used for water supply deliver,
even on the delivery of gas and oil to oil and gas sector as having the same problem. Impacts to the problem
of corrosion on steel pipes contribute to the risk of loss to the owner of the premises or industry. Overview
leakage problems, causing a reduction in the volume of materials or hazard to the environment and
consumers, evaluated the occurrence of corrosion in the pipeline. Monitoring methods used Ultrasonic
Tomography as a major contribution to the implementation of monitoring and assessing the status of pipe
durability and ability status. This paper looks at the concept of diversity Ultrasonic Tomography invention
are used to assist the process of monitoring the level of pipeline capacity will suffer corrosion.

Keywords: Steel Pipe Corrosion, Cause and Effect of Corrosion, Ultrasonic Tomography Monitoring.

© 2015 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved.

1.0 INTRODUCTION time, oxygen and water, any iron mass eventually turns into a full-
rusting and disintegrating.
A building consisting of metal and non-metal structure. In
addition to completing the facility of a building, a building is to Surface rust is unstable and fragile, and does not provide
strengthen the criteria used iron pile. Similarly, the construction protection to the basic iron, unlike the formation of patina on
of the water piping system as an essential element in the design copper surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron
of buildings erected. Water pipes made of materials that easily and its alloys, such as steel. Many other metals undergo the same
rust, such as copper (Type L or M) [1], galvanized malleable iron, corrosion, but the resulting oxides are usually not called rust [8].
galvanized steel, Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC), Cross-
linked PolyEthylene (PEX), or other approved material and shall Impact of rust on the pipes is very high instance of over $ 2.2
be in accordance with NSF 61 [2]. The problem of corrosion billion lost to corrosion in the United States each year, according
process occurs in the pipeline, as well as corrosion of pipelines to government and industry studies. The cost of corrosion is equal
also occur at gas [3,4]. to 3 or 4% of the Gross National Product (GNP) [9]. Reinforced
concrete structure has the potential to be extremely durable and
This phenomenon cannot be avoided even protected pipe able to withstand various adverse environmental conditions.
insulation material such as cement, but corrosion can result from However, the failure of the structure still occur due to premature
the inside. The corrosion process occurs by the reaction of iron corrosion of reinforcement [10,11] accepted. Maintenance and
and oxygen in the presence of water or humidity of the air [5]. It repair of bridges and buildings for their safety requires an
also rust can form as a result of the reaction between iron and effective inspection and monitoring techniques to assess the
chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen - rebar [6] used in corrosion of reinforcement. Engineers need better techniques to
underwater concrete column is an example - which generates assess the condition of the structure when maintenance or repair
green rust. Some forms of corrosion are distinguished by sight is required.
and by spectroscopy, and form under different conditions. Rust
consists of hydrated iron (III) oxides Fe2O3 • nH2O and iron (III) These methods need to be able to identify any possible
oxide-hydroxide FeO (OH) • Fe (OH) 3 [7]. Given sufficient security problems in the structure before it becomes serious. This
paper examines all electrochemical techniques and

60 (2014) 1–4 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 | ISSN 0127–9696

78 Ruzairi Hj. Abd. Rahim et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 60 (2014) 1–6

nondestructive assessment from the viewpoint of corrosion and Balanced process

their application to bridges, buildings and other civil engineering
structures [12]. Fe + H2O2 + 4H2O ------------> 4Fe (OH) 2

Corrosion problems also exist in many industries [13,10],

many inspection and monitoring techniques have been developed Thus the process of corrosion in supposing with applicable
to assess the level of corrosion and structural integrity of the
metal. Among other things, the size of the ultrasound is widely Fe + O2 + H2O -> Fe2O3. H2O
used to monitor or control the wall thickness [14,15] and, in
general, the thickness of the inner wall is thinner by corrosion that Iron + oxygen + water + ---> corrosion (rust)
occurs in these structures. Laboratory corrosion test [16,17] such
as accelerated corrosion test was developed by the automotive
manufacturers, the higher the level of accuracy required and From the above equation concluded several things [26]: -
classic valuation methods such as the size of a normal body
weight is used. a. In dry conditions, corrosion formed is slowly and slightly.
Thus the erosion rate becomes low.
Method for Top-of-Line (TOL) as support on the corrosion b. For steel piles are planted deep into the soil, erosion corrosion
rate prediction methods are compared with experimental data of rates are also low because the oxygen content is low.
new and old. The best data model called super saturated iron. c. As at the jetty for example, offshore platform, the offshore
Avoid water condensation rate is high due to the low temperature platform and other structures due to corrosion, the corrosion
of the pipe wall can get rid of TOL corrosion. Protective corrosion rate is high. This effect can be seen in the area because there
product scale established in TOL corrosion can be affected by the is a splash of water and air. Acidic conditions of the salty sea
presence of organic acids [18]. water as well as accelerate the process of rusting agent.
Generally, the process of corrosion can occur in four
2.0 THE PHENOMENON OF RUSTY WATER PIPES circumstances, namely in the air, water, soil and bacterial
AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS reaction.

Corrosion is the process by which oxidized steel from the

attack of chemicals [19]. Custom steel structures are exposed to 2.1 Harmful from the Effects of Corrosion in Water Pipes
environmental humidity. When there is moisture, electrochemical Copper and lead can be toxic and can leach into the water
process occurs and this creates a condition known as electrolyte pipes, whether new or old residence. Leaching process is caused
[20]. This will allow the current is moving in the concrete. This by erosion [27]. Copper contamination can cause gastrointestinal
process consists of two parts, the cathode and the anode. Divided problems in the short term and damage the liver and kidneys from
cathode, oxygen is decomposed negatively charged ions. While time to time. Lead contamination [28] can cause physical and
at the anode metal in the concrete will degrade to a state that is mental development problems children. In adults, it can cause
not balanced. Thus a current flow occurs which negatively high blood pressure and kidney problems [29].
charged ions will flow to the anode and metal ions are positively
charged will flow to the cathode [21]. The Environmental Protection Agency has a primary
drinking water standards for copper and lead pipes used the
When a piece of rusted metal, electrolyte helps provide maximum permissible level for copper is 1.3 milligrams/liter;
oxygen to the anode. As oxygen combines with metals, electrons The maximum allowed for is 0.015 milligrams / liter.
are free. When the flow through the electrolyte to the cathode, the Contaminants can be reported in milligrams / liter (mg / L) or
anode metal is gone, swept away by the electrical flow or parts per million (ppm) [30], the unit simultaneously. Iron and
converted into metal cations in a form such as corrosion [22]. zinc are usually present and can cause the water to have a metallic
taste, but no medical problems.
This process occurs continuously until an equilibrium is
reached. In a balanced manner, metal ions will combine with The symptoms most commonly from corrosive water can be
hydroxide ions to form metal hydroxides. Electrochemical action detected if the water is cold bitter taste in the morning on the first
that occurs at the anode and at the cathode can be summarized by use. However, this effect is temporary and when the
the following expression [23]: - instantaneous flow of water will be lost. In addition there is also
the effect of turquoise in the sink and / or copper pipe joints [31].
Action in the anode [24], Two similar test can determine if the water is likely to erode
the Langelier Saturation Index method (LSI) [32] and Ryzner
Metal --------> metal ion + electron Stability Index (RSI) [33]. To use the LSI, laboratories need to
measure pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids,
2FE equation -----------> 2FE ++ + 4e- alkalinity, and total hardness [34]. LSI usually negative or
positive and rarely zero. Negative values predicted that water is
more likely to corrode [35]. Potentially corrosive water usually
Cathode action [25], has a value of -1 LSI (mild) to -5 (severe). When RSI is used, the
more than 6.5 [36] showed that the water is likely to erode; values
Oxygen + water + electron ----------> hydroxide ion higher eroding [37] [38].
Equation O2 + H2O2 + 4 H2O ------> 4Fe (OH) 2
2.2 Rusty Pipes Controlling Interest In The Gas Pipeline
System
Pipeline is one of the foundations of modern civilization that
became an important part of the infrastructure. More than 3
million miles of pipeline connecting oil and gas reservoirs, the
79 Ruzairi Hj. Abd. Rahim et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 60 (2014) 1–6

port of shipment, refining and storage facilities today [39]. Non-

destructive testing of the pipeline system through the online
examination using smart pigs have become an important part of
this system in ensuring the safe and economic operation [40].

Although the pipeline provides high level of security for the

transport of gas, oil and products, there are various reasons that
can cause defects in the pipe wall, which eventually leads to the
risk of pipeline failure during operation [12]. The main types of
defects can be categorized as:- Figure 2.3:Example of an SCC colony [12]

a. Deformation dents, ripples, wrinkles, buckles or similar, To prevent failure of the pipeline, any defects that may be
often occur during the installation of the pipe, example when critical should be detected early enough. As most of the pipelines
the pipe is laid in rocky soil (dents miles). Other causes that are grown and are also protected by a protective layer, a
disruption of agricultural equipment, land slide or same (see complete examination can only be done from the inside. This is
the example in Figure 2.1). achieved with the online examination using automatic inspection
system called intelligent pigs (or smart pigs). The main goal of
this type of screening is to detect certain types of high defectwith
POD (probability of detection) and to provide high-resolution
data that allows precise size of the defects detected. Following
the inspection run, the process of data analysis applies produce a
list of all the anomalies found, including their location, type and
size.

Based on these results, the assessment of disability usually

carried out using the appropriate standard to measure the level of
Figure 2.1: Example of deformation damage (wrinkle probably defects detected, thus allowing the operator of a pipeline to take
caused by landslide) [12] adequate measures such as repair or replacement of the affected
pipe. In the case of high-precision data areavailable from running
b. Metal loss of the main reasons erosion process that may take next inspection, for comparison can be made to produce a growth
place on either side of the pipe wall. Internal corrosion is rate of defects that act as input data for the fitness-forpurpose
primarily associated with aggressive substances medium; (FFP) study. The objective is FFP than recommending immediate
external corrosion (see example in Figure 2.2) often occur at action - to determine strategies that also ensure the future integrity
the site of the damage layer and corrosive soil conditions. of the inspected pipeline.
Other reasons for the loss of metal is grinding, erosion,
changes in wall thickness seamless pipes and other corrosion 3.0 IMPLEMENTATION OF MONITORING
growth rate is usually below 1 mm / year but could amount to CORROSION IN THE PIPING SYSTEM.
several mm / year under certain conditions. Corrosion defects
are usually the cause of the leak. Maintenance and rehabilitation of pipeline systems provide
key challenge for many municipalities and industry anywhere
requests to provide quality services, and the need to preserve the
existing pipeline infrastructure. An ultrasound acoustic-based
methodology is proposed to obtain depth perception and
complete 2-D [41] its cracks emanating from pipe inspection
camera set for concrete [42]. Surveys show that immersion
ultrasound scan and C-Scan Imaging [43] provides strong data to
build a reliable defect detection system.

Monitoring pipeline at the rate of erosion / corrosion thinning

Figure 2.2: Example of external corrosion damage [12] is an important issue in the petrochemical and power generation
industries. The research was conducted, two signal processing
c. Cracks to loading conditions in pipeline pressure is a key techniques are used to estimate the rate of depletion of the pipe
component of the loop pressure acting in the circumferential structure by ultrasonic pipe wall thickness data collected in a
direction. Therefore, the majority of cracks developing in the short period [4]. The first is a combination of cross-correlation
pipeline has an axial orientation. In most cases, the crack (or and polynomial curve fit and the second is the budget of the
crack-like defects) can be related to manufacturing-related scheme (MBE) based model. Techniques in which data is
defects in the weld longitudinal Doodle such as hot cracking, collected from the apparatus accelerated depletion rates and both
lack-of-joint or similar. Existing cracks can growduring indicated that they were able to estimate the rate of thinning
operation, for example, by fatigue mechanism. Another type rapidly within a short time with good accuracy [44]. In the
of fractures encountered in the pipeline is SCC (stress laboratory, the depletion rate as low as 10 m / year measured
corrosion cracking) that often occurs in the form of cracking within 15 days with uncertainty of ± 1.5 m / year by both
colonies (see example in Figure 2.3). This crack is a bad techniques. While the MBE technique can produce a slightly
combination of stress levels, trends and chemicals ambient better accuracy, greater stability and speed of cross-correlation
soil type. Crack like defects usually lead to failure by rupture calculation techniques make choices that prefer to use industry
if the critical crack size is reached. [45].

In an effort to help expand the coverage of pipe inspection,

inspection approach for monitoring the thinning of the walls
using direct current reduction potential (DCPD) [46]. To improve
usability for complex pipe networks such as secondary cooling
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water system in a PWR, the same method of control efforts can 4.0 ULTRASONIC TOMOGRAPHY APPLICATION
eliminate unwanted leakage currents at the outer measurements DEVELOPMENT ACHIEVEMENT IN INDUSTRY
[47]. Wide Range Monitoring (Lovely) and a small Range TODAY
Monitoring (ARM) with the same effort immediately turn on the
Current Potential Drop (ES-DCPD) method to rapidly monitor Guided wave ultrasonics is used for pipes donation for guided
the depletion of the pipe [48]. Based on the results Lovely, easy wave can propagate long distances and is sensitive to structural
location can be identified for further examination by ultrasound damage such as cracks and corrosion loss [61]. However, the
technique (UT). Online monitoring location can be made with characteristics of the various modes and dispersion wave guide
thin arm. Finite element analysis results and the model developed makes it difficult to interpret the signal arrival records. In
to form a closed odds comparison with wall thinning was addition, guided waves are also sensitive to environmental
measured by a technique developed DCPD. Experimental changes and operations, limiting the effectiveness of ultrasonic
verification was carried out using the UT as a reference. The method for detecting defects in the pipes a real environment.
results showed that the model predictions and experimental Damage detection method based on singular value decomposition
results agree and confirm that both Lovely and ARM based ES- (SVD) [62] which can identify changes in interest, due to the
DCPD can apply to management efforts FAC [49]. scatterer mass that resembles a subtle damage, under realistic
environmental variation. This shows the effectiveness and
Research on fouling detection in pipes in the food industry, robustness of this method on experimental data collected on the
which uses acoustic and Ultrasonics can provide effective pipe segments under varying environmental and realistic
solutions and cost effectively. Fouling is helping fouled food operational within a few months [63].
product development, corrosion, or baked on food products inside
wall of the pipe or plate. The existence of pollution can make Compared MFL ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is a
claims that are not necessary at the pump machinery, can reduce direct method which provides an absolute measure of the
the efficiency of heat conduction in the pipe fouling, and can remaining wall thickness and the depth of a defect in the case of
reduce product quality and / or safety [50,51]. Early detection and loss of metal. Better accuracy than ultrasound method also allows
quantification of the extent of fouling can reduce the costs a more reliable assessment of disability which, in turn, leads to
incurred due to wear on machinery, pipe maintenance, and reduce the amount of excavation repairs after inspection [64].
production time. Two methods were investigated for pipe However, conventional ultrasound probe that uses the
acoustic detection of potential fouling them: Ultrasonics wave piezoelectric effect, require a coupling liquid medium to obtain
guide and the acoustics [52,53]. Guided wave method related to sufficient ultrasonic energy to the pipe wall. Thus, by means of
energy loss load viscous or semi-solid on a plate or pipe. Acoustic ultrasonic sensor types can not be used for gas pipeline inspection
effects depend on changes in wave velocity and attenuation excl groups operating in liquid [65]. In order to enable better
signals to the existence of fouling [54]. diagnosis wall thickness for the gas pipeline of new tools have
been developed, which combines the advantages of different,
Corrosion sensors should have high sensitivity sufficient to independent non-destructive methods in one device. Specifically,
measure the corrosion rate in medium corrosive environments the tools include EMAT technology [66] that for accurate
and the ability to detect corrosion mechanism [55]. Therefore, to ultrasonic wall thickness measurement without the need for liquid
develop and use the steel thin-film electrical resistance (FER) coupling medium.
[56] sensor by measuring changes in electrical resistance of the
sensing element to follow the corrosion of steel in various
environments. Sensor with a thickness of 600 nm is fabricated by
DC magnetron spattering deposition on the substrate steel Al2O3
[57], followed by silk-screen printing to increase the sensitivity
of the sensor, particularly for measuring the corrosion rate in the
low corrosive environments such as anoxic corrosion in neutral
solution, the steel is protected by step such as corrosion inhibitor-
step protection or cathodic protection, and corrosion atmosphere
[58].
Figure 4.1:Measuring arrangement for generating EMAT
These sensors also have various sensing elements for based ultrasound [66]
detecting online local corrosion of steel. Safer sensors are
laboratory and field tested. All the studies show that the newly
developed sensor FER can be a promising tool for monitoring and
reliable corrosion of steel exposed to various environments [59].

Pressure system manager at NASA Ames Research Center

(ARC) has initiated a project to collect data and develop a risk
assessment model to support risk-informed decision making
about the future of underground pipe inspection at ARC. It
consists of pipe corrosion-segment model, model pipe wrap
protection; and model pipe pressure pipe segment. A Monte Carlo
simulation model provides distribution combined probability of
failure. Results of the study showed that the sensitivity of model Figure 4.4: LineExplorer 3T-tool during launching. The 40"
uncertainty, or lack of knowledge, is a major contributor to the version contains 400 sensors [66]
unreliability of the calculated underground pipes. As a result,
managers can stress the system to consider investing dedicated The principle of operation of the new tool is based on the
resources to focus on reducing these uncertainties. Future work EMAT technology [67]. As shown in Figure 4.1, a sensor located
includes the completion of data collection efforts for system in the middle of a bar magnet that generates tangential magnetic
pressures existing ground-based and uses a risk model to a risk- field [68]. The sensor itself consists of a transmitter and a receiver
based inspection strategies underground pipes in the ARC [60]. coil coil design, which is optimized for the current application
81 Ruzairi Hj. Abd. Rahim et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 60 (2014) 1–6

[69]. Ultrasonic shear wave polarization with a frequency of 2.5 ultrasonic fault detection in pipes with permanently mounted
MHz are generated using magnetoresistance effect [70]. piezoelectric transducers [79] under varying environmental and
Ultrasonic pulses propagate perpendicular to the surface of the operating. Ultrasonic guided wave detector shown to be effective
pipe wall. From time-of-flight of the rear wall and unknown echo in laboratory experiments damage. However, changes in the
ultrasonic velocity in steel pipe [71], the (remaining) wall operating environment and produce dramatic changes in the
thickness is easily obtained. signal [80], and is therefore a useful signal processing approach
must distinguish changes caused by the scatterer of the changes
By taking advantage of the fact that the principle is based on caused by continuous variation.
the EMAT coil, the coil can also be used to take MFL signal [72]
produced by induction electromagnetic stray field-flux in the coil Use of pressurized pipe segment (10 diameter) [81] in the
moves. MFL information is then easily separated from the work of the hot water supply system is undergoing continual
ultrasonic signal with suitable frequency filtering and time gating. change in pressure, temperature, and flow rate; The system is
Furthermore, the EMAT transmission pulse generating eddy [73] located in a mechanical and electrical noise. In addition, field
during the pulsed signal in the coil separated. This signal depends tests-haul, with a period of 10 ms, between the transducer is
on the height of the liftoff ofthe coil (see Figure 4.5). This located approximately 12 diameter [82].
information can be used, for example, to measure the depth of the
defect internalcorrosion [74]. Acoustic emission (AE) and ultrasound techniques for the
monitoring of crack initiation / growth in ratcheting study on
straight pipes made of stainless steel 304LN [83] reversed
austenite under four point bending. Generating activities and
higher AE AE events with higher peak amplitude is accompanied
by the formation of groups AE in the local region between 826
and 845 [84] reduced cycle start ratcheting it cracked during
testing. Ultrasound examination using multiple skip conducted
periodically at regular intervals of 25 cycles confirmed the
formation of cracks only after 1000 cycles [85]. End of pipe
rupture occurred by through-thickness cracks after the 1203 and
1225 cycles at two locations [86]. Within the cycle in which
cracks develop, AE increases with cumulative cycle, showed a
good correlation between the growth of cracks and AE. Acoustic
Figure 4.5: Dependency of the EC amplitude on the coil emission associated with the balloon. While the rate of the
liftoff. For liftoffs > approx. 7 mm the amplitude shows a balloon decreases with cycle counting rates for different sensor
saturation behavior. [74] increases. This has been attributed to the superposition of AE
generation caused by crack growth [87] which increases
EMAT coil (sending and receiving) and coil SPR is set-up continuously to changes produced by the coil.
with a concentric manner with a maximum outer diameter of 10
mm (Figure 4.3). The basic unit consists of two sensors. units are Electrochemical synthesis of ZnO nanostructures in the
covered by a layer of wear ceramics. Ten basic unit is integrated presence of ultrasonic irradiation as a contribution to the
into a larger unit provides flexible suspension of the base unit so upgrading UT with ultrasonic irradiation 10 times faster [88].
that the sensor can follow the inner surface of the pipe wall Ultrasound is used for the synthesis of a calibrated using
(Figure 4.6) [75]. hydrophones that frequency and acoustic power is obtained. From
the results of experiments ultrasonic irradiation role in the
synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles [89]. Diameter ZnO nanoparticles
produced in electrolytes that have been compared and
investigated in the absence and presence of ultrasonic irradiation
using a UV-visible photo-spectrometer [90].

Then electrodeposited ZnO layer on ITO glass as the cathode

surface in the absence and presence of ultrasonic irradiation was
studied by UV-visible spectrometer and photo-field emission
Figure 4.6: Left: basic unit containing two sensors (shown scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) and the results are
without wear plate). Right: unit with 20 basic units with ceramic compared [91]. FE-SEM micrographs showed that the higher
wear protection. Each sensor measures ultrasonic (EMAT), growth of nanosheets on the cathode electrode in the presence of
MFL and EC signals [75] ultrasonic irradiation.

Use pipe inspection robot to control using a newly developed A new family of transducers HPU with a wide radiator has
spherical motor ultrasonic (USM) [76] as the camera driver. Use been recently introduced. It consists of various types of
is found to control the rotational direction and strategic control of transducers are designed with adjustable radiator for specific use
the kinematics and characteristics of ultrasonic motors. The in different liquids and multi-phase media [92]. Transducers such
direction of rotation defined by the applied voltage phase as implementing high energy capacity [93], high efficiency and
difference, and the rotational speed was changed with frequency radiation pattern control.
[77]. In addition, we developed a very small sensing positioning
system using rotary potentiometers. In the control experiment In addition, their designs incorporate strategies to eliminate
performed using the sensing system, USM shows returnability to or reduce the interaction mode is generated at a higher power due
the default position of certain places, with an accuracy of 1 ° [78]. to their nonlinear behavior [94]. The introduction of new
transducer has contributed significantly to the development of
A study for applying ultrasonic monitoring system to real- semi-industrial level and some industrial processes in the food
world operation against the hot water supply system. The purpose and beverage industry, in the environment and in manufacturing.
of this experiment is to study the effectiveness of continuous
82 Ruzairi Hj. Abd. Rahim et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 60 (2014) 1–6

4.0 CONCLUSION [12] H. Song., V. Saraswathy. 2007. Corrosion Monitoring of

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