Brock University Physics Department

St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1

Phys 2P31: Electronics I

Laboratory Manual

E. Sternin and P.Boseglav

Copyright
c Brock University, 2007–2008
Contents

Preface 1
Lab books, reports and marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Virtual circuits in Electronics Workbench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Plotting and fitting with physica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Conventions used in this manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1 Introduction to Electronics Workbench 5

1.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Real and ideal meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Ohm’s Law. V I-characteristic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Thévenin equivalence 7
2.1 Circuit assembly techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Load line of a simple voltage divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Determination of Thévenin equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Transient RC circuits 11
3.1 Using a scope to capture transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 AC transients using a function generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 The oscilloscope and RC filters 13

4.1 Workstation equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Exponential decay in an RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Measuring transients in an RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5 RC filters and transfer functions 19

5.1 Using a scope to measure frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 The Bode plotter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3 Multi-stage filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

6 Time and frequency response of RC and RCL circuits 21

6.1 Low-pass and high-pass filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 RCL transients (ringing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3 A bandpass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.4 A notch filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

i
7 Diodes and their properties 25
7.1 V I-characteristic of a diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.2 Full-wave rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.3 Zener diodes as voltage regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8 Junction Diode and Rectifier Characteristics 27

8.1 Diode characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.2 Full-wave rectification with filter and Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

9 Transistors and transistor circuits 31

9.1 Transistor is a current amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.2 Transistor switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9.3 Voltage amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

10 Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) 33

10.1 JFET characteristic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10.2 Self-biased JFET amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

11 Operational Amplifiers I 37

12 Operational Amplifiers II 41

Opertional Amplifiers 41
12.1 An inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
12.2 A summing amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
12.3 Active filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

A Breadboards 45

B Resistor Colour Codes 47

C Lissajous patterns and phase shift 49

ii
Preface

Introduction
Mastering Electronics is not an easy task. While many concepts are straightforward, their application to a
real-world device are often non-trivial. Part of the difficulty is that in addition to new concepts one often
has to learn new numerical and algebraic tools that enable us to predict the values of various components
to use, to select their settings and operating points for optimum performance. Putting it all together can
be quite daunting.
In this laboratory you will use a variety of tools to achieve just that:
• hands-on experiments, where you will assemble real circuits using real components, meters, wires, and
devices — workstations with multi-meters, function generators, oscilloscopes, programmable power
supplies, and bread-boarding stations are provided for this purpose;
• computer-based tutorials using software called Electronics Workbench, where virtual circuits are
assembled, tested and analyzed using the common graphical “drag-and-drop” skills;
• graphing and numerical analysis of the results of your real or virtual experiments, with the help of
the physica software.
A typical lab experiment may consist of simulating a circuit, choosing the optimal value for some compo-
nent, then assembling the very same circuit on the breadboard in the lab, testing it, and finally, analyzing
your measurements and comparing them to the predictions of the theory learned in the lectures.

Lab books, reports and marking

It is essential that you keep a thorough and detailed lab book. You must use a hard-bound lab book
to record your observations and answer the guide questions, and you must follow the usual lab book
rules: record the data in pen only, cross out and not erase errors, number all pages in sequence and date
each page, keep a Table of Contents at the front of the book, include lab partners’ names on the front cover.

Each lab consists of two related Experiments and lasts two weeks.
The odd weeks are devoted to the computer-based exercises using Electronics Workbench. As you go
through the exercises, be sure to answer all the questions in your lab book. Print a copy of all the circuits
that you simulate, record all observations, and glue all relevant printouts in your lab book. Be sure to save
a copy of all the working circuits to your file space before you begin the simulation.
In the even weeks, the hands-on part of the lab will re-inforce the skills learned in the simulation
exercises. Sometimes you will assemble exactly the same circuits that you had simulated the previous
week. A similar step-by-step write up in the lab book is expected. All of your individual observations and
measurements must be included.
Following the hands-on labs you will be required to submit a lab report analyzing and summarizing the
data and experimental procedures covered in the two previous lab sessions and recorded in your lab book.
The lab report should be typed, single sided and will be assigned a mark out of 10 based on the following:

1
2 PREFACE

• overall neatness and coherence in the structure of the report;

• completion of all the required simulated and experimental steps;

• inclusion of printouts, data tables, circuit and waveform sketches;

• thoughtful and understandable responses to the guide questions;

• adherence to the designated lab format.

A lab report should start with an overall statement of purpose of the experiments. Then for each exercise
include a sketch or printout of the circuit and graphs of the waveforms observed, formula derivations, a
description of the theoretical behaviour of the circuit and comparison with your actual observations, and
answers to the pertinent questions. The presentation of your results should be organized and complete,
your diagrams titled and referenced, so that someone who is not familiar with the experiments would have
no difficulty understanding what was done.
At the end of the lab report, include a brief Conclusions section that summarizes the results from the
simulated and hands-on portions of the lab and a discussion of any problems encountered and insights
gained.
The purpose is to reach the synthesis stage, to give you a chance to establish intermediate milestones
in your learning. It is likely that your Conclusions will refer to the ideas covered in both weeks.
Completed lab reports will be collected at the beginning of the next lab; thus you have a full week to
complete your lab reports. However, you will find it easier to do the write-up within one or two days of
the end of the lab, while the details are still fresh in your mind. There will be no time extensions given for
late submissions.

Virtual circuits in Electronics Workbench

This course uses a computer-based tutorial environment called Electronics Workbench. This is essentially
“an electronics lab in a computer”, and it looks something like this:

The white field in the middle is the workspace into which you drag various components and devices
found in the multiple parts bins divided into several categories, just above the workspace. When you then
bring the mouse near the edges of each component, they turn into dark dots representing nodes of your
future circuit. Click and drag until a line stretching out of a node reaches a node of another component,
then release. You just connected a virtual “wire” between the components. The wires snap to a grid
(which can be made explicitly visible through the Circuit menu), and as you move components around
the wires stretch and follow as needed.
After a few mouse-clicks, you can assemble an entire virtual circuit that includes passive and active
components, meters, oscilloscopes, and other virtual counterparts to the real devices and instruments found
in an electronics lab.
There is one important difference to working with a virtual circuit. As you are putting it together, the
program creates a set of mathematical equations that describe the circuit. As you then flick the virtual
ON switch, the computer proceeds to solve these equations, quickly and with great precision, and reports
and even plots the results. A variety of values can be swept through quickly and automatically, to discover
the optimum ones; an entire frequency response curve can be obtained with a single click of a mouse.
What happens is that you are able to concentrate on the physics of the problem, and not on the
sometimes tedious details of setting up and solving a fairly large system of coupled linear and differential
equations. You do not need to be careful with the details of these calculations, and you concentrate
instead on making sure you understood the behaviour of the circuit and how this behaviour relates to the
underlying theory.
PREFACE 3

Figure 1: Electronics Workbench screen

When you concentrate on the concepts and avoid applying by rote a memorized set of steps you are
studying for mastery. When you understand what is going on behind the equations, you can apply that
understanding to problems where the rote method is sure to fail. In our computer-assisted labs you will
learn to test your understanding, to make up circuits and to predict the results mentally, then have the
computer verify (or not!) your predictions. You will build up your intuition on the subject of Electronics.
In some sense, your efforts will closely parallel what physicists do every day in their research, something
often called “the scientific method”: organize your knowledge, develop a theory, make predictions, test
them by experiment.

Plotting and fitting with physica

An integral part of every lab is an analysis of the results, and it is best done with the help of a scientific
visualization/plotting/fitting computer program. There is a large number of such programs for different
computing platforms. If you are comfortable using one such package already, you may use the software
you already know. However, bear in mind that:
• the software must be able to perform multi-parameter non-linear fits, and a proper statistical evalu-
ation of convergence (e.g. χ2 );
• you must bring your own laptop computer to the lab;
• the instructor may not be able to help, not being familiar with the quirks of your software.
What is made available to you in the lab is a powerful scientific plotting and fitting package called physica,
written at the TRIUMF accelerator in Vancouver, BC. This is the recommended software for use in the
analysis of experimental data and in the preparation of lab reports, theses, and scientific articles.
The main physica “engine” is an “old-fashioned” piece of software in the sense that it has a command
language and requires typing of commands at the prompt, and not clicking a mouse and using visual
4 PREFACE

widgets. On the other hand, it is easy to learn, its numerical engine is an extremely powerful one, and a
macro language allows you to automate many tasks using only a text editor. In order to harness the full
power of physica you may need to spend some time learning its command language.
In addition, Physica Online is a web-based interface into physica which may prove adequate for most
tasks. It is fairly self-explanatory and can be invoked by pointing a web browser to

http://www.physics.brocku.ca/physica/

For more advanced tasks, the web-based Physica Online provides the “expert mode” which does allow
access to full capabilities of physica.
A quick way to get into the full interactive physica is through the on-line tutorial created here at
Brock. Log on to newton.physics.brocku.ca, using the class id/password provided. Open a text console
(xterm or similar), launch a web browser (firefox &), and point it to

http://www.physics.brocku.ca/doc/physica/,

which is the “Introduction to physica for Physics students”. Proceed at your own pace.
You will likely want to also launch a text editor (nedit &), and to make your main console window a
standard-size one (80x24), for happier interactions with physica. Start it by typing physica in your shell
window and a second, graphics window will open on your screen. You may want to arrange all windows
side-by-side for convenience. Remember to not resize the graphics window of physica with a mouse (use
a resize command at the PHYSICA: prompt).

Conventions used in this manual


!

Whenever you see a paragraph marked off with this symbol, it indicates an experimental step. You
are expected to perform one or several operations and write down your results and observations in
the lab book.

? When you encounter this symbol, it indicates a question or a problem. You are expected to perform
the necessary calculation (using pen and paper) and to provide a written answer and, possibly, a
brief explanation in your lab book before you proceed to the next stage of the experiment.

References
In addition to your course textbook, if any, numerous excellent introductory electronics books exist, and
you are encouraged to refer to them often. Some selected titles are listed below, with Brock Library calling
numbers shown where appropriate.
Other references such as manufacturers’ data books and the equipment manuals should be consulted
as needed; most of them are available online. The web page of the course has some select pointers in the
section References and is a good place to start.

1. D. Barnaal, Analog and Digital Electronics for Scientific Applications. Waveland Press, 1982. TK7816 B34.
2. J. J. Brophy, Basic Electronics for Scientists. McGraw–Hill, 1990. TK7815 B74.
3. P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.
TK7815 H67.
4. H. V. Malmstadt, C. G. Enke, and S. R. Crouch, Electronics and Instrumentation for Scientists.
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., 1981.
5. R. E. Simpson, Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers. Allyn and Bacon, Boston,
1987.
Experiment 1

Introduction to Electronics Workbench

In this experiment we learn some basic functionality of Electronics Workbench (EWB), prac-
tice creating simple circuits and using virtual meters and indicators. We examine differences
between real and ideal devices, examine the implications of Ohm’s Law, and find out how a
non-ohmic device behaves in a circuit.

1.1 Preliminaries

!

Login to a Linux workstation in H300 or B203 using your Brock username/password. Click the
Remote to EWB icon to access a remote desktop to the em Campus server. Login using the password
supplied by your course insrtructor, then click on the EWB icon to start Electronics Workbench.

!

Move around and examine the menus and controls. Pausing a cursor over an unknown item should
bring up a bubble with a description of that item.
If you are lost, quit and restart em EWB. Save all the files that you create to your home directory. To
do this from EWB, save the file locally, then drag and drop it to the network drive in My Computer
called home on ....
You can also screen capture your circuit schematic, graphs and/or instrument displays and print or
save these directly to a file in your home directory for later use in your report. With the cursor on
the Linux desktop, press the Print Screen key to open a screen capture window.

1.2 Real and ideal meters


!

Pull down a battery and a multi-meter into the worksheet. Double-click the multimeter icon for
a close-up view. Verify the multimeter is in voltage mode, i.e. that V is highlighted. Practice
connecting/disconnecting the wires and moving the components around the worksheet.

? When do you see a positive reading on the meter? a negative one?


!

While the meter is connected to the battery, switch it into the current mode by pressing A .

? What happened? Why do you never do this to a real meter? Consider some components that might
be used in real multimeters to protect against errors like this?
An ideal voltage source can supply an unlimited amount of current to the circuit connected across its
terminals with no decrease in output voltage. A real voltage source is equivalent to an ideal voltage
source in series with a resistor, the internal resistance of the voltage source. In EWB the batteries
are ideal voltage sources and hence have zero internal resistance.

5
6 EXPERIMENT 1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS WORKBENCH

An ideal voltmeter draws zero current from the circuit it is connected to. A real voltmeter can be
represented by an ideal voltmeter in parallel with a resistor RM , the internal meter resistance. For
an ideal voltmeter, RM = ∞.
An ideal current meter presents a resistance RM = 0 to the circuit it is connected to. An ideal meter
in series with a resistance represents a real current meter.
In EWB, all meters are real meters with a finite internal resistance.

!

Switch the meter back to voltage mode. Insert a 1 kΩ resistor in series with the battery. To do this,
drag the resistor from the parts bin and release it over an existing wire; the resistor will insert itself.
Vary the resistance; you may have to go to pretty high R values. Find the point where the meter
reads exactly 21 of the nominal battery voltage.

? The above point is where the internal resistance of the meter is exactly equal to the external R.
Sketch a schematic diagram of the circuit and use it to explain this result. What kind of circuit is
this?

1.3 Ohm’s Law. V I-characteristic curves


!

Switch the multi-meter back to current mode, and set R value to 1 kΩ. Verify Ohm’s Law, I = V /R,
by changing the voltage of the source and recording the corresponding current values. You can do
this by right clicking on the component and then on Component properties . Tabulate a series of
points from -5 V to 5 V in increments of 1 V.

? A plot of I vs. V using physica on the linear scale should be a straight line. What does the slope of
this line represent? Is Ohm’s law obeyed?

!

You can let EWB take care of all the above steps by performing a sweep of the battery voltage V 1.
Connect a ground symbol to the battery -ve terminal. Click on Circuit → Schematic Options , and
verify that the Show Nodes box is checked, then click OK . Select Analysis → Parameter Sweep .
Select DC operating point and the V1♯branch node to monitor the current flowing in this, the only
branch or loop, of the circuit. Click Simulate to sweep V 1 from -5 to +5 Volts in 0.1V steps. The
resulting graph shows the swept voltage on the X-axis and the circuit current on the Y-axis. Right
click on the Y-axis label and change it to units of current.

? Does the presence of the multimeter have a significant effect on the behaviour of the circuit? Explain.

!

Insert a diode in series with R. Right click on the diode, select Component properties → National ,
and choose part 1N4148. Repeat the above voltage sweep. The resulting plot is not a straight line,
as a diode is an example of a non-linear or non-ohmic device.

!

Sweep once again the diode circuit, but this time monitor the voltage, relative to ground, at the
output node between the resistor and the diode.

? Diodes are typically made of silicon or germanium and have electrical characteristics specific to the
semiconducting material. Examine your graphs. Is this a Si or Ge diode? What other properties of
a diode can you infer from your graphs? How does a diode differ from a resistor?

Note: You need to read and prepare for the next experiment before the actual lab date. The Thevenin
Circuit Theory may not yet have been covered in the lectures and derivation of VT h and RT h for the circuit
in Figure 2.2 will be required. If you need help, see the lab instructor prior to the lab session.
Experiment 2

Thévenin equivalence

We verify the validity of the Thévenin’s theorem experimentally.

Any battery or power supply composed of passive components can be represented by an equivalent ideal
voltage source, VTh , in series with an equivalent internal resistance, RTh . Knowledge of VTh and RTh
permits the determination of the terminal voltage and output current produced by the supply for any load.

2.1 Circuit assembly techniques

You will be using a breadboard to assemble and test your hands-on circuits. The breadboard provides a
convenient and organized way of implementing circuits, making quick component changes and providing
trouble-free circuit connections. On the board you have access to five pairs of banana jacks, red and black.
Also, there are five BNC coaxial connectors. A cable supplies the board with ±15, +5 and 0 Volts DC.
The black banana jacks and the outer ring of the BNC connectors have a common connection to ground,
or 0V. These signals are all available to the protoboard, the matrix that you will build your circuits on, as
shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Electronics lab breadboard connection matrix

7
8 EXPERIMENT 2. THÉVENIN EQUIVALENCE

To make the experience of assembling a working circuit more enjoyable:

1. Be sure that the power is OFF;
2. verify by direct measurement the values of all the circuit components;
3. verify that the jumper wires used are not broken (test for 0 Ω resistance);
4. assemble the circuit in a systematic and organized fashion;
5. check off each component as you add it to your circuit;
6. verify that your assembled circuit connections correspond to those of the schematic diagram;
7. turn ON the power and test the circuit for proper opearation.
If the circuit does not behave as expected, you will need to do some troubleshooting. Use the schematic
diagram as a guide to determine the voltage levels that should be present at various points of the circuit,
then use a voltmeter to measure these nodes. Develop a systematic approach to assembly and verification
of the circuit that you are building. As the circuits get more complicated, you will find it advantageous to
construct the circuit in stages, verifying the proper operation of the circuit after each progressive step.

2.2 Load line of a simple voltage divider

Equipment and components required
• breadboard workstation, with +5V and ±15V power rails
• digital multi-meter
• various resistors
• jumper wires


!

Design and construct a circuit for demon-
strating Thévenin’s equivalence using the
+15V available on the breadboard and a pair
of fixed resistors R1 , R2 with their values cho-
sen arbitrarily somewhere in the range of 1
to 10kΩ. Record the nominal and measured
values of these resistors; you will need them
later.
Measure the voltage V across the load re-
sistor RL using the digital multi-meter, in a
voltmeter mode. Since the voltage measure-
ment is directly across the resistor, the cur-
rent through the resistor is easily calculated
from the Ohm’s law:
V
Figure 2.2: Circuit for demonstrating Thévenin’s I=
RL
equivalence
Start at RL = ∞, i.e. have no load resistor
connected. In this way, you are measuring
the “open-circuit” voltage, or Voc .
2.3. DETERMINATION OF THÉVENIN EQUIVALENTS 9


!

Try a few RL values, until the measured voltage is reduced by at least a factor of two. Tabulate
your data, and then plot V vs. I. You can use the command-line physica or the more convenient
physicalab (the web-based version is at www.physics.brocku.ca/physica). Perform a fit of your
data. What fitting equation is appropriate? Explain.

? What is the physical significance of the V -intercept? Waht does the slope of the line represent?

? Determine the I-intercept of the line you fitted through your data points. What is its physical
significance?

!

Remove RL , reconfigure your multimeter to measure current, and connect it again between the same
two points in the circuit. Record your measurement and compare to the previously determined
I-intercept value.

? What is the purpose of above step? What assumption are you making regarding the instrument
connected across the load resistor?

? Last week, there was a point made about never doing this; why is it OK for this circuit?

2.3 Determination of Thévenin equivalents

You will recall that the Thévenin’s equivalent
voltage VTh is the effective voltage across the load
points. The Thévenin’s equivalent resistance RTh
of the circuit is determined by shorting all voltage
sources in the circuit and calculating the effective
resistance across the load points.

? Derive equations for and calculate the

Thévenin’s equivalent voltage VTh and resis-
tance RTh of the circuit in the previous sec-
tion. Include these as part of your Discussion.

!

Construct the equivalent circuit using a
variable-voltage power supply to set VTh and
a variable resistor (is there a better way?) to
set RTh . Measure the terminal voltage VL for
Figure 2.3: Thévenin equivalents
the same values of RL that you used in the
previous section.
? Plot and compare with the plot from the previous section. Did you build a good equivalent circuit?
The answer should be based on an error analysis of the results.

Discussion
Complete this lab by summarizing the results and discussing the Thévenin’s equivalence and its use in
simplifying electrical circuits. You should tabulate three sets of results for VT h , RT h and Imax , the maximum
circuit current; the results from the two fits and the theoretical results calculated using V , R1 and R2 and
Thévenin’s equations. Include also the two experimentally measured values of Imax .
10 EXPERIMENT 2. THÉVENIN EQUIVALENCE

Lab Report
Submit a lab report consisting of the work undertaken during this and the previous lab. The lab report
should be typed, single sided and is assigned a mark out of 10 based on the following:

• overall neatness and coherence in the structure of the report;

• completion of all the required simulated and experimental steps;

• inclusion of printouts, data tables, circuit and waveform sketches;

• thoughtful and understandable responses to the guide questions;

• adherence to the designated lab format.

Start the report with an overall statement of purpose of the experiments. Then for each exercise include a
sketch or printout of the circuit and graphs of the waveforms observed, formula derivations, a description
of the theoretical behaviour of the circuit and comparison with your actual observations, and answers to
the pertinent questions. The presentation of your results should be organized and complete, your diagrams
titled and referenced, so that someone who is not familiar with the experiments would have no difficulty
understanding what was done.
At the end of the lab report, include a brief Conclusions section that summarizes and compares the
results from the simulated and hands-on portions of the lab and a discussion of any problems encountered
and insights gained.

If you have any questions regarding the format or content of the Lab Report, consult the lab instructor!
Experiment 3

Transient RC circuits

One of the simplest forms of time-dependence that can be introduced into a circuit is that of a
simple on–off switch. The step-function change in voltage sets off a transient current that dies
down after a while, as the currents in the circuit approach their new equilibrium values. In this
experiment we learn how to use oscilloscope to measure transient events, and apply this skill to
a series of RC circuits.

3.1 Using a scope to capture transients

Most transients that occur in electrical cir-
cuits are too fast to measure using a multi-
meter. For this reason we use an oscilloscope
to monitor how the voltage across the compo-
nent in question varies as a function of time.
In this way we obtain an immediate picture
rather than a set of individual readings.
Assemble in EWB the circuit of Figure 3.1.
Pressing the space bar on the keyboard con-
trols the state of the switch; depending on its
state the capacitor is being charged up by a
battery through 1 MΩ resistor, or being dis-
charged through a 500 kΩ resistor. Double-
click on the face of the oscilloscope icon to
open up a window displaying the scope con-
Figure 3.1: Transients in an RC circuit trols and its screen; you may further press
Expand to get a larger-scale view.

!

Run the simulation, and toggle the switch by pressing the space bar; observe the oscilloscope screen.
Adjust the time base and the sensitivity of the oscilloscope to have a trace that fills most of the
screen and moves slowly enough for you to visualize clearly what is happening. You may wish to
check Analysis → Analysis Options → Instruments → Pause after each screen .

!

In the expanded view of the scope screen, additional controls and measurements are possible. Try to
run the simulation and change the state of the switch until you obtain an oscilloscope trace similar
to the one shown in Figure 3.2.

11
12 EXPERIMENT 3. TRANSIENT RC CIRCUITS


!

Position one cursor right at the be-
ginning of a transient regime, make
note of the time (t0 ) and voltage
(V0 ) readouts, then position the
second cursor so that the voltage
is reduced by a factor 1/e on its
way to the new steady-state value,
i.e.
1
V1 − V∞ = (V0 − V∞ ) .
e
At this point, t1 − t0 = τ = RC.
? Note how the time constants of
charging up and discharging the
capacitor are different. Explain.
Calculate what the two τ values
should be, and compare to the two
measurements you obtained using
Figure 3.2: Using cursors oscilloscope cursors.
? If we repeat the same measurement, but use an arbitrary starting voltage somewhere along the decay
curve, not necessarily the initial value V0 at the moment the switch is thrown, yet again maintain
V2 − V∞ = 1e (V1 − V∞ ) , would t2 − t1 = τ still ?

3.2 AC transients using a function generator

For circuits with a shorter time constant τ = RC, it is
impossible to toggle the switch fast enough by hand. For
this reason we use a function generator set to produce a
square wave to drive our transient circuits.

!

Assemble the circuit, set the FG to a 1 kHz square
wave of amplitude 5V. Adjust the oscilloscope con-
trols until you obtain a stable trace. As before,
calculate the τ of this circuit and verify that this
value approximately agrees with what you see on
the screen of the scope.

!

Vary the DC offset of the signal generator so that
the input voltage switches from −5 V to +5 V, and
then from 0 V to 10 V. Does the output waveform
change? Explain.

!

Change the driving frequency and verify that in the
Figure 3.3: FG limit of the period of the square wave much shorter
than the time constant of the circuit, T ≪ RC, the
circuit is an integrator. Explain using a sketch.

!

Interchange R and C in the circuit, and repeat the above three steps. Make sure you comment in
your report on whether the DC offset setting matters for this circuit, and examine the range of signal
frequencies for which this circuit acts as a differentiator.
Experiment 4

The oscilloscope and RC filters

The objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the workstation equipment
to be used throughout the course. Some simple experiments/measurements will be conducted to
facilitate the practical use of this equipment.

4.1 Workstation equipment

Digital oscilloscope
An oscilloscope displays on a two-dimensional grid the variation in voltage (y) with time (x) of one or more
input signals. A digital scope includes a lot of features intended to make the measurement and analysis of
these signals easy.
The basic controls are grouped into the following functional blocks:

1. the VERTICAL controls set the voltage gain and input coupling for each channel. Select a channel by
pressing the CH1 or CH2 keys, then use the VOLTS/DIV knob to adjust the vertical resolution, or gain,
of the waveform. The voltage gain per grid division is shown on the bottom of the display. You can
use the grid to make approximate measurements or preperably, use the framing cursors. Press the
CURSOR button, followed by the X-Y button to display two horizontal cursors in the same colour as
the selected channel. Select a cursor Y1 or Y2 and position it with the VARIABLE knob; their values
and difference Y1Y2 are shown to the right.
By default, the display gain occurs about the ground level (V=0) of the signal. You can zoom in
on any part of the waveform by setting the Expand menu selection to center; the zoom then occurs
about the vertical center of the display. As you change the gain setting, you will likely need to
re-center the region of interest using the vertical position knob.
The coupling selection allows the input channel to be grounded (displaying a flat line at V=0), to
view the input signal as it is (DC) or view it with the DC component removed (AC). The AC setting
can be used to focus on a small varying signal when it is offset by a larger DC voltage.
The MATH button provides ways to add, subtract, and multiply together the instantaneous voltages
af the two channels. A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) can also be applied to an input signal. In this
mode, the signal x-axis is calibrated in units of frequency (Hz) rather than time (s) and the scope
displays the amplitude-frequency relationship, or frequency spectrum, of the signal.

2. the HORIZONTAL controls similarly set and adjust the common time scale for the two input channels.
Again, you can use the cursors to take measurements. By selecting the XY mode, CH2 (y) is displayed
as a function of CH1 (x). This mode is used to measure phase or voltage-current relationaships
between two signals;

13
14 EXPERIMENT 4. THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND RC FILTERS

3. the TRIGGER controls set the starting position (level) and direction (slope) of a signal relative to the
centre of the display x-axis. The trigger source can be either CH1, CH2, the 60Hz Line input to the
scope, or some External input connected to the EXT TRIG connector. The voltage level is set with
the LEVEL knob and is monitored by an arrow on the right edge of the display. The trigger slope can
be set to ↑ (positive) or ↓ (negative). The trigger coupling functions as outlined above. The SINGLE
capture mode causes the scope to wait for and record a single screen and then stop; this is useful
when monitoring non-periodic events.

As with all things, familiarity comes with practice. Try out the various settings, some functions you will
use all the time, others rarely. If the signal disappears, press the Autoset button. To restore the default
settings, turn the scope off and then back on.

Digital multimeter
Use this instrument to precisely measure the basic electrical quantities such as DC and AC voltage and
current, and resistance. In the AC domain, the peak, average, and RMS values of a signal can be measured.

Waveform generator
A waveform (or function) generator is used to provide a precise, adjustable signal to an electronic circuit.
Typical waveforms include sine, triangle, ramp and square/pulse. These various signals vary in harmonic
content, from the pure sinusiod to the others that contain various mixtures of sinusoidal overtones. The
rapid transition of the pulse waveform can be used clock digital circuits or to excite analog circuits into a
state of self-oscillation.
Basic controls allow the adjustment of amplitude, frequency, pulse width, and the application of a DC
offset voltage. The amplitude and frequency of the signal can also be modulated, or varied in some way.
A typical modulation used for testing the response of electronic circuits is a frequency sweep.

Precision power supply

This device approximates an ideal voltage source.
The output is regulated so that the voltage will not
vary with changes in output current of up to 1A.
The output can also be current limited so that a
test circuit will not draw excessive amounts of cur-
rent if defective or if there is a short circuit. The
output voltage and current can be monitored and
the maximum current can be set.
This device provides three voltage outputs ad-
justable in steps of 0.1mV and 1mA. This voltage
resolution allows the power supply to be used as a
precision voltage reference.

Connecting instruments
Always connect external devices such as meters, Figure 4.1: The proper breadboarding technique
scopes, and function generators using the banana
plug (black and red pairs) and BNC (coaxial) con-
nectors near the top of the breadboard workstation.
These contact points are available on the bread-
board and can be accessed using jumper wires.
4.2. EXPONENTIAL DECAY IN AN RC CIRCUIT 15


!

Turn on the instruments. Note that for the best measurement accuracy, electronic measuring devices
should be given time to warm up and equilibrate to operating temperature, typically around 30
minutes, hence you should power-up your workstation at the start of the lab session. At the end of
the lab, power-down all equipment and disconnect from the AC outlets any devices that you may
have plugged in.

!

With appropriate cables, connect the output of the function generator (FG) and then the Channel 1
(CH1) input on the oscilloscope to the workstation. Insert a breadboard into the workstation, then
insert a short jumper wire on the breadboard to complete the signal path between FG and scope.

!

Set the FG to output a sine wave of 1 KHz frequency and 1 V amplitude. On the scope, turn off
CH2 by toggling the CH2 button until the blue trace disappears. Turn on CH1 and set the gain to
500 mV/DIV and the coupling to ground. A thin horizontal yellow line with the symbol 1> should
be displayed. Rotate the knob above the CH1 button to set the trace vertical position at 0 V; the
actual value appears on the bottom left corner of the display.

!

Set the scope timebase to 500 us/DIV. Set the trigger source to CH1, then with the LEVEL knob set
the trigger level to 0 V and positive slope. Set the CH1 coupling to DC. Sketch the scope output. Is
it what you would expect? Explain.

• ? Use the cursors to measure the amplitude and period of the signal. Tabulate all your data.
Estimate the measurement errors by determining the cursor step sizes at the current display settings
and apply these uncertainities to the measured values.

• ? Vary the gain and timebase of the displayed signal and repeat the above procedure. Note how the
choice of scale affects the measurement error. How should you scale the signal in order to minimize
the measurement error?

• ? Press the Autoset button to have the scope set the display parameters. Do the settings selected
by the scope yield the best resolution for the input signal? Explain.

• ? Vary the scope trigger level. How does the waveform change? What happens when the trigger
level exceeds the range of the signal? Change the trigger slope. What effect does this have on the
waveform? Use a sketch to describe the function of these trigger controls.

4.2 Exponential decay in an RC circuit

Figure 4.2: Time dependence of VC

16 EXPERIMENT 4. THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND RC FILTERS

Consider the battery-driven RC circuit on the left. Initially, the capacitor is uncharged, so VC = 0.
When the switch is first turned to position A, the current I has the initial value:

V0 − VC V0
I0 = = (4.1)
R R

As the current brings charge to the capacitor, the voltage VC increases up to its maximum value VC = V0 ,
at which point the current reduces to zero:

V0 − VC V0 − V0
I= = =0. (4.2)
R R

To analyze the circuit at intermediate times, we apply KVL:

V0 − RI − VC = 0 , (4.3)

which for this circuit translates into a differential equation, since

1
Z
VC = I(t′ ) dt′ . (4.4)
C

Substituting equation (4.4) into equation (4.3) and differentiating once gives

1 dI
I +R = 0, (4.5)
C dt
or
dI 1
+ I = 0. (4.6)
dt RC
The solution to this differential equation (4.6) is

I = I0 e−t/τ . (4.7)

where τ = RC is the characteristic time constant, and I0 is the constant of integration whose value is
determined from the initial conditions, as in Equation (4.1). For the voltage across the capacitor,

V0 −tτ
VC = V0 − IR = V0 − e R = V0 (1 − e−t/τ ) (4.8)
R

If the switch is now turned to position B, the battery is eliminated from the circuit and the capacitor
discharges through the resistor. The direction of I is reversed, but it has the same exponential time
dependence
I = −I0 e−t/τ . (4.9)

where I0 = V0 /R as before. Again, the time dependence of VC is also exponential:

VC = −IR = V0 e−t/τ (4.10)

Equations (4.8) and (4.10) are summarized in Figure 4.2.

4.3. MEASURING TRANSIENTS IN AN RC CIRCUIT 17

4.3 Measuring transients in an RC circuit

Additional components required
• one 10 kΩ resistor
• one 0.01 µF capacitor

Often, the time constant, τ = RC, of the transient is so short that it is impossible to move a mechanical
switch, or to measure the voltage using a voltmeter, fast enough to see the exponential decay. Instead, one
can use a square-wave output of a function generator (FG) and an oscilloscope, to monitor both Vin and
Vout , as in Figure 4.3.

!

Construct the circuit of Figure 4.3 with R = 10 kΩ and C = 0.01µF , using the proper breadboarding
technique. Drive it with a 1 KHz square wave of amplitude 5 V. Adjust the DC offset voltage on
the FG so that the signal toggles between 0 V and 5 V. Obtain a stable trace and sketch to scale a
detailed graph of the voltage as a function of time on both channels of the scope, for one full period
of the square wave.

Figure 4.3: Transients measurement setup


!

Adjust the function generator and gain and timing controls of the oscilloscope as necessary to best
show the exponential fall of the voltage. Estimate the time constant of the circuit.

? Discuss your results and compare with theory.

18 EXPERIMENT 4. THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND RC FILTERS
Experiment 5

RC filters and transfer functions

Another common kind of time-dependent signals is the continuous AC current of a certain

frequency. RC circuits respond to signals of different frequencies differently, and a convenient
way to describe this is in terms of the so-called frequency response, or transfer function. As a
circuit usually also affects the phase of the output relative to that of the input signals, a more
detailed Bode plot is useful, involving both the amplitude and phase components of the [complex]
transfer function.

5.1 Using a scope to measure frequency response

We have used the oscilloscope to capture time-dependent transient signals; for continuous sunusoidal AC
signals all we need to do is to measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the incoming and outgoing signals.
The ratio G = Vout /Vin is called gain; in general, this is a complex number as both input and output
signals have both amplitude and phase.
Assemble the following circuit. Vary the frequency
setting of the function generator, and use the scope to
measure the amplitude of both input and output signals.
You may need to adjust the time base, and the amplitude
gain for each channel independently, to see both signals
clearly.

!

Vary the frequency from 100 Hz to 10 MHz while
keeping the input amplitude constant; monitor
what happens to the amplitude of the output sig-
nal. Notice for what frequencies the signal passes
through the circuit, and for what frequencies the
output is greatly attenuated compared to the in-
put.
Figure 5.1: Gain of an RC circuit ? Would you call this a low-pass or a high-pass filter?

!

Vary the frequency again, this time paying attention to the phase of the two signals. Notice how the
phase of the output signal shifts relative to that of the input signal whenever there is a variation of

amplitude gain |G| with frequency.
!

Use Circuit −→ Schematic Options to display the node numbers on the schematics. Then use
Analysis −→ AC Frequency to simulate response curves for the circuit. Select both nodes that
correspond to the input and output of the RC circuit and you will see two response curves, in
different colours, one for each node.

19
20 EXPERIMENT 5. RC FILTERS AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

5.2 The Bode plotter

Replace the scope with a special instrument called the
Bode plotter, as shown in the diagram. The Bode plotter
calculates directly the ratio of the two response curves
you had simulated in the previous step. It is usually
convenient to express the attenuation factor Vout /Vin in
logarithmic units. The decibel (dB) is defined as:
Vout
 
dB = 20 ∗ log10 .
Vin
Likewise, frequency ranges are usually more significant
as logarithmic ratios. A range f0 to 2f0 is defined as an
octave; a range f0 to 10f0 constitutes a decade. Filter
Figure 5.2: Bode plotter response is typically expressed in dB/octave. A first or-
der filter has a rolloff of 6 dB/octave or 20 dB/decade; a
second order filter has 12 dB/octave and so on.

!

Use the cursor to examine the measured Bode plot. Determine “the 3 dB point”, i.e. the frequency
for which the output signal falls exactly 3 dB below the input signal. Determine where the phase
of the output signal is shifted exactly 45◦ relative to the input. Compare and comment on the two
‘measurements”. You may need to change the number of points the Bode plotter is using to scan
through the frequency range; see Analysis −→ Analysis Options . Save the results in a file.

? Knowing that a capacitor behaves as an open circuit for DC, and conducts well for high frequencies,
what do you expect to happen when R and C are interchanged in our circuit?

!

Interchange R and C. Repeat the Bode analysis, and save the results again.
? Examine the data files. What is the point where the two amplitude curves intersect? What are their
slopes?

5.3 Multi-stage filters

A combination of two different RC filters in series has the
transfer function that is the product of the two individual
ones. On the logarithmic, or dB scale, the gains of the
two stages simply add.

!

Assemble the circuit, and examine its gain using
the Bode plotter. Determine the point of maximum
gain, and the width of the bandpass region, defined
as the frequency range over which the gain drops
3 dB from its maximum value.
? On the dB scale, the response curve does not look
very impressive. Calculate the intensity attenua-
Figure 5.3: Two-stage filter tion factor (on the linear scale) that corresponds
to -3 dB and -6 dB.

!

Switch the vertical axis of the Bode plotter to linear scale and adjust the vertical plot limits to see
the linear gain curve clearly. Verify your calculations from the previous step.
Experiment 6

Time and frequency response of RC and

RCL circuits

The measurement of transients using an oscilloscope is applied to different RC and RCL circuits.
In addition to the time-domain (transient) measurements, the frequency-domain measurements
can also be performed, and a transfer function of a device can be obtained.

6.1 Low-pass and high-pass filters

Additional components required
• one 10 kΩ resistor
• one 0.01 µF capacitor

We begin with the same setup as in Experiment 4. The RC circuit of Section 4.2 can be thought of as
a filter with centre frequency
ω0 1
f0 = = .
2π 2πRC
In this Section we measure its transfer function, i.e. the relationship between the input and the output
voltages.

!

Using a sinusoidal setting on the function generator (FG), measure the gain G = |Vout /Vin | at several
frequencies f in the range 100 Hz–100 kHz. Pay particular attention to the region near f0 . Include
error estimates for all your measurements. Plot log Vout as a function of log f . The resulting curve is
the transfer function of the RC filter circuit.

!

Measure for these same frequencies the phase shift φ in Vout relative to Vin . You can do this by
comparing the two signals in the time domain or more conveniently, by setting the time/division to
X/Y mode and determining φ from the resulting Lissajous pattern (see Appendix). You may wish
to observe these transfer functions and phase shifts using the EWB simulator. Plot φ as a function
of log f .

!

Switch FG to a square wave setting and change its frequency so that τ = RC >> period of the
signal. Make a scale sketch of the scope display to show that the circuit now acts as an integrator.

!

Interchange C and R and measure the new transfer function.

!

Switch FG to triangular wave and change its frequency so that τ = RC << period of the signal. You
may want to use R = 100 Ω to make it easier. Verify that the circuit now acts as a differentiator.

21
22 EXPERIMENT 6. TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF RC AND RCL CIRCUITS


!

Compare the two transfer functions in terms of their centre frequencies f0 , their decibel (dB) values
at f0 and rolloff rates in dB/octave. What is the order of these filters? How do the phase shifts of
the two filters differ?

6.2 RCL transients (ringing)

Additional components required
• one 100 Ω resistor
• one 2.2 mH inductor
Adding an inductor L to an RC circuit produces a circuit capable of resonant oscillations (ringing).
The presence of R, an energy-dissipating element, guarantees that the amplitude of the oscillations does
not remain constant. Typically, one observes oscillations of frequency
1
ω0 = √ [rad · s−1 ]
LC
or
1
f0 = ω0 [Hz]
2π
and the amplitude of these oscillations decays exponentially with a time constant τ = L/R.

!

Modify your circuit to include an induc-
tor L = 1.0 mH, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Use C = 0.01 muF and R = 100 Ω.
? Calculate the theoretical value of the
natural oscillation frequency, f0 , for this
circuit.

1
!

Set FG to about 10 f0 .
Drive the RCL
circuit with a square wave and observe
the ringing. Make a scale sketch of the
observed waveform. Measure the period
Figure 6.1: Transients in an RCL circuit of the ringing signal on the scope, and
calculate the experimental value for f0 ,
including error estimates.
? Compare with the theoretical value and account for any discrepancies.


L
!

The rate of energy dissipation in the circuit is determined by the time constant τ = R. Estimate the
experimental value of τ assuming an exponential envelope of the ringing signal.
Note that for an exponential function, y = y0 e−ax
y1 y0 e−ax1
= = e−a(x1 −x2 ) ; ln y1 − ln y2 = −a(x1 − x2 )
y2 y0 e−ax2
ln y2 − ln y1
; a=
x1 − x2
Thus one can use any two points on the exponential envelope, e.g., two peaks in the ringing signal,
to determine a.
? Compare the experimental value of τ with the theoretical value you obtain from the nominal com-
ponent values. Include error estimates.
6.3. A BANDPASS FILTER 23

6.3 A bandpass filter

In terms of its frequency response, a resonant RCL circuit is essentially a bandpass filter: signal frequencies
near f0 cause a large current I, and hence, a large Vout = RI, while for frequencies away from f0 the current
is small.

!

Switch FG to sine wave output and measure gain G = |Vout /Vin | as a function of frequency. You
need to take measurements more often near f0 , and to include points up to two decades away from
f0 , i.e., from 10−2 f0 to 102 f0 . Plot φ vs. log f , and G vs. log f .

? From your graphs determine f0 and compare to the theoretical value calculated previously.

6.4 A notch filter

Reconfigure the circuit as shown in Figure 6.2.
Again, use L = 1.0 mH, C = 0.01 µF, and
R = 100 Ω. This circuit is a filter which does
the reverse of the bandpass filter: it passes all
but a narrow range of frequencies. A common
name for this circuit is a notch filter. The
notch frequency f0 is again determined by L
and C, and our previously calculated theoret-
ical value applies.

Figure 6.2: RCL circuit as a notch filter


!

Repeat the measurements of the previous section, i.e., plot G and φ vs. frequency. Determine f0 from
the plot and compare to the theoretical value. Verify the phase response with Electronics Workbench.

!

Change capacitor to a value around C = 0.1 µF. Scan the signal frequency and determine the new
′
notch frequency, f0 .

? Verify that √ s
f0 1/ C C′
= √ = .
f0′ 1/ C ′ C
24 EXPERIMENT 6. TIME AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF RC AND RCL CIRCUITS
Experiment 7

Diodes and their properties

Diodes conduct preferentially in one direction, as is apparent in the V I-characteristic curve of

a diode. Forward-biased diodes can be used in rectifier circuits (both half- and full-wave), and
in reverse breakdown mode Zener diodes maintain a constant voltage.

7.1 V I-characteristic of a diode

Assemble the following circuit in EWB. Set the
function generator (FG) to sine wave, at about
1 kHz. Monitor the voltage before and after the
diode.

!

Print and save several periods of the os-
cillation from the scope screen (it might
help to “Pause after each screen” in the
Analysis Options ) both Vin = V0 cos(2πf t)
and Vout for V0 = 0.1 V, 1.0 V, and 2.0 V.
? Comment on your observations. Can you de-
termine if 1N4148 is a Si or Ge diode?

!

Switch the scope to B/A mode to display
directly the V I-characteristic of 1N4148. Try
increasing the minimum number of points to
1000 in Analysis options .
Figure 7.1: What kind of diode is 1N4148?

7.2 Full-wave rectifier


!

Modify the circuit as shown. First add the second diode and verify that you are getting full-wave
rectification. Note how the output voltage still dips to zero.

!

Now add the electrolythic capacitor (note the polarity!) to provide a reduced ripple. Vary the
capacitance C and monitor how the ripple is affected. Enlarge the scope screen and use the two
cursors placed at a minimum and at a maximum in the output voltage to measure the ripple amplitude
r = ∆V /VDC .
? Calculate the value for C ≈ i/(f ∆V ), where f is the ripple frequency, that would reduce the ripple
to below 2% of VDC .

25
26 EXPERIMENT 7. DIODES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

7.3 Zener diodes as voltage regulators

In reverse breakdown mode, diodes maintain con-
stant voltage across their terminals, subject to cer-
tain limitations. In production, the voltage value
can be carefully controlled, and Zener diodes are
available in a variety of voltages. For example,
1N963B is a 12-V, 500 mW Zener diode. As the
reverse voltage reaches VZ = 12 V, the diode begins
to conduct (it needs a minimum of about 1 mA
to ”turn on”) and then draws variable current (up
to the rated power maximum) while maintaining a
constant VZ :
1 mA < |IZ | < IZ,max = Pmax /VZ .
If IZ drops much below 1 mA the Zener stops regu- Figure 7.2: Full-wave rectifier
lating and VZ decreases substantially. If IZ exceeds
IZ,max , the Zener burns out.

Figure 7.3: Zener diode


!

Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 7.3.
? Consider the possibility of burning out the diode. This will happen when Iload is minimum, Iload → 0,
that is when Rload is completely removed, Rload → ∞. Then
V − VZ
V = I Z R + VZ or R= .
IZ
Calculate IZ,max for 1N963B, and thus determine the Rmin .

!

For a conservative design, set your R to about twice that value.
? Consider the possibility of Zener drawing too little current, IZ < 1 mA. This will happen when Iload
is large, i.e. when Rload gets too small. Using the R value determined in the previous step, predict
Iload,max for your circuit, and therefore the range of Rload values where the regulation will occur.

!

Using Parameter sweep , vary Rload beyond the useful range of values, and record the plot of voltage
across Rload vs. Rload . You may need to turn on the display of node numbers on the circuit diagram
to see which node you need to monitor during the sweep of Rload .
Experiment 8

Junction Diode and Rectifier

Characteristics

8.1 Diode characteristics

Additional components required
• one each – 1 kΩ, 220 Ω resistor
• two 10 Ω resistors
• one each germanium (Ge) and Zener (Z) diodes
• two silicon (Si) diodes
• one 220 µF capacitor

The circuit in Figure 8.1 will be used to dis-

play the I vs. V characteristic curve for a diode.
The Variac combined with the transformer provide
a variable input voltage while the 1 kΩ resistor lim-
its the current flow through the diode.
To display the I vs. V curve, the oscilloscope in-
put must be set to DC and the time/division control
rotated to the XY position. In this mode, the volt-
ages at the two input channels of the oscilloscope
directly control the X (Channel 1) and Y (Chan-
nel 2) deflection of the electron beam. Connecting
the X-input across the diode makes the horizon-
tal deflection directly proportional to the voltage
across the diode, VX = V . Since the voltage across
the resistor is proportional to the current through
it, connecting the Y-input across R makes the verti-
cal axis proportional to current through the diode,
Figure 8.1: Measuring V I-characteristics of a diode Vy = R × I. Thus:

Vy Vy
I=− =− [amperes].
R 1000
Note: Because the inputs require a common ground, it is necessary to connect Vy so that Vy is proportional
to −I. This will invert the I-V curve. Switching the Y-invert on the oscilloscope will correct this.

27
28 EXPERIMENT 8. JUNCTION DIODE AND RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS


!

Initially assemble the circuit using the germanium diode.
 
!

Begin by monitoring the output of the X and Y channels as a function of time (V vs. t) to display
the rectified voltage across R and the diode voltage. Sketch to scale the scope screen and comment
on how the two traces change as the Variac is rotated. Explain quantitatively the notable features
of the traces, how the two curves relate and why they are not identical.

!

Set the oscilloscope to X/Y mode.
 
!

Note: When measuring, increase the X and Y amplification and adjust the (0, 0) point to provide
the best possible accuracy.
Turn the Variac off in order to position the (0, 0) point on the scope grid. Slowly increase the current
flow to a maximum of about 10 mA. Along the way, record enough (VX , VY ) data points to be able
to reproduce the curve on a graph. Note the errors in these measurements.
? Plot the I vs. V curve and record the forward bias “turn-on” voltage, Vd . Calculate both the static
(Rs = V /I) and the dynamic (R = ∆V /∆I) resistance at I = 5 mA.

!

Repeat the above steps for silicon and Zener diodes. In addition, include for the Zener diode a plot of
both the forward and reverse diode characteristic curves, and from this determine the Zener (reverse
breakdown) voltage.

8.2 Full-wave rectification with filter and Zener diode

Figure 8.2: A diode rectifier circuit

The complete rectifier circuit is shown in Figure 8.2. The circuit will be assembled in steps in order to
observe the effect of each stage on rectification. The 10 Ω resistors have been added to the rectifier circuit
to protect the diodes from excessive current if an error in wiring is made. Make a scale sketch of the scope
screen at every step of this procedure; display the traces one above the other to show the contribution to
the circuit of each added component.
8.2. FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION WITH FILTER AND ZENER DIODE 29


!

Initially assemble the circuit as a half-wave rectifier with a single diode and 10 Ω resistor. Adjust
the Variac to make VR ≈ 5 V.
L

!

Add the second resistor and diode to complete a full-wave rectifier circuit.

! Insert a 220 µF power supply filter capacitor for C.

 
! Add the load resistor RL and measure Vp , the peak output voltage.

 
!

Set the oscilloscope to AC and increase the amplification in order to measure Vr , the ripple voltage.
Measure the discharge time td . Calculate the ripple factor (r = Vr /Vp ) and compare it with the
theoretical value given by the filter time constant (r = td /RL C).

Figure 8.3: Measuring the ripple factor


!

Complete the following table in 0.5 V steps for capacitor voltages Vp ranging from 5 V to 7 V. Note
the peak voltage VRL and the ripple voltage Vripple ar the load resistor.

5.0 V 5.5 V 6.0 V 6.5 V 7.0 V

Vp (V)
VRL (V)
Vripple (V)

? How does the ripple amplitude at the load resistor change as you increase Vp to 7 V? Estimate an
acceptable magnitude for the ripple voltage at the capacitor when Vp = 8 V, so that the ripple voltage
at RL will be negligible, then calculate a new value for C.
30 EXPERIMENT 8. JUNCTION DIODE AND RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
Experiment 9

Transistors and transistor circuits

Individual transistors are rarely used today, as integrated circuits containing millions of transis-
tors have become commonplace. However, to understand the principles of transistor operation
it helps to focus on an individual transistor. Review Diefenderfer and Holton, Sections 8.1–8.3
before proceeding.

9.1 Transistor is a current amplifier

Assemble the following circuit in EWB. By varying resistor R we can vary the current into the base, Ib ,
and measure the current that flows into the collector, Ic . By Kirchoff’s Current Law, the current that
flows out of the emitter to ground, Ie = Ib + Ic .

27◦ C 75◦ C
R Ib Ic β Ic β
1k
5k
10 k
50 k
100 k
500 k
1M
5M
10 M Figure 9.1: Current gain of 2N3904

!

Vary R as shown in the table below, record Ib and Ic , and calculate β = Ic /Ib at the default
◦ ◦
temperature of 27 C, then repeat for a transistor temperature of 75 C.

? Is the current gain β constant over the range of Ib used above? Explain. Does β vary with T? Does
it vary the way you would expect of a real transistor, i.e. did EWB do a good job of building a model
transistor?

? In the real lab, you would be cautioned not to decrease the R value below 1 kΩ. Why?

31
32 EXPERIMENT 9. TRANSISTORS AND TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

9.2 Transistor switches

Construct the LED circuit as shown. Use a scope and/or a voltage indicator to monitor the base and
collector voltages. Drive it with a 10 V peak-to-peak square wave centered at zero volts with a frequency
of less than 1 Hz. The round indicator probe turns on (solid color) at 2.5V.


!

Note when the LED is on and when it is off (circle
below) in terms of the voltage at the base, Vb , and
at the collector, Vc , of the transistor:

Vb Vc probe LED
low on / off
high on / off

? Explain the operation of the circuit. Why doesn’t

the LED turn on when the signal is low? What is
the purpose of the 470 Ω resistor?
Figure 9.2: Transistor as a switch

9.3 Voltage amplifier

The voltage gain of a common emitter amplifier is β = Rc /Re . The base bias resistors R1 and R2 are
selected so that βRe ≫ R1 kR2 and R1 /R2 ≈ Rc /Re . For maximum Vc swing, the input signal is set to 0 V
and the bias resistors are adjusted to set the quiescent voltage Vc = 0.5 VDC .


!

Drive the common-emitter with a 0.2 V peak-to-
peak sine wave and use the oscilloscope to moni-
tor the input and output voltage as you vary the
frequency from 1 Hz to 1 MHz to examine qualita-
tively how the circuit operates.

!

Replace the scope with the Bode plotter and plot
the entire transfer function and phase response of
this amplifier.

? Explain the low, midrange and high frequency de-

pendence of the voltage gain. Determine the fre-
quency bandwidth of the transistor, given by the
3 dB points of the transfer function.

? Adjust the values of the amplifier resistors; what is

the largest value of β that your circuit can attain
without distorting the output signal? How does
Figure 9.3: Common-emitter amplifier this value compare to the nominal current gain iβ =
ic /ie for a 2N3904 transistor?

? Is it possible to modify the circuit to produce a gain of 1000? Explain.


!

Bonus! Design a circuit that amplifies, without distortion, a 10mVpp 1KHz sine input to a level of
10Vpp. Simulate and verify the operation of the circuit.
Experiment 10

Junction Field Effect Transistors

(JFETs)

10.1 JFET characteristic curves

Additional components required
• one each – 3 kΩ, 10 kΩ, 100 kΩ resistors
• one 10 kΩ potentiometer
• one silicon (Si) diode
• one 0.01 µF capacitor
• two 1 µF capacitors
• one p-channel JFET

Curves giving Id versus Vds for various values of Vgs are used to analyse JFETs. These curves can
be traced experimentally by an oscilloscope using the circuit in Figure 10.1. The gate bias voltage Vgs

Figure 10.1: Characteristic curves of a JFET

is provided by a variable power supply (PS) (keep it within 0–5 V). The capacitor is added to control
the build-up of static charge at the reverse-biased gate. The diode and transformer combine to provide a
rectified but oscillating bias voltage, Vdd , for the channel of the JFET. Note that Vd ≤ Vs while Vg ≥ Vs .

!

Assemble the circuit and set Vgs , controlled by the variable PS, to 0 Volts. Take care that the polarity
of the PS is correct and thus the transistor will be properly biased when a non-zero Vgs is set.

33
34 EXPERIMENT 10. JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (JFETS)


!

Switch the oscilloscope to xy-mode and connect Vds to the x-input of the scope and Vdd to the y-
input, using the drain (d) terminal as the common. Vdd is proportional to Id , but with a negative
sign: Vdd = −3 × 103 Id . Press the Invert button on the y-channel of the scope to compensate for
this.
The characteristic curve will now be displayed. Adjust the position of the beam and the amplification
in the two channels for best display, i.e. so that the curve covers most of the screen. Be sure the
voltage settings are on calibrated positions.

!

Measure the positions of a few judiciously chosen points, and reproduce the curve of Id versus Vds in
a plotting program.

!

Repeat for Vgs = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 V etc. to generate a family of curves (or a 3D surface plot).
Vary Vgs up to the pinch-off voltage, where Id = 0. Record the pinch-off voltage.

!

In the saturation region, ∆Id /∆Vds ≈ 0. Use the spacing between the two curves in the middle of
the family of curves to determine the forward transconductance:

∆Id
gf s = , for Vds = const.
∆Vgs

? In the pinchoff region, for low values of Vds , the drain current Id increases approximately linearly
with Vds . In this region the FET acts like an ohmic resistance that can be controlled by varying Vgs .
Calculate the output transconductance,

∆Id
gos = , for Vgs = 0.5 V.
∆Vds

What is the active output resistance, Rds , indicated by gos ?

10.2 Self-biased JFET amplifier

A p-channel JFET amplifier requires that Vg > Vs > Vd . With the source connected to ground, the gate
needs to be biased with a positive voltage Vgs while Vd needs a negative voltage for proper operation. The
self-biased amplifier removes the need for bipolar voltage sources by shifting the levels at the gate and
source pins.
The gate resistor pulls the gate to ground when there is no input signal. The source resistor Rs sets
the operating point by biasing the source negative with respect to the gate with a voltage Vgs . Use the
center tap and one of the side taps of a 10 kΩ potentiometer for the source resistor, Rs .

!

Assemble the circuit in Fig. 10.2 and connect the oscilloscope to measure the input (Vin ) and output
(Vout ) voltage on x-channel and y-channel, respectively. Use a variable power supply as Vdd , and
make note of its polarity. Set the FG to provide a 10 kHz sine wave.

!

To determine the operating Q (quiescent) point, apply a large input voltage so that Vout is distorted.
Now adjust Rs until the distortion is split equally between upper and lower limits. The transistor
should now be positioned at a satisfactory Q-point. Turn off the FG and measure Vgs , Vds , and Rs .
Be sure to disconnect Vdd while measuring Rs .

? Determine the load equation and plot it on the characteristic curves. Using the values determined
experimentally in the previous step, place your Q-point on the load line and verify that it falls
approximately in the middle of the linear region.
10.2. SELF-BIASED JFET AMPLIFIER 35

Figure 10.2: JFET amplifier


!

Using a 0.5 V peak-to-peak vin , measure Vout and calculate the gain A = Vout /Vin . Increase Vin until
just below the distortion first appears, and repeat the measurement of A.

!

Now remove Cs and re-measure A.

? What is the benefit of Cs ?

? Use the intersection points of the load line with the characteristic curves on either side of the Q-point
to estimate A. Compare this value with the one obtained experimentally in the previous step.
36 EXPERIMENT 10. JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (JFETS)
Experiment 11

Operational Amplifiers I

Ideal op-amps
An op-amp is a differential amplifier with an inverting V− input and non-inverting V+ input. The output
voltage Vo is given by the difference of these two input voltages times the open loop gain Av :

Vo = Av ∗ (V+ − V− ) (11.1)

A standard way to derive approximate theoretical equations for the circuits involving op-amps is to assume
that the op-amp is an ideal device having the following electrical characteristics:
1. the inputs draw no current, hence i+ = i− = 0 and the input impedance Z+ = Z− = ∞,
2. the output can supply an infinite amount of current, hence Zo = 0,
3. the open loop gain, or voltage amplification Av = ∞.
4. The opamp adjusts the output voltage so that V− = V+ . This follows from Equation 11.1 since
Vo cannot exceed the finite power supply voltage. This equivalence is used to determine the gain
equation for an (ideal) op-amp circuit.

The LM358 op-amp

The LM358 consists of a pair of general purpose
operational amplifiers capable of amplifying signals
ranging from 0 Hz (DC) to 1 MHz. The chip can
operate using a dual power supply of up to ±15 V
down to a single 3 V battery. It can be used in
mixed analog/digital circuits that typically operate
from a single 3-5V power supply.

? From the LM358 data sheet, determine the

values of Av , the input bias current and out-
put source current. Does the LM358 approx- Figure 11.1: LM358 pinout
imate the characteristics of an ideal op-amp?
Explain.

? The slew rate dVo /dt defines the maximum rate of change in Vo . What is the LM358 slew rate? Does
the frequency response of the amplifier depend on the amplitude of the signal?

37
38 EXPERIMENT 11. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS I

Figure 11.2: Operational amplifier power supply options

Open loop operation

Since Av of the op-amp is very large, a tiny voltage difference between the inputs causes the output to swing
between the power supply limits, or saturate. This effect can be used to implement a voltage comparator
or level detector. One input is set to a reference voltage determined by R1 and R2 . The output will change
state based on the voltage at the other input.

!

Use EWB to simulate the circuit in Figure 11.3. The voltage divider resistors set V+ . Their choice
must satisfy the input bias current requirement of the op-amp and can be in the range of 10 to 100
KΩ. Monitor the output voltage as you vary V− . What is the smallest voltage change that will
saturate the op-amp output to the limits of the power supply? Estimate the open loop gain. Swap
the inputs to the op-amp. What do you observe? In what ways is this op-amp switch an improvement
over the transistor switch discussed in the previous lab?

The circuit of Figure 11.3 modulates the output be-

tween two voltages by comparing the value of Vin to a
reference voltage at the other input. In essence, this is a
1-bit analog-to-digital converter. To observe signal mod-
ulation, first remove the resistors from the op-amp.

!

To one input of an op-amp connect a 0-5V triangle
wave of frequency f0 . This is typically a waveform
of set frequency and amplitude known as the carrier
signal or carrier. To the other input connect a 0-
5V sine wave of a frequency around f0 /50. This is
Figure 11.3: Voltage comparator
the modulating signal.

? Describe the dynamics of the output waveform. What is being modulated? How do changes to the
frequency/amplitude/offset of the modulating signal affect the output signal?

Closed loop operation

Application of feedback from Vo to V− causes the op-amp
to conform to Rule 4 mentioned in the introduction. This
arrangement, shown in Figure 11.4, is known as a voltage
follower or unity gain amplifier.

!

How might this op-amp arrangement be useful?
What is being amplified? Derive the gain equa-
tion.
Figure 11.4: Voltage follower
 39

An analog memory cell

It is sometimes necessary to temporarily store a voltage. This is required when converting a voltage to
a digital value, or to implement an analog delay. Figure 11.5 shows the schematic of a typical track and
hold circuit. When the switch is closed, Vo tracks Vin . With the switch open, the capacitor is effectively
isolated from Vin and Vo reflects the voltage stored in the capacitor.

? What opamp characteristics are desirable in this type of circuit? What are the benefits/limitations
imposed upon the circuit by the resistor?

? The value of C chosen is critical to the proper operation of a track and hold circuit. What determines
the value for C and hence the range of operation of this circuit?

Figure 11.5: Sample and hold circuit


!

Set Vin to a 1 Hz sine wave. Describe the output as the switch is opened and closed. In track mode,
what type of circuit is represented? Estimate a practical Vin bandwidth. As you increase the Vin
frequency, what do you observe?

!

Connect a multimeter to the output of your track and hold circuit. With the circuit in hold mode,
determine the discharge rate of the capacitor. How long before Vo drops by 1%?

Note: A typical circuit would incorporate an analog switch or FET to perform the sample/hold switching
and more importantly, the switch would be controlled by some electronically generated pulse. The contacts
of a mechanical switch oscillate for about 5 ms as they open or close. This contact ’bounce’ genarates a
series of pulses that would wreak havoc in a typical analog or digital circuit.

Analog computation

Figure 11.6: Two op-amp solution of Y = mX + b

40 EXPERIMENT 11. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS I

The op-amp was originally designed to perform mathematical operations form basic addition to multi-
plication, exponentialtion and the solution of differential equations. The electrical behaviour of resistors,
capacitors and diodes are used to this end. While not as precise as digital devices, analog computers are
very fast and simple to implement and do not require data conversion to and from the digital domain.
Figure 11.6 shows a two op-amp circuit that can be used to evaluate the equation
Y = mX + b ≡ m ∗ (X + b/m). (11.2)
The first adds an offset b/m to Vin . The second op-amp sets the gain, or slope m.

!

Derive the transfer function for the two op-amp circuit of Figure 11.6.

Figure 11.7: Single op-amp solution of Y = mX + b

It may not seem readily apparent, but the circuit of Figure 11.7 also evaluates Y = mX + b using a
single op-amp. Due to the feedback path, the op-amp adjusts the output Vo so that V− = V+ . Because of
the very large input impedance of the op-amp, no appreciable current flows into the op-amp inputs and it
can be removed, leaving for analysis two separate circuits.

!

Show that the equation below is valid and that it does represent the equation Y = mX + b:
Rf + R
Vo = ∗ (V1 + V2 ) (11.3)
2R

A practical example
It is often useful to convert a transducer output voltage to a voltage range that quantitatively represents
the actual quantity that the sensor measures.
Suppose that you wish to build an analog thermometer calibrated to display temperature on a voltmeter
in units of 100mV/◦ C so that 0◦ C displays 0V, 10◦ C displays 1V, and so on. Suppose that the temperature
sensor used is an LM61 temperature-to-voltage converter. The output voltage of this device corresponds
to 600mV at 0◦ C and varies linearly at a rate of 10mV/◦ C.

!

Determine the transfer function parameters required to properly display the LM61 output as tem-
perature on the voltmeter.

!

For each of the circuits of Figure 11.6 and Figure 11.7, use the coordinate pairs evaluated above
to determine the fitting parameters for the transfer function. Evaluate appropriate resistance and
reference voltages, then build the circuit.

!

Sweep the input voltage representing the output of the LM61 and verify that the two circuits give
identical results.
Experiment 12

Operational Amplifiers II

The operational amplifier (op-amp) is the most versatile piece of analog hardware yet developed.
The objectives of this experiment are to analyze the input-output characteristics of an op-amp
as well as to become acquainted with some of the basic circuits in which it is used.

Ideal op-amps
A standard way to derive the theoretical equations for the circuits involving op-amps is by making simpli-
fying assumptions, namely that the op-amps used in the circuit are “perfect.” An ideal op-amp has the
following characteristics: Rin = ∞, Rout = 0, Av = ∞. The resulting equations are, therefore, only ap-
proximately right. The limits of the applicability of these equations will be tested during this experiment,
as we build several different amplifiers. These limitations must be considered in the design of any real
op-amp circuit.

A 741 op-amp
The 741 is a general purpose operational amplifier containing 20 transistors, 12 resistors and 1 capacitor
formed on a single silicon chip. It is one of the most popular op-amps, being capable of amplifying signals
with frequencies ranging from 0 Hz (DC) to about 1 MHz.
The diagram on the left shows the pinout of the 741:

1,5 null offset voltage inputs (not used in this experi-

ment)
2 inverting (−) input
3 non-inverting (+) input
4 negative supply voltage (−15 V)
7 positive supply voltage (+15 V)
6 output
8 compensation capacitor (not used)

Note: Never connect voltages to the inputs of an op-

amp without making sure that power is supplied (on pins
4 and 7) first. When building a circuit, start by wiring up
the power supply connections. First turn on the power
Figure 12.1: Pinout of the 741 supply to the op-amp, and only then the function gen-
erator (FG); turn them off in the reverse order, i.e., FG
first.

41
42 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Additional components required

• one each – 1 kΩ, 1 MΩ resistor
• three 10 kΩ resistors
• four 100 kΩ resistors
• three 0.01 µF capacitors
• one 741 op-amp

12.1 An inverting amplifier

• For Rin = 10 kΩ, measure and plot

the output voltage Vout as a func-
tion of the input voltage Vin at 1
KHz. Derive amplifier gain from
the graph and compare to the the-
oretical value.
• Repeat for Rin = 1 kΩ, 100 kΩ and
1 MΩ.
• Measure the upper and lower limit-
ing values of Vout using Rin = 1kΩ.

Figure 12.2: An inverting amplifier

12.2 A summing amplifier
In place of the single Rin of section 12.1, add this summing network to
the input of the op-amp. Now the amplifier has two inputs, V1 and V2 ,
and the output is proportional to V1 + V2 .
• Using a function generator and a simple voltage divider, measure
the output voltage, Vout , for the following combinations of input
voltages:

V1 V2 Vout
+5 V DC +5 V DC
+5 V DC −5 V DC
+5 V DC 1.0 V p-p @1 kHz
Figure 12.3: A summing ampli-
fier 1.0 V p-p @1 kHz 1.0 V p-p @1 kHz
0V 0V

Note: The cell voltages above are merely typical values. Tabu-
late actual measured values, indicating for each measurement the
voltage used.
12.3. ACTIVE FILTERS 43

12.3 Active filters

• Assemble the circuit in Figure 12.4.

Use the oscilloscope to measure Vin
and Vout . Keeping Vin constant at,
say, 1.0V, measure Vout at frequen-
cies of 100 Hz, and then 200 Hz to
2000 Hz by steps of 200 Hz; and
2, 000 Hz to 10, 000 Hz by steps of
1000 Hz. Plot Vout vs. frequency.
Mark on the graph and record the
3 db “corner” frequency. Note the
phase relationship between the in-
put and output signals at 200 Hz
and 5, 000Hz. Make a dimensioned
Figure 12.4: Active filter A diagram of the input and output
voltages at these frequencies.

• Assemble the circuit in Figure 12.5.

Maintaining a constant input volt-
age of 1.0 V, measure Vout at fre-
quencies of 10, 000 Hz to 2, 000 Hz
by steps of 1, 000 Hz, then mea-
sure Vout from 1000Hz to 200Hz by
steps of 200 Hz, and also at 100 Hz.
Graph Vout vs. frequency. Note
the “corner” frequency. Observe
and record on a dimensioned di-
agram the phase relationship be-
tween Vout and Vin at 200 Hz and
Figure 12.5: Active filter B 5, 000 Hz.

• Name the types of filters in circuits (A) and (B). Suggest advantages of active over passive filters
which employ only resistors, capacitors and inductors. Write a qualitative explanation of the property
of each circuit.
44 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Appendix A

Breadboards

Breadboards permit quick solderless connections between the components of an electronic circuit. As
indicated in the diagram, the holes of the breadboard are split into parallel sets of five (5). Within each
hole is a metal clip to hold a wire and the clips in each set are connected together.

Figure A.1: The proper breadboarding technique

Two wires can be connected electrically by placing their ends into two holes belonging to the same set
of 5 holes. The connector sets in the outside rows have been joined together to form four extended rows.
Some breadboards do not have connections at points A and B resulting in eight “half-rows”. These outside
rows are often used to supply power to the board. After an external power supply has been connected to
one of these rows, power can be withdrawn to supply electronic circuits at any location along the board.

45
46 APPENDIX A. BREADBOARDS
Appendix B

Resistor Colour Codes

Colour First Band Second Band Third Band Fourth Band

Black 0 0 100
Brown 1 1 101
Red 2 2 102
Orange 3 3 103
Yellow 4 4 104
Green 5 5 105
Blue 6 6 106
Violet 7 7 107
Gray 8 8 108
White 9 9 109
Gold - - 10−1 ±5% tolerance
Silver - - 10−2 ±10% tolerance
None - - - ±20% tolerance

For example, the resistance of a resistor whose bands are yellow, violet, red, gold is
47 × 102 −→ 4.7 KΩ ± 10% or 4K7 Ohm.

47
48 APPENDIX B. RESISTOR COLOUR CODES
Appendix C

Lissajous patterns and phase shift

Switch the scope display to XY–mode to observe the Lissajous pattern as shown in the figure below.
Be sure to note the sensitivity setting of each input in your measurement. The amplitude values should be
recorded in volts rather than divisions. Set the sensitivities so that the major axis of the ellipse is at an
angle of about 45◦ and several divisions in length. The pattern should be centered on the screen so that
the central chord of the ellipse c, can be measured with the vertical center line of the scope graticule.
An easy way to perform the measurement is as follows:

1. Ground the vertical amplifier input (with the input switch) and align the trace with the horizontal
center line.

2. Switch the vertical amplifier to DC and ground the horizontal amplifier input. Center the trace
horizontally. Measure the length of that trace which is the quantity b.

3. Switch the horizontal amplifier to DC and measure c.

Assuming the input voltage of the circuit was monitored using the X input of the scope, and the output
voltage with the Y input, the observed gain, G, and the phase shift, φ, are given by the following relations:
b c
G= and φ = arcsin
a b

49