MORPHOLOGY

I. DEFINITION

Are the minimal meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of Morphemes
words
Is the smallest meaningful unit in a language that meet three criteria:
1. It is a word or part of a word that has meaning.
2. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts.
3. It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable
meaning.
“Is a physical form representing some morpheme in a language. It is a Morphs
recurrent distinctive sound (phoneme) or sequence of sounds (phonemes).”
He (morpheme) → /hi:/ (morp)
Are “the various phonemic shapes that represent the same morpheme” Allomorphs
Is “any of different forms of a morpheme”
Is a structure that semantically similar but phonologically different.
1. They have the same meaning (……) , either lexical or grammatical.
2. They are in complementary distribution.
Sound-based allomorphs which includes indefinite articles (a/an) and Phonologically –
additive allomorphs. conditioned
a. a/an (‘one’) allomorphs
 a only occurs before consonants = additive
 an only occurs before vowels allomorphs
b. noun plural marker /s/, /iz/, /z/ (more than one) – phonologically –
conditioned allomorphs
 /s/ only occurs after voiceless consonants except voiceless sibilants
 /iz/ only occurs after sibilant consonants and affricates
 /z/ only occurs after vowels and voiced consonants except voiced
sibilants.
c. past tense marker /id/, /d/, /t/ phonologically – conditioned
allomorphs
 /t/ only occurs after voiceless consonants except /t/
 /d/ only occurs after voiced consonants except /d/
/id/ only occurs after /t/ or /d/
Morphologically
– conditioned
allomorphs
The allomorph may be grammatically – conditioned, it may be dependent Grammatically
on the presence of a particular grammatical element. – conditioned
Foot – feet allomorphs
Walk – walked (phonologically – conditioned) → the presence of the past
tense morpheme has no effect on the selection of the allomorph.
Take – took (grammatically – conditioned) → the presence of the past tense
morpheme requires the selection of a special allomorph of the verb.
The allomorph may be lexically – conditioned. Use of a particular Lexically –
allomorph may be obligatory if a certain word is present. conditioned
Forms a plural for nouns using a simple plural of -s or -es, the replacive, or allomorphs
zero allomorphs. = replacive
  Replacive allomorphs: To signify some difference in meaning, a = suppletive
sound is used to replace another sound in a word. = zero
Irregular plural
Man → men /men/ = /mæn/ + /æ → e/
Goose → geese /gi:s/ = /gu:s/ + /u: → i:/
Irregular past tense
Drink → drank /dræηk/ = /driηk/ + /I → æ/
Sing → sang
Swim → swam
Take → took
Break → broke
Noun – verb replacives
advice advise sheath sheathe
bath bathe shelf shelve
grief grieve strife strive
half halve teeth teethe
safe save thief thieve
serf serve wreath wreathe

 Suppletive allomorphs: To signify some difference in meaning, there

is a complete change in the shape of the word.
Be – am – is – are – was – were – been
Go- went
Bad – worse – worst
Good – better – best
 Zero allomorphs: there is no change in the shape of a word though
some difference in meaning is identified.
Deer
Fish
Moose
Sheep
Is “one that can be uttered alone with meaning” Free morphemes
“May stand alone as words in their own right, as well as enter into the
structure of other words”
“Cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or Bound
more morphemes to form a word” morphemes
Constitute the cores of all words. There may be more than one root in a Root
single word (catfish, blackbird, blackboard, he goat)
is the morpheme in a word that has principal meaning. They can be
either free or bound morphemes.
are bound morphemes that occur before or behind the root and somewhat Affixes
modify the basic meaning of the root
 Classified according to their POSITION
+ prefixes
+ subfixes
 Classified according to their FUNCTION
 + derivational affixes (prefixes or suffixes) have a lexical function.
Class – changing affixes: free → freedom, nation → national
Class – maintaining affixes: dis-enthrone, re-mark, un-refined
+ inflectional affixes (always suffixes) perform a grammatical
function
1. The noun plural morphemes
2. The noun possessive morphemes
3. The verb third person singular present tense morphemes
4. The verb present participle morphemes
5. The verb past participle morphemes (ed)
6. The verb past simple tense morphemes (ed)
7. The adj or adv comparative morphemes
8. The adj or adv superlative morphemes
Derivational prefixes + BASE + DS + IS
Base is any morpheme to which affixes of any kind can be added. BASE (free,
A BASE + DS => NEW DERIVED WORDS bound)
E.g. Dictate (the base is dict-)
Worker (the base is work-)
Stem is any morpheme to which inflectional affixes have been added. STEM
A STEM + IS => INFLECTED FORMS OF ONE AND THE SAME
WORD.
Are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unit. Immediate
The word of three or more morphemes is built with a hierarchy of two parts. constituents
Each twosome is the layer of structure by which a word has been composed.
VERB + AL = a noun meaning ‘process of state of V – ing”
Arrival = a noun meaning ‘process or state of arriving
VERB + ABLE = an adjective meaning ‘ABLE TO BE VERBED’
Acceptable
Visible = able to be seen
RE + VERB = another verb meaning ‘verb AGAIN’
PRE VERB = another verb meaning ‘ VERB IN ADVANCE’
UN + VERB = verb meaning ‘ do the opposite of Verb ing”
Unlock
NOUN + FUL = an adjective meaning ‘full of Noun’
Powerful = an adjective meaning ‘full of power’
NOUN + LESS = an adjective meaning ‘Without any Noun’
Penniless = an adjective meaning ‘without any penny
ADJECTIVE + LY = an adverb meaning ‘in a/an Adj way/ manner’
Hopefully
Hope is a free base which is noun
-full is a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix meaning ‘full
of’
- ly is a derivational class – changing adverb-forming suffix meaning “in
a/an …. Way/ manner”
ADJECTIVE + NESS = a noun meaning ‘State of being Adjective’
Lifelessness
Life = a free base which is a noun
Less = a derivational class- changing adjective – forming suffix meaning
without any’
Ness = a DS CC NF suffix meaning ‘quality of’, ‘state of’
EN + ADJ/ NOUN = a verb meaning ‘make into NOUN’ or ‘ cause to be
ADJECTIVE’
II. QUESTIONS
1. Tell about different between morphemes, words, syllables:
- Morphemes: are the smallest meaningful units which may contitude words or part of
words.
- Words: a string of sound must be inited with a meaning and vice versa.
- Syllybles: is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a
whole word.
2. Explain why a/an are allomorphs of one morpheme:
3. Tell about different between phonologycially- conditioned and grammatically-
conditioned:
- Phonologycially - conditioned allomorphs are in complementary distribution that is to
say thay have the same meaning occupy different environnments.
- Grammatically - conditioned: it may be dependent on the presence of a particular
grammatical element.
4. Supply a homophone to each of the following:
1. bowled buled 11. Feet feat
2. ceiling sealing 12. pore pour
 3. whole hole 13. Passed
4. herd heard 14. raise rase
5. one won 15.sell cell
6. rain rein 16.tire
7. sent cent 17.whether weather
8. bear bare 18.cute Q
9. fair fare 19.guest guessed
5. Write the allomorphic formula for each of the following past tense forms:
1. grind/ ground /graind/, /ground/
2. take/ took /teik/, /tuk/
3. fly/ flew /flai/, /flu:/
4. put/ put /put/, /put/
5.bring/ brought /brin/, /bro:t/
6. Underline the roots (bases) in these words:
1. womanly 6.lighten 11.unlikely
2. endear 7.enlighten 12.prewar
3. failure 8.friendship 13.subway
4. famous 9.befriend 14.falsify
5. infamous 10.bostonian 15.unenlivened

7. Add the derivational suffix to each of these word, which already end in a derivational suffix.

1. Reasonable reasonableness

2. Formal formally, formalization, formalist, formalism

3. Organize organizable, organization, organizational

4. purify purification, purifier

5. purist = perfectionist puristic, puristical, puristically

8. Draw the IC diagrams of the following words:

counterdeclaration (counter = against) unexpressivenesses

unexpressiveness es

counter declaration unexpressive ness

count er declare ation un expressive

express ive

ex press
antidisestablishmen/tarian/ism

antidisestablishmentarian ism

dis establishmentarianism

establishmentarran ism

establishment arian

establish ment

microphotometer presidentess

micro photometer president ess

photo meter preside ent

Triennially dissimilitude

Triennial ly dis similitude (n-sự tương tự)

Tri ennial simili(se) tude

(year)Enn ial

Marriageab/ility psychiatrically

marriageable ility psychiatric (al)ly

marriage able psych/iatric al

unsophisticatedness preternaturalness

unsophisticated ness preternatural ness

un sophisticated preter (above) natural

sophist -icate nature al

 enlivened transportational

enliven ed transportation al

en liven transport ation

liv(e) en trans port (carry)

Ambiguity transferential

transferent ial

transfer ent

trans fer (carry) – refer – confer – infer

helpless – embodiment – insufferably – reimbursement – refertilize – lifelessness –

anticlerical – favouritism – unlawful p95

embodiment

reimbursement

anticlerical

favouritism

unlawful

reappearance – unlovable tmt p 166

1. shipper 6. simply

2. disobey 7. jumping

3. resettled 8. digitizes

4. anticlimaxes 9. activity

5. disengagement 10. Confrontational

9. The meaning of the italicized bound roots:

1. audi-…..--->

2. … -cide --->

3. ora-…--->

4. aqua-…--->
5. mor-… --->

6. corp-…--->

7. ten-…--->

8. pend-…--->

9. man-…--->

10. ject-…--->

10. atoms – atomic – subatomic – atomically – daydreaming – bypasses – supersalesman –

cigarette – lighters

Inflectional Derivational Roots Stems Bases

affixes affixes

11.

Identify the morphemes for each of the following words, in the order that they appear in the
word.
Word Morphemes
inputs in
+
put
+
s

components component
+
s

elements element
+
s

Indo-European Indo
+
Europe
+
an

Persian Persia
+
an

within w ith
+
in

another an
+
other
 notable note
+
able

12.

1(a). From the following list of words, select five words with inflectional morphology.
Click on 'Check Inflectional' to check.

1(b). Clear your answers and then select five words with derivational morphology.
Click on 'Check Derivational' to check.

elements example egg such

gain feature off cram
and great ordering tend
unkind have one the
as linked morphology these
some Indo-European Persians thought
case speech killed within
Some morphemes

Affixes

 UN –
- Un = NOT: unable, unlikely, untrue, unjust, unkind, unfair, unfit, unavoidable, unrelieved,
unscientific, unshrinking, unskilled
- Un = DEvitalized = DO THE OPPOSITE OF: undress, uncurl, unfold, unlock, untie, unfreeze
 ANTI - = CONTRA = OB, OP = AGAINST
- ANTI - : antidote, anti – aircraft, antibody, antipersonnel, antihero
- CONTRA - : contradict, contravene, contra – indicative
 DE –
- De = DO THE OPPOSITE OF: devitalized, deactivate, decentralize,
- De = REMOVE: delouse, deforest, dehorn, deice, defrost, deflower
- De = REDUCE: decrease, degrade, debase, decline
 DIS –
- DIS - = opposite to or absence of: disappear, discount, disarm
- DIS - = NOT: dishonest, dissatisfy, disagreeable
 IN, IM
- IN, IM, IL, IR = NOT:
insecure, incompetent, inefficient, inorganic, infertile, insensible.
imperfect, immature, immeasurable, impolite, impossible, imbalance, imbecile.
illegal, illogical, illiberal
irreverent, irrespective, irreducible
- IN, IM = IN OR ON:
Inspect, install, inspire, impale, imbile
Phương hướng
 Pro = FORWARDS
RETRO = BACKWARDS
Đếm morpheme?
Discoveries (4) dis-, cover, -y, -es
Pesticide (2) pest-, -cide
Word Root Inflectional derivational Stem Base
Worried (a) Worry Ed Worry
Prospective -spect Pro, ive -spect,
prospect-
Packages Pack s Age Package Pack,
package
Non-smoking Smoke Non, ing Smoke,
smoking

Impurity
Impure (a)

WORD
Lexime
I. Characteristics
1. Indivisibility (a word cannot be divided into smaller free units or smaller words)
2. Internal stability (a word is stable in its structure)
3. Positional mobility (a word can change its position in the larger structure)
II. Definition
A word is the minimal meaningful unit (similar to morphemes) which is freely movable in a
larger structure.
III. Classification
The words are classified according to the morphemes that are used to form the words.
1. Simple words consist of one free morpheme
Note: whenever we classify a word into types, inflectional affixes are ignored. Inflectional
affixes do not change the type of word
“walked” (2 morphemes) is still a simple word
s is an inflectional morphe
2. Complex words contain at least one bound morpheme (derivational affix)
a. Base (free) + affixes – complex bound base – CBB
E.g. supervise
b. Base (bound) + affixes – complex free base – CFB
E.g. teacher, uncertain, superviser
3. Compound words have at least two free bases.
E.g. schoolboy, girlfriend, desktop, honeymoon, washing machine, illtreated, highchair,
Whitehouse, cathouse (nhà chứa), babyoil (oil for baby), blackboard, egghead (a person
who is intelligent), horsemeat is dogmeat (meat from horses – meat for dogs), ….
- compound words have word-class and can also take inflectional affixes.
 - compound words are not grammatical structures.
Grammatical structure: (removable)
E.g. a sweat heart ( a heart that is kind); a white house (a house that is white), high chair (a chair
that is high)
IV. Features of Compounds
1. The phonological feature
GS and Compounds
- Compounds are differentiated from grammatical structures by their patterns of stress.
GS: nhấn vào N trong N-phrase
Compounds: nhấn phía trước
2. The syntactic feature (cấu trúc)
a. Order
b. Indivisibility
3. The semantic feature (ngữ nghĩa)
Compound words have specialised meanings.
Compound words have idiomatic status.
GS have composition meaning
V. Types of compounds
1. Derivational compounds
2. Repetitive compounds
WORD-FORMATION PROCCESS
I. DERIVATION is a process of adding derivational affixes to the base to form
a new word
Prefixation is the process by which an prefix is added in front of a base to form a new word.
Suffixation is a process of adding suffixes to the base.
Multiderivation is a process of adding at least two affixes.
The differences between IS and DS
- Category change: IS do not change the word-class.
- Positioning: IS is placed at the end of the word.
- Productivity: IS is more productive
Homophone of morpphemes can cause ambiguity
- ER- : (+V) can represent a person who verb
(+A) comparative form
E.g leaner (n)
Leaner (a)
*er: chatter, butter,
- ING: can be added to a verb to form present participle form of a verb (IS)
Can be added to a verb to form a noun (fighting, meeting, wedding, dropping, finding,
charming) (DS)
Can be added to a verb to form an adjective (exciting, exhausting, boring, tiring,
interesting) (DS)
 AMBIGUITY between ING (verbal ing) (1) and ING (adjectival ing) (3)

Movement and modification of the ing form

 Use adverbs of degree to modify adjectival ing

E.g. quickly (adverb of manner) burning house ( verbal ing) I saw a house burning.

Very Charming girl (adjectival ing)

The most charming girl

Moving staircase (verbal ing)

Very Moving story (adjectival ing)

- ED: verbal participle and adjectival ed

Use the test of movement or modification to check
- Homophones with DS
a. en- + Adj (to make, to cause): enlarge, enrich (exercise 25)
en- + N (put sb/ sth in a case): endangered
b. un- + V
un- + Adj
E.g. un(1) lockable (cannot be locked)
Unlock (1) able (can be unlocked)
- Multiple derivation
When adding affixes you need to pay attention to the structure (derivational rules)

DERIVATIONAL RULES

II. COMPOUNDING
1. Structure of compounds
Common categories of compounds: nouns, adjectives, verbs
*compound nouns: N + N (bookcase, cathouse); A + N (whitehouse, high chair); V + N
(breakfast – fast: the period of not eating); prep + N (afterthought, aftermath)
*compound adjective: N + A (user-friendly), A + A (kind-hearted),…
*compound verb (derived from compound nouns): prep/ adv + V (undertake)
Compound verbs are derived from compound nouns
E.g. by CONVERSION blackmail (n) (v) tống tiền, honeymoon (n) (v)
By BACK-FORMATION babysitter (n) – babysit (v)
2. Kinds of compound (HEAD – MAIN ROOT)
a. Endocentric compounds (the compounds with the head)
The head that carries the basic meaning and determines the category of the compound.
The other parts – the modifiers restrict the meaning of the head

E.g. a dog house , passer-by

Head: house; modifier: dog

User-friendly; environment-friendly (a)

Head: friendly; modifier: user

  Adding IS to the head (wheather it’s on the left or the right):

E.g. sportsman (not a plural compound because “s” is added to modifier not the head) =>
sportsmen; passers-by

b. Exocentric compounds (the compounds without the head)

White-collar, must-have, lazy-bones (person who is lazy)

III. DERIVATION AND COMPOUNDING

E.g.

 Honeymooner (COMPLEX FREE BASE WORD) – use first IC cut to figure out the
category of word

Honey + moon = honeymoon (COMPOUNDING)

Honeymoon + er = honeymooner (DERIVATION)

 Money/lender (COMPOUND WORD)

Lend + er = lender (DERIVATION)

Money + lender = Moneylender (COMPOUNDING)

IV. CONVERSION (zero affixation)

Word may be formed without changing the form of the word

Complete conversion

E.g. nurse (v): take care, dry (a) => dry (v): remove water

Approximate conversion

E.g re’cord, ‘record

V. BACK FORMATION is the process of deriving words by removing what is

thought to be a suffix from an exisiting word.
We remove suffix from an existing word
E.g hawk form hawker
VI. CLIPPING is the process of cutting off the beginning or the end of the word, or
both.

Clipping makes the word shorter.

E.g. advert is a clipped word from advertisement), rhrino, hippo

Sci-fi for science fiction

Sitcom for situation comedy

Grandma for grandmother

Perm for permanent wave

Shrink for head shrinker

Clipping can also occur with compound

situation comedy = situation

Liz, Ron, Rob, and Sue, which are shortened forms of Elizabeth, Ronald, Robert, and Susan.

Albert => Al

Bradley => Brad

Alexander => Al, Alex, Xander, Sandy, Alec(k)

Alfred => Fred, Freddy, Alf, Alfie

Andrew => Andy

Benjamin => Ben, Benny

Bernard => Bernie

Calvin => Cal

Charles => Charlie, Charley, Chuck

Daniel => Danny, Dan

David => Dave, Davey

Duncan => Dunc

Edward => Ned, Ed, Eddy, Eddie

Henry => Harry , Hal

Jacob => Jake

James => Jamie, Jim, Jimmy, Jimbo

John => Johnny, Jack, Jake

Jonathan => Jon (à ne pas confondre avec John)

Joseph => Joe , Joey

Joshua => Josh

Lawrence => Larry, Laurie

Michael => Mike, Mick, Micky

Nicholas => Nick, Nicky

Paul => Pauly, Pauley

Peter => Pete, Pita

Philip =>Phil

Richard => Richie, Rick, Dick

Robert =>Rob, Bob, Bobby, Robbie

Ronald => Ron

Salvatore=> Sal

Samuel => Sam, Sammy

Simon => Si

Stephen/Steven => Steve, Ste

Stewart => Stu

Terence => Terry

Thomas => Tom, Tommy

Timothy => Tim, Timmy

William => Bill, Billy, Will, Willy

[modifier]

Girls'names

Abigail => Abby, Abbie, Abie

Amanda => Mandy/ Mindy

Alison => Ali, Ally, Allie

Barbara => Barb, Barbie

Beverly, Beverley => Bev

Charlotte => Lotte, Lottie, Char, Charlie

Deborah => Deb, Debbie

Dorothy => Dot, Dotty

Elizabeth => Liz, Lizzie, Liza, Libb, Lisbeth, Beth, Bessie, Bess

Emily => Em, Emy

Hilary => Hil

Jennifer => Jenny, Jen

Kathryn => Kate ,Katie

Margaret => Maggie, Meg, Maisie

Natasha=> Tash, Tasha

Nicola => Nicky

Pamela => Pam, Pammy

Patricia => Pat, Patty, Patsy, Trish, Trisha

Philippa => Pippa

Rachel=> Rae

Sally => Sal

Sandra => Sandy

Susan => Suzie, Sue, Suze

Victoria => Vicky, Vic

Virginia => Ginny

VII. ACRONYMS

Shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a
word are ancronyms.

Page 115
VIII. BLENDING is the fusion of two words into one
Tạo từ mang ý nghĩa mới
E.g. smaze (from smoke and haze)
BT kiểm tra
Lý thuyết
Bài tập