Selected Essays of Javed Ahmad Ghamidi PDF

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"All rights of this book are reserved for the publisher and the author. This copy is for
reading purpose only. This copy cannot be uploaded on any website except those of
the publisher and the author."
Selected Essays of
Javed Aḥmad Ghāmidī
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Compiled by
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Dr Shehzad Saleem
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A Foundation for Islamic Research and Education
All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher except
for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles.
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Publisher: Al-Mawrid
Printer: Fine Printers
1st Edition: November 2015
ISBN: 978-969-8799-88-5
Address: P.O. Box 5185, Lahore, Pakistan
www.al-mawrid.org [email protected]
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Compiler’s Foreword
This book is a translation1 of some selected essays of

Javed Aḥmad Ghāmidī. They have been taken from his
Urdū treatises Maqāmāt and Burhān.
These writings reflect the author’s views on some very
important comtemporary as well as age-old issues that have
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continued to be a cause of debate and controversy in
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academic circles as well as among ordinary Muslims. They
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range from nagging social, political, economic and penal
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issues to some intricate discussions on jihād and on the
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sources of Islam. Each essay is an independent one and
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there is no particular order that needs to be followed in
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reading them. Readers may choose to read essays that
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interest them at their own preference.
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It is hoped that these essays will encourage discerning
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minds to critically evaluate the views presented and to
provide their feedback to the author.
I must thank Ms Nikhat Sattar for thoroughly proof
reading this book and giving valuable suggestions to
improve its presentation and language.
Shehzad Saleem
Al-Mawrid Lahore
2015
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1. The translators, besides myself, include Asif Iftikhar,

Tariq Mahmood Hashmi and Junaid Hassan.
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Contents
Fundamental Principals
Source of Religion 9
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Fundamentals of Understanding Islam 13
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Subject Matter of the Holy Qur’ān 18
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Variant Readings 21
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The General and the Specific 30
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Ḥadīth and Sunnah 35
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A New Anthology of Ḥadīth 38
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Contemporary Issues
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Ijtihād 45
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The Consensus of Muslims 49
Our Message to Humanity 55
Downfall of the Muslims 59
Religious Extremism 64
Organ Transplantation 69
Sighting the Moon 72
Muslims and Non-Muslims 75
Characteristic Values of Muslim Culture 78
Our Education System 80
Social Issues
The Beard and Isbāl-i Izār 87
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The Right to Punish a Wife 89
Head Covering for Women 91
Wuḍū and Nail Polish 93
Women Travelling with a Maḥram 94
Abortion 96
Birth Control 99
Ḥifẓ al-Furūj (Guarding the Private Parts) 102
Etiquette of Sexual Intimacy 105
The Noble Wives of the Prophet (sws) 108
Age of ‘Ā’ishah (rta) at her Marriage 116
The Right to Divorce 121
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Wrong Methods of giving Divorce 124
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State and Government
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Implementation of the Sharī‘ah (Divine Law) 131
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The Rule of an Islamic Government 137
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Islam and the State 141
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The Basis of Legislation 144
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Islam and the State: A Counter Narrative 148
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Supremacy of the Parliament 160
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Islam and Nationhood 164
Khilāfah 168
State and Government 174
Mosques 180
Their System is based on their Consultation” 183
Economic Issues
The Question of Interest 215
Insurance 220
Distribution of Inheritance 223
The Right to make a Will 227
Inheritance of an Orphaned Grandchild 229
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Jihad and Punishments
Jihād and War in Islam 237
The Taliban’s Line of Reasoning 241
Itmām al-Ḥujjah of the Messengers 247
Islamic Punishments 253
Punishment for Blasphemy against the Prophet (sws) 257
The Punishment of Intentional Murder 270
The Law of Evidence 276
Islamic Punishments: Some Important Issues 289
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What is Diyat? 302
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Miscellaneous Issues
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Verdicts of God 327
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The Lawful and the Unlawful 331
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Forbidding Wrong 335
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Transfer of Reward to the Dead 338
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Compulsive Knowledge 343
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Fundamental Principles
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Source of Religion
When God created man, He placed two things within

him: firstly, the cognition that he has a Creator who is
his Master, and secondly, the awareness of virtue and
vice. There are other things as well which are innately
found in him. When he is reminded of them, they appear
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with time in his concepts and actions. These two things
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have also been similarly placed in him.
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These two things are the foundations of religion which
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were given by God to man when He created him. Then
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God selected certain personalities from among the
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Muslims, gave them His message and sent them to
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human beings for delivering this message to them. It is
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these personalities who are called prophets and
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messengers. They came and fully explained to human
beings the beliefs and regulations of the religion which
God had placed in them.
Prophethood began with Adam (sws), the first human
being and ended on Muḥammad (sws). The Almighty
has disclosed to us that Muḥammad (sws) was the last of
this series. After him no prophet or messenger will
come. Hence, religion can now only be obtained from
him and true religion is that what he sanctions from his
tongue, or through his practice or when he does not stop
a person who does something that falls in the ambit of
religion.
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Thousands of people learnt this religion from
Muḥammad (sws) in his lifetime and also practiced it
before him. Then millions learnt from these who learnt it
from Muḥammad (sws) and this chain has never been
broken. His followers among every generation
disseminated this religion and passed it on by studying
and teaching it and communicating it to others through
the oral and written word. It has now reached us and we
can say with full certainty that it has reached us the way
Muḥammad (sws) had transferred it to those who
became his companions in his life after accepting him as
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a prophet and messenger of God.
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The reason for our certainty is that such a large number
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of people in every generation in so many diverse areas
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transmitted it through the oral and the written word and by
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practically following it that it cannot be imagined that
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together all of them can lie or make a mistake. In
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parlance, this is called ijmā‘ (consensus) and tawātur
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(concurrence). All sensible people accept that what is
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transmitted in this manner from one generation to another
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acquires certitude.
This religion has reached us through two ways:
1. The Qur’ān
2. The Sunnah
The Qur’ān is the Book which the Muslims call the
Qur’ān. God revealed it to Muḥammad’s heart through
His angel, Gabriel. The words in which this Book has
been revealed and the way this book has been revealed
was read out repeatedly by Muḥammad (sws) in the
same way and in the same words before people. His
followers memorized it by listening to it from him, and
those of them who knew how to write, wrote it out and
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kept it with them. These people were in thousands. Some
memorized one sūrah, some two, some many and some
even the whole Qur’ān and some had their own written
copies of it. People of the next generation too followed
suit. In fact, every generation of Muslims has been
following suit. The written copy of the Qur’ān is found
today in every house and millions today can recite the
whole of it from their memory. As a consequence, in
spite of several attempts from people, neither has anyone
been able to alter it before nor can this happen now.
Hence, it is absolutely certain that the Qur’ān we have in
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our hands today is the very one word for word that was
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transferred by Muḥammad (sws) to his followers.
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Similar is the case with the Sunnah of Muḥammad
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(sws). The nation in which he was born was Abraham’s
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progeny. The Almighty directed him to follow the way of
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Abraham (sws). Some constituent practices of this way
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were found in their original shape amongst the descedents
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of Abraham (sws). However, some of them had been
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forgotten and errors had crept into others. Muḥammad
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(sws) revived these practices and set right the errors in
them, and at the behest of God also added some more
practices. He then asked his followers to adhere to them. It
is these practices which are called his Sunnah. Most of
these practices pre-date the Qur’ān. The Arabs already
knew them. That is why when the Qur’ān mentions them,
it does so as if they are already known to people. No
introduction or details of these practices is needed.
These practices have reached us in the very manner the
Qur’ān has reached us. Muslims from every generation
received them from their previous generation, practically
adhered to them and transferred them to the next
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generation. This has been going on since the time of
Muḥammad (sw). Hence these practices of the Sunnah
also possess certitude. There is no difference between it
and the Qur’ān as far as their authenticity is concerned.
(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)
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Fundamentals of Understanding Islam
In the exercise to form a sound understanding of the

dīn, the Farahi School invokes three fundamentals of
central import:
1. The holy Qur’ān is the distinguisher between and
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the sole criterion to define right and wrong in the realm
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of religious knowledge in Islam. It is the guardian
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(muhaymin) over all forms of the divine revelation. The
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primary purpose of its revelation is to judge the religious
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differences of human beings so that they are able to
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stand firm on truth. The Qur’ān itself claims this status
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for it. This principle leads to and entails the following
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fundamentals about the Book:
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Firstly, the text of the Qur’ān is well defined. It is
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confined to what an overwhelming majority of Muslims
all over world, with the only exception of parts of Africa
and some other areas, recites the text recorded in their
codices. This text is recited in accordance with the way
known as qirā’ah al-‘āmmah (reading of the generality
of the believers). Therefore, all other readings are not the
Qur’ān and cannot be granted the status of the word of
God.
Secondly, the Qur’ān is qaṭ‘ī al-dalālah. It means that
its words are capable of perfectly expressing the intent of
the author with consummate certainty. A reader, who
approaches it with the intention to follow its guidance
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and who tries to understand it on the basis of its
language, can, therefore, be led to the intended meanings
of the words it uses. It is only the lack of knowledge on
the part of the readers and a failure to exert full efforts to
understand it that results in his inability to get to the
intended meanings of the divine text in some cases. This
failure, therefore, cannot be attributed to any flaw in the
language of the Qur’ān and the styles of expression
adopted in it for the Book does not suffer from any
inadequacy in this regard.
Thirdly, all the verses of the Qur’ān upon which
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guidance and misguidance of humans depends are
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muhkam (clear, completely comprehensible).
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Mutashābihāt (singular mutashābih) verses are those
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which metaphorically express a bounty of the Heaven to
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be conferred on the successful slaves of God on the Last
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Day or an infliction to be experienced by the losers in
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the afterworld couched in the idiom of parables or by
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way of analogy. These also include the verses which
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analogously refer to an attribute of God, His acts, or any
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other transcendent reality. Neither are these verses
unidentifiable nor is their signification doubtful. Diction
employed in this content of the Book is originally the
clear Arabic (‘arabī mubīn), the meanings and
signification of which can be clearly grasped. The only
difference between the muhkam and mutashābih verses
is that the reality and essence of the referents of the latter
category cannot be grasped and comprehended by
human understanding in the present world. However, the
failure of human mind to grasp the reality of the
referents of the mutashābih verses does not impair our
understanding of the Book of God, hence the prohibition
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of hairsplitting discussion on them.
Fourthly, no khafī (indirect) or jalī (direct) revelation
external to the Qur’ān can validly affect or alter the
divine injunctions spelled out in the Book. Even the
recipient of the Book, the Messenger of God, cannot
alter it in any degree. All that we can take as part of the
religion has to be defined in the light of its clear and
plain verses. Similarly, it serves as the only judge in the
exercise of discarding something which is erroneously
taken as a religious reality. Every tenet of ‘īmān (beliefs)
and every discussion on ‘aqīdah (theological principles)
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is to be gleaned from the text put between its two covers.
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All types of wahī, ilhām, ilqā’, conclusions based on a
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research and viewpoint of individual scholars should be
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gauged on its basis. Views and works of towering
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scholars of the past like Abū Hanīfah, Shāfi‘ī, Bukhārī,
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Muslim, Ash‘arī, Māturīdī, Shiblī and Junayd are to be
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judged in the light of its eternal words. No view, no
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defiance of its verdicts.
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2. The Sunnah, in Islam, is identified as the religious
tradition instituted by the Prophet Abraham (sws) which
the last Prophet of God (sws) revived, restored in its
pure form and enriched with additions and instituted
afresh among the believers as part of Islam. For the
Qur’ān directed the Prophet (sws) to follow the millah
(the religion) of Abraham (sws). This tradition (i.e. the
Sunnah comprising religious practices) was a part of the
religion of Abraham (sws). Therefore, the Prophet
Muhammad (sws) was obliged, as entailed by the above
mentioned verse of the Qur’ān, to follow it himself and
command the believers to adopt it. The authenticity and
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historicity of the Sunnah is as compelling as that of the
Book of God. The only difference between the two is
this. The Book of God was communicated by the
Prophet (sws) to the whole body of the Companions who
transmitted it to the next generation with consensus as a
written and spoken text. Similarly, the Prophet (sws)
taught the Sunnah to the entire generation of the
Companions who received, adopted and practiced it
collectively and transmitted it with consensus to the next
generation. During the course of the subsequent history,
both of these sources have been transmitted from
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generality to generality by each layer in the generations
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of the ummah. Just like the Qur’ān, the Sunnah too has
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always been received and established by the consensus
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of the believers in a given point of time during the
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course of Muslim history. Therefore, there is no room
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for any dispute and contestation regarding its
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authenticity and epistemological force.
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3. Dīn is confined to the contents of the Qur’ān and the
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Sunnah. Nothing external to these two sources is the part
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of dīn in Islam. Nor can one validly introduce any
foreign practice or concept as part of the religion. The
the Prophetic Ḥadīth, a name given to the reports about
the sayings, actions and tacit approvals of the Prophet
(sws) transmitted through individual to individual
(akhbār-i ahād) do not add to the beliefs and practices in
the religion. It does not mean that they do not discuss the
contents of the religion at all. However, their purely
religious content explains and clarifies the religion
housed in the Qur’ān and the Sunnah. They can also
carry the paradigmatic example set by the Prophet (sws)
in the performance of the religious practices and in
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carrying out the divine commands. The Ḥadīth plays no
role beyond this. Thus a report bearing religious
knowledge in ways other than this cannot be a valid
Ḥadīth. Nor can such a report incorporated into the
religion and accepted as its part merely because it has
been attributed to the Prophet (sws).
All the Ḥadīths that explain and clarify the religion
and thus play an acceptable role have a binding religious
force for a believer who is convinced of the veracity of a
Ḥadīth report and believes it to be a valid transmission
of a saying, action and tacit approval of the Prophet
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(sws). He is obliged to follow it and can no more validly
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contradict it. Rather if the Ḥadīth in question contains a
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Prophetic command, it becomes necessary for this
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believer to unquestionably submit and surrender before
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its verdict.
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(Translated by Tariq Mahmood Hashmi)
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Subject-Matter of the Holy Qur’ān
An extremely basic fact regarding the Holy Qur’ān –

one that can be very easily detected by a more general
reader of the book – is that it introduces propositions,
believing in which and meeting the requirements
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demanded by such a belief decide the question of man’s
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success in the afterlife. It is only these propositions the
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Qur’ān aims at proving through psychological, natural
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and historical evidence. It is only these facts the Qur’ān
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calls the human beings to submit to, warns them
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regarding the consequences of rejecting them and
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explains what entails professing faith in them. The Book
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does not deal with anything beyond these points. Though
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at times it refers to the laws of the physical, world in
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order to explain these facts without contradicting the
reality, yet the discoveries in the realm of physics made
thus far and the ones which human intellect is bound to
penetrate in future, are not discussed in the Qur’ān at all.
Such knowledge is not the subject-matter of the Qur’ān
in any way.
But alas, during the course of Muslim history, people
have repeatedly failed to acknowledge this true position
of the Book. Consequently we see that they first imposed
a premise external to the Qur’ān on it proposing that
being divine in origin, the Book must moderate all the
possible human disciplines. Having imposed such a
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condition on the Book they tried to base all the human
disciplines in it. Therefore, this endeavour led them
discover the illusions of Greek philosophy from its
verses at one time and to ground the current scientific
knowledge in its text at another. At one time, the
prevalent knowledge of medical science and theories of
astrology and astronomy were extracted from its verses
and the mention of the atomic bomb and man’s conquest
of Moon at another. In such adventures they opted to
ignore grossly all rules of linguistic expression of the
Book and the bright light of the context of its verses.
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All this trouble owes itself to the erroneous
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conclusions about the Book. They failed to grasp the fact
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that the Lord has blessed mankind with intellect before
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He revealed the Book to them. Just like this Book is a
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blessing of God bestowed upon them so is the intellect a
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manifestation of His profound generosity. Therefore, the
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Book does not concern the matters in which intellect
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suffices as a guide for them. Similarly in matters the
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Book deals with, the intellect, when functional, is
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compelled to submit to its dictates.
The fact also holds true in the case of the teachings of
the Prophet (sws). He has explained this reality to his
adherents in no unclear terms. The Mother of the
Faithful, ‘Ā’ishah (rta) narrates that when the Prophet
(sws) noticed people engaged in cross fertilizing the date
palms trees he said: “It would be better if this exercise is
abandoned.” Consequently, the people did not cross
fertilize the dates palm trees that year. As a consequence
the produce dropped considerably. The people
mentioned the state of affairs to the Prophet (sws) who
responded: “You understand these matters better than
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me. I have come to explain to you the religion of God.
Therefore, turn to me for guidance only in religious
matters.”2
If we really intend to be guided by the Holy Qur’ān we
are obligated to turn to it for guidance in nothing except
the religious truth and facts. We may not knock at but
our intellect in matters such as how to carve a bed out of
wood to avail us a comfortable sleep and how to conduct
research on the heavenly bodies. It is an unquestioned
fact that intellect has never failed us in its own spheres.
The Holy Qur’ān has been revealed to make plain to us
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what we are expected to believe in and what to practice
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in order to please God in the life of this world. We
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should bend our desires to submit to the dictates of the
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Book rather than basing our cherished concepts and
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issues in its verses. The Almighty has repeatedly
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explained in the Holy Qur’ān that making our desires
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submit before its dictates is crucial to seeking its
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guidance. It is but possible that one desire to seek the
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foundation of the worldly disciplines and fields of
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knowledge in this book alone yet his desire cannot alter
the fact to a slight degree that this book deals only and
only with the kind of knowledge upon which our
afterworldly salvation depends.
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2. Abū al-Ḥusayn Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ,

2nd ed. (Riyāḍ: Dār al-ṣalām, 2000), 1038-1039, (nos. 6127,
6126, 6128).
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Variant Readings
I have written in my treatise Mīzān3 that the Qur’ān is

what is recorded in the muṣḥaf, and which, except for
some parts of Africa and a few other areas, is recited by a
vast majority of the Muslim ummah without the slightest
variation. A question may arise on this: even if for the
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sake of discussion it is accepted that the Qur’ān is only
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what has just been specified and the common masses
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only read and study it, then why is the attitude of Muslim
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scholars different from this? How did it happen that the
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scholars of Tafsīr, Ḥadīth and Fiqh from the very
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beginning of these disciplines accorded equal status to
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the multiple readings of the Qur’ān, and would give
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preference to one over the other on the basis of their own
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opinion and inclination? So much so, jurists and ḥadīth
scholars of the likes of Imām Mālik (d. 179 AH) and
Imām Shāfi‘ī (d. 204 AH) gave preference to the reading
of Nāfi‘ ibn Abī Nu‘aym (d. 169 AH) and ‘Abdullāh ibn
Kathīr (d. 120 AH) respectively.
The answer to this question is that long before all these
scholars, the earliest Muslim authorities had formed the
opinion that though it is not essential for the common
man to acquire knowledge through the akhbār-i aḥād, it
is essential for the scholars and the select to accept them
and after being satisfied about their isnād, there is no
3. English title: Islam: A Comprehensive Introduction.

21
difference in acquiring and adducing the knowledge
gained through them and the knowledge that pervades
among the common Muslims and which is being
transferred from their generations to generations. Imām
Shāfi‘ī writes in his celebrated treatise Al-Risālah:
‫وﻋﻠﻢ ﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺳﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧ ﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻌﺮﻓﻬﺎ ﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء وﻟﻢ ﻳ ﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﻏ ﻫﻢ‬

9ٰ : ْ < :
2‫ـ‬3‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫رﺳـﻮل‬ ‫ ﻣﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻴﻬﻢ أو )( 'ﻌﻀﻬﻢ ﺑﺼﺪق ﻟﺨﺎص ﻟﻤﺨ ﻋـﻦ‬01‫و‬
‫ﺑﻬﺎ وﻫﺬ ﻟﻶﻹزم ﻵﻻﻫﻞ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ أن ﻳﺼ و إﻟﻴھ‬
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And the knowledge of the select is the sunnah which
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is acquired through their reports, which the scholars
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know and which is not essential for the common
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man to know. This sunnah is present with all the
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scholars or with some of them from God’s
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Messenger (sws) through the information provided
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by a reliable informant and this is the knowledge
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which scholars must necessarily turn to.4
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Thus after the demise of the Prophet (sws), when
trustworthy narrators started to state, for example, that
while a companion had read the word ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ﻣﺎﻟ‬: (owner) ْ: as
‫ﻣﻠﻚ‬: ْ <
7 (king) in verse 2 9 of: Sūrah Fātiḥah, and ‫ﻳﻜﺬﺑﻮن‬ 7 in its
ْ < 7 < in verse 10 of Sūrah Baqarah
intensive form as ‫ﻳﻜﺬﺑﻮن‬
ْ < in its passive form in verse 12 of Sūrah Nisā’,
and JK‫ﻳﻮ‬
then this was accepted in scholarly circles in the same
way that the reports of his other sayings and deeds were
being accepted. The reason for this was evident: if they
4. Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfi‘ī, Al-

Risālah, 1st ed. (Beirut: Dār al-fikr, n.d.), 478.
22
did not accept these reports regarding the Qur’ān, they
would also not have any basis to accept reports which
depicted the Prophet’s deductions, verdicts, explanations
and exemplary character except if they were deemed to
be against a Qur’ānic verse. The proliferation of variant
readings took place because of this opinion of the
tābi‘ūn (followers of the companions). Not much later,
among the experts of readings which were being
produced, some became prominent who were not merely
adept in various modes of pronunciation of the Arabian
dialect like iẓhār, ikhfā’, idghām, imālah, tafkhīm,
w
w
ishmām and itmām etc but took a step ahead and by
w ww
.j a w
giving preference to one reading of the Qur’ān over the
ve .a
other as found in various reports of the knowledge of the
da l-m
hm a
select (‘ilm al-khāṣah) referred to above compiled their
ad wri
specific set of readings that became famous by the
g h d .o
names of these experts. This was much like the
am rg
jurisprudence of Imām Mālik, Imām Shāfi‘ī and other
id
leading jurists becoming famous by their names. For this
i.c
om
very reason, these experts of Qur’ānic readings are
called “Readers invested with Preference” (aṣḥāb al-
ikhtiyār). The result of this was and should have been
that the students turn to them to learn their preference
and choice of readings just as they turned to the jurists
and Ḥadīth scholars to learn jurisprudence and Ḥadīth
respectively. Moreover, many a time, it happened that
these readers having preference adopted an intellectual
centre of those times like Makkah, Madīnah, Kūfah,
Baṣrah and Syria besides others as their abode. The
result was that such was the fame that a preferential
reading acquired among the scholars and readers of an
23
area that it came to be said that the people of that area
followed his reading. The word “people” here referred to
the scholars and readers only and not to the common
masses. The masses never accept or reject such things in
this way. It is precisely for this reason that the situation
changed and men of learning of a particular area after
some time adopted the preferential reading of some other
reader. And it is for this reason that except for these
learning centres, no other reading is found anywhere in
the Muslim world nor is there any historical evidence of
such acceptance or rejection of a reading. The only
w
w
exception to this is Qīrwān where Qāḍī ‘Abdullāh ibn
w ww
.j a w
Ṭālib who in the later part of the third century hijrah
ve .a
passed the order that people should only be taught the
da l-m
reading of Nāfi‘.5 Thus, after this, common Muslims as
hm a
ad wri
well were forced to read the Qur’ān on the reading of
g h d .o
Nāfi‘ in Qīrawān and in some other areas which were
am rg
under its influence. The reason for this probably was that
id
i.c
these people were the followers of Imām Mālik’s fiqh
om
and about Imām Mālik, it has been pointed out above
that he would generally prefer the reading of Nāfi‘.
Similar was the case with some small settlements
which came under the influence of scholars. These
settlements were very few in number and even exist
today at some places. All other areas except these were
never influenced by these changes nor did the scholars
tried to influence them. Both carried on with their own
ways. Thus the tradition of benefitting from variant
5. Abū al-Faḍl Qāḍī ‘Iyāḍ ibn Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik wa

tartīb al-masālik li ma‘rifah a‘lām madhhab Mālik, 1st ed.,
vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1998), 483.
24
readings in the disciplines of tafsīr, Ḥadīth, fiqh and
others has been going on without interruption, and is still
going on to a greater extent. Scholars discuss these
readings in their writings, gatherings and religious
seminaries, and professional readers today recite the
Qur’ān on seven, ten and even more variant readings.
However, everyone can see that among the common
masses, there is only one Qur’ān in currency everywhere.
They took it from the common companions, and in the
terminology of Imām Shāfi‘ī transferred it from ‘āmmah
to ‘āmmah (common masses to common masses). No
w
w
doubt, it is also called the riwāyah of Ḥafṣ (d. 180 AH)
w ww
.j a w
but this should not be a cause of any misconception
ve .a
because mere reading or intonation is one thing and
da l-m
reading or intonation in the accent of the Arabs in a
hm a
pleasing way by giving due regard to technical subtleties
ad wri
like imālah, tafkhīm, ishbā‘, ikhtilās-i ṣilah, ishmām,
g h d .o
am rg
rawm, tarqīq and taghlīẓ that does not alter the meaning
id
of the discourse in any way is another thing. It is this
i.c
second aspect which is acquired from the riwāyah of
om
Ḥafṣ in this Qur’ān, and ascribed to him on this basis. He
was taught this reading from his teacher ‘Āṣim ibn Abī
al-Najūd (d. 127 AH) who in turn was a student of the
celebrated follower Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d.
74 AH). Al-Sulamī taught its subtleties in Kūfah to
various students for almost forty years. About him, Abū
Bakr ibn Mujāhid (d. 324 AH), the first person to have
selected the seven canonical readings, has specified that
he did not teach his own preferential reading but the very
one on which ‘Uthmān (rta) had striven to gather the
ummah on. He writes:
25
9ٰ
‫( ﻋﻨھ‬T‫ﻌﺎ‬U 23‫ ﷲ‬JL‫ ﺟﻤﻊ ﻋﺜﻤﺎن ر‬JO‫ ءة ﻟ‬PQ‫أ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻮﻓﺔ ﻟ‬RS‫أول ﻣﻦ أ‬
VW‫ﻟﻨﺎس ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ أﺑﻮ ﻋﺒﺪ ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﻟﺴﻠ‬
The first person who taught the reading in Kūfah on
which ‘Uthmān had gathered the people was Abū
‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī.6
He is the same person who upon seeing the

proliferation of various readings among people had said:
‫و ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎر‬: ‫وﻋﻤﺮ و ﻋﺜﻤﺎن و زﻳﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ و ﻟﻤﻬﺎﺟﺮﻳﻦ‬: Ra‫ ءة أ\( ﺑ‬RS ‫_ﺎﻧﺖ‬
w
9ٰ : ْ < :
w
‫أﻫﺎ‬RS JO‫ ءة ﻟ‬PQ‫ ﻟ‬01‫و‬: ‫ ءة ﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬PQ‫ءون ﻟ‬PQ' ‫و ﺣﺪة _ﺎﻧﻮ‬:
w ww
23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫رﺳﻮل‬
.j a w
: 9 : : ۡ : : < 9ٰ : 9 :
‫ )( ﻟﻌﺎم ﻟﺬى ﻗﺒﺾ ﻓﻴھ و_ﺎن‬g ‫( ﺟ ﻳﻞ ﻣﺮﺗ‬b‫ﻢ ﻋ‬:‫وﺳﻠ‬
ve .a
‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ ﻋﻠ‬23‫( ﷲ‬b‫ﺻ‬
da l-m
:
‫ ﻣﺎت‬JO‫ئ ﻟﻨﺎس ﺑﻬﺎ ﺣ‬PQ ‫و_ﺎن‬: ‫ﻟﻌﺮﺿﺔ ﻵﻻﺧ ة‬ ْ ‫زﻳﺪ ﻗﺪ ﺷﻬﺪ‬
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
The reading of Abū Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthmān and
am rg
Zayd ibn Thābit and that of all the Muhājirūn and
id
the Anṣār was the same. They read the Qur’ān
i.c
om
according to the al-qirā’at al-‘āmmah. This is the
same reading which was read out twice by the
Prophet (sws) to Gabriel in the year of his death.
Zayd ibn Thābit was also present in this reading
[called] the al-‘arḍah al-akhīrah. It was this reading
that he taught the Qur’ān to people till his death.7
6. Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn ‘Abbās ibn Mujāhid,

Kitāb al-sab‘ah fī al-qirā’āt, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dār al-ma‘ārif,
1400 AH), 67.
7. Abū ‘Abdullāh Badr al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Bahādur ibn
‘Abdullāh al-Zarkashī, Al-Burhān fī ‘ulūm al-Qur’ān, 2nd ed.,
vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-fikr, 1980), 237.
26
It is this very reading that is written in our codices of
the Qur’ān. Not a single bit of evidence can be furnished
from history except the endeavours of ‘Uthmān (rta) (d.
36 AH) and Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf (d. 94 AH) to unite all
Muslims on one Qur’ān in which a scholar used his
influence or a ruler or a qāḍī used political power to
impose this Qur’ān among the Muslims, the way it was
done is some West African counties with regard to the
reading of Nāfi‘. It was this Qur’ān which the Prophet
(sws) and his successors gave currency to among the
w
Muslims and it has remained in currency ever since.
w
w ww
Consequently, when the readers of the Muslims were
.j a w
ve .a
compiling their preferences in readings and when their
da l-m
Ḥadīth scholars were collecting the reports of ‘ilm al-
hm a
khāsṣah and their jurists and exegetes were solving the
ad wri
difficulties of the Qur’ān through them, Muslims were
g h d .o
am rg
reading this very Qur’ān in the whole world. At the end
id
of the first century hijrah when they entered India, they
i.c
entered while reading it and when they landed at the
om
shores of Java, Sumatra, Malaya and other islands of the
Far East at the end of the eighth century, it was this very
Qur’ān which was in their hands and God willing will
remain in their hands till the Day of Judgement.
Here a person can pose the question: if despite all
these facts, the academic tradition of the Muslims
accepted all the reports related to ‘ilm al-khāsṣah, why
has the Farāhī School adopted a different stance in this
regard? Our answer is that it is not easy for any person
of learning to disregard reports narrated by reliable
narrators; this needs an explicit Qur’ānic directive. Thus
if the true meaning of the relevant verses of Sūrah
27
Qiyāmah had become evident at the very beginning,
Muslim scholars, jurists and exegetes would probably
have adopted the same stance as the scholars of the
Farāhī School. Imām Ḥamīd al-Dīn Farāhī (d. 1930 AD)
has explained the true meaning of these verses.8 Hence,
that explicit Qur’ānic directive has become available on
the basis of which it can be said that even if all the
narratives which depict the variant readings of the
Qur’ān are correct, they have been abrogated by the
reading of the arḍah akhīrah for the universal addressees
of the Qur’ān; hence they cannot be accepted in any way
w
whatsoever.9 It is a directive of the Qur’ān that after its
w
w ww
.j a w
collection and arrangement, Muslims will be bound till
ve .a
the Day of Judgement to read it on the reading it was
da l-m
read by the Almighty after this collection. No Muslim
hm a
can dare deviate from this directive of the Qur’ān. It
ad wri
states:
g h d .o
am rg
< ٰ ۡ RS : : r : ٰ ۡ < : r : ۡ : : ۡ : : :9
: : ‫ﻓـﺎذ‬ : : : ۡ 9:< :
: : ۡ : ‫ﺴﺎﻧﻚ ﻟ‬7
‫ﻧـھ‬ 7 . ‫ ﻧھ‬RS ‫ن ﻋﻠﻴﻨﺎ ﺟﻤﻌھ و‬7 .‫ ٖﺑھ‬7 ‫ﺘﻌﺠﻞ‬7 ‫ ٖﺑھ ﻟ‬7 ‫ك‬Rp‫ﺗ‬
7 : ‫ﻵﻹ‬
id
i.c
ۡ 9 :
om
(١٨-١٦ :٧٥) . ‫ﻓﺎﺗﺒﻊ‬ 7
8. Ḥamīd al-Dīn al-Farāhī, Tafsīr niẓām al-Qur’ān wa ta‘wīl
al-Furqān bi al-Furqān, 1st ed. (Azamgarh: Dāi’rah ḥamīdiyyah,
2008), 226-233.
9. If a narrative recorded by al-Bukhārī is correct, then
‘Umar (rta) too on the basis of this reasoning rejected many
readings ٰ of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b (rta) which he would present by
9 : ْ<: <<ْ : < : :
saying: 23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫رﺳﻮل‬ 7 ‫دع ﺷﻴﺌﺎ‬: ‫( ﻵﻹ‬I will not give up anything of
‫ﺳﻤﻌﺘھ ﻣﻦ‬
the Qur’ān I have heard from God’s Messenger (sws). See:
Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘
al-ṣaḥīḥ, 3rd ed., vol. 4 (Beirut: Dār Ibn Kathīr, 1987), 1628,
(no. 4211).
28
[To acquire] this [Qur’ān] swiftly [O Prophet!] do
not move your tongue hastily over it. [It will be
revealed like this. Rest assured] its collection and
recital is Our responsibility. So when We have
recited it [at that time], follow this recital. (75:16-18)
____________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
29
The General and the Specific
It is not customary in various languages of the world

that every word should signify just one meaning or that
every linguistic style should have just one denotation. A
word or a linguistic style generally signifies multiple
w
meanings. Ascertaining the meaning of a word or a
w
linguistic style depends on the construction of the
w ww
.j a w
sentence, diction of the speaker, sequence of the
ve .a
discourse, the context and other similar indicators. The
da l-m
hm a
way this is done is that the mind after reflecting on
ad wri
various possibilities and at times almost spontaneously
g h d .o
gives its verdict in this regard. It is while pointing to this
am rg
very aspect of a language on the basis of which Imām
id
Shāfi‘ī (d. 204 AH) while commenting on the general
i.c
om
and the specific of the Qur’ān has written in his book al-
Risālah that the components of a language can have
more than one meaning. When its general or specific
words, styles or constructions form part of a discourse,
then it is not necessary that in all circumstances they are
used in the same meaning for which they were primarily
coined. The Book of God has been revealed such that a
word is mentioned in its general sense but implies
something specific and that a word occurs in it in a
specific sense but implies something general.10 Thus
10. Al-Shāfi‘ī, Al-Risālah, 222. It is by not understanding

this point that some people have been led to conclude that the
30
neither can it be said about a specific word that it
signifies with certainty what it is used for nor can it be
said about a general word that it signifies with certainty
all the entities it stands for.
One group of uṣūl scholars holds a different view.
However, in reality, it is Imām Shāfi‘ī who holds the
correct view. This is because it is not just a word but the
occasion and context in which it is used which makes a
reader or listener decisively gauge the meaning implied by
it. I have written in my book Mīzān:
w
w
… There are many places in the Qur’ān where the
w ww
.j a w
words are general; however, the context testifies with
ve .a
full certainty that something :9 specific is meant. The
da l-m
Qur’ān uses the word ‫( ﻟﻨﺎس‬people), but it does not
hm a
refer to all the people of the world; and many a time,
ad wri
it does not even refer to all the people of Arabia: it
g h d .o
am rg
refers to a group among them. It uses the expression
9< ْ 9 : :
‫_ﻠھ‬
7 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﻦ‬
7 7 (b‫( ﻋ‬on all the religions), and it does not ْ refer
id
< ْ<
i.c
to all religions of the world; it refers to ‫ﻮن‬vRw‫ﻟﻤ‬
om
(polytheists) but they do not refer to all those who are
guilty of polytheism. Similarly, the words ‫أﻫﻞ‬
ْ ْ ْ
: ْ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫إن‬7
‫ﻟﻜﺘﺎب‬
7 7 (and from these People of the Book) do not
refer to all the People of Book of the world. It
mentions the word ‫ﻵﻺﻧﺴﺎن‬ : ْ (man) but it does not refer to
7
Imām does not regard the intentionality of a text to be

univocal. The fact is that he only wants to point out that a
word can have more than one meaning and so one must not
show haste in assigning a meaning to a word and one should
reflect deeply so as to ascertain which meaning is implied by
the speaker at a particular instance.
31
mankind. This then is a common style of the Qur’ān,
and if it is not taken into consideration while
explaining and interpreting the Qur’ān, a person can
end up misunderstanding the whole purport of the
Qur’ān. Thus it is of paramount importance that the
interpretation of words of the Qur’ān must always
remain subservient to its context and usage.11
It is this very nature of a language because of which

the scholars and researchers of the Qur’ān demand that if
the intent of the speaker or writer needs to be gauged,
w
w
then this cannot merely be done by what words convey
w ww
.j a w
apparently; for this, delving deep into them is necessary.
ve .a
The Prophet (sws) has done this very service to the Book
da l-m
of God and through his sayings has explained the
hm a
insinuation and implications which would have been
ad wri
g h d .o
difficult to understand for people who are unable to
am rg
comprehend these subtleties of words and their
id
meanings. Imām Shāfi‘ī rightly insists that one must not
i.c
om
ignore these explanations and elucidations of the Prophet
(sws) on the basis of what is apparently understood by
words. The Prophet (sws) has explained the Qur’ān; his
explanations cannot be against the Qur’ān. The Prophet
of God is subservient to the Book of God. He explains it
and does not change or alter its meanings. Imām Shāfi‘ī
has given many examples of prophetic explanations and
has repeatedly emphasized the fact that whatever the
Prophet (sws) has said about the directives of the
Qur’ān, is merely their explanation and nothing else; if
11. Javed Aḥmad Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 9th ed. (Lahore: Topical

Printing Press, 2014), 23-24.
32
these explanations are not accepted, then this would not
be regarded as following the Qur’ān; it would be
regarded as deviation from it because the speaker’s
intention is only what is evident from the explanations
and elucidations of the Prophet (sws); this intent is not
different from these explanations and elucidations.
What can be more true than what has been said by
Imām Shāfi‘ī. However, the weakness in the reasoning
of the Imām lies in the fact that on most occasions he has
not been able to clarify how a particular prophetic
statement can be invested with the status of explanation
w
w
of a Qur’ānic directive. Thus, it is a result of this that he
w ww
.j a w
has accepted certain narratives that depict the knowledge
ve .a
and practice of the Prophet (sws) which cannot be
da l-m
regarded as explanations of the Qur’ānic directives in
hm a
any way even though it could have been debated whether
ad wri
their narrators even properly understood and reported the
g h d .o
am rg
intent the Prophet (sws). This is the real impediment in
id
the mind of those who have differed with the view of
i.c
Imām Shāfi‘ī.
om
I have attempted to exemplify the stance of the Imām
in my book Mīzān because in principle it is the correct
stance. Readers can look up these discussions under
Mīzān and Furqān which forms part of the preface
“Uṣūl-o Mabādī”12 (Fundamental Principles). It will
become evident from reading them that what has been
mentioned in the narratives as an explanation of the
directives of the Qur’ān is actually the implication of its
words which the Prophet (sws) has unveiled through his
elucidations. From these explanations, the students of
12. Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 24-41.

33
the Qur’ān should educate themselves in delving deep
into the meanings of a word and should dare not reject
them or regard them to be abrogation of the Qur’ān.
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
34
Ḥadīth and Sunnah
Muḥammad (sws) has delivered the Qur’ān to the

world. Apart from it, whatever he has given to the world
in the capacity of religion can be placed in the following
three categories:
w
1. Independent directives and teachings that have not
w
been originated by the Qur’ān.
w ww
.j a w
2. Explanation of independent directives and teachings
ve .a
whether these directives and teachings are in the Qur’ān
da l-m
hm a
or extraneous to it.
ad wri
3. An example of practically following these directives
g h d .o
and teachings.
am rg
All these three categories constitute religion. It is
id
i.c
mandatory upon every Muslim to accept and obey what
om
these categories constitute. Once a person is satisfied
that they are correctly ascribed to Muḥammad (sws), no
believer can dare deviate from them. It is only befitting
for him that if he wants to live and die as a Muslim, he
should submit to them without any reluctance.
Our scholars designate all these three categories by a
single term: Sunnah. I personally do not regard this to be
appropriate. In my view, the first of these should be
called Sunnah, the second “explanation and elucidation”
(tafhīm and tabyīn) and the third as “the exemplary way”
(uswah-i ḥasanah). The reason for this classification is
to remove the misconceptions that arise by placing the
principle and its corollary under the same name and in
35
the same status.
This is only a difference of terminology. As far as the
reality is concerned, there is not the slightest difference
between our early authorities and myself. Had my critics
carefully read my book Mīzān,13 they would have
understood this fact and would not have remained in any
misconception. I do not expect this from them even now.
However, serious students of religion do deserve that
some apects of my view be explained to them.
Firstly, a large part of the Sunnah that has been
transmitted to us consists of Abrahamic practices that
w
w
have been revived and reformed. All researchers agree to
w ww
.j a w
this. However, this does not mean that Muḥammad (sws)
ve .a
has only made small additions to it. Certainly not. He
da l-m
has added independent directives to it as well. If anyone
hm a
wants to find its examples, he can look up Mīzān.
ad wri
Similar is the matter of the Qur’ān. The directives that
g h d .o
am rg
originate from it span almost three hundred pages of
id
Mīzān. I regard it to be a requisite of faith to accept and
i.c
follow each one of them. Hence, it is absolutely baseless
om
to accuse me of not granting the Qur’ān or the Prophet
(sws) the authority to give any additional directive or
add anything to the contents of religion, apart for some
previously existing and known directives.
Secondly, I have devoted a complete section to explain
the determinants of the Sunnah under Mabādī Tadabbur-
i Sunnat (Principles of Determining the Sunnah) in the
chapter “Uṣūl-o Mabādī” (Fundamental Principles) of
Mīzān14 These determinants are seven. On their basis,

36
every person of learning can decide whether something
is a Sunnah or not. I have also made a list of Sunan
(plural of Sunnah) on the basis of these determinants. It
can be added to or subtracted from. I have continued to
revise this list at various instances once I became aware
of any mistake in my research. I have never disregarded
any possibility of this.
Thirdly, apart from this list, I have catergorized some
of the sayings of the Prophet (sws) – which in the
capacity of religion have been cited in various narratives
– as “explanation and elucidation” (tafhīm and tabyīn)
w
w
and some as “the exemplary way” (uswah-i ḥasanah).
w ww
.j a w
Similar is the case of narratives which elucidate faith ad
ve .a
beliefs. Whatever occurs in this category in the
da l-m
narratives can be seen in the chapter of I%mānīyāt (Faith
hm a
15
and Beliefs) of my book Mīzān. They are also of the
ad wri
g h d .o
nature of “explanation and elucidation” (tafhīm and
am rg
tabyīn). In my opinion, this is the right term for whatever
id
has been handed down to us from the Prophet (sws) with
i.c
regard to these. If their ascription to him is established,
om
then I regard every directive, verdict and explanation of
the Prophet (sws) as mandatory to be followed. The
slightest deviation from them amounts to rejection of
belief in the Prophet (sws).
______________

37
A New Anthology of Ḥadīth
(Written in reponse to a query about the project

of re-compilation of Ḥadīth going on in Turkey)
In order to understand any research being conducted

on Ḥadīth, it is essential to comprehend the fact that
w
w
Muḥammad (sws) is the sole source of religion. From
w ww
.j a w
him, this religion has reached us in two forms: Qur’ān
ve .a
and Sunnah. Both these sources provide certitude and do
da l-m
not require any research to validate their authenticity.
hm a
They have been transferred by every generation of
ad wri
Muslims though their concensus (ijmā‘) and concurrence
g h d .o
am rg
(tawātur). These terms mean that every generation of
id
Muslims acquired these sources from their previous
i.c
generation and transferred it to the next one without any
om
difference of opinion and this process is continuing till
today ever since the time of the Prophet (sws).
The whole of religion is found in these two sources
and all its directives are derived from them. At times, we
are faced with some difficulty in understanding them.
Moreover, guidance is also needed in matters which are
left to our discretion. For this we turn to the scholars of
this religion. Muḥammad (sws) was a prophet of God.
Hence, he was the first and greatest scholar – in fact, the
imām of all scholars. A distinctive feature of his
religious knowledge which makes him stand apart from
other scholars is that it is infallible. This was because if
38
any mistake occurred in it, the Almighty would correct it
through divine revelation. If this knowledge exists
anywhere, then every Muslim must seek guidance from
it the foremost.
We are fortunate enough that this knowledge of the
Prophet (sws) is available and a vast part of it has
reached us. It was acquired from him by his companions.
However, since communicating it to others was a matter
of great responsibility, some companions were very
cautious and some were bold enough to do so. It
contained those things which they heard from the
w
w
Prophet’s tongue or saw him following and those
w ww
.j a w
practices also which were followed before him and he
ve .a
would not stop people from continuing to do so. All this
da l-m
knowledge is called Ḥadīth. It is the greatest source of
hm a
knowing the history of the Prophet (sws). It does not add
ad wri
to any belief or deed in religion. It is only an explanation
g h d .o
am rg
and elucidation of the religion which is confined in the
id
Qur’ān and Sunnah and also describes the exemplary
i.c
way in which the Prophet (sws) followed this religion.
om
How did this knowledge reach us? History tells us that
it was the Companions who foremost narrated it before
other people in the form of Aḥādīth (plural of Ḥadīth).
Then those who heard these Aḥādīth from them narrated
them to others. These were narrated orally and at times
in the written form as well. This process continued like
this for one or two generations. However, it then became
evident that some errors were creeping in while
reporting them and some people were intentionally
mixing lies in them. It was on this occasion that some
noble souls took upon themselves to research into these
Ḥadīth. These people are called the muḥaddithūn
39
(scholars of Ḥadīth). They were very extra-ordinary
people. They looked into each and every narrative and
its narrator and as far as was possible for them
ascertained the correctly and wrongly ascribed ones and
sifted truth from falsehood. Then some among them also
compiled books about which one can quite safely say
that the Aḥādīth recorded in them is the knowledge of
the Prophet (sws) which the narrators have reported
mostly in their own words. In religious parlance, they
are called akhbār aḥād. They refer to reports which are
transmitted by a few people. Unlike the Qur’ān and
w
w
Sunnah, it cannot be said that Aḥādīth have been
w ww
.j a w
transmitted through concensus (ijmā‘) and concurrence
ve .a
(tawātur). Thus it is generally accepted that the
da l-m
knowledge gained through them does not give certitude.
hm a
At best it can be called probable knowledge.
ad wri
The books of Ḥadīth just referred to are all very
g h d .o
am rg
important; however, the books of Imām Mālik (d. 179
id
AH), Imām Bukhārī (d. 256 AH) and Imām Muslim (d.
i.c
261 AH) occupy fundamental status and are regarded to
om
be very authentic. This is because they have been
compiled after a lot of research. However, this does not
mean that their compilers never committed any mistake
in recording them. The experts of this field know that
they did commit mistakes. For this reason, these experts
have continued to evaluate and assess these books. So
when they see that the narrators of a Ḥadīth are not
reliable with regard to their character and memory, or
there is no possibility that they have met one another, or
the contents of a Ḥadith narrated by them have
something against the Qur’ān and Sunnah or against
established facts derived from knowledge and reason,
40
they clearly tell people that this Ḥadīth cannot be
attributed to the Prophet (sws) and has been erroneously
ascribed to him. Similar is the case of understanding
Aḥādīth and their explanation. Various scholars have
continued to critically evaluate them.
This research work on Aḥādīth has been conducted in
every period of time. Not very long ago, in the last
century, Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Bānī (d. 1999) has done extra-
ordinary service in this regard: he resarched afresh into
most books of Ḥadīth and once again tried to sift out the
rightly ascribed narratives from the weak ones. The task
w
w
which the scholars of Turkey have embarked upon is
w ww
.j a w
very similar. As yet, their conclusions have not come to
ve .a
the fore; hence, they cannot be commented upon.
da l-m
However, the details that have come to surface show that
hm a
apparently there is nothing that is objectionable in them.
ad wri
How can it be objected to if while giving due regard to
g h d .o
am rg
the status of Ḥadīth delineated above it is assessed in the
id
light of its established principles of evaluation or is
i.c
compiled afresh or if efforts are made to understand it
om
and separate its transient from the eternal? The door to
research in this regad can never be closed. Even if some
errors are committed in this work, this should not be a
cause of worry. Other scholars will point them out
through their critique. There is no way for the
advancement of knowledge but to leave people to work
with freedom. This opens up new frontiers and it also
becomes a means to correct any mistake committed by
past authorities. The endeavour of the Turkish academics
should be viewed in this light and people who for the
first time in Muslim history are trying to do such an
activity in an institutionalized way should be
41
encouraged. If their work is of the required of standard
nature, then this should be counted as a great service,
and if it is substandard, it will not survive in the realm of
knowledge and will be consigned to oblivion. The court
of knowledge is ruthless. Sooner or later, it delivers its
verdict. In such matters, we should wait for its verdict.
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
42
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Contemporary Issues
43
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
44
Ijtihād
The term ijtihād has originated from a Ḥadīth. In the

opinion of the authorities, this Ḥadīth is broken
(munqaṭa‘). However, it is one of its sentences which
has become a source of this all important term of Islamic
w
jurisprudence. It is reported that when the Prophet (sws)
w
w ww
sent forth Mu‘ādh (rta) to Yemen as its governor, he
.j a w
ve .a
asked him: “How will you decide matters?” He replied:
da l-m
“I will revert to the Book of God.” The Prophet (sws)
hm a
then asked: “If you do not find anything in the Book of
ad wri
God?” Mu‘ādh replied: “I will look into the Sunnah of
g h d .o
the Messenger of God.” The Prophet (sws) next asked:
am rg
“If you do not even find it there?” At this, Mu‘ādh
id
ً
i.c
responded by saying: “ ‫( ”أﺟﺘﻬﺪ ﺑﺮأي و ﻵﻹ آﻟﻮ ﺟﻬﺪ‬I will form
om
an opinion after expending full effort and will not leave
any stone unturned.”16
It is the words ‫ أﺟﺘﻬﺪ ﺑﺮأي‬of this Ḥadīth that are the
source of this term. Scholars of uṣūl have always used it
in the limits ascertained by this Ḥadīth. In other words,
ijtihād shall be done only in those matters in which the
Qur’ān and Sunnah are silent. It has no bearing on
matters which are explicitly stated in the Qur’ān and
Sunnah. The reason for this is that the injunctions of
16. Abū ‘Īsā Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsā al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, vol. 3

(Beirut: Dār iḥyā’ al-turāth al-‘arabī, n.d.), 616, (no. 1327).
45
Qur’ān and Sunnah need deliberation and do not warrant
ijtihād. Scholars can repeatedly revert to them,
determine their purport and can also differ from previous
authorities in their interpretation but they cannot alter or
annul any directive of the Qur’ān and Sunnah through
their ijtihād.
Thus the ambit of ijtihād is matters in which the
Qur’ān and Sunnah are silent. If the ascription of this
dialogue to Mu‘ādh and the Prophet (sws) is correct,
then it is this very fact which the Prophet (sws) has
explained. Thus the questions asked were: “If it is not
w
w
found in the Qur’ān?” and “If it is not found in the
w ww
.j a w
Sunnah?” If one is able to find anything in the Qur’ān,
ve .a
no Muslim can deviate from it. It is the requisite of his
da l-m
faith to submit to it without any hesitation. The very
hm a
word “Islam” means to be obedient to God and the
ad wri
g h d .o
Prophet (sws). Some of the illustrious thinkers of current
am rg
times have wrongly interpreted certain steps taken by the
id
Rightly Guided Caliphs. The fact of the matter is that
i.c
om
none of these caliphs could even have imagined to dare
alter or annul a directive of God. What people regard as
annulment or alteration is actually the implications and
insinuations of the directive which the Rightly Guided
Caliphs explained with their practice. So instead of
deriving annulment or alteration from such a directive,
people should develop the ability to reflect on the
Qur’ān and Sunnah and to understand their linguistic
styles.
However, within the circle in which the Qur’ān and
Sunnah are silent, ijtihād is as essential as air and water
are to the human body. The door to ijtihād can never be
closed and in fact never was. In spite of the insistence of
46
some people that this door had been closed after the
fourth century, scholars, jurists and experts of various
disciplines who did ijtihād in every period of time and
are doing so even today have continued to grace this
world. God has blessed man with knowledge and
intellect. He has bestowed these favours on him so that
he can decide his affairs under their guidance. These
affairs are both indefinite and multifarious. Man has not
been created blind and deaf so that he requires divine
guidance in every matter. The Almighty has revealed His
sharī’ah only in those affairs in which man’s knowledge
w
w
and intellect need guidance. For this reason, the
w ww
.j a w
directives of the sharī’ah are very limited. Thus ijtihād
ve .a
is essential. In it lies the secret to development. Life
da l-m
cannot continue without it. One of the significant
hm a
reasons of the decadence of the Muslims is that in their
ad wri
national capacity they have become devoid of the ability
g h d .o
am rg
of research in physical sciences and ijtihād in social
id
sciences.
i.c
Here, it must remain in consideration that there are no
om
conditions for ijtihād. People should do ijtihād. If one
individual makes a mistake in it, the critique of another
will correct it. It is through this process that man
progresses and highly competent mujtahids are born.
There is no doubt in the fact that if the principle of taqlīd
is accepted, then all those conditions which are stated for
ijtihād will become necessary. The reason for this is that
in such a case the real thing would not be ijtihād itself
but the personality of the mujtahid who is being
regarded as the source of taqlīd. However, if like the
Companions of the Prophet (sws) and their followers,
the common masses and the scholars also base their
47
decisions on reasoning, then it will not be the mujtahid
but the ijtihād itself which will be evaluated in
congruence with the standards put forth by knowledge
and reason. In this situation, even if a non-Muslim – let
alone a Muslim – presents a sensible solution to a
problem, it cannot be objected to and should be accepted
as a “lost treasure of a believer”.
Consequently, it is a reality that in current times many
ijtihāds pertaining to political, economic and
administrative issues as well as those pertaining to the
principles of civics and citizenship have in fact been
w
w
done by non-Muslims and Muslims have generally
w ww
.j a w
accepted them. A clear example of this is democracy,
ve .a
democratic values and the regulations of the institutions
da l-m
which have been founded under them. The principle of
hm a
democracy was given by the Qur’ān but the Muslims
ad wri
could not make any system for it. This system was made
g h d .o
am rg
by non-Muslims. In spite of this, it can be observed that
id
religious scholars and most religious parties not only
i.c
accept this system they have also been playing the role
om
of the vanguard of every movement which has been
launched for its preservation and promotion. This is the
correct attitude in matters in which the Qur’ān and
Sunnah are silent, and people should adhere to this
attitude.
______________
48
The Consensus of Muslims
The blessed person of Muḥammad (sws) is the sole

source of religion. From him, this religion has been given
to the ummah through the consensus of his Companions
(rta) and through their perpetual practice and perpetual
w
recitation in two forms: the Qur’ān and the Sunnah.
w
Religion is now derived from these two sources. After
w ww
.j a w
these two, if anything of secondary nature can become a
ve .a
source of religion, it is ijtihād. Through ijtihād, besides
da l-m
hm a
many other things, we also try to understand directives
ad wri
which are not directly mentioned in the Qur’ān and
g h d .o
Sunnah but by their nature are applications of directives
am rg
which are left to the discretion of the opinion and
id
i.c
understanding of people. Qiyās (analogy or deduction) is
om
a form of ijtihād. The Qur’ān has used the word istinbāt
for it. Its product is called fiqh (jurisprudence). Its corpus
began with the ijtihāds of the Prophet (sws) himself. A
substantial part of the anthologies of akhbār-i aḥād is
constituted by them. After him, the companions and their
followers continued this tradition. However, during the
period of our jurists, a fourth source was added to the
sources of Islam: the consensus of the Muslims (ijmā‘).
After their time till now, it is generally accepted that
consensus of the Muslims is also a source of the Islamic
sharī‘ah.
This addition to the sources of Islam is indeed a
49
religious innovation. It has no basis in the Qur’ān and
Sunnah. If a person tries to evaluate its influence, he will
come to the conclusion that it has undermined the eternal
nature of the Islamic sharī‘ah and it has become difficult
to prove its relevance to modern times. A great scholar
and preacher of the sub-continent, Mawlānā Waḥīd al-
Dīn Khān (b. 1925 AD), writes:
Our jurists have generally regarded the consensus of
the Muslims to be an independent source of the
sharī‘ah. However, this surely is a baseless view.
w
Only a definite text (naṣṣ qaṭ‘ī) can be an
w
w ww
independent source of the sharī‘ah. Regarding
.j a w
ve .a
something to be an independent source of the
da l-m
sharī‘ah in the absence of a definite text is an
hm a
unfounded premise. Indeed, the consensus of the
ad wri
Muslims has an importance; but that importance
g h d .o
merely lies in the fact that in a particular instance it
am rg
could be the practical solution to a problem that has
id
i.c
arisen. This solution most certainly is temporary in
om
nature and is not an eternal source of the sharī‘ah.17
If a person wants to study the arguments on the basis

of which our jurists prove the validity of consensus of
the Muslims, he should consult Imām Shawkānī’s Irshād
al-fuḥūl.18 It will become evident to him how baseless
and unrelated they are. However, arguments drawn from
17. Waḥīd al-Dīn Khān, Maṣādir-i sharī‘ah Al-Risālah 7

(2011): 5.
18. Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī ibn Muḥammad al-Shawkānī,
Irshād al-fuḥūl ilā taḥqīq-i ‘ilm al-uṣūl, 1st ed. (Beirut: Dār al-
fikr, 1992), 131-144. (Translator)
50
one verse of the Qur’ān and one Ḥadīth narrative can
raise doubts in the minds of some people. I will try to
evaluate both of these here.
The Qur’ān says:
ۡ : : ۡ : ۡ 7 : 9 : ‫و‬: ‫ﻟﻬﺪي‬
‫ﺳﺒﻴﻞ‬ < : g: : 9 ‫ﺗﺒ‬
ٰ < ۡ ‫ﻟھ‬ : : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫'ﻌﺪ‬ۡ : • 7 ‫ﻟﺮﺳﻮل‬
: ۡ < : 9 ‫ﻳﺸﺎﻗﻖ‬ :< ۡ : :
7 9 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
7 7 ‫ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﻏ‬ :
7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
ٰ 7 ‫و‬
ۡ 9
ۡ : : : : : : : ۡ : : : : : ۡ ۡ<ۡ < 9 : 9 <
(١١٥: ٤) ً ‫ﻣﺼ‬ 7 ‫ﻧﺼﻠھ ﺟﻬﻨﻢ ‚ و ﺳﺂءت‬ ٖ 7 ‫( و‬T‫ھ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻮ‬7ٖ ‫ ﻧﻮﻟ‬g ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬ 7 7
And those who oppose the Prophet even after the
path of guidance is fully evident to them, and
w
w
leaving the path of those who sincerely professed
w ww
.j a w
faith [in you] follow some other path, We will put
ve .a
them on the path on which they themselves went and
da l-m
cast them into Hell. It is a very evil abode. (4:115)
hm a
ad wri
The jurists deduce their view from the above verse by
g h d .o
am rg
saying that if the way of someone other than those of the
id
believers is adopted, then this verse mentions the
i.c
punishment of Hell for such an attitude. It is evident
om
from this that following the way of the believers is
mandatory on every person; hence, if Muslims are united
on an opinion or a view, then no one should differ with
it; it is incumbent on every believer to follow this
consensus.
An evaluation of the context of this verse will show
how baseless this line of argumentation is. In the
previous verses, the conspiracies and connivances of the
hypocrites are exposed. Regarding these hypocrites this
verse says that those who want to form a separate group
to oppose the Prophet (sws) and in this way want to
adopt the path of disbelief and hypocrisy instead of the
51
path of belief, shall be cast into Hell. The verse warns
those Muslims who would defend these hypocrites. They
are told that the people they are supporting will be led to
Hell because of their opposition and hostility to the
Prophet (sws). The reason for this is that this is not the
way of the believers, and those who adopt the path of
disbelief and hypocrisy even after the true path is evident
to them can only abide in Hell. This disbelief and
ۡ ۡ<ۡ ۡ : :ۡ:
hypocrisy are referred to by the words g: ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬ 7 7 ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻞ‬ 7 7 ‫ ﻏ‬of
the verse cited. In it the word “believers” refer to the
Companions of the Prophet (sws) who, after acquiring
w
w
the truth, never breached their trust with the Prophet
w ww
.j a w
(sws) and never opposed and evaded him. On the
ve .a
contrary, they followed him with full sincerity and
da l-m
hm a
submitted wholeheartedly to whatever directive they
ad wri
were given by him. It is this attitude of faith and
g h d .o
faithfulness, submission and obedience, docility and
ۡ ۡ<ۡ ۡ :
compliance which is called g: ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬
am rg
7 7 ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻞ‬
7 7 ۡ inۡ < ۡ thisۡ verse. All
: : ۡ ‫ﻏ‬: and
id
attitudes other than this are called g: ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬
7 7 ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻞ‬
i.c
7 7
om
Hell is promised for such attitudes. This certainly does
not mean that one cannot differ from the interpretations,
opinions and ijtihāds nor does it mean that if in the light
of the Qur’ān and Sunnah a person criticizes a view on
which there is consensus, then he would become worthy
of Hell. The fact is that this issue is not even touched
upon by this verse. What is merely said in this verse is
that after guidance has become fully evident if someone
opposes the guide sent by God and is audacious enough
to set up his own faction in opposition to him, then this
is nothing but disbelief with which belief can have no
meaning. The Almighty puts such people on the path
52
they have chosen for themselves. Consequently, the
Qur’ān says that a person who chooses such a path
should only wait for Hell.
Similar is the case of Ḥadīth: the
:9 : < : :9 < :9 < < : ْ(sws)
Prophet :9 is
:9
: : : (b‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋ‬
reported to have said: ‫ﺿﻶﻹﻟﺔ‬ ‫أﻣﺔ‬ ‫ﻗﺎل‬ ‫أو‬ JO‫أﻣ‬ ‫ﻳﺠﻤﻊ‬ : : 23‫ﷲ‬
‫ﻵﻹ‬ : ‫إن‬
ٍ ٍ 7 7
(indeed, God will never unite my ummah or the ummah
of Muḥammad on some error).19 It may be noted that it is
not a sound Ḥadīth and for this very reason has not been
able to find any place in the primary books of Ḥadīth
like al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ of al-Bukharī and al-Jāmi‘ al-
ṣaḥīḥ of Muslim and the Mu’aṭṭā’ of Mālik. However,
w
w
even if it is supposed that the Prophet (sws) has in fact
w ww
.j a w
given these glad tidings to his ummah, can these words
ve .a
really mean that the ummah can never make a mistake?
da l-m
The fact of the matter is that there is a world of
hm a
difference between a mistake and straying into error and
ad wri
g h d .o
whatever is said in the Ḥadīth relates to straying into
am rg
error and not committing a mistake. It is impossible that
id
the whole ummah be united in straying into some error.
i.c
om
The reason for this is that the difference between
guidance and error has been made evident to a
conclusive degree. Thus it is logically impossible that all
the scholars, mujtahids and those at the helm of state
affairs unite on a polytheistic belief while fully
comprehending it to be polytheistic or reject the
messengerhood of Muḥammad (sws) or deny the
accountability of the Hereafter or deviate from directives
such as the prayer, the fast, the ḥajj, the zakāh and
animal sacrifice. Such things are in the category of self-
evident facts for this ummah. There can evolve a
19. Tirmidhī, Sunan, vol. 4, 466, (no. 2167).

53
consensus on evasion from them. However, there can be
a mistake in understanding things which need
deliberation or require ijtihād and it is also possible that
all people of this ummah are unanimous in this mistake.
There is nothing in reason or revelation which precludes
this possibility. Thus even if this narrative’s ascription to
the Prophet (sws) is regarded to be correct, it is evident
from its words that his glad tidings relate to consensus
on straying into error and it can be said with certainty
that Muslims cannot unanimously stray. The narrative
does not relate in any way to a mistake in understanding
w
w
a directive or in doing an ijtihād.
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
______________
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
54
Our Message to Humanity
Religion is the guidance which was first instilled by

the Almighty in human nature and after that it was given
by Him with all essential details to mankind through His
prophets. Muḥammad (sws) is the last of these prophets.
w
Consequently, it is now he alone who in this world is the
w
sole source of religion. It is only through him that man
w ww
.j a w
can receive divine guidance, and it is only he who,
ve .a
through his words, deeds or tacit approvals, has the
da l-m
hm a
authority to regard something as part of Islam until the
Day of Judgement.20
ad wri
g h d .o
We call upon all people of this world to profess faith
am rg
in this religion and to purify their individual and
id
collective lives in accordance with it. The reward of
i.c
om
those who accept this call to profess faith and to purify
themselves is Paradise which is as extensive as this
universe. It is a place where there is no concept of death
with life, pain with pleasure, sorrow with happiness,
anxiety with satisfaction, hardship with ease and bane
with boon. Its comfort is everlasting, its bliss is endless,
its days and nights are abiding; its peace unending, its
pleasure eternal, its majesty enduring and its perfection
impeccable. In it, God Almighty has provided for His
servants what has never been seen by the eyes, never
been heard by the ears and never been imagined by the
20. The Qur’ān, 62:2.

55
hearts.21
We invite those who believe in this religion in these
times that in order to acquire this Paradise, they should act
in accordance with their faith, fulfil the rights of God and
His servants with full honesty and sincerity and not
commit any excess against the life, wealth and honour of
anyone.22
We invite them to urge people in their surroundings
and in their circle of influence to do good and to refrain
from evil. This is an obligation imposed on them by their
Lord. It should be discharged by a father towards his son
w
w
and a son towards his father, a husband towards his wife
w ww
.j a w
and a wife towards her husband, a brother towards his
ve .a
sister and a sister towards her brother, a friend towards
da l-m
his friend and a neighbour towards his neighbour – in
hm a
short, a person should discharge it towards every person
ad wri
who has an immediate relation with him. Consequently,
g h d .o
am rg
wherever they see someone known to them adopting an
id
attitude which is contrary to the truth, they – according
i.c
to their knowledge, capacity and ability – should try to
om
urge him to mend his ways.23
If emotions, vested-interests and biases try to divert
them from justice in some worldly or religious matter,
they should adhere to justice; in fact, if their testimony is
required in these matters, they should do so even if it
puts their life in danger. They should speak the truth and
submit to it; they should adhere to justice and bear
witness to it, and hold fast to it in their beliefs and
21. The Qur’ān, 87:14-17.

22. The Qur’ān, 16:90.
23. The Qur’ān, 9:71.
56
deeds.24
If they face religious persecution, then instead of
retaliating with violence, they should show patience,25
and if possible should leave the place where they face
such persecution and migrate to a place where they can
openly practice their religion.26
In current times, the leading scholars of the Farāhī
School with the help and blessing of God have been able
to cleanse Islam – the true religion - from every juristic
and scholastic intrusion and from every adulteration of
philosophy and taṣawwuf, and have presented it in its
w
pristine form purely on the basis of the Qur’ān and the
w
w ww
Sunnah. The communication and dissemination of this
.j a w
ve .a
religion, education and instruction of people on its basis
da l-m
and the reconstruction of Muslim religious thought in its
hm a
light is a great jihād. We invite all Muslims to help us in
ad wri
this jihād by offering their support, time and resources
g h d .o
am rg
for it. This is the nuṣrah (help and support) of the true
id
religion of God from which nothing should be dearer to
i.c
a true believer:27
om
: ۡ ‫ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﻟ‬
: 9 7 :‫ﻠﺤﻮ‬7 < ۡ J…‫ﻋﻴ‬
: : ۡ : ‫ﺑﻦ‬ : ۡ 7 ‫ﻗﺎل‬ 9 ٰ : : ۡ : ۤۡ < ۡ < ۡ < : ٰ : ۡ : 9 : < 9 : ‡
: : ‫ﻛﻤﺎ‬: : 23‫ﷲ‬
‫رﻳﻦ‬ٖ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻣﻨﻮ ﻛﻮﻧﻮ ﻧﺼﺎر‬ 7 ‫ﻳﺎﻳﻬﺎ‬
9 ٰ < : ۡ : < ۡ : : ۡ < 9 : : ۡ : : 9 ٰ : ۤۡ : ۡ : ۡ :
(١٤ :٦١) 23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫رﻳﻮن ﻧﺤﻦ ﻧﺼﺎر‬7 ‫ ‚ ﻗﺎل ﻟﺤﻮ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 (T7 ‫ﻧﺼﺎري‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
Believers! Be God’s helpers, the way Jesus, son of
Mary, called upon his disciples: “Who will be my
helper in the cause of God?” The disciples replied:
24. The Qur’ān, 4:135; 5:8.

25. The Qur’ān, 41:33-35.
26. The Qur’ān, 4:97.
27. The Qur’ān, 9:24.
57
“We are God’s helpers.” (61:14)
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
58
Downfall of the Muslims
Muslims remained a great power in this world for

almost a thousand years. No nation was able to compete
with them with regard to knowledge and wisdom,
political acumen and affluence. They reigned over the
whole world during this period. This kingdom was given
w
w
to them by God and it was God who took it away from
w ww
.j a w
them. The law of God regarding the rise and fall of
ve .a
nations is that for its rise He selects whichever nation He
da l-m
hm a
wants to according to His law of trial; however, once He
ad wri
selects a nation to elevate it, He only changes this state
g h d .o
of that nation when that nation itself falls in decadence
am rg
with regard to scientific knowledge and morality.
id
Muslims are also faced with another scenario. By
i.c
om
origin, most of them have been Arabs. Arabs are mostly
the Ishmaelites and about the Ishmaelites it is known
that they are the progeny of Abraham (sws). Hence they
face the established practice of the Almighty that is
mentioned by the Qur’ān for the progeny of Abraham
(sws). As per this established practice, if they adhere to
the truth they will lead all nations of the world and if
they deviate from the truth they will be deposed from
this position and will have to face the punishment of
humiliation and subjugation.
Hence if Muslims are afflicted with this punishment,
then this is neither a haphazard incident nor is it the
result of some conspiracy hatched by others, as is
59
generally alleged by our religious and political leaders.
Behind this punishment are specific reasons. The divine
law of rise and fall of nations is the cause of this
punishment. If this punishment and humiliation is
understood in the light of this divine law, three causes
for the downfall of the Muslims can be pin-pointed:
Firstly, Muslims were entrusted with the Book of God.
It is not merely a book. It is the yardstick of God
revealed to decide between truth and falsehood. Muslims
should present all their religious differences before it and
whatever verdict it gives, they should accept it without
w
w
any hesitation. It should be the basis of their beliefs and
w ww
.j a w
deeds. It should be the source of all matters relating to
ve .a
faith and sharī‘ah. Every research, every opinion and
da l-m
every viewpoint must be kept subservient to it; so much
hm a
so, even the words of the prophets of God should not be
ad wri
considered authority over it. On the contrary, it should
g h d .o
am rg
be regarded as having authority over everything.
id
Unfortunately, since the past many centuries Muslims
i.c
have not been able to confer this status on the Qur’ān in
om
their beliefs and deeds. Hence, as pointed out by
Allāmah Iqbal:
(You are in a state of humiliation because of leaving

aside the Qur’ān.)
Secondly, this world is a place where harnessing

potentials produce results. These potentials can be
harnessed mostly by having skill and expertise in
scientific disciplines. It is this skill through which man
60
can access the treasures which God has concealed in the
heavens and the earth. History bears witness that the life
and death of man is mostly dependent on the
competence he has in these disciplines, what to speak of
rise and fall of nations. From the discovery of fire to the
invention of the wheel to the astounding advancement
and developments of the modern era this fact can be read
in every page of history. Though Muslims did show
interest in these disciplines yet their intelligentsia mostly
engaged themselves in the study of philosophy and
taṣawwuf, though this was not the least required. The
w
w
Book of God had already been revealed with answers to
w ww
.j a w
questions which philosophy and taṣawwuf grapple with.
ve .a
Avid interest in these disciplines made Muslims
da l-m
oblivious to both the Book of God and scientific
hm a
knowledge. Our age old religious seminaries are still
ad wri
teaching various aspects of philosophy and taṣawwuf
g h d .o
am rg
that can be called the best examples of useless
id
knowledge (‘ilmuṇ lā yanfa‘u). Thus we can see how far
i.c
the world has advanced while Muslims gaze in wonder
om
at these advancements.
Thirdly, Muslims have shown an utter indifference to
their moral instruction. It is as a result of this disregard
that lying, dishonesty, embezzlement, theft, fraud,
adulteration, devouring of interest, deceit in weighing,
false accusations, breaking promises, involvement in
occult disciplines, labelling one another with disbelief
and defiance, worshipping graves, polytheistic rituals,
detestable forms of entertainment and other similar
crimes are so common in their societies that one is struck
with wonder. It was these wrong-doings of the Israelites
on the basis of which the prophets of God cursed them
61
and they were eternally deprived of God’s mercy.
Muslims too have gone far away from it. If a person
wants to take a glimpse at them, he should read the
Gospel where Jesus (sws) has stated the charge-sheet of
the Israelites, of their scholars, their intellectuals and
their rulers. The whole milieu and situation of Muslim
societies cries out that they are even worse than the Jews
of those times in their wrong-doings.
These are the reasons of the downfall of the Muslims.
If they wish to come out of this scenario of decadence
and downfall, then this can neither be achieved through
w
w
warfare nor resistance movements. The past two hundred
w ww
.j a w
years of their history from Sarangapattam to Afghanistan
ve .a
bear evidence to this. To come out of this they will have
da l-m
to take remedial measures to circumvent the causes that
hm a
have become the reason for their downfall; otherwise
ad wri
humiliation, disgrace and subservience will always
g h d .o
am rg
remain their fate. The law of God is unalterable.
id
Muslims are now in its grasp. When they want to come
i.c
out of it by fighting others, they are in fact fighting God
om
because it is He Who has actually let loose His strong
men on them. This is God’s punishment. The line of
action to avoid it is not the one their religious and
political leaders and self-styled mujāhidīn are suggesting
to them. By adopting this line of action they can neither
thwart the influence of big powers in their countries nor
can they oust the Jews and Hindus from Palestine and
Kashmir. They should study the preaching of the
prophets mentioned in the Qur’ān and the Bible.
Whether the prophets of God come in the time of the
subjugation of Babylon or in the times of Roman
emperors, they never suggested this to their followers.
62
They always informed their people of their wrong-
doings, while our leaders are adept at pointing out the
faults of others and censuring them. The Qur’ān is in our
hands. We can read it from the beginning to the end. We
will not find a single word in it in condemnation of the
Babylonian and Roman emperors. At every place, the
Israelites are presented with this charge-sheet of their
wrongdoings. The need of the hour is to recount the
charge-sheet of the wrongdoings of the Muslims because
the promise of God with the Israelites also holds for the
Muslims. It was: “If you fill My covenant I will fulfil
w
w
your covenant; My mercy is waiting; however, if you
w ww
.j a w
tread on that path, I will take the path I have already
ve .a
adopted and the lash of My punishment will strike
da l-m
you.” Men of insight should learn a lesson from this!
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
______________
om
63
Religious Extremism
It is apparent to every keen eye that the greatest issue

faced by Pakistan in current times is religious
extremism. It is our misfortune that today this is not
merely limited to an ideology and its communication
w
through the written and the spoken word. It has now
w
w ww
crossed these confines and entered the realm of carnage
.j a w
and terrorism. The political, economic and social – in
ve .a
da l-m
short every sphere of the country is now bearing its
hm a
brunt. Hundreds of children, adults and old people have
ad wri
fallen prey to it. History bears witness that in such
g h d .o
situations a state generally ends up forcibly
am rg
exterminating religious extremism and it is quite
id
i.c
probable that Pakistan too will finally have to take this
om
step. We will also have to seriously repent from using
religion for achieving our political ends. If this situation
does arise, then the following points may further be kept
in consideration to eliminate religious extremism from
its roots:
Firstly, the monster of extremism did not descend on
us from the heavens; it is in fact the vile product of the
religious thought that is taught in our religious
seminaries under the topics of implementation of the
sharī‘ah and armed jihād and for the eradication of
disbelief, polytheism and apostasy. It is from this
ideology that extremist individuals and organizations
64
receive inspiration and after making some changes
mould it into a practical strategy to achieve their
objectives. The flaw in the interpretation of this religious
thought from the Qur’ān and the Hadīth has been
pointed out by many illustrious Islamic scholars of these
times. If hooliganism, protests and expressions of power
and might are desisted from, then the writings of these
scholars can change minds. Their writings constitute a
counter narrative to the current religious thought.
However, it is tragic that in Pakistan these are the ways
to protect and preserve religion that are in vogue.
w
w
Differing with one another in a cultured and polite
w ww
.j a w
manner has unfortunately never been established as a
ve .a
tradition here. This situation demands that our
da l-m
intelligentsia and those in authority should show
hm a
sensitivity in the freedom of expression of religious
ad wri
views as well the way they are sensitive in political
g h d .o
am rg
views, and they should openly tell those who try to
id
pressurize them regarding this freedom of expression in
i.c
religious views that this coercion is not acceptable to
om
them. If these people wish to correct the views of those
who differ with them, then the sole way to do this is to
use the force of reason and argument; there is no room
for commotion and protest, coercion and violence in the
world of knowledge. Moreover, our intelligentsia and
those at the helm of our country’s affairs should
themselves also try to understand the counter narrative
referred to above. In a Muslim society, the promotion of
secularism is not the solution to this problem; the
solution is to present a counter narrative to the existing
narrative on religious thought. It is to this solution that
Allama Iqbal had tried to direct our attention in his
65
Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.
Secondly, we do not allow any person to set up
institutions that produce doctors or engineers or any
other professional unless these students have gone
through a twelve year general education. However, there
is no such restriction for becoming a religious scholar.
For this purpose, students are admitted from the very
beginning in religious seminaries where their future is
pre-decided. It may well be that providence wanted to
make them doctors, engineers, scientists, poets, artists or
professionals belonging to the literary field; yet these
w
w
seminaries without taking into view the ability and
w ww
.j a w
aptitude of their students turn them into religious
ve .a
scholars and close the doors on them to select any other
da l-m
professional field once they reach mental maturity.
hm a
Moreover, these seminaries mould the personalities of
ad wri
their students in such a way that they become alien to
g h d .o
am rg
their own society because of being deprived of the
id
twelve year general education. The whole nation is now
i.c
bearing the consequences of this mistake. Hence, it is
om
necessary that it be made mandatory for religious
seminaries to not give admission to any student unless
he has passed through a twelve year period of general
education as is the case with all other disciplines in
which students intend to specialize.
This writer can state with full confidence that this step
alone will rectify the situation that has been created by
our religious seminaries in current times. However, for
this it is essential that our general system of education
which caters for specialization in various fields and
professions should also cater for the specialization in
religious studies to produce competent scholars of Islam.
66
The suggestion in this regard is that in a few selected
institutions of general education a dīniyāt (religious
studies) group should be introduced the way science and
arts groups are introduced in them so that students who
want to become religious scholars can select this group
in the ninth year of their studies and are able to cultivate
in themselves the competence needed to take admission
in institutions which provide specialization in religious
studies.
Thirdly, in order to curb religious extremism, it is
essential that the mini-state which is available to
w
w
religious scholars in our country in the form of the
w ww
.j a w
Friday sermon and running the affairs of mosques be
ve .a
dismembered. Men of learning know that the established
da l-m
practice instituted by the Prophet (sws) regarding the
hm a
Friday prayer is that it shall be led and addressed by the
ad wri
head of state and his representatives only. If any other
g h d .o
am rg
person is to take their place, it can only be when because
id
of some compelling need he does so with their
i.c
permission and as their authorized substitute.
om
This established practice continued with its full
majesty after the Prophet (sws). However, in later times
when Muslim rulers because of their misdeeds no longer
remained worthy of observing it, they themselves
handed the Friday pulpit to religious scholars. It was this
singular step that gave real power to anarchy and
disorder in the name of religion. This state of affairs
needs to be changed and our rulers should decide with
full determination and resolve that the Friday prayer
shall be organized by the government and shall only be
allowed at places that have been prescribed by it for this
purpose. Its pulpit will be reserved for the rulers; they
67
themselves will deliver the Friday sermon and lead the
prayer or some authorized representative of theirs will
fulfil this obligation on their behalf. No one will have
the independent authority to organize this prayer at any
place that falls under the jurisdiction of the state.
A similar decision that should be undertaken by the
government is that mosques in which prayers other than
the Friday prayer are offered should be built by the
permission of the government. They will not be
classified as mosques of a particular sect or school of
thought; on the contrary, they will be mosques of God
w
w
where only He shall be worshipped. Mosques are
w ww
.j a w
collective institutions of the Muslims, and as such
ve .a
cannot be given in the control of people and
da l-m
organizations. Hence it is essential that wherever
hm a
Muslims form a government, mosques should be under
ad wri
its jurisdiction and control. The government should not
g h d .o
am rg
allow any person to use the mosque for the promotion of
id
an organization, a movement or a particular point of
i.c
view, and in this manner convert them into places which
om
create dissensions among Muslims instead of remaining
places where God is worshipped.
This step is essential. The benefits it gives can be seen
in countries where this method of organizing and
administering mosques is employed.
______________
68
Organ Transplantation
Amongst the various marvels of science and the

facilities it has afforded humankind in the last two
centuries one extraordinary discovery is organ
transplantation. Through surgery, a defective organ of a
person can be replaced with a healthy one belonging to
w
w
another person. The healthy organ can be taken from
w ww
.j a w
either a living or a dead person. The question which
ve .a
arises on this procedure is, whether it is religiously
da l-m
hm a
permissible that a person in his life donate any of his
ad wri
organs for transplant, or make a will that after his death,
g h d .o
an organ of his be donated?
am rg
The answer to this question should be in the
id
affirmative because apparently there is nothing in the
i.c
om
Qur’ān and Ḥadīth which prohibits this. However, the
ulema of the Indian sub-continent generally regard it to
be prohibited, and proffer two arguments in favour of
their viewpoint.
The first of these is that a person is not the owner of
his body. Hence he does not have the right in his own
life to make a will for organ donation. A person has
control of his body as long as he is living in that body.
Once he departs from his body, he has no right on it that
he can make a will in favour of it and this will be
considered as implemented.
The second of these is that the sanctity of a dead body
should not be violated. The living should not harm it in
69
any way. It is their obligation that the body of a dead
person be buried with full respect. Dissecting a dead
body or severing any of its organs or limbs is tantamount
to violating its sanctity, and no ethical system of this
world can permit this to happen.
In my opinion, both these arguments need to be
reconsidered.
No doubt, the real owner of everything is God;
however, this too is a reality that a person has the right
to use and expend within the limits prescribed by God
whatever has been given to him. Thus for one’s honour,
w
w
family, country and religion a person sacrifices his life,
w ww
.j a w
generously spends his wealth and while knowing that he
ve .a
can be killed or lose any of his limbs, still fights a war
da l-m
for the above mentioned causes, jumps in the fire and is
hm a
ready to face the greatest of dangers. The Qur’ān has
ad wri
termed this as the jihād of the life and wealth of a person
g h d .o
am rg
and as spending for the cause of God. In various places,
id
it has urged its followers to spend these things for the
i.c
causes outlined above. It is evident that the Qur’ān
om
acknowledges this right of a person over his life and
wealth.
The right a person has to make a will is a corollary of
this right to use his life and wealth. Thus, just as we have
the right to make a will about our wealth after our death,
similarly, we also have the right to make a will regarding
enshrouding our dead body and its burial. Donating
one’s organ to some other person is also a similar matter.
If all these afore-mentioned things are allowed, and can
be done while a person has left his body, then how can
making a will for organ donation be regarded as
forbidden?
70
Similar is the case of violating the sanctity of a corpse.
It relates to one’s intentions and motives. Inflicting harm
on the limb of a person is a crime. The Qur’ān has given
the directives of qiṣāṣ and diyat for such crimes.
However, if with the permission of the patient, a doctor
severs his hand or foot, then no one can call him a
criminal. So why should not one differentiate between
mutilating a dead body through various means and
conducting a post-mortem for the purpose of
investigation? If a person makes a will to give his wealth
to some needy person, then this is counted as a virtue.
w
w
Similarly, if he makes a will to donate any of his organs
w ww
.j a w
or limbs to someone in need, then this should also be
ve .a
seen as a virtue. Why should implementing such a will
da l-m
be regarded as violating the sanctity of a corpse?
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
______________
om
71
Sighting the Moon
The Almighty has prescribed the month of Ramaḍān

for keeping fasts and the month of Dhū al-Ḥajj for
offering the ḥajj. Since both these months belong to the
lunar calendar, the issue of ascertaining the days of these
w
months has always remained under discussion. Even
w
w ww
before the recent advances made in the science of
.j a w
astronomy, people were aware that a lunar month could
ve .a
not exceed thirty days; however, general observation
da l-m
hm a
showed that a lunar month could also be of twenty nine
ad wri
days.
g h d .o
When the Qur’ān directed people to keep the fasts of
am rg
one whole month, it was suspected that people would
id
insist on completing thirty days while complying with
i.c
om
this directive. Consequently, the Prophet (sws) cautioned
people to begin the month of Ramaḍān when the moon
was sighted and to end it too when it was sighted; it was
not essential to complete thirty days and in case the sky
was not clear, thirty days must necessarily be completed.
It is this very directive of the Prophet (sws) which was
given an entirely different form by various narrators: as
per this changed scenario, it was thought that the Prophet
(sws) had bound people to observe the moon for
ascertaining the commencement of Ramaḍān. It is our
good fortune that in one variant of this narrative, this
directive of the Prophet (sws) has been reported in its
original form. He is reported to have said:
72
: < < : ٌ ْ < ْ :9
< 7 ْ : ‫رأﻳﺘﻤﻮه‬
‫و‬PŒ‫ﻓﺄﻓ‬ < < : ‫ﻟﻬﻶﻹل‬
< ْ : ‫ﻓﺼﻮﻣﻮ وإذ‬ ْ < ْ : : ‫ون ﻓﺈذ‬Rw‫وﻋ‬
: : ْ ‫رأﻳﺘﻢ‬ : < ْ : ‫ﺗﺴﻊ‬
7 7 ‫ﻟﺸﻬﺮ‬
7
< ْ : ْ < ْ : : :9 < ْ :
‫ﻓﺎﻗﺪرو ﻟھ‬
7 ‫ﻓﺈن ﻏﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻜﻢ‬7
A month can also be of twenty nine days; so if you
sight the moon, begin the fast and if you sight it
break the fast; if the sky is not clear complete the
days.28
This narrative is reported by ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Umar

(rta). A variant from Abū Hurayrah (rta) is reported
w
w
precisely in the same words.
w ww
.j a w
It is evident from this discussion that sighting the
ve .a
moon for ascertaining a lunar month was never made
da l-m
incumbent; on the contrary, it was made incumbent to
hm a
begin a month after sighting the moon so that people
ad wri
should not insist on completing thirty days thinking that
g h d .o
am rg
one whole month’s fasts have been made mandatory for
id
them. Consequently, the very words reported from the
i.c
Prophet (sws) begin thus: “a month can also be of twenty
om
nine days.”
The purpose of sighting the moon is to determine a
lunar month. If thirty days are completed in a month,
moon-sighting is not required since in this matter we are
absolutely certain that whether the moon is sighted or
not, the previous month has ended and a new month will
now begin. With advancement of technology, we are
now in a position to determine if a lunar month can be of
twenty-nine days. We are now in a position to know
with full certainty when the moon is born for this earth
28. Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 2, 759, (no. 1080).

73
each month. Hence, there is nothing wrong if the lunar
calendar is instituted on the basis of the moon’s birth
with respect to Makkah, and if all religious festivals are
celebrated in accordance with it. The purport of religion
is ascertaining the lunar month. If it can be ascertained
by sighting the moon, it was adopted in the past, and if
now it can be determined through some other way, then
no objection can be raised against it. After the invention
of watches, just as we no longer need to observe sunrise
and sunset to ascertain prayer timings, similarly, we are
not required to ascertain a lunar month through moon
w
w
sighting. The issue of sighting the moon has arisen
w ww
.j a w
because of misreporting of the narrators. After collating
ve .a
all the variants on this topic, it becomes evident that the
da l-m
Prophet (sws) had an entirely different objective before
hm a
him.
ad wri
Should one still insist on sighting the moon after all
g h d .o
am rg
this? Our scholars need to deliberate on this question.
id
i.c
om
______________
74
Muslims and Non-Muslims
All those who follow any religion other than Islam are
called Non-Muslims. This term is also used for those
who do not follow any religion. It is not a term of
derision. It is only an expression of the reality that they
w
do not believe in Islam. They are generally also called
w
kāfirs (infidels). However, I have argued in my books
w ww
.j a w
that conclusive communication of the truth (itmān al-
ve .a
ḥujjah) is needed to regard someone as kāfir, and it is
da l-m
hm a
only God who knows and only He can divulge the
ad wri
information that the truth has been conclusively
g h d .o
communicated to a person or a group and therefore now
am rg
they can be called kāfirs. Hence after the departure of
id
i.c
God’s Messenger (sws), no person or group has the right
om
to regard someone as kāfir.
Similar is the case of people who renounce Islam and
adopt another religion or who do not follow any religion.
What can only be said about them too is that they have
become non-Muslims. This is because nothing can be
said with full conviction as to how convinced is a person
who is a Muslim by birth about the veracity of Islam.
This is something which only God can know and only
He knows what is in the hearts. We should not dare
declare a verdict about something which we do not
know. If we have been blessed with knowledge, our duty
is to only explain to people the difference between
75
monotheism and polytheism and between Islam and
disbelief. We should also keep elucidating to them the
precepts of religion. This is because we are not in a
position to go beyond this and decide the faith or
disbelief found in a person or whether he deservers
Paradise or Hell. Only God has this position and
authority and such verdicts are only His prerogative.
After that are people who are Muslims, assert
themselves to be Muslims in fact insist on this status but
adopt a belief which is generally considered to be against
the teachings of Islam or interpret a Qur’ānic verse or a
w
w
Ḥadīth in a way which is regarded as erroneous by a
w ww
.j a w
scholar(s) or by the rest of the Muslims. For example,
ve .a
the belief of Imām Ghazālī (d. 505 AH) and Shāh
da l-m
Walīullāh (d. 1176 AH) that the culmination of tawḥīd is
hm a
waḥdat al-wujūd or the belief of Muḥi# al-Dīn ibn al-
ad wri
g h d .o
‘Arabī (d. 638 AH) that the termination of prophethood
am rg
does not mean that the status and attributes of
id
prophethood have terminated, it only means that a
i.c
prophet has to be a follower of the sharī‘ah of
om
Muḥammad (sws) or the view of the Shiites that the ruler
of Muslims who is called imām is also appointed by God
and that after the Prophet (sws) the Almighty Himself
had appointed ‘Alī (rta) as the ruler of the Muslims on
this very principle but this appointment was not accepted
or the opinion of the celebrated thinker Allāmah
Muḥammad Iqbāl (d. 1930) that Paradise and Hell are
not places but circumstances that will befall a person.
All these opinons and others similar to them can be
regarded as wrong views and beliefs and even branded
as erroneous and deviant but since their proponents
adduce their arguments from the Qur’ān and Sunnah,
76
they cannot be regarded as non-Muslims or kāfirs. What
is the verdict of God regarding these views and beliefs?
We should wait for the Day of Judgement to hear it. In
this world, their proponents are Muslims as per their
own assertion, should be considerd as Muslims and
should be dealt with and treated in a way an individual
among Muslims is. It is the right of the scholars to point
out their mistake, to invite them to accept what is
correct, to regard what they find as constituting
polytheism and disbelief in their ideology and also
inform people about all this. However, no one has the
w
w
right to declare them as non-Muslims or to ostracize
w ww
.j a w
them from the Muslim community because only God can
ve .a
give this right to someone, and everyone who has
da l-m
knowledge of the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth knows that God has
hm a
not given this right to anyone.
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
______________
77
Characteristic Values of Muslim Culture
The successful prophetic mission of Muḥammad (sws)

gave rise to a culture which was based on and dominated
by the value of ‘ubūdiyyah.29 It implies that the whole
society centred on belief in God and servant-Lord
w
relationship. This centre was the only criterion of
w
w ww
validity of all human thought and action. Freedom was
.j a w
no doubt valued, yet dominated by the value of
ve .a
da l-m
‘ubūdiyyah. The Muslim culture was not unclear on the
hm a
question of its moral and ethical foundations. These
ad wri
were authenticated by divine revelations. Poets,
g h d .o
litterateurs, philosophers, sages, scientists and rulers, all
am rg
were clear on this issue and recognized this reality in
id
i.c
their views and thoughts. The Muslim culture, founded
om
on this clear and uniform model of thinking, governed
the collective body of Muslims for more than a decade.
hifẓ-i furūj, ḥifẓ-i marātib and ’amr bi al-ma‘rūf and
nahī ‘an al-munkar constituted characteristic values of
the Muslim culture.
29. The Arabic word ‘ubūdiyyah covers all the stages of

man’s devotion to God. Internal feeling of submission to the
provident and merciful Creator, spontaneous acts of devotion
objectified by such a feeling of submission before God,
following the divinely ordained rituals of worship and
following God’s commands in all spheres of life; all are
different yet interrelated manifestations of ‘ibādah.
78
These can be explained as follows:
Ḥifẓ-i furūj implied that the members of the society
would not be allowed to practice and promote sexual
promiscuity. Men and women could not openly enter
into sexual relations. They could not illicitly live
together and were not allowed to reveal their bodies.
Ḥifẓ-i marātib meant that though all human beings are
originally equal in the eyes of God, yet they are not
equal in their family and social relations. The younger
have to show respect to the older, the children to their
parents, the students to their teachers, the wives to their
w
w
husbands. Socially seniors were given the right to
w ww
.j a w
correct and censure the juniors in all social layers. The
ve .a
respect and honour of the elders and the seniors was
da l-m
always preferred over individual liberty.
hm a
‘amr bi al-ma‘rūf and nahī ‘an al-munkar entailed that
ad wri
the adherents of the Islamic faith would not, at the
g h d .o
am rg
collective level, show indifference to the values of good
id
and evil. All such values accorded to the human
i.c
orientation (fiṭrah) and acknowledged by entire humanity
om
as virtue and good would be promoted at all scales and all
such actions, as abhorred by the human nature and termed
evil and bad, would be prohibited in all circumstances.
Such was the Muslim culture, the beauty and crown of
humanity. The downfall of this culture is nothing less
than the downfall of humanity. Alas for man! If only he
craved for re-establishing this great tradition as much as
he yearns for democratic ideals and rule of law.

______________
79
Our Education System
One major problem presently facing the Pakistani

nation is the disadvantages of the current education
system. Of these, three call for immediate action.
Firstly, the current education system in Pakistan is
w
gradually distancing our nation from its cultural
w
w ww
tradition. A short discussion with the members of the
.j a w
young generation makes one realize that it will not take
ve .a
da l-m
more than a couple of decades before we will have lost
hm a
our memory as a nation. Our ignorance of and
ad wri
indifference to the Arabic language has already cost us
g h d .o
our memory of fourteen hundred years. A similar
am rg
attitude towards the Persian Language has removed from
id
i.c
our minds the record of about twelve hundred years of
om
our history and culture. The same is now happening with
Urdu. Three hundred years of our cultural tradition are
coded in and, therefore, depend upon Urdu for their
presence. Having dissociated ourselves from this
language, we will definitely loose each and everything
related to our precious cultural tradition. It is only
language which guarantees continuity of cultural
traditions in a nation’s life. It is only language which
works as the most effective vehicle of flow of the
cultural values and traditions to the next generations.
Losing protection of such an unparalleled asset would
lead us to a great tragedy. It would mean that our coming
80
generations would no longer know the names of the
major pillars of Muslim scholarship and literature, not to
speak of studying and grasping them. Those who
appreciate the role of cultural tradition and its effects in
a nation’s development can well imagine the magnitude
of the threat.
Secondly, twelve years of basic general education
creates in the students the ability to develop their skills
and embark upon specialized studies in all academic
disciplines. Whereas, our education system does not
apply this proven role of the twelve year basic education
w
w
for specialization in the religious sciences.
w ww
.j a w
Consequently, the education system does not provide
ve .a
any basic and fundamental knowledge to the students to
da l-m
enable them to specialize in the religious sciences and
hm a
become religious scholars. Madrassas are a product of
ad wri
this shortcoming in the national education system. They
g h d .o
am rg
will continue to be spawned as long as this shortcoming
id
in the education system remains. There is no denying the
i.c
fact that the society needs erudite religious scholars just
om
as it needs scientists, litterateurs, doctors and engineers.
The society can itself set up private universities to fulfil
this need. These universities will welcome students with
basic qualification in the discipline for different
programs. The question, however, is: where will the
pupil get the requisite basic education for this discipline?
They have nowhere to look for it.
Thirdly, the state does not allow, and rightfully so, any
governmental and non-governmental organization to set
up universities of higher education where they can enrol
such students as have not completed general education
for twelve years. Therefore, no institute can try to make
81
doctors, engineers or experts in any other discipline of
those who have not gone through the basic general
education for twelve years. Strangely however, this
condition does not apply to those who set up madrassas
and produce religious scholars. In these institutions,
students are enrolled right from the beginning. Their
future role as religious scholars is decided while they
have just seen school. Nature may craft a mind to suit to
becoming a doctor, engineer, scientist, poet, litterateur or
artist. It does not matter to the madrassas. They do not
have any regard for what nature decides about a child.
w
w
They are interested in and intent upon only and only
w ww
.j a w
making of him a religious scholar. This they do without
ve .a
giving a least consideration to his ability, disposition,
da l-m
aptitude and inclinations. Thus they rob the pupil from
hm a
an option to consider these factors after coming of age,
ad wri
think for himself and decide any alternative future role
g h d .o
am rg
and trade. Those made into religious scholars by these
id
madrassas are so disposed as to behave like aliens in the
i.c
society in which they were born and to the environment
om
where they grew up. What else can be expected from
depriving them of twelve years of general education?
This state of affairs is very grave. It calls for
immediate extraordinary measures. To address this, we
propose the following steps, if only those on the helm of
authority were to take this issue seriously.
1. All the parallel education systems should be
abolished or radically reformed. There should be no
English or Urdu schools. Nor should there be two
different types of schools one offering pure religious
education, as in madrassas, and the other secular and
purely mundane education, as in most private schools.
82
All social sciences should be taught in the Urdu
language; sciences proper and mathematics should be
instructed in English; religious content, however, should
be taught in Arabic.
2. As for religious education, in the first five years, the
students should be made to memorize the last two
groups of the Qur’ānic sūrahs (51-114), supplications
made in the Prayers and talbiyah said in the ḥajj. Arabic
language should be taught from class six onwards. After
teaching the pupils basic Arabic grammar, the Holy
Qur’ān should be used as a reader. The students should
w
w
be made to complete its reading with the completion of
w ww
.j a w
class twelve. Islāmiyāt and Pakistan Studies should no
ve .a
more be taught as compulsory subjects. These should be
da l-m
replaced by the subject of history. The syllabus of
hm a
history should include topics on international history and
ad wri
Muslim history, including, of course, that of Pakistan.
g h d .o
am rg
3. Persian is very close to Urdu. Basic grammar of this
id
language can be taught in three months at most. This
i.c
language too should be taught as a part of the Urdu
om
language from class 9 onwards.
4. Like the science and arts groups, Islāmiyāt group
should be introduced from class nine. In this group,
students should be offered the subjects of the Arabic
language and literature, history, philosophy,
international literature, different major approaches to and
interpretations of the religion and the sharī‘ah, at least to
the level of basic introduction. The purpose is to afford
those wishing to become religious scholars an
opportunity to equip themselves with the required
qualification for the higher education in the discipline.
5. Madrassas should be acknowledged as institutes of
83
higher educations like institutions of medical and
engineering sciences. They should, however, not be
allowed to enroll pupils who have not completed twelve
years of basic education. The religious madrassas that
provide acknowledged and recognized standards of
higher education may be allowed to award degrees to
their graduates for BA, MA, MPhil and PhD programs.
w
___________
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
84
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Social Issues
85
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
86
The Beard and Isbāl-i Izār
Men have been known to keep beards. The Prophet

(sws) too had kept one. If someone among his followers
keeps it to express his affiliation to him or merely to
follow his ways, then this indeed is a very blessed
w
practice. However, keeping a beard is no directive of
w
religion. Hence if a person does not keep a beard, it
w ww
.j a w
cannot be said that he is evading an obligatory directive
ve .a
or has done something ḥarām or forbidden.
da l-m
hm a
Whatever the Prophet (sws) has said in this regard are not
ad wri
directives to keep a beard but the manner in which it should
g h d .o
be kept if a person decides to keep it. He has said that the
am rg
beard and the moustache should not be kept in any manner
id
which may give the impression of arrogance or
i.c
om
haughtiness. Arrogance is a great sin which manifests in a
person’s gait and conversation, appearance and clothes,
mannerism and etiquette – in short everything. Similar is
the case with the beard and the moustache. Some people
shave their beards or keep them trimmed but keep a big
moustache. The Prophet (sws) has disliked such an
appearance, and has directed such people not to adopt the
looks of arrogant people. If they want to increase the size,
then it should be of the beard and not the moustache, which
should be kept trimmed in all circumstances.30 The
30. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 5, 2209, (no. 5553);

Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 1, 222, (no. 259).
87
guidance received by mankind through the prophets of God
deals with worship rituals as well as issues related to
cleansing and purification of the body, edibles and morals.
Whatever the Prophet (sws) has said with regard to keeping
the beard relates to the cleansing of morals. It was in this
context in which he expressed his views about keeping the
beard but people regarded it to be a directive of increasing
the size of the beard. In this manner, they incorporated in
religion something which can never be related to it.
The issue of isbāl-i izār is no different. It was very
common among the arrogant in the pre-Islamic Arab
w
w
society to wear a long shirt, let the loose end of their
w ww
turban hang below their back and let their legware (izār)
.j a w
ve .a
dangle so far below the ankles that half of it would drag
da l-m
behind on the ground. In Arabic, this is called isbāl. The
hm a
Prophet (sws) showed his great dislike for this, and once
ad wri
remarked that the Almighty would not like to see the
g h d .o
am rg
person on the Day of Judgement who walked while
arrogantly dragging his leg-cloth (tehband).31 All
id
i.c
narratives regarding izār relate to this appearance.
om
It can however be said about the tehband that if it is
allowed to dangle below the ankles, then it to some
extent resembles the appearance of the arrogant just
discussed; so care must be exercised even if the purpose
to make it dangle is not arrogance. Thus this can be said
about the tehband. However, it is a fact that this
resemblance is only reflected in the tehband; it has no
similarity with a shalwār, a pajāma and a trouser.

88
The Right to Punish a Wife
Marriage is a contract in which it is the responsibility

of the husband to generously provide for the expenses of
his wife and children. He is required to deal with them in
a way which is in accordance with the norms of decency
w
and those of sense and reason, and which is based on
w
graciousness and courtesy, and in which the requisites of
w ww
.j a w
justice and fairness are fulfilled. Similarly, it is required
ve .a
of a wife that she should adopt an attitude of harmony
da l-m
hm a
and obedience towards the husband and protect his
ad wri
secrets as well as his honour and integrity.
g h d .o
Like other contracts, the nature of the contract also
am rg
requires that if any of the parties violates it and in spite
id
of counsel and advice, rebuke and reproach is not
i.c
om
prepared to mend its ways, then it should be punished.
This punishment can be meted out by a court and by the
elders of the family. The Qur’ān has given this right to
the husband also. It says that if a wife becomes
rebellious by defying his authority, then he can resort to
three options to save the family from dismembering:
First, he should urge his wife to mend her ways. The
word used by the Qur’ān is ‫وﻋﻆ‬ : : which means that she
can be admonished and also scolded to some extent in
this regard.
Second, intimate marital relations with her should be
suspended in order to communicate to her that if she
does not mend her ways, she might have to face severe
89
repercussions.
Third, she can be punished physically.
A question arises about this last option: with a change in
society and civilization, if exercising the first two options
does not bear results and a husband is left with no
alternative but to adopt the third option, can a state bind
him to not take this step himself and consign this matter to
a court of law?
The opinion of this writer is in the affirmative. This is
because this alternative is merely another way of
following the directive of God and does not annul the
w
w
directive. It does not make a difference if to reform the
w ww
.j a w
wife the punishment is meted out by the husband, the
ve .a
elders of the family or a court of law. It is the will of God
da l-m
that if to save a family, a wife needs to be punished, then
hm a
she should be punished. It is only a reformatory measure
ad wri
and nothing more.
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
______________
90
Head Covering for Women
The Almighty requires of a Muslim woman to not

display her make-up or other embellishments such as
jewellery before unknown men except what she has
adorned her hands, feet and face with. The Qur’ān has
w
made it mandatory upon Muslim women to follow this
w
directive. It is for this very reason that the tradition of
w ww
.j a w
wearing the head-scarf or head covering while going out
ve .a
of the house was established, and now has become a part
da l-m
hm a
of Islamic culture. Even if women have not embellished
ad wri
themselves and have not put on make-up, they have
g h d .o
continued to be very vigilant in wearing some sort of
am rg
head covering. This attitude has also sprung forth from
id
i.c
the insinuations of the Qur’ān: the Almighty has
om
specified that the directive of covering the chest and
neckline with a covering is not related to old women
who have passed their marriageable age on the condition
that their intention is not to show off their ornaments.
The Qur’ān says that they can take off this covering
before men and that there is no harm in this; however, it
has simultaneously stated that what is more desirable in
the sight of the Almighty is that they should be careful in
this matter too and not take their coverings off their
chests. It is evident from this that regarding the head too
it is desirable in the sight of the Almighty that even if
women have not adorned it in any way, even then they
91
should not take off their head coverings. Although
covering the head is not mandatory yet when Muslim
women live with a concern for religiosity and try to draw
near God, they necessarily take this precaution, and
never like to come before unknown men bare-headed.
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
92
Wuḍū and Nail Polish
Women generally colour their nails with some material

or the other. In current times, various types of nail
polishes are used for this purpose. The question which
arises as a result is about the method of doing wuḍū in
w
such cases. Generally, three answers have been given to
w
this question:
w ww
.j a w
Firstly, wuḍū cannot be done if a lady has put on nail
ve .a
polish, and therefore it must be removed every time
da l-m
hm a
before doing wuḍū.
ad wri
Secondly, even after putting on nail polish, the status
g h d .o
of a lady’s hands do not change, and therefore wuḍū
am rg
would be valid if done in this situation; there is no need
id
i.c
to remove the nail polish.
om
Thirdly, such a situation should be considered
analogous to wiping of socks (masḥ). So if nail polish
has been put on after doing wuḍū, there is no need to
remove it; wuḍū can be done on it. However, if it has
been put on without doing wuḍū, then it must be
removed and then wuḍū should be done.
I prefer the third of these views. It is the view which
takes caution into consideration and also does not burden
a lady. It is also closer to the objective of self-purification.
It is therefore recommended that women adopt this
method for coming into the presence of their Lord.

93
Women Travelling with a Maḥram
The Prophet (sws) is reported to have forbidden

women from travelling without a maḥram and has said
that they are not allowed to travel alone. The period of
this journey is mentioned in some narratives to be one,
w
in some others to be two and still others to be three days
w
w ww
and nights respectively. This prohibition, it needs to be
.j a w
appreciated, is not an absolute one. It is a precautionary
ve .a
prohibition meant to protect a person from harm. Its
da l-m
hm a
addressees are also the individuals of a society in their
ad wri
personal capacity, and it is not addressed to state
g h d .o
authorities. Moreover, it is evident that such directives
am rg
relate to circumstances. Keeping in view the importance
id
of a lady’s chastity and modesty in Islam, it was
i.c
om
essential that they be stopped from travelling alone
because of the circumstances which prevailed in Arabia
in the times of the Prophet (sws). People in those times
used to travel on foot or on horses and camels.
Destinations which today can be reached in hours were
accessed in those days in weeks and at times in months.
Passengers would travel alone or in caravans and
sometimes would even have to encounter forests and
deserts on their way. At night time, they would have to
spend the night under the open sky with other members
of the caravan or in rest-houses of unknown cities. If in
these circumstances, women were asked to travel with a
maḥram in order to protect them and to guard their
94
reputation, every upright person can easily understand
the wisdom behind this directive.
The current times, on the other hand, have
revolutionized the means of transport. Distances which
were covered in months are now covered in hours. There
are extra-ordinary arrangements to protect people in
buses, trains and aeroplanes. Great changes have also
come about in rest-houses and hotels. A hundred years
ago, people were hesitant in sending their sisters and
daughters from one village to another. Today, however,
one is not even hesitant in sending them to Europe and
w
w
America. The journey to Makkah for the purpose of ḥajj
w ww
.j a w
too has become secure to the ultimate extent and women
ve .a
can safely travel with women of their acquaintance to
da l-m
Arabia to offer the rites of ḥajj. This great change in
hm a
circumstances entails that this directive should not relate
ad wri
to current forms of travel, and women be allowed to
g h d .o
am rg
travel alone or in groups in any way they can keeping in
id
view their needs in case there is no danger envisaged in
i.c
this travelling. However, they must always keep in
om
consideration the fact that their honour must remain
protected in all circumstances, and they must not show
any negligence in this regard while leaving their houses.
If they believe in God and His Prophet (sws), they
should not be indifferent in this matter.
______________
95
Abortion
When one hundred and twenty days pass after the

conception of a foetus, aborting it is prohibited. After
this period, the killing of the foetus is actually the killing
of a human being which, according to the Qur’ān,
w
amounts to killing the whole of mankind. The Qur’ānic
w
w ww
punishment for this is eternal Hell. However, before this
.j a w
time-period, abortion is allowed; but this allowance too
ve .a
da l-m
is not absolute; there must be a legitimate excuse and a
hm a
palpable reason for it. In Islamic jurisprudence, this
ad wri
period of one hundred and twenty days has been fixed
g h d .o
for abortion because at the end of this period a child is
am rg
bestowed with human personality. Before this time,
id
i.c
however, he is a mere physical being devoid of complete
om
human characteristics and lives in this state. At the end
of this one hundred and twenty day period when his
physical being culminates, the Almighty bestows human
personality to this being. It is this act of God which the
Qur’ān has called the transformation of the foetus into a
new creation:
: : () ً : ۡ < < ٰ ۡ : : :9 < ۡ ۡ 9 : ٰ < ۡ : : ۡ ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ : : :

ۡ ‫ﻧﻄﻔﺔ‬
‫ ٍر‬RS 7 ‫ ﺛﻢ ﺟﻌﻠﻨھ‬.gٍ ‫ﻃ‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﺳﻠﻠﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻵﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬7 ‫وﻟﻘﺪ ﺧﻠﻘﻨﺎ‬
: : ۡ < ۡ : ۡ : : : ً : ۡ < : : : : ۡ : ۡ : : : ً : : : : : ۡ <9 : ۡ : : :9 < ۡ :9
‫ ﺛﻢ ﺧﻠﻘﻨﺎ ﻟﻨﻄﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻘﺔ ﻓﺨﻠﻘﻨﺎ ﻟﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻀﻐﺔ ﻓﺨﻠﻘﻨﺎ ﻟﻤﻀﻐﺔ‬.gٍ ‫ﻣﻜ‬ 7
<‫ﺣﺴﻦ‬ < 9ٰ ‫ك‬: : ٰ ‫ﻓﺘ‬
: ۡ : 23‫ﷲ‬ : : ‚ R• ً ۡ : < ٰ ۡ : ۡ : :9 < ً ۡ : : ٰ ۡ : ۡ : : : ً ٰ
: : ٰ ‫ﺧﻠﻘﺎ‬ ‫ﻟﻌﻈﻢ ﻟﺤﻤﺎ “ ﺛﻢ ﻧﺸﺎﻧھ‬7 ‫ﻋﻈﻤﺎ ﻓﻜﺴﻮﻧﺎ‬7
96
:ۡ ٰۡ
(١٤-١٢ :٢٣) .g ‫ﻟﺨﻠﻘ‬
77
We first created man from an essence of clay: then
converted it into a drop of fluid at a secure place.
Then made the drop into a clot of blood, and the clot
to a lump of flesh. Then We fashioned bones in it,
then clothed the bones with flesh; then transformed it
into another creation. Blessed be God, the best of
creators. (23:12-14)
In the beginning, when God created man from the
w
womb of the earth, He adopted this very method. The
w
w ww
Qur’ān says that first the physical being of man was
.j a w
created; after that he was given the ability to produce
ve .a
da l-m
offspring; he was then given perfection. Two of the
hm a
creatures which were produced as a result were selected
ad wri
and spirit was blown into them. This process created
g h d .o
Adam and Eve as human beings equipped with the
am rg
abilities of cognizant speech and intellectual awareness:
id
i.c
ۡ :9 :9 ۡ 9 : ٰ < ۡ r : ۡ : : : : :9 < ۡ ۡ ۡ ۡ :ۡ:::
om
.gٍ ‫ﻣﻬ‬7 ‫ﻣﺂء‬ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﺳﻠﻠﺔ‬ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ ﺛﻢ ﺟﻌﻞ ﻧﺴﻠھ‬.gٍ ‫ﻃ‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻵﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬ 7 : 7 ‫ﺑﺪ ﺧﻠﻖ‬:
: : ۡ : ۡ : : : ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ : 9 < < : : : : : ۡ < 9 ۡ ۡ : : : : < 9ٰ : : 9 <
‚ ‫ﻵﻹﻓـﺪة‬
7™ ‫روﺣھ و ﺟﻌﻞ ﻟﻜﻢ ﻟﺴﻤﻊ و ﻵﻹﺑﺼﺎر و‬ ٖ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻴھ‬
7 7‫ﺛﻢ ﺳﻮ˜ھ و —ﻔﺦ ﻓ‬
: ۡ < < ۡ : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: 9 ‫ﻗﻠﻴﻶﻹ‬
(٩-٧ :٣٢) .‫ون‬Ra‫ﺗﺸ‬
ًۡ :
7
He began creating man with clay, then made his
generation grow through a despicable drop of fluid.
He then perfected him and breathed His spirit into
him and [in a similar manner] gave you ears and eyes
and hearts: yet you are seldom thankful. (32:7-9)
The Prophet (sws) has explained that all the phases of

creation of the physical being of a human being take one
97
hundred and twenty days. After this, spirit is blown into
him and the creature called the “Human Being” comes
into existence. He is reported to have said:
ً:: :9 < ً ْ : : : ْ : 9 < ْ : < < ْ : < : ْ < ْ < : : : :9
< < : ‫ﺛﻢ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻘﺔ‬: ‫ﻳﻜﻮن )( ذﻟﻚ‬ ‫ ﻳﻮﻣﺎ‬g ‫ر'ﻌ‬
7 ‫ﻣھ‬ 7 7 ‫ﺑﻄﻦ‬ 7 () ‫ﻢ <ﻳﺠﻤﻊ< ﺧﻠﻘھ‬v‫نْ ﺣﺪ‬7
< < ْ : : < : : ْ < : ْ < :9 < ْ ً : ْ <
: 7 ‫ﻳﻜﻮن )( ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻀﻐﺔ‬ < : ‫ﺛﻢ‬:9 : 7
‫ﻣﺜﻞ ذﻟﻚ ﺛﻢ ﻳﺮﺳﻞ ﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻓﻴﻨﻔﺦ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞ ذﻟﻚ‬
: < 9 ‫ﻓﻴھ‬
‫ﻟﺮوح‬
Each of you is formed in the womb of your mother
for forty days; then in this same time period he
w
becomes a clot of blood; then becoming a lump of
w
w ww
flesh also takes the same number of days; then the
.j a w
ve .a
angel is sent forth and he breathes the spirit into
da l-m
him.32
hm a
ad wri
It is because of these stipulations of the Qur’ān and
g h d .o
Ḥadīth that the period for abortion has been fixed for one
am rg
hundred and twenty days.
id
i.c
om
______________
32. Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ. vol. 2, 2036, (no. 2643).

98
Birth Control
Children are born with the directive of God; however,

the process adopted by God in this regard is not that He
sends down a child directly from the heavens in
whatever number He wishes for whichever parent He
w
intends. Children are born through the means of human
w
beings and through their intention, decision and
w ww
.j a w
initiative. Regarding human beings it is common
ve .a
knowledge that their Creator has blessed them with
da l-m
hm a
intellect and cognizance and also endowed them with the
ad wri
freedom to exercise their will. It is a requirement of both
g h d .o
these bestowals of God that before taking any decision a
am rg
person must evaluate its consequences, understand the
id
i.c
matter in the light of knowledge and intellect and then
om
take any step. We may understand this through the
example of a gardener.
: : ۤ r : ۡ < : ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : : 33
: ۡ < 9ٰ ‫ﻧﺤﻦ‬
The Almighty has said: (٦٤:٥٦) ‫ﻟﺰرﻋـﻮن‬ 7 < ۡ ‫ﺗﺰرﻋﻮﻧھ ۡم‬ ‫ء ﻧﺘﻢ‬.
The implication of this verse is that it is not human
beings but God Who makes an orchard bear fruit and a
harvested land bear produce. But does this mean that the
task of a gardener is only to spew seeds or sow plants?
Everyone will answer this question in the negative and
say that it is the gardener’s responsibility to evaluate
whether he can bear the expenses and other needs that
33. Do you nourish the cultivated land or We? (56:64)

99
involve sowing, looking after trees and taking their fruit
to the market? Has he prepared the land? Has he left the
requisite space while planting trees? Does he have
enough information about the demand of the fruits of
these trees in the market? It is after evaluating all these
factors that he should decide what and when to plant and
whether he should even proceed with planting or not.
People debate whether birth control is allowed or
prohibited whereas just as assessing all these factors is
essential for a farmer, it is similarly essential for the
parents to asses them. If a farmer does not take them into
w
w
consideration, he will end up facing the consequences
w ww
.j a w
and if parents also do not give them due importance,
ve .a
they too will face the consequences. Our society is
da l-m
replete with such examples.
hm a
Thus before planning for a child, parents should see
ad wri
g h d .o
whether the mother can bear it or not. Does her health
am rg
allow her to produce and nurture an offspring? Can she
id
spare time from taking care of any previous child to take
i.c
up this new responsibility? Keeping in view their
om
circumstances, do parents have the time, opportunity and
essential means for the upbringing of the child and the
essential finances to educate them? If the answer to all
these questions is in the negative, then parents should
restrain themselves or adopt various means of birth
control; however, they should never plan a child.
Nevertheless, this does not mean that our decision can
impede any decision of God. If His wisdom requires that
a child must be born, then it shall be born. This strategy
of ours is to follow the law of God and not to impede His
decision. Diseases come with God’s permission, yet if
guidelines that safeguard health are not followed then the
100
general law and practice is that diseases shall afflict
people. Cure is in the hands of God, but if remedies are
not sought, then the general law and practice is that
sickness will increase. Sustenance is also in the hands of
God yet the general law and practice is that it is acquired
if one strives for it. This world works on achieving goals
through the means provided and man has been given the
understanding to use these means to his advantage. In
many matters, the fate ordained by God relates to our
intentions, decisions and the practical steps we take.
‘Umar (rta) while commenting on running away from a
w
w
place afflicted with plague is reported to have said: “We
w ww
.j a w
are going from the fate of God towards the fate of
ve .a
God.”34 When once the Prophet (sws) was asked about a
da l-m
method of birth control, he directed the attention of the
hm a
questioner towards this very reality. It is narrated by Abū
ad wri
Sa‘īd al-Khudrī (rta) that the Prophet is reported to have
g h d .o
am rg
said:
id
i.c
Jœ‫ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺷﻴﺊ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻤﻨﻌھ ﺷ‬23‫ و ذ ر د ﷲ‬،‫ﻣﺎﻣﻦ _ﻞ ﻟﻤﺎء ﻳﻜﻮن ﻟﻮﻟﺪ‬
om
Every sperm does not produce a child; but when God
decides to give birth to something, no one can stop
Him.35
______________
34. Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ. vol. 4, 1740, (no. 2219).

35. Ibid., vol. 2, 1064, (no. 1438).
101
Ḥifẓ al-Furūj
(Guarding the Private Parts)
The sharī‘ah does not allow Muslims to sexually gratify

themselves from any other individual but their wives. The
Almighty has forbidden it, and categorically stated in
w
Sūrah Mu’minūn that people who sexually gratify
w
themselves from anyone other than their wives will be
w ww
.j a w
guilty of exceeding the limits set by God. The slave-
ve .a
women of the times of the Prophet (sws) who were yet to
da l-m
hm a
be liberated from their masters were, however, exempted
ad wri
from this directive: if people wanted, they could also
g h d .o
satisfy their sexual urge through them. The Qur’ān says:
am rg
ۡ < : 9 7 : ‫ﻳﻤﺎﻧﻬﻢ‬ ۡ : : : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫ ۡو‬: ‫ﺟﻬﻢ‬
ۡ < < : ۡ : ‫ﻣﻠﻜﺖ‬ ۡ ‫زو‬ : ۡ : ‡ : : 9 : ۡ < 7 ٰ ‫وﺟﻬﻢ‬PŸ7
ۡ ۡ < < ‫ﻫﻢ ﻟ‬ : ۡ 7 : 9 ‫و‬:
ۡ < ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬
id
‫ﻓﺎﻧﻬﻢ‬ 7 7 (b‫ﻵﻹ ﻋ‬7 .‫ﺣﻔﻈﻮن‬ 77
i.c
<: : ٰ: :: ٰ: ۡ :: : ۡ ۡ< : <ۡ:
om
(٧-٥ :٢٣) .‫ﻟﻌﺪون‬
: ۡ < ٰ ۡ ‫ﻫﻢ‬ < < ‫ﻚ‬: ¢‫ﻓﺎوﻟ‬
7 ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ ورآء ذﻟ‬0¡‫ﻓﻤﻦ ﺑﺘ‬ 7 .g ‫ﻣﻠﻮﻣ‬ 7 ‫ﻏ‬
And who guard their private parts except from their
wives and slave-women because for these they have
no blame on them. But, those who want something
beyond this are indeed transgressors. (23:5-7)
Presented above is the correct interpretation of the

verse. However, some of our jurists have also argued on
the basis of this verse that except for wives and slave-
women other means of sexual-gratification are
forbidden. Thus like adultery, homosexuality and
bestiality, various forms of masturbation are also
102
forbidden in their opinion. The only lenience that can be
given in this regard is that the extent of this prohibition
of masturbation is less than that of adultery,
homosexuality and bestiality, and if people in order to
protect themselves from these sins indulge in such
sexual self-gratification to vent their emotions, then it
can be expected that perhaps the Almighty would not
punish them.
In my opinion, this argument is very weak, and in fact
incorrect as per the linguistic principles of Arabic. The
reason for this is that< the preposition (b‫ﻋ‬ ‡ : (on/upon) does
:
w
not collocate with ‫ﺣﻔﻈﻮن‬ ٰ
ۡ 7 (those who guard) and thus there
w
w ww
.j a w
necessarily exists a taḍmīn in this expression, and words
: ٰ < ْ:
ٍ : (b‫ﻋ‬: ‫ﻟﻮﻗﻮع‬
7 < ‫ﻦ‬
ve .a
such as ‫ﺣﺪ‬ ‫( ﻋ‬from indulging with anyone) are
: ۡ < 7 ٰ . Thus, the object from which the
da l-m
suppressed after ‫ﺣﻔﻈﻮن‬
hm a
exception is sought in this expression is not the ways of
ad wri
g h d .o
sexual-gratification: it is the individuals with whom a
am rg
person can establish sexual relations. It is evident from
id
this discussion that this verse does not mean that no way
i.c
of sexual-gratification is allowed except through wives
om
and slave-women; the correct meaning is that except for
wives and slave-women, one cannot appease one’s
sexual urge with any other individual. This is the correct
meaning of the verse. Thus, it can be said with full
certainty that there is no injunction or general principle
in the Qur’ān on the basis of which masturbation can be
regarded as prohibited or undesirable. No different is the
case of the Ḥadīth. Its whole corpus is devoid of any
narrative on this subject which is acceptable to the
scholars of Ḥadīth.
Thus, in this regard, the correct opinion is the one
which is presented by Imām Ibn Ḥazm in his al-
103
Muḥallā36 with all the requisite arguments. He has
mentioned through a chain of narration that authorities
like Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, ‘Amr ibn Dīnār, Ziyād Abū al-A‘lā
and Mujāhid regard masturbation as allowed. These
authorities mostly narrate such things from the
Companions of the Prophet (sws).
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
36. Abū Muḥammad ‘Alī ibn Aḥmad ibn Sa‘īd ibn Ḥazm,
Al-Muḥallā bi al-āthār, 1st ed., vol. 11 (Beirut: Dār al-āfāq al-
jadīdah, n.d.), 393.
104
Etiquette of Sexual Intimacy
The objective of religion is purification of the soul. In

no way does it regard anal or oral sex as desirable. The
Almighty has directed Muslims to come near their wives
through the way He has ٰ prescribed
< < : : : ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
< ۡ : for < ۡ < ۡ : (go to them
:9 it. The words of
< 9 ‫ﻢ‬v‫ﻣﺮ‬
the Qur’ān are: (٢٢٢:٢) 23‫ﷲ‬ ۡ 7 ‫ﻓﺎﺗﻮﻫﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻦ‬
w
w
w ww
from where God has enjoined you, (2:222)). The norms
.j a w
of copulation are ingrained in human nature, and as such
ve .a
da l-m
are no less than a directive of God. Thus if anyone
hm a
disobeys this innate guidance he disobeys an explicit
ad wri
directive – in fact, something more than explicit, and
g h d .o
thus shall definitely be punished by the Almighty for
am rg
this.
id
i.c
Where this verse occurs in the Qur’ān, right after it,
om
the Qur’ān has explained this very directive through the
metaphor of cultivated land. While explaining these
verses, Imām Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī writes:
One very apparent reason for using this metaphor is
the fact that just as for a cultivated land it is essential
on the part of the farmer that seeds be sown in the
appropriate season at the right time, and no farmer
disregards the principle that they be sown within the
fields and not scattered outside them, similarly it is a
norm of human instinct that one should not approach a
lady for sexual intercourse during the menstrual cycle
or in an unnatural way because the period of menses is
105
a time during which women are frigid and not inclined,
while unnatural intercourse is a painful and wasteful
activity. Therefore, people who have not perverted
their nature cannot indulge in such an activity.37
ٰ
ۡ < ۡ 7 (¤9 : ‫ﺛﻜﻢ‬R‫ﺣ‬
While explaining the expression ‫ﺷﺌﺘﻢ‬ ۡ < ۡ : (go
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﻓﺎﺗﻮ‬
then, into your lands in any manner you please), Iṣlāḥī
goes on to write:
… [This] alludes simultaneously to two things: on the

one hand, it refers to the liberty, freedom and free
w
w
manner with which a farmer approaches his land, and
w ww
.j a w
on the other hand refers to the responsibility, caution
ve .a
and care which he must exercise in approaching his
ْ : refers to the latter and the word
da l-m
word ‫ث‬R‫ﺣ‬
< ۡ (¤9ٰ : to the former. It is both this liberty and
land. The
hm a
ۡ‫ﺷﺌﺘﻢ‬7
ad wri
g h d .o
caution which ascertain the correct behaviour of a
am rg
husband with his wife in this regard.
id
i.c
om
Everyone knows that the real bliss of married life is
the freedom a person has in intimate affairs barring a
few broad restrictions. The feeling of this freedom
has a great amount of euphoria around it. When a
person is with his wife in intimate moments, Divine
will seems to be that he be overcome with emotions
but at the same time it is pointed out to him that he
has come into a field and an orchard; it is no
wasteland or a forest. He may come to it in whatever
manner and in whatever way whenever he pleases,
37. Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī, Tadabbur-i Qur’ān, 2nd ed., 9, vol. 1

(Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1985), 527.
106
but he must not forget that he has landed in his
orchard. The Qur’ān has no objection on the
discretion, choice and majesty with which he
approaches his field if he knows full well where he is
going and in no way is oblivious of this reality.38
<9 < : : ۡ :9 :9 <9 < :to9ٰ by

The importance of all these directives is pointed
: ۡ 9 : : < ۡ ‫ﻳﺤﺐ‬ :9
the Qur’ān in the words ‫ﻟﻤﺘﻄﻬﺮﻳﻦ‬
77 7 ‫ و‬g ‫ﺑ‬7 ‫ﻳﺤﺐ ﻟﺘﻮ‬ 7 23‫ ن ﷲ‬7
(God indeed loves those who repent and those who
adhere to cleanliness). While explaining the importance
of these words in the eyes of the Almighty, Iṣlāḥī writes:
w
w
w ww
.j a w
… if one deliberates on the essence of tawbah and
ve .a
taṭahhur, one comes to the conclusion that while the
da l-m
former means to cleanse one’s inner-self from sins,
hm a
the latter means to cleanse one’s outer-self from filth
ad wri
g h d .o
and dirt. Viewed thus, both are similar in their essence
am rg
and the Almighty holds both these traits of a believer
id
in great admiration. On the other hand, people who
i.c
lack these traits are disliked by the Almighty. It is
om
evident from the context of this verse that those who
do not refrain from intercourse with their wives
during their periods of impurity and violate the limits
ingrained in human nature in satisfying their sexual
urge are detestable in the eyes of the Almighty.39
______________
38. Ibid., vol. 1, 527.

39. Ibid., vol. 1, 526.
107
The Noble Wives of the Prophet (sws)
According to the nature on which man has been

created, the real benefit of the institution of the family
can be obtained through the marriage of one man and
one woman. As a human being, the Prophet (sws) too
kept this fact in consideration in his life and never
w
w
thought of marrying again in the presence of his first
w ww
.j a w
wife. His first marriage was with Khadījah (rta) at the
ve .a
age of 25. She had already been married twice before
da l-m
and also had children from her previous marriages. She
hm a
was a pious lady and was called Ṭāhirah because of this
ad wri
g h d .o
noble trait. The Prophet Muḥammad (sws) spent all his
am rg
youth and middle age in her companionship. This
id
marriage lasted for almost 25 years till Khadījah’s (rta)
i.c
om
death. At her death, the Prophet (sws) was left alone to
discharge his obligations towards his household. It has
been reported in narratives that after her death, a lady by
the name of Khawlah bint Ḥakīm directed his attention
to marry again as this was his need. She is reported to
have said:
9ٰ : ْ < :
‫(أر كﻗﺪدﺧﻠﺘﻚﺧﻠﺔﻟﻔﻘﺪﺧﺪﻳﺠﺔ…أﻓﻶﻹأﺧﻄﺐﻋﻠﻴﻚ‬¤‫_ﺎ‬23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫رﺳﻮل‬ ‫ﻳﺎ‬
O God’s Messenger! I see that you have secluded
yourself after the loss of Khadījah … shall I not find
a match for you?40
40. See: Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Sa‘d al-Zuhrī, Al-

108
The Prophet (sws) inquired if a match was available.
She replied: “If you want, both an unmarried and a
divorced lady are available.” The Prophet (sws) asked:
“Who is the unmarried one?” Her reply was: “ ‘Ā’ishah,
the daughter of your dearest friend Abū Bakr. The
Prophet (sws) inquired: “Who is the divorced lady?”
“She replied: “Sawdah bint Zam‘ah who has professed
faith in you and follows your religion.” The Prophet
(sws) said: “Proceed to ask them.” When she talked to
them, both proposals were accepted.41 Since they were
w
given on behalf of the Prophet (sws), he could not have
w
w ww
refused. So, he married both but consummated the
.j a w
ve .a
marriage with Sawdah (rta) only. She was a divorcee and
da l-m
of the same age as the Prophet (sws), and in a better
hm a
position to discharge household responsibilies. ‘Ā’ishah
ad wri
(rta) remained at her father’s house. For four years it was
g h d .o
Sawdah (rta) who stayed in the Prophet’s house. It was
am rg
then that he brought ‘Ā’ishah (rta) home once Abū Bakr
id
i.c
(rta) directed his attention to this. Once she came to his
om
home, the Prophet (sws) decided to divorce Sawdah
(rta). At this, she submitted that she had reached an age
when she was no longer interested in intimate relations
and that she would forego her rights in favour of
‘Ā’ishah (rta). She then requested that the Prophet (sws)
should not divorce her and that it was her wish that on
the Day of Judgement she appear as his wife. At this, the
Prophet (sws) revised his decision. So, for all practical
purposes, after this it was only ‘Ā’shah (rta) who was his
Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8 (Beirut: Dār ṣādir, n.d.), 57.

41. Abū ‘Abdullāh Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal al-Shaybānī, Musnad,
vol. 6, (Egypt: Mu’assasah Qurṭubah, n.d.), 210, (no. 25810).
109
sole wife in this situation.
In his capacity of a human being, it was only these two
ladies who remained his wives. Apart from them, he
never married any other woman in this capacity. Thus
those who accuse him of polygamy and try to cast
aspersions on his pious and abstinent life are devoid of
God’s fear in their hearts. This is because a person
whose character had dared not been criticized in the first
25 years of his life, who even in the prime of his youth
married a lady who was a divorcee and also had
children, who spent almost 25 years in the
w
w
companionship of a single wife in a society in which
w ww
.j a w
polygamy was a general norm and never thought of
ve .a
marrying a second wife, who undertook his second
da l-m
marriage only when his first wife had died and that too
hm a
with a widow of 50 years, who married only one virgin
ad wri
in the whole of his life and even delayed bringing her
g h d .o
am rg
home for many years so that the older wife already in his
id
home who was brought to take care of the household
i.c
does not complain of any lack of attention – about such a
om
person only someone sick in his mind can think that at
the age of 55 the Prophet (sws) suddenly became
obssessed with multiple marriages, and to satisfy his lust
altered a law he himself had made and began marrying
other women one after the other.
There is no doubt that in the last eight years of his life
he married eight more women, and a special law too was
revealed in this regard. However, neither were these
marriages contracted in his capacity of a human being
nor because of his own desire or to satisfy lust. All these
marriages took place in his capacity of God’s Prophet to
discharge the responsibilities of this position. All of
110
them were conducted on God’s directive or indication.
Any upright person who has tried to understand this
whole issue by disregarding all prejudices cannot deny
this reality. Following are its details:
1. The care and upbringing of the widows and orphans
of many Muslims who were martyred in the battles of
Badr and Uḥud became a collective issue faced by the
small state of Madīnah. The Qur’ān therefore stated that
if the relatives and guardians of these orphans thought
that they would not be able to befittingly take care of
their wealth and since it was no easy a task to be able to
w
w
do it alone, they should marry the mothers of the orphans
w ww
.j a w
lawful to them. This appeal was made by God, the Lord
ve .a
of the worlds. It was but natural that the Prophet (sws)
da l-m
take the lead in responding to it. This is exactly what
hm a
happened and the Prophet (sws) responded by marrying
ad wri
three widows: Ḥafsah bint ‘Umar (rta), Zaynab bint
g h d .o
am rg
Khuzaymah (rta) and Umm Salamah bint Umayyah (rta).
id
2. When the Qur’ān directed the Muslims to eradicate
i.c
slavery and raise the status of slaves in the society, the
om
Prophet (sws) showed exemplary conduct in its
compliance: he wedded his paternal cousin Zaynab (rta)
with his liberated slave and adopted son Zayd (rta). This
was an extra-ordinary measure and had far-reaching
consequences. Unfortunately, this marriage did not last
and Zayd (rta) decided to divorce her. This was a matter
of immense grief for Zaynab (rta). This was because in
the first place she had consented to marry a liberated slave
to reform a social custom and later became a divorcee.
Thus to comfort and solace her and to uproot the
prevailing social custom of the prohibition of marrying
the wife of an adopted son, the Almighty directed the
111
Prophet (sws) to marry Zaynab (rta) even though at that
time he already had four wives. In order to warn those
who may raise an objection on this step, the Almighty
stated in the Qur’ān that since he was the final prophet, it
was he who had to reform this custom. There was no one
after him who could do so. The Prophet (sws) himself
thought that perhaps marrying Zaynab (rta) was the only
way out because of what had ensued between her and
Zayd (rta), but he never expressed these thoughts. The
Almighty revealed these inner thoughts and told him that
the messengers of God did not care about the reaction of
w
w
people while discharging their responsibilities.
w ww
.j a w
Consequently, the Prophet’s marriage with Zaynab (rta)
ve .a
was proclaimed by the Almighty Himself in the Qur’ān:
da l-m
: : ۡ : : ۡ : : ۡ ۡ : ۡ : : : ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ : : < 9 ٰ : : ۡ : ۤۡ : 9 < ۡ < : ۡ :
hm a
‫و‬: ‫زوﺟﻚ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﻚ ﻋﻠﻴﻚ‬ 7 ‫ﻋﻠﻴھ‬
7 ‫ﻋﻠﻴھ و —ﻌﻤﺖ‬ 7 23‫ﻠﺬي —ﻌﻢ ﷲ‬7 7 ‫ﻘﻮل ﻟ‬U ‫ذ‬7 ‫و‬
ad wri
< 9 : : < 9ٰ : : : 9 : ۡ : : ۡ ۡ < < 9ٰ : : ۡ : ۡ ۡ ۡ < : : 9ٰ : 9
g h d .o
‫ ﺣﻖ‬23‫ ﻟﻨﺎس ¨ و ﷲ‬J©‫ﻣﺒﺪﻳھ و ﺗﺨ‬ 7 7 23‫—ﻔﺴﻚ ﻣﺎ ﷲ‬ 7 ()7 0ª‫ﺗﺨ‬ 7 ‫ و‬23‫ﺗﻖ ﷲ‬
am rg
7
: : : ۡ < : : ۡ : : : ٰ ۡ :9 : ً : : : ۡ 9 ٌ ۡ : ٰ : :9 : : < ٰ ۡ : ۡ :
id
(b‫¬( ﻵﻹ ﻳﻜﻮن ﻋ‬7 ‫ زوﺟﻨﻜﻬﺎ ﻟ‬R-‫ﻣﻨﻬﺎ و‬7 ‫ زﻳﺪ‬J«‫ن ﺗﺨﺸھ ‚ ﻓﻠﻤﺎ ﻗ‬
i.c
om
<‫ ۡﻣﺮ‬: ‫_ﺎن‬ ً : : ‫ﻣﻨﻬﻦ‬
: : ‫و‬: ‚ R-‫و‬ : : : ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ : ۤۡ ٌ : : : ۡ ۡ < ۡ
: 9 < ۡ ‫ﻗﻀﻮ‬
7 ۡ ‫ذ‬7 ‫دﻋﻴﺂ®ﻬﻢ‬
7 7 7 ‫ج‬7 ‫)( زو‬7 ‫ج‬R‫ ﺣ‬g ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬ 7 7
ً ۡ
ۡ < : 23‫ﷲ‬ 9ٰ
(٣٧:٣٣) ‫ﻣﻔﻌﻮﻵﻹ‬ 7
And remember [O Prophet!] When you were
repeatedly saying to one who had received the favour
of God and your favour: “Retain your wife, [in
wedlock] and fear God.” And you were hiding in
your heart that which God was about to make
manifest: and you were fearing the people, but it is
more fitting that you should fear God. So when Zayd
broke his relationship with that [lady], We wedded
her to you so that there remain no difficulty on the
112
believers in the matter of marriage with the wives of
their adopted sons when the latter have dissolved
their relationship with them. And this command of
God had to be fulfilled. (33:37)
3. Right after this proclamation, the Almighty revealed

detailed directives specifically for the Prophet (sws)
regarding marriage and divorce. In these directives, the
restrictions of polygamy meant for general Muslims
were repealed but certain other restrictions were imposed
on him that were not imposed on other Muslims. These
w
detailed directives are stated in verses 50-52 of Sūrah al-
w
w ww
Aḥzāb. The statutes on which they are based are as
.j a w
ve .a
follows:
da l-m
Firstly, after contracting marriage with Zaynab (rta),
hm a
the Prophet (sws) could marry further for the following
ad wri
objectives:
g h d .o
am rg
i. To honour free women who were caught as captives in
id
some military campaign.
i.c
i. To show kind-heartedness to women who wanted to
om
marry him just for the sake of associating themselves to
him, and for this they were ready to gift themselves to
him.
iii. To console and sympathize with his maternal or
paternal cousin sisters who had migrated with him from
Makkah and left their houses and relatives merely to
support and back him.
Secondly, since these marriages of the Prophet (sws)
were to be contracted only to fulfil certain religious
obligations, he was not required to deal equally between
the wives.
Thirdly, except for the women specified, he was
113
prohibited to marry any other lady;42 he could also not
divorce any of his wives nor bring a new one in her place
however much he liked her.
It was clearly evident from this that the Almighty
wanted that the Prophet (sws) marry women who were
afflicted with sorrows as result of accepting his call or
were aggrieved as a result of some step taken by him or
if any of them merely had a strong desire to be
associated to him. This was an expression of great
affection on the part of God.
Consequently, the Prophet (sws) while comprehending
w
w
this divine will married Jawayriyah (rta) and Ṣafiyyah
w ww
.j a w
(rta) for the first objective outlined above, Maymūnah
ve .a
(rta) for the second and Umm-i Ḥabībah (rta) for the third.
da l-m
It is also pointed out in these verses that the wives of
hm a
the Prophet (sws) were the mothers of the believers;
ad wri
g h d .o
consequently, marriage was eternally prohibited for
am rg
them. No Muslim could even think of marrying them
id
after the Prophet’s death:
i.c
ۡ < < ٰ : 9 < ۤ‫ﺟھ‬ 9 :9 :
om
(٦:٣٣) ‫ﻣﻬﺘﻬﻢ‬ r < ‫زو‬ ۡ 7 < ۡ : ‫ﻣﻦ‬
: ۡ : ‫و‬: ‫—ﻔﺴﻬﻢ‬ ۡ ۡ :
ۡ 7 g: ۡ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨ‬
7 7 < 7 (Tٰ ‫ۡو‬
<J°‫ﻟﻨ‬
7 7
The Prophet holds priority for the believers over
their own selves, and his wives are their mothers.
(33:6)
9 ٰ : ۡ : : ۡ < ٰ : 9 ً : : ۤ ۡ : • r : : ۡ : ۤۡ < ۡ : ۡ : ۤ : :
ً ۡ 7 : 23‫ﷲ‬
‫ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺎ‬ 7 ‫ﻋﻨﺪ‬ ٖ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ 'ﻌ‬7 ‫ﺗﻨﻜﺤﻮ زو ﺟھ‬
7 ‫ﻜﻢ _ﺎن‬7 ‫ن ذﻟ‬7 ‚ ‫ﺪه ﺑﺪ‬ 7 ‫و ﻵﻹ ن‬
(٥٣:٣٣)
42. Consequently, because of these restrictions, the Prophet

(sws) could not marry Māriyah (rta) and she remained in his
house as a slave lady.
114
Nor is it right for you that you should marry his
widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is
abominable in God’s sight. (33:53)
It is evident from this discussion that these marriage

directives were given to Muhammad (sws) as a religious
obligation in his capacity as a Prophet and a Messenger of
God. He followed these directives and there was no
element of personal desire in these marriages.
Consequently, the need arose to make these directives an
exception to the general ones given to the Muslims in this
w
w
regard. The above-mentioned regulations stated in Sūrah
w ww
.j a w
al-Aḥzāb cite this very exception.
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
______________
am rg
id
i.c
om
115
Age of ‘Ā’ishah (rta) at her Marriage
It is generally believed that ‘Ā’ishah (rta), mother of

the faithful, was six years old when she got married to
the Prophet Muḥammad (sws). The nikāḥ took place in
Makkah after the death of Khadījah (rta). The marriage
w
was consummated three years later in Madīnah. This is
w
w ww
what books of Ḥadīth and sīrah report about her. The
.j a w
narratives which describe these details are found in
ve .a
da l-m
Bukhārī and Muslim and some other books of H@adīth as
hm a
well. There is no doubt that such marriages have taken
ad wri
place in the past keeping in view certain needs of tribal
g h d .o
and rural societies. Examples can even be presented
am rg
from our society. It is also true that the social attitudes
id
i.c
that spring from basic morality can be different in
om
different societies keeping in view their circumstances
and experiences, and the moral status of one society
cannot be determined by using another society as a
standard. All these things can be accepted; however, the
matter of ‘Ā’ishah’s (rta) marriage is different. The
question which arises in every discerning mind relates to
the need of this marriage: why did it take place when the
need which was present at that time could not have been
fulfilled even after many subsequent years? Such
marriages do take place and one can accept them taking
place without any hesitation; however, it is not easy to
accept marriages which take place without any reason
116
and to fulfil a current need many years later.
Had the suggestion to marry her come from the
Prophet (sws), we could have said that this was done on
divine bidding. The role she would play in the Prophet’s
life and the treasure of wisdom which would be
transmitted to the ummah through her noble person was
in the foreknowledge of God; thus it was decided that
she be singled out for the Prophet (sws) since this early
age. We can also say that the Prophet (sws) undertook
this marriage for the betterment of his preaching
mission. ‘Ā’ishah’s (rta) father was a very close
w
w
companion of the Prophet (sws). In tribal life,
w ww
.j a w
relationships play a great role in cementing close ties.
ve .a
The Prophet (sws) deemed it appropriate that he engage
da l-m
in this association with his special companion so that ties
hm a
of friendship and love were strengthened.
ad wri
Had this suggestion to marry her come from Abū Bakr
g h d .o
am rg
(rta), it could have been said that he was desirous of
id
respect and honour for his daughter, for his own self and
i.c
for his own family. He wanted to establish familial ties
om
with the person whom he regarded to be a messenger of
God; perhaps he did not get this idea at the time of the
marriage of his other daughter Asmā’ (rta). After her, it
was only through ‘Ā’ishah (rta) that he could attain this
honour. Thus he suggested for this marriage to take
place. The Prophet (sws) accepted this suggestion to
honour the wish of his dear friend.
However, we know that none of these suppositions are
true. If because of a divinely inspired vision such a
thought for ‘Ā’ishah’s (rta) existed in the heart of the
Prophet (sws), he never expressed it. The whole corpus
of Ḥadith and sīrah literature is totally devoid of a
117
mention of any such suggestion, indication or
insinuation from him. The same is the case of Abū Bakr
(rta). If he wanted the marriage of his daughter to take
place with the Prophet (sws), why did he resolve to
solemnize her marriage with the son of Muṭ‘im ibn
‘Adī? Narratives mention that he had already done this
before this suggestion came to him. Not only this, it is
also reported that when he heard this suggestion, he
expressed his wonder since he thought that the Prophet
(sws) was like a paternal uncle for his children; so how
could the suggestion of such a marriage be presented.
w
His words reported are: ‫ ﺑﻨﺔ ﺧﻴھ‬01 ‫( ﻫﻞ ﺗﺼﻠح ﻟھ ﻧﻤﺎ‬Is she
w
w ww
allowed to him? She is the daughter of his brother!)43
.j a w
ve .a
The narratives clearly state that it was Khawlah bint
da l-m
Hakīm who suggested that the name of ‘Ā’ishah (rta) for
hm a
this marriage. It was she who directed the attention of
ad wri
g h d .o
the Prophet (sws) to the fact that after the death of
am rg
Khadījah (rta), it was his need to marry again. She is
reported to have said: ‫( أر ك ﻗﺪ دﺧﻠﺘﻚ ﺧﻠﺔ ﻟﻔﻘﺪ‬¤‫ _ﺄ‬23‫ﻳﺎ رﺳﻮل ﷲ‬
id
i.c
‫( ﺧﺪﻳﺠﺔ أﻓﻶﻹ أﺧﻄﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻚ‬I see that you have secluded yourself
om
after the loss of Khadījah; shall I find a match for
you?).44 On inquiry by the Prophet (sws), she told him
that both an unmarried and a divorced lady were
available. When the Prophet (sws) asked who the
unmarried lady she had in mind was, her reply was
‘Ā’ishah bint Abī Bakr (rta).45
A wife can be needed to satisfy one’s sexual needs, for
companionship and friendship and for looking after
43. Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, vol, 6, 210, (no. 25810).

44. See: Ibn Sa‘d, Al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 8, 57.
45. Ibid.
118
children and household affairs. If this suggestion was
given with sanity prevailing, the question which arises
is: which of these needs can be fulfilled by a six year old
girl? Could sexual relations be established with her?
Could the companionship of a wife be available through
her? Could she have been able to look after kids? Could
she have looked after household affairs? The issue just
raised that a marriage is taking place to fulfil needs
which cannot even be fulfilled after many years of
marriage is not merely a possible option that should be
considered in interpreting these narratives. It is the most
w
w
fundamental question in this regard. Can it be logically
w ww
.j a w
accepted that to fulfil a need of today a suggestion be
ve .a
given as a result of which it is not even fulfilled after
da l-m
several years? Ibn Khaldūn has rightly pointed out that
hm a
in the matter of historical incidents, the real thing is their
ad wri
g h d .o
possibility of taking place. They cannot merely be
am rg
accepted on the basis that their chain of narration
id
contains such and such a person and that it has been
i.c
46
om
narrated through several chains.
In current times, men of learning who are presenting
their researches on this issue should first of all answer
this question. They should explain how this internal
contradiction of the narrative can be resolved. If this
contradiction cannot be resolved, then why don’t the
requisites of knowledge and intellect entail that the
narrative which depicts ‘Ā’shah’s age to be six years at
the time of marriage should be reconsidered and the
46. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Khaldūn,

Muqaddimah, 5th ed. (Beirut: Dār al-qalam, 1984), 37.
119
opinion of those scholars47 should also be reflected upon
who say that the words to the effect Rw‫( 'ﻌﺪ ﻟﻌ‬after ten)
were understood to be present after the words ‫ﺑﻨﺖ ﺳﺖ‬
g ‫( ﺳﻨ‬a girl of six) uttered by ‘Ā’ishah (rta) and the
narrators never made an effort to understand them?
Whatever research is presented without answering this
question will never be worthy of any attention for any
person of learning.
w
w
w ww
______________
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
47. See, for example: Shabbīr Aḥmad Aẓhar Mayrathī, Ṣaḥīḥ
Bukhārī kā muṭāla‘ah, 1st ed. (Lahore: Dār al-tazkīr, 2005),
252-255.
120
The Right to Divorce
Marriage is not just about bringing the physical

relationship between a man and a woman within the
bounds of law. It is a contract that lays the foundation of
a family. This institution of family is an indispensable
w
human requirement. Without it, many basic
w
physiological, psychological, and social needs remain
w ww
.j a w
unfulfilled. The institution is founded on a woman’s
ve .a
decision to accept her bond with a man not as his friend
da l-m
hm a
but as his wife. The decision implies that she has
ad wri
accepted the man as the head of the institution that their
g h d .o
matrimonial bond will create. Just as this institution
am rg
makes it incumbent upon the man that he take the
id
i.c
financial responsibility of his wife and children, it also
om
entails that, in the unfortunate case of the need for
divorce, the woman not take any step to end the marriage
without first resolving matters with the man. Therefore,
in a situation requiring dissolution of marriage, she will
not divorce the husband; she will ask for divorce. In
usual circumstances, it is expected that a decent husband
will not refuse his wife’s request in a situation where no
reasonable possibility of reconciliation exists. However,
if the husband does not accept her request, what should a
woman do? The sharī‘ah does not answer this question;
instead, as with many other matters related to life, it
leaves this matter also to our discretion (ijtihād). Since
121
the Prophet’s (sws) time, the procedure that has been
adopted for this purpose is that the woman then
approaches the court. In our times, this step is often
fraught with innumerable difficulties for the woman.
One suggestion to resolve this problem is that the man
be asked to delegate his authority of divorce to the
woman. However, such a demand is again not easy to
make in our society, especially on the occasion of
marriage. Furthermore, such stipulation also negates the
spirit and the wisdom in not giving a woman the right to
divorce her husband. Therefore, in our opinion, a law
w
w
should be enacted at the level of the state that, after a
w ww
.j a w
woman’s request for termination of marriage, if the
ve .a
husband refuses to divorce her in the next 90 days, the
da l-m
marriage will stand dissolved; if there are any
hm a
unresolved matters pertaining to wealth or maintenance,
ad wri
either party may approach the court for resolution.
g h d .o
am rg
Another possibility is that, in the current marriage form,
id
the section for the option of transferring the right of
i.c
divorce to the wife be replaced with the following
om
statement:
“This marriage contract takes effect with the proviso

that, if the wife ever makes a written request for
divorce, the husband shall be obliged to divorce her
within 90 days. If he does not do that, it shall be
deemed that an irrevocable divorce from his side has
taken effect. Thereafter, if the husband demands the
return of any property or wealth that she received
from him, she shall be obliged to return to him that
property or wealth except her mahr (bridal gift that
the husband gives as a token of his commitment) and
122
maintenance. In case of any difference of opinion
regarding the return of this property or wealth, she
shall refer the matter to the court.”
It is expected that this form will save the woman and

her family the embarrassment of laying down this
condition as a demand from their side on the occasion of
the marriage ceremony.
If and when the divorce proceedings are initiated in
accordance with this stipulation, the husband will get a
90-day period to convince the woman [and her family]
w
to withdraw her request.
w
w ww
The divorce, nevertheless, will be from the husband’s
.j a w
ve .a
side, and, therefore, the sanctity and the wisdom in the
da l-m
Divine law will be preserved.
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
(Translated by Asif Iftikhar)
am rg
id
i.c
______________
om
123
Wrong Methods of giving Divorce
As per the procedure outlined in the Islamic sharī‘ah

for divorcing a wife, no one has the right to divorce his
wife without taking into consideration her ‘iddat,
pronouncing divorce in rage, not calling in witnesses at
w
the time of divorce, declaring divorce during her
w
menstrual cycle or during her period of purity in which
w ww
.j a w
he has been intimate with her or utter more than one
ve .a
divorce sentences in one go or send a written divorce to
da l-m
hm a
her by writing many divorces at the same time. All these
ad wri
methods are extremely undesirable. The Prophet (sws)
g h d .o
showed great anger on whichever of these methods were
am rg
adopted in his times or emanated from a person in his
id
presence. So much so, at one instance he is reported to
i.c
om
have said: “Is the law of God being toyed with even
though I am present among you?”48
In spite of this, ninety percent of the people in our
society are guilty of the above referred to wrongdoings
while giving divorce. In the thirty years of my public
life, barring one or two, almost all cases of divorce
which have come to me are afflicted with one or more of
these wrongdoings. This is something very worrisome.
However, does this mean: do people intentionally
48. Abū ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Aḥmad ibn Shu‘ayb al-Nasā’ī, Al-

Sunan al-mujtabā, 2nd ed., vol. 6. (Ḥalab: Maktab al-maṭbū‘āt
al-islāmiyyah, 1986), 142, (no. 3401).
124
disobey the law of God and have no sense of what is
lawful and what is not left in them? They no longer fear
God in this regard and do not think that one day they
will be held accountable before God? In my opinion,
none of the above is the case. People indulge in these
wrongdoings not because they want to be rebelleious
before God. On the contrary, they commit these
wrongdoings unintentionally. The reason for this is that
a vast majority of them in the first place do not even
know that these things are prohibited in the sharī‘ah of
God. Secondly, scholars and jurists not only do not
w
w
inform people of these wrongdoings, they even enforce
w ww
.j a w
every divorce that is given while adopting wrong
ve .a
methods. Thirdly, if the person who has given divorce
da l-m
goes to a registered oath commissioner or marriage
hm a
registrar or some lawyer and asks them to write a
ad wri
divorce document, then they too without taking all these
g h d .o
am rg
wrongdoings in consideration write three simultaneous
id
divorce sentences. This has become so common that
i.c
seldom do we see a person divorce his wife according to
om
the sharī‘ah of God and according to the norms
prescribed by it.
The consequences of this approach are very grave. The
benefits which the sharī‘ah methodology of divorce
holds are sacrificed. All options of reconciliation and
saving the family are dashed to ground. No possibility
remains for the children, adults and friends to resolve the
situation. A permanent basis of rivalry between families
is laid. When people who have divorced their wives turn
to scholars to make amends for what they have done, the
answer they get is to do ḥalālah. The words of the
Prophet (sws) regarding this heinous act is that God
125
curses the one who undertakes it and and the one who
has it arrangened.49 In short, as soon as divorce is uttered
from the mouth, it becomes a regret for the whole life.
The following measures are essential to redress this
state of affairs.
1. In their Friday sermons, gatherings and lectures,
scholars should inform people of these mistakes. They
should make them aware of their grave nature. They
should continuously place before these people the
sayings of the Prophet (sws) related to divorce. They
should inform them that the right way to divorce a wife
w
is to always pronounce it once only, and that it should be
w
w ww
given in a calm and calculated way in the presence of
.j a w
ve .a
two witnesses giving due regard to the ‘iddat period and
da l-m
it should not be given during her menstrual cycle or in
hm a
her period of ritual cleanliness when the husband has
ad wri
had intercourse with her.
g h d .o
2. Like the marriage form, the government should also
am rg
issue a standard divorce form and place it in the custody
id
i.c
of marriage registrars. It should be made mandatory on
om
every person who intends to divorce his wife to fill this
form. If he does not do so, then he must be necessarily
punished.
3. Jurists, scholars and courts of law instead of
implementing wrongly given divorces should adopt the
way the Prophet (sws) adopted in such cases. Two of
these cases are very important:
The first of these is the case of ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Umar
(rta). When he divorced his wife during her menstrual
49. Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Yazīd ibn Mājah al-

Qazwīnī, 1st ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah,
1998), 623, (no. 1936).
126
cycle, ‘Umar (rta) presented his case before the Prophet
(sws). The Prophet (sws) expressed great anger when he
was informed of these details and said: “Ask him to take
her back and retain her in wedlock until she enters her
period of purity and then again passes through her
menstrual cycle and is pure again. Then, if he wants, he
can permanently retain her or divorce her without having
intercourse with her because this is the beginning of
‘iddat keeping regard of which the Almighty has
directed a husband to divorce his wife.”50
The second case is that of Rukānah ibn ‘Abdi Yazīd.
w
By gathering all the narratives of this case, the whole
w
w ww
situation that comes to light is that he had divorced his
.j a w
ve .a
wife three times in one go. He then felt ashamed and
da l-m
presented his case before the Prophet (sws). The Prophet
hm a
(sws) inquired: “How did you divorce her?” He replied:
ad wri
“I divorced her three times in one go.” The Prophet
g h d .o
(sws) again inquired: “What was your intention?” He
am rg
answered that he wanted to divorce her once only. The
id
i.c
Prophet (sws) told him to reply on oath which he did and
om
then said: “If this is the matter, then take her back. Only
one divorce has been implemented.” Rukānah remarked:
“O Prophet of God! I had divorced her three times.” The
Prophet said: “I know, take her back and this is not the
proper way of divorcing a wife. The Almighty has said
that if one must divorce his wife, he should do so
keeping in consideration the ‘iddat.”51

51. Abū Dā’ūd Sulymān ibn al-Ash‘ath al-Sajistānī, Sunan,
vol. 2 (n.p.: Dār al-fikr, n.d.), 267, 270, (nos. 2196, 2206); Ibn
127
_____________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Mājah, Sunan, vol. 2, 521, (no. 2051); Abū ‘Īsā Muḥammad
ibn ‘Īsā al-Tirmidhī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-kabīr, 2nd ed., vol. 2 (Beirut:
Dār al-gharb al-islāmī, 1998), 466, (no. 1177), Aḥmad ibn
Ḥanbal, Musnad, vol. 1, 438, (no. 2383). These narratives
have weak chains of narration; however, if they are collected
and collated, this weakness is dispelled
128
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
129
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
130
Implementation of the Sharī‘ah (Divine Law)
Some people believe that democracy is a concept alien

to Islam. The ideal way of setting up an Islamic
government in our times is the one that the Taliban
adopted for Mullāh ‘Umar’s government in Afghanistan.
w
The constitution, the parliament, and elections are
w
nothing but modern day shams. For its implementation,
w ww
.j a w
Islam does not depend on any of these mechanisms.
ve .a
Whatever interpretations have been accepted in the
da l-m
Ḥanafī law52 are final and authoritative. The opinions of
hm a
ad wri
its jurists have all been compiled in matters related to
g h d .o
individual as well as collective affairs. According to
am rg
these people, these opinions and verdicts are based on the
id
i.c
Qur’ān, the Sunnah (the Prophet’s teachings), ijmā‘
om
(consensus), and Qiyās (analogy) and are contained in the
manuals of fiqh (Islamic law) and in the fatāwā (verdicts)
of “qualified” Muslim jurists. These laws and verdicts
must be implemented. And this implementation does not
require the approval of any parliament. The modus
operandi recommended by people with these views is
that all institutions of the government be under the
judiciary and the judiciary itself be under the control of
the ‘ulamā’ (religious scholars) as it is the ‘ulamā’ who
52. Islamic law as understood, interpreted and applied in one

of the major Sunni schools of thought. The Ḥanafī school is
named after the Iraqi legal expert Abū Ḥanīfah (d. 767 AD).
131
are the experts in the understanding and interpretation of
the sharī‘ah (Divine law). These people hold that the last
1200 years of Muslim tradition stands in support of their
view. In their opinion, after the appointment of Imām
Abū Yūsuf as the qādī al-quḍāt (chief justice) of the
Abbasid Sultanate, the same modus operandi was
adopted everywhere for the implementation of Islam. It
was the Western colonialism that put an end to this
tradition. Now, the Muslims are independent; therefore,
this approach to running the affairs of the state in
accordance with the sharī‘ah must also be restored.
w
w
I can say with full confidence on the basis of my study
w ww
.j a w
of Islam that this viewpoint is not acceptable to the
ve .a
Qur’ān. It prescribes democracy as the basis for running
da l-m
the affairs of the State. The Qur’ān (42:38) says:
hm a
amruhum shūrā baynahum (the affairs of the Muslims
ad wri
are run on the basis of their consultation). ‘Umar (rta)
g h d .o
am rg
said: “Whosoever pledges allegiance to anyone without
id
the collective consent of the Muslims presents himself
i.c
for the death sentence.”53 It is true that, in Muslim
om
history, monarchy and dictatorship have often been
accepted forms of government. Some people also believe
that the head of government should be an appointee of
God Himself. However, the principle the Qur’ān spells
out is very clear. What this principle entails in terms of
its nature and foundation has been explained very aptly
by a well-known Muslim scholar of our times, Mawlānā
Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī. He says:
First of all, people whose interests and rights are
53. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 6, 2505, (no. 6442).

132
directly affected by collective decisions should have
the absolute right to express their opinions. They
should be fully informed of how their matters are
being dealt with, and they should be granted the full
right to criticize those in charge of their matters for
any mistakes or flaws. They should also have the
right to change their leaders if they do not see any
effectiveness in the efforts for their reform. Making
people conform to collective decisions by stifling
their voice, shackling their hands and keeping them
in the dark is downright dishonesty, which no
w
w
intellectually honest person can consider as
w ww
.j a w
compliance with the directive of amruhum shūrā
ve .a
baynahum.
da l-m
hm a
The second thing that needs to be understood is that
ad wri
the appointment of the person responsible for the
g h d .o
am rg
collective affairs of the Muslims should be with the
id
free will of people. Support gained through
i.c
coercion, intimidation, jobbery, bribery, deception
om
or misrepresentation does not reflect free will. The
rightful leader of the people is not someone who
attains this position by hook or by crook, but
someone whom they choose of their own accord.
The third point is that representatives of people

involved in consultation with the head of the state
should be appointed on the basis of the genuine trust
of people. Obviously, those who have attained this
position on the basis of coercion, bribes, lies and
deception can never be deemed as worthy of this
trust.
133
The fourth point pertains to freedom of expression
for people’s representatives to present their opinions
correctly and honestly in accordance with their
understanding and conscience. If this aspect is
missing and the representatives are bound by any
fear, greed or group affiliation, the consequence will
be dishonesty and betrayal rather than conformity to
the principle of amruhum shūrā baynahum.
Finally, the unanimous or majority verdict of the
w
consultative body should be accepted. The reason
w
w ww
for this principle is that, if any person or group is
.j a w
given the authority to violate the collective decision,
ve .a
da l-m
the whole process of consultation becomes
hm a
meaningless. The Almighty does not say: “In their
ad wri
matters, the Muslims are consulted.” Instead, He
g h d .o
says: “Their matters are based on their
am rg
consultation.” Compliance with this directive does
id
i.c
not take effect by mere consultation. Compliance
om
here requires that, in the consultation, whatever is
decided by unanimous or majority verdict become
binding.”54
This extract clearly shows that, for the interpretation

and application of even a religious directive pertaining to
the state affairs, it is consultation that should be the
procedure. Experts of Islamic sciences may proffer their
opinions. It is their right to express their viewpoints, but
their opinions become legally binding on people only
54. Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī, Tafhīm al-Qur’ān, vol. 4,

(Lahore: Maktabah-i ta‘mīr-i insāniyyat, 1972), 509-510.
134
when the majority of the elected representatives of
people accept them. In the present-day state, the
institution of the parliament is constituted for this very
purpose. It is the right of the people to disagree with
decisions of the parliament and to express their
viewpoints to rectify its mistakes. However, no one has
the right to violate the laws enacted by the parliament or
to defy the system. Neither the ‘ulamā nor the judiciary
is superior to the parliament. Each institution has the
obligation to comply with the parliamentary decisions
even if it has differences of opinion with it.
w
w
If this status of the parliament is accepted, the
w ww
.j a w
discussion on an “Islamic state” viz-à-viz a “secular
ve .a
state” also becomes irrelevant. Discussions as these were
da l-m
relevant in situations of autocracy and dictatorship.
hm a
Now, the objective of our efforts should be a purely
ad wri
democratic state. Once this state is truly formed, Islam
g h d .o
am rg
will manifest itself in the system in proportion to the
id
degree of people’s commitment to this faith. This is the
i.c
natural way. Any deviation from it will lead only to
om
hypocrisy, which we have been witnessing for the past
half-century in Pakistan.
The real task of the ‘ulamā’ and reformers is to prepare
the minds of the people for Islam through education and
communication. They should call people to this message
with sagacity and decency; they should face their
questions and queries; they should cogently resolve
people’s intellectual issues and explain to them not only
the sharī‘ah but also the Divine wisdom in its directives.
For example, they should be ready to explain what the
relationship of the sharī‘ah is with the collective affairs
of the society, what the foundations of its directives are,
135
and why the modern mind is impeded in understanding
the wisdom of the Divine law. They should adopt such
means and modes of communication as would bring out
the wisdom and the meaningfulness of the sharī‘ah so
that people are able to understand the underlying
objectives clearly and become willing to accept these
laws with heart, mind and soul. The responsibility that
the Qur’ān lays upon the religious scholars is that of
calling people to Islam and exhorting them to follow its
directives (da‘wat-o indhār) – they have not been given
the role of keepers of morals and, therefore, have no right
w
w
to use groups of their followers to enforce their
w ww
.j a w
conceptions and interpretations of the sharī‘ah on people
ve .a
in their society through the force of guns. Not even the
da l-m
state itself has been permitted by Islam to use the force of
hm a
law to coerce people into fulfilling any obligation of
ad wri
purely religious nature except the mandatory prayer and
g h d .o
am rg
alms (al-ṣalāh and al-zakāh). The Qur’ān is very clear in
id
this matter: regardless of what the adherents to Islam are
i.c
responsible for in the Hereafter, the state cannot hold
om
them responsible in religion beyond these imperatives.
Beyond them, appeal, exhortation, education and training
are the means that may be adopted to make the efforts for
reformation of people. If some of the religious scholars
are fond of politics as well, they can join political parties
to become part of the parliament where they can play
their role in legislation in accordance with the
parliamentary norms and procedures.

______________
136
The Rule of an Islamic Government
Man, by nature, is a being who lives by setting up a

government for himself. The first manifestation of this
instinct took place when in ancient times people decided
that they would select chiefs of their tribes. After that,
when these chiefs were able to establish their hegemony
w
w
by conquering other tribes, they became the owners of
w ww
.j a w
the conquered lands and this gradually took the shape of
ve .a
ancestral kingdoms governed by kings. In later periods,
da l-m
hm a
these kings, in their capacity as great conquerors, laid the
ad wri
foundations of empires consisting of several countries.
g h d .o
This brought into existence governments which included
am rg
the Sassanid and the Roman empires. These empires have
id
now become extinct but many kingdoms are still extant
i.c
om
and have taken the place of constitutional monarchies.
Except for some countries, this is the case every where.
Among these exceptions is the kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
It still exists with its real glory and majesty. The laws of
such kingdoms are enacted by the king and his nobles.
The Saudi government was established with the reformist
movement of Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792
AD). Thus on the very first day of its inception it decided
that the law of the land would be the Islamic sharī‘ah. A
great majority of Sunnī scholars does not regard
kingdoms to be governments which are against the
sharī‘ah and also more or less agree to the interpretation
of the sharī‘ah made by the Saudi government. This is
137
because they think that it is an Islamic government and
on this basis they show allegiance to it.
The ideology of an Islamic revolution that has sprung up
in recent times can be summarized as follows: it is only the
disciplined minority of the righteous (ṣāliḥīn) which has
the right to rule; if godless people are rulers, then they are
in fact embezzlers; it is the responsibility of the righteous
to launch an effort to take back what belongs to them.
Among the Shiites, this ideology already existed under the
concepts of “government of the infallibles (ma‘ṣūmīn)”
and “guardianship of the jurist” (wilāyat-i faqīh).
w
w
Consequently, Sunnī and Shiite scholars have instituted
w ww
.j a w
religious parties at various places to achieve this very
ve .a
objective of bringing about an Islamic revolution.
da l-m
Moreover, the intellectual class is expending its efforts in
hm a
various countries to realize this objective by trying to bring
ad wri
into existence a disciplined minority of the righteous. At
g h d .o
am rg
some places, these efforts have been successful. For
id
example, in Iran where religious scholars, under the
i.c
leadership of Imām Khumīnī (d. 1989), were able to take
om
the reins of political authority in their hands. They have
been ruling Iran with full power since a quarter of a
century. Another example is Afghanistan where, through
the support and help of the Pakistani government, the
students of religious scholars were able to set up a
government which unfortunately succumbed to the
incident of 9/11 and is now trying to revive itself by
waging war against the NATO forces.
The question which arises in this context is: what does
Islam want? A deep deliberation on the Qur’ān and
Ḥadīth shows that the real addressee of Islam is the
individual. It wants to rule the heart and mind of a
138
person. Thus it makes it mandatory upon him to submit
his whole self to the sovereignty of God. Just as the God
of Islam is the Lord and worshipped deity of people, He
is also their king. Hence it is necessary that besides
worshipping Him, obedience also be shown to Him and
if He has prescribed some law or principle in some
matter, then people must totally surrender to it. No
doubt, Islam also addresses the society but only when
the individuals of a society accept its rule over
themselves. At that time, no effort or struggle is needed
to achieve the supremacy of Islam at the collective level;
w
w
Islam automatically manifests itself through the social,
w ww
.j a w
cultural and political mannerisms and attitudes of
ve .a
people. Thus if in the sharī‘ah of God, there is any
da l-m
directive related to the society, they are prepared to
hm a
implement it without any hesitation.
ad wri
This is an Islamic government. When it comes into
g h d .o
am rg
existence in this way, it becomes a manifestation of God’s
id
mercy on earth; however, if it does not come into
i.c
existence, even then one should not be worried because
om
the objective of Islam is not the formation of an Islamic
government but the attainment of tazkiyah (self-
purification). Its call is to the kingdom of God which
people will attain on the Day of Judgement as a result of
attaining this tazkiyah. Islam calls upon people to save
themselves from Hell and enter this eternal kingdom of
God. It does not call upon people to establish an Islamic
government. However, people who are anxious for this –
and which in Qur’ānic terms may be called ukhrā
tuḥibbūnahā (the second thing which you desire, (61:13))
– have seen for themselves the experimentation which has
taken place in this regard in the last one and a half
139
century. In my opinion, they should now accept the reality
that an Islamic government is neither established through
a royal decree nor through the autocratic rule of religious
scholars nor by a self-appointed army of divine soldiers.
This is not an objective but emanates or should emanate
from the inner conviction of people on Islam and the
Islamic sharī‘ah. If this happens, then the government
which is established as a result can be called an Islamic
government in every sense of the word. If the objective is
to set up such a government, then instead of wasting one’s
time in frivolous political stratagems and instead of killing
w
w
oneself and killing innocent people in the name of jihād,
w ww
.j a w
all force should be directed towards two things.
ve .a
Firstly, through reminding and exhortation, knowledge
da l-m
and reasoning, education and instruction, efforts should
hm a
be made to establish the rule of this government on the
ad wri
hearts of people. This effort should continue until the
g h d .o
am rg
ruling elite of the Muslims have as strong a conviction in
id
Islam and Islamic sharī‘ah as the one possessed by those
i.c
who take up the task of calling people towards Islam.
om
Secondly, at every level democracy and democratic
values should be promoted so that if people get prepared
to fulfil the requirements of their religion related to the
political and economic spheres, no form of despotism
causes any hindrance to them. Launching a struggle
against despotic forces is in fact a struggle against fitnah
and fitnah according to the Qur’ān is a greater sin than
murder. Hence, the institution of monarchy and
dictatorship deserve to be sent packing from the stage of
this world forever.
140
Islam and the State
It is generally understood that the founders of Pakistan
wanted to make it an Islamic democratic welfare state. In
later times as well, this concept about Pakistan continued.
In these times, advocates of revolution and change also say
the same. If the common masses are asked, a vast majority
w
w
will also attest to this concept. There are excellent
w ww
.j a w
examples of democratic and western states in the western
ve .a
world; so it is not at all difficult to understand what such
da l-m
hm a
states are or should be. However, the question arises: What
ad wri
exactly is implied by an “Islamic State”? One of its models
g h d .o
can be seen in the monarchy of Saudi Arabia and another
am rg
in the theocracy of Iran. However, if Islam is understood
id
directly from its sources, it does not regard either of these
i.c
om
models as correct. Therefore it is essential that the
requirements of Islam regarding the state system of the
Muslims be stated here so that in the light of this people
can evaluate the promises and measures of their leaders.
Following are these requirements:
1. Those who call themselves Muslims and regard
Muḥammad (sws) to be the last prophet of God, who are
diligent in their prayer and are ready to pay zakāh to the
state, shall be regarded as Muslims and the rights which
they specifically enjoy by virtue of the Islāmic sharī‘ah
shall be given to them in all circumstances.
This means that they will not be subjects of a king but
equal citizens. No discrimination shall be made between
141
them in the state system and the laws of the state. Their
life, wealth and honour shall hold sanctity – so much so
that without their consent the state shall not impose any
tax on them other than zakāh. If a dispute arises in their
personal affairs like marriage, divorce, distribution of
inheritance and other similar matters, then it shall be
decided in accordance with the Islamic sharī‘ah. They
shall be provided with all the essential facilities for their
daily prayers, the fasts of Ramaḍān and ḥajj and ‘umrah.
They will not be forced by the law to submit to any
directive which reflects a positive injunction of Islam
w
except the prayer and the zakāh. They will be governed
w
w ww
with justice and fairness on the principle of amruhum
.j a w
ve .a
shūrā baynahum (their system is based on their
da l-m
consultation). Their public wealth and assets shall be
hm a
reserved for the collective needs of the society and shall
ad wri
not be given in private ownership; in fact, they shall be
g h d .o
developed and looked after in such a way that the needs
am rg
of people who are not able to financially support
id
i.c
themselves are fulfilled from their income. If they pass
om
away, they shall be enshrouded and prepared for burial
according to Muslim rites; their funeral prayer shall be
offered and they shall be buried in the graveyard of the
Muslims the way Muslims are buried.
2. It shall be the responsibility of the government to
organize the Friday and the ‘īd prayers. These prayers
shall be held only at places which are specified by the
state. Their pulpits shall be reserved for the rulers. They
themselves will lead and deliver the sermon of these
prayers or some representative of theirs will fulfil this
responsibility on their behalf. Within the confines of the
state, no one will have the authority to organize these
prayers independently.
142
3. Law enforcing departments shall be primarily
reserved for amar bi al-ma‘rūf and nahī ‘an al-munkar
(enjoining good and forbidding evil). Thus the most pious
of people will be selected as workers of these
departments. They will urge people to do good and forbid
them all what mankind has always regarded as evil.
4. The state shall always adhere to justice (qā’im bi al-
qisṭ) with regard to its enemies as well. It will speak the
truth, bear witness to it and will not take any step
contrary to justice and fairness.
5. If the state enters into agreement with someone
w
within its jurisdiction or with some foreign entity, then
w
w ww
as long as the agreement exists it shall be honoured both
.j a w
ve .a
in letter and in spirit with full honesty and sincerity.
da l-m
6. If a Muslim is guilty of murder, theft, fornication,
hm a
falsely accusing someone of fornication (qadhf) or
ad wri
spreading anarchy and disorder in the land and a court is
g h d .o
fully satisfied that he does not deserve any leniency arising
am rg
from his personal, familial and social circumstances, then
id
i.c
those punishments shall be meted out to him which the
om
Almighty has prescribed in His Book for those who have
whole-heartedly accepted the call of Islam.
7. Dissemination of Islam to all parts of this world
shall be organized at the state level. If any power of the
world tries to hinder this effort or persecutes Muslims,
then the state, according to its capacity, will try to
remove this hindrance and stop this persecution even if it
has to lift arms for it.55
55. In order to see the details of these seven requirements in

the sources of Islam, my book Mīzān can be consulted.
143
The Basis of Legislation
Man has been created free. He is not subservient to

anyone except the Almighty. Hence, neither an
individual nor a state has any right to impose any
restrictions on his ideology and deeds or take any step
w
against his life, wealth and honour. This freedom is a
w
w ww
birth right of a person, and has been granted to him by
.j a w
his Creator. The Global Manifesto of Human Rights is a
ve .a
da l-m
declaration of this reality. All nations of the world have
hm a
accepted it and have guaranteed that they will not violate
ad wri
it in their constitutions. This is a testimony to the fact
g h d .o
that the awareness of freedom is found in human nature
am rg
and a person would never want that any individual or
id
i.c
government to try to arrest it. The Prophet Muḥammad
om
(sws) in his sermon of ḥajj stressed this very reality in
the following words:
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ْ < ْ : () ‫ﻫﺬ‬
‫ﻢ‬v‫ﺷﻬﺮ‬
7 7 ‫ﻳﻮﻣﻜﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﺔ‬Rp‫ﻛ‬
7 ‫ م‬R‫ ﺿﻜﻢ ﺑﻴﻨﻜﻢ ﺣ‬R² ‫ﻢ و ﻣﻮ ﻟﻜﻢ و‬v‫ودﻣﺎء‬ 7 ‫ن‬7
: : ْ< : : : :
‫ﻢﻫﺬ‬v‫ﺑﻠﺪ‬ 7 ()7 ‫ﻫﺬ‬
Indeed, your lives, your wealth, and your honour are
as sacred and inviolable as this day of [sacrifice of]
yours in this city of [Makkah of] yours in this month
of [Dhū al-Ḥajj of] yours.56
56. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol.1, 37, (no. 67).

144
The question, however, arises: is this freedom of life,
wealth and honour absolute in nature? The answer to this
question is firmly in the negative. This freedom ends
when a person usurps the rights of others or takes a step
against the life, wealth and honour of an individual.
Man’s moral awareness and God’s sharī‘ah both agree
that after this every society has the right to terminate this
freedom and refrain from acknowledging this sanctity of
life, wealth and honour.
It is this which in reality forms the basis of legislation
in an Islamic state. All laws are made to stop people
w
w
from usurping the rights of others and committing
w ww
.j a w
excesses against them or to punish their perpetrators.
ve .a
The right to legislate of every institution, every
da l-m
government and every parliament begins and ends here.
hm a
The directive God has given a Muslim state to punish
ad wri
people who kill, steal, falsely accuse people of
g h d .o
am rg
fornication and spread anarchy in the land is because
id
fornication is tantamount to usurping rights while
i.c
killing, stealing, falsely accusing someone of fornication
om
and spreading anarchy in the land are excesses
committed against the life, wealth and honour of people.
When in the times of the rightly guided caliphs the issue
of prescribing a punishment for liquor arose, ‘Alī (rta),
on this very basis, opined that a drunkard should be given
the same punishment as the one prescribed by the Qur’ān
for falsely accusing someone of fornication. That is when
people drink, they will get intoxicated and once they get
intoxicated, they will utter nonsense; and once they start
uttering nonsense, they will falsely accuse other people.57
57. Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd, Bidāyah

145
Similar is the case of marriage, divorce, distribution of
inheritance and other similar matters. All these relate to
the state only when a person does not discharge the
rights imposed on him by the Almighty, and in this
manner is guilty of usurping rights. In the state of
Pakistan, laws regarding permission of the first wife for
second marriage and prohibition of marriage of minors
have been made on this basis.
Every government and every legislative forum of the
world is bound to justify the legitimacy of all the laws
and statutes they enact on this basis as well. Moreover, it
w
w
is the right of the people to analyze the laws made by
w ww
.j a w
them and if they see that there are some laws which are
ve .a
devoid of this basis, to not accept them. Thus, if a
da l-m
government, for example, has enacted the law that
hm a
people will not be allowed to wear their religious
ad wri
identifications like the zunnār, the cross, the turban or
g h d .o
am rg
kirpān, or they will have to necessarily give a wife a
id
certain amount of their wealth at the time of divorce or
i.c
will not shave their beards or not wear shorts or not
om
listen to music or women will not go out without
wearing the veil or will not put on the scarf then this
indeed is exceeding the limits. Similarly, if, on the
contrary, it has enacted the law that they cannot go out
unless they wear the veil or not go for ḥajj or ‘umrah
without a maḥram or will not drive cars, or will not
adopt such and such a profession, or will not take part in
politics or will not cast votes, then this also is exceeding
the limits. Even if any of these is God’s directive, then
people are answerable before God if they follow or
al-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-fikr, n.d.), 332.

146
violate it. No government of the world has the authority
to order a person to obey such matters. The Almighty
has made it evident in unequivocal terms that among the
positive requirements of religion, a state can only
demand two things from its Muslim citizens: the prayer
and the zakāh. The Qur’ān asserts that after this a state
must leave them alone and not try to implement anything
else on them through law. It says:
<9 : : : ٰ :9 < : ٰ : : ٰ :9 < : : : ۡ < : ۡ :
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﻓﺨﻠﻮ‬
ۡ
(٥:٩) ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻠﻬﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻮة‬v‫ﻓﺎن ﺗﺎﺑﻮ و ﻗﺎﻣﻮ ﻟﺼﻠﻮة و ﺗﻮ ﻟﺰ‬7
w
So, if they repent, are diligent in the prayer and pay
w
w ww
zakāh, leave them alone. (9:5)
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
This directive was given to the Prophet Muḥammad
hm a
(sws) at the time when God ruled on this earth. Thus,
ad wri
while explaining this, I have written:
g h d .o
am rg
… This means that at the state and legal level no
id
i.c
additional demand can be made from the Muslims to
om
fulfil the requirements of faith and religion. This is
because if God did not allow this under His own
rule, how can others be given this permission.58
______________
58. Javed Aḥmad Ghāmidī, Al-Bayān, 1st ed., vol. 2 (Lahore:

Topical Printing Press, 2014), 325-326.
147
Islam and the State: A Counter Narrative
The situation which has been created today for Islam

and Muslims in the whole world by certain extremist
organizations is an evil consequence of the ideology
taught in our religious seminaries, and also propagated
day and night by Islamic movements and religious
w
w
political parties. The true understanding of Islam, in
w ww
.j a w
contrast to this, has been presented by this writer in his
ve .a
treatise Mīzān.59 This understanding actually constitutes a
da l-m
hm a
counter narrative. It has been repeatedly pointed out by
ad wri
this writer that when in a Muslim society anarchy is
g h d .o
created on the basis of religion, the remedy to this
am rg
situation is not advocacy of secularism. On the contrary,
id
the solution lies in presenting a counter narrative to the
i.c
om
existing narrative on religion. Its details can be looked up
in the aforementioned treatise. However, the part of it
which relates to Islam and the state is summarized below.
1. The message of Islam is primarily addressed to an
individual. It wants to rule the hearts and minds of
people. The directives it has given to the society are also
addressed to individuals who are fulfilling their
responsibilities as the rulers of Muslims. Hence, it is
baseless to think that a state also has a religion and there
is a need to Islamize it through an Objectives Resolution
and that it must be constitutionally bound to not make

148
any law repugnant to the Qur’ān and Sunnah. People
who presented this view and were successful in having it
implemented actually laid the foundations of a
permanent division in the nation states of these times: it
gave the message to the non-Muslims that they are in
fact second rate citizens who at best occupy the status of
a protected minority and that if they want to demand
anything from the real owners of the state must do this in
this capacity of theirs.
2. It can be the dream of every person that countries in
which Muslims are in majority should unite under a single
w
w
rule and we can also strive to achieve this goal but this is
w ww
.j a w
not a directive of the Islamic sharī‘ah which today
ve .a
Muslims are guilty of disregarding. Certainly not! Neither
da l-m
is khilāfah a religious term nor its establishment at the
hm a
global level a directive of Islam. After the first century
ad wri
hijrah, when celebrated jurists of the Muslims were
g h d .o
am rg
among them, two separate Muslim kingdoms, the Abbasid
id
kingdom in Baghdad and the Umayyad kingdom in Spain
i.c
had been established and remained so for many centuries.
om
However, none of these jurists regarded this state of
affairs to be against the Islamic sharī‘ah. The reason is
that there is not a single directive found on this issue in
the Qur’ān and the Ḥadīth. On the contrary, what
everyone, including this writer, does say is that if at any
place a state is established, rebelling against it is a heinous
crime. Such is the horrific nature of this crime that the
Prophet (sws) is reported to have said that a person who
does so dies the death of jāhiliyyah.60
60. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 6, 2588, (no. 6645-

6646).
149
3. The basis of nationhood in Islam is not Islam itself,
as is generally understood. At no place in the Qur’ān and
Ḥadīth has it been said that Muslims must become one
nation. On ٌ : ۡ the
: ۡ ۡ < ۡ : :9
< contrary, what the Qur’ān has said is:
(١٠ :٤٩) ‫ﺧـﻮة‬7 ‫ﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻮن‬ 7 ‫ﻧﻤﺎ‬7 (All Muslims are brothers to one
another, (49:10)). Thus the relationship between
Muslims is not based on nationhood; rather, it is based
on brotherhood. While being divided into several
nations, countries and states they are brothers in faith.
Hence, what can be demanded from them is that they
should keep themselves aware of the circumstances of
w
w
their brothers, help them in their troubles and
w ww
.j a w
tribulations, support those who are oppressed among
ve .a
them, give them preference in economic and social ties
da l-m
and under no circumstances close their doors on them.
hm a
However, what cannot be demanded from them is that
ad wri
g h d .o
they give up their nation states and national identities
am rg
and become one nation and one state. Just as they can
id
create separate nation states, in the same way if they
i.c
om
have the freedom to follow their religion, they can live
in the capacity of citizens of non-Muslim states and
adopt their nationality. None of this is forbidden by the
Qur’ān and Sunnah.
4. If some Muslims of the world declare themselves as
Muslims and, in fact, insist on this and adopt a belief or
deed which is not approved by one or more scholars or
the rest of the Muslims, then this deed or belief of theirs
can be regarded as incorrect and even a deviation and
departure from Islam, yet these people cannot be
regarded as non-Muslims or disbelievers (kuffār)
because these people adduce their views from the Qur’ān
and Ḥadīth. For the ruling of God on such beliefs and
150
deeds, we must wait for the Day of Judgement. Their
proponents in this world in accordance with their own
acknowledgement are Muslims, must be regarded as
Muslims and must be dealt with in the way Muslims are.
It is the right of the scholars to point out their mistake, to
invite them to accept what is correct, to regard what they
find as constituting polytheism and disbelief in their
ideology and also inform people about all this. However,
no one has the right to declare them as non-Muslims or
to ostracize them from the Muslim community because
only God can give this right to someone, and everyone
w
who has knowledge of the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth knows that
w
w ww
God has not given this right to anyone.
.j a w
ve .a
5. Polytheism, disbelief and apostasy are indeed grave
da l-m
crimes; however, no human being can punish another
hm a
human being for these crimes. This is the right of God
ad wri
alone. In the Hereafter too, He will punish them for these
g h d .o
am rg
crimes and in this world it is He Who does so if He
id
intends. The matter of the Hereafter is not under
i.c
discussion here. In this world, this punishment takes
om
place in the following manner: when the Almighty
decides to reward and punish people in this world on the
basis of their deeds, He sends His messenger towards
them. This messenger conclusively communicates the
truth to these people such that they are left with no
excuse before God to deny it. After this, the verdict of
God is passed and people who even after the conclusive
communication of the truth insist on disbelief and
polytheism are punished in this world. This is an
established practice of God which
ۡ < : ۡ : : < ۡ < < ۡ the
< : :
Qur’ān
: ۡ < :9 :9 < 9 < in:
: : ٌdescribes
the following words: ‫ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬J«‫ﻗ‬ 7 ‫ﻓﺎذ ﺟﺂء رﺳﻮﻟﻬﻢ‬7 ¨ ‫ﻣﺔ رﺳﻮل‬ ٍ ‫ﻞ‬7 7 ‫و ﻟ‬
: ۡ < : ۡ <‫ﻹ ﻳ‬: ‫وﻫ ۡﻢ ﻵ‬ ۡ
< : ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺴط‬
(٤٧:١٠) ‫ﻈﻠﻤﻮن‬ 7 ۡ 7 7 (And for each community, there
151
is a messenger. Then when their messenger comes, their
fate is decided with full justice and they are not
wronged, (10:47)). Its nature is the same as of the
sacrifice of Ishmael (sws) and the incident of Khidr. It is
not related to us human beings. Just as we cannot drill a
hole in the boat of a poor person to help him and cannot
kill a disobedient boy nor embark upon slaughtering any
of our sons on the basis of a dream as Abraham (sws)
did, similarly, we cannot undertake this task except if a
revelation comes from God or if He directly gives an
order. Everyone knows that the door to this has
w
w
permanently been closed.
w ww
.j a w
6. No doubt jihād is a directive of Islam. The Qur’ān
ve .a
requires of its followers that if they have the strength,
da l-m
they should wage war against oppression and injustice.
hm a
The primary reason for this directive is to curb
ad wri
g h d .o
persecution which is the use of oppression and coercion
am rg
to make people give up their religion. Those having
id
insight know that Muslims are not given this directive of
i.c
om
jihād in their individual capacity; they are addressed in
their collective capacity regarding this directive. They
are not individually addressed in the verses of jihād
which occur in the Qur’ān. Thus in this matter only the
collectivity has the right to launch any such armed
offensive. No individual or group of Muslims has the
right to take this decision on their behalf. It is for this
reason that the Prophet (sws) is reported to have said: “A
Muslim ruler is a shield; war can only waged under
him.”61
7. The directive of jihād given by Islam is war for the

152
cause of God; therefore, it cannot be waged while
disregarding moral restrictions. Ethics and morality
supersede everything in all circumstances and even in
matters of war and armed offensives, the Almighty has
not allowed Muslims to deviate from moral principles.
Hence, it is absolutely certain that jihād can only be
waged against combatants. It is the law of Islam that if a
person attacks through his tongue, then this attack shall
be countered through the tongue and if he financially
supports the warriors, then he will be stopped from this
support; however, unless a person picks up arms to wage
w
w
war, his life cannot be taken. So much so, if right in the
w ww
.j a w
battle field an enemy throws down arms and surrenders,
ve .a
he shall be taken a prisoner; he cannot be executed after
da l-m
this. The words ٰ of: the verse
9 9 ۡ < : ۡ : : : which < : ۡ :9 9ٰ theۡ directive
< : ۡ < : mention ۡ < 7 : ‫و‬:
hm a
: : ۡ
of jihād are: ‫ ﻵﻹ‬23‫ن ﷲ‬7 ‚ ‫ﻌﺘﺪو‬U ‫ﻘﺎﺗﻠﻮﻧﻜﻢ و ﻵﻹ‬ : ()
ۡ 7 ‫ﻗﺎﺗﻠﻮ‬
< 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬ 7 23‫ﷲ‬7 ‫ﻞ‬7 ‫ﺳﺒﻴ‬
7
ad wri
: ۡ ۡ 9
ۡ 7 < ‫ﺤـﺐ‬7 <‫( ﻳ‬١٩٢:٢) (And fight in the way of God with
‫ﻦ‬:‫ﻟﻤﻌﺘـﺪﻳ‬
g h d .o
am rg
those who fight against you and do not transgress
id
bounds [in this fighting]. Indeed, God does not like the
i.c
om
transgressors, (2:190)). The Prophet (sws) forbade the
killing of women and children during war.62 The reason
for this is that if they had embarked upon jihād with the
army, it was not in the capacity of combatants. At best,
they could boost the morale of the combatants and urge
them through the tongue to fight.
8. Centuries before the thinkers of the
ۡ < : ۡ : ٰ ۡ < ۡ present
< < ۡ : age, the
Qur’ān had declared: (٣٨:٤٢) ‫( ﻣﺮﻫﻢ ﺷﻮري ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬the affairs
of the Muslims are run on the basis of their mutual
consultation, (42:38)). This clearly meant that an Islamic

153
government would be established through their
consultation, everyone would have equal rights in this
consultation, whatever done through consultation could
only be undone through consultation and every
individual would become part of the consultative
process. Moreover, if a decision could be reached
through a consensus or total agreement, then the opinion
of the majority would be accepted as the decision.
This is precisely what democracy is. Thus dictatorship
is not acceptable in any case whether it is of a dynasty or a
of a group or of a national institution and not even of
w
w
religious scholars in the interpretation of issues related to
w ww
.j a w
religion and sharī‘ah. These scholars indeed have the
ve .a
right to present their views and express their opinions;
da l-m
however, their view can only become a law for the people
hm a
to follow when the majority of the elected representatives
ad wri
g h d .o
accept it. In modern states, the institution of the
am rg
parliament has been constituted for this very purpose. It
id
holds and should hold the final authority in the system of
i.c
om
a state. People do have a right to criticize the decisions of
the parliament and point out their mistakes; however, no
one has the right to disobey them or rebel against them.
Neither scholars nor the judiciary is above the parliament.
The principle of (٣٨:٤٢) ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬ ٰ ۡ < ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ < < ۡ : binds every
individual and every institution to practically submit to
the decisions of the parliament even though they may
differ with them.
It is only this approach which is justifiable in setting
up the rule of Islam and running it. If any other way is
adopted to set up this rule, then it will be illegal even
though the forehead of its ruler may glisten with the
154
signs of prostration or even if he is bestowed the title of
amīr al-mu’minīn.
9. If at some place a Muslim government exists, it is
generally asked to implement the sharī‘ah. This
expression is misleading because it gives the impression
that Islam has given the right to a government to forcibly
implement all the directives of the sharī‘ah on people.
The fact is that the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth do not give this
authority to any government. The Islamic sharī‘ah
contains two categories of directives. The first category
comprises directives which are given to individuals and
w
w
the second category comprises directives which are given
w ww
.j a w
to a Muslim society. The first category relates to
ve .a
directives which are between an individual and God. In
da l-m
these directives, a person is not responsible to any
hm a
government; on the contrary, he is responsible to God.
ad wri
Hence, no government, for example, can force a person to
g h d .o
am rg
fast or go for ḥajj or ‘umrah or to circumcise himself or to
id
keep his moustaches trimmed or in the case of a woman to
i.c
cover her chest, refrain from displaying her ornaments or
om
to wear a scarf when going out. In such matters, a
government has no authority beyond urging and educating
people except if there is a chance of rights being usurped
or excesses being committed against the life, wealth and
honour of people. The Qur’ān has explicitly said that
among the positive directives of religion, a state can only
forcibly demand from them to offer the prayer and pay
zakāh. The Qur’ān (9:5) says that after this, it is
incumbent upon the state to leave them alone and not try
to enforce anything on them. As for the second category
of directives, they are only given to a government because
it is a government which represents a society in collective
155
affairs. If religious scholars demand from those in
authority to obey them, then they certainly will be
justified. In fact, it is their duty in their capacity as
scholars to make such a demand. It should be clear that
this demand is the demand to follow the sharī‘ah.
Implementation of the sharī‘ah is not the right name for
this demand. This second category comprises the
following directives:
i. Muslims will not be subjects of their rulers but equal
citizens. No discrimination shall be made between them
in the state system and the laws of the state. Their life,
w
w
wealth and honour shall hold sanctity – so much so that
w ww
.j a w
without their consent the state shall not impose any tax
ve .a
on them other than zakāh. If a dispute arises in their
da l-m
personal affairs like marriage, divorce, distribution of
hm a
inheritance and other similar matters, then it shall be
ad wri
g h d .o
decided in accordance with the Islamic sharī‘ah. They
am rg
shall be provided with all the essential facilities for their
id
daily prayers, the fasts of Ramaḍān and ḥajj and ‘umrah.
i.c
om
They will not be forced by the law to submit to any
directive which reflects a positive injunction of Islam
except the prayer and the zakāh. They will be governed
with justice and fairness on the principle of ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬ ٰ ۡ < ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ<<ۡ:
(٣٨:٤٢) (the affairs of the Muslims are run on the basis of
their mutual consultation, (42:38)). Their public wealth
and assets shall be reserved for the collective needs of the
society and shall not be given in private ownership; in
fact, they shall be developed and looked after in such a
way that the needs of people who are not able to
financially support themselves are fulfilled from their
income. If they pass away, they shall be enshrouded and
156
prepared for burial according to Muslim rites; their
funeral prayer shall be offered and they shall be buried in
the graveyard of the Muslims the way Muslims are
buried.
ii. It shall be the responsibility of the government to
organize the Friday and the ‘īd prayers. These prayers
shall be held only at places which are specified by the
state. Their pulpits shall be reserved for the rulers. They
themselves will lead and deliver the sermon of these
prayers or some representative of theirs will fulfil this
responsibility on their behalf. Within the confines of the
w
w
state, no one will have the authority to organize these
w ww
.j a w
prayers independently.
ve .a
iii. Law enforcing departments shall be primarily
da l-m
reserved for amar bi al-ma‘rūf and nahī ‘an al-munkar
hm a
(enjoining good and forbidding evil). Thus the most
ad wri
pious of people will be selected as workers of these
g h d .o
am rg
departments. They will urge people to do good and forbid
id
them all what mankind has always regarded as evil.
i.c
However, they will only use the force of law when a
om
person is guilty of usurping rights or goes after the life,
wealth and honour of people.
iv. The state shall always adhere to justice (qā’im bi
al-qisṭ) with regard to its enemies as well. It will speak
the truth, bear witness to it and will not take any step
contrary to justice and fairness.
v. If the state enters into agreement with someone
within its jurisdiction or with some foreign entity, then
as long as the agreement exists it shall be honoured both
in letter and in spirit with full honesty and sincerity.
vi. The death penalty will be given in two cases only:
murder and spreading anarchy in the land. If a Muslim is
157
guilty of murder, theft, fornication, falsely accusing
someone of fornication (qadhf) or spreading anarchy and
disorder in the land and a court is fully satisfied that he
does not deserve any leniency arising from his personal,
familial and social circumstances, then those
punishments shall be meted out to him which the
Almighty has prescribed in His Book for those who have
whole-heartedly accepted the call of Islam.
vii. Dissemination of Islam to all parts of this world
shall be organized at the state level. If any power of the
world tries to hinder this effort or persecutes Muslims,
w
w
then the state, according to its capacity, will try to
w ww
.j a w
remove this hindrance and stop this persecution even if it
ve .a
has to use force for it.63
da l-m
10. These are the directives of the sharī‘ah which
hm a
relate to the state and have been given with the warning
ad wri
that those who do not accept the verdict of the Book of
g h d .o
am rg
God after acknowledging it will be regarded as
id
wrongdoers (ẓālim), defiant (fāsiq) and disbelievers
i.c
(kāfir) on the Day of Judgement.64 However, if the rulers
om
of the Muslims, in spite of this warning are guilty of
some error in this regard or become rebellious, then the
only responsibility of religious scholars is to warn them
of its consequences in this world and the Hereafter. With
wisdom and kindly exhortation, they should call them to
mend their ways, face their questions, dispel their doubts
and logically reason with them as to why God has given
them His sharī‘ah. They should explain to them its
63. In order to see the details of these seven requirements in

the sources of Islam, my book Mīzān can be consulted.
64. Qur’ān, 5:44-47.
158
relevance in the collective sphere of life. They should
also elucidate to them the basis of its directives and the
difficulty which a person of the modern era faces in
understanding it. They should adopt styles and ways to
explain and clarify it so that its underlying wisdom and
objective becomes evident to them and their hearts and
minds are able to adopt it with full satisfaction and they
become prepared to follow it. The Qur’ān has stated that
the real status of religious scholars is to invite people to
the truth and warn them about any deviation from it.
God does not want them to force people to follow Islam
w
w
or to organize their followers in groups that ask people at
w ww
.j a w
gun point to follow the sharī‘ah.
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
______________
am rg
id
i.c
om
159
Supremacy of the Parliament
(Written in response to criticism on the article:

Islam and the State: A Counter Narrative)
It is a requisite of both Islam and democracy that all

rulings of the parliament be practically submitted to.
w
w
This means – and everyone aware of political values will
w ww
.j a w
also agree – that no hindrance should be created in the
ve .a
implementation of such a ruling, no hue and cry should
da l-m
be raised against it, the affairs of the government should
hm a
be allowed to function according to it, through protest
ad wri
gatherings no attempt should be made that impairs law
g h d .o
am rg
and discipline, picking up arms should not be resorted to
id
against it and people must not be enticed into rebellion
i.c
against it – so much so, if as a result of this ruling a
om
government takes action against an individual, then such
an action should be borne with patience. The person
whom I regard as God’s prophet has given me this very
guidance. He is reported to have said:
It is mandatory upon you to listen to and obey [your

rulers] whether you are in difficulty or at ease,
whether willingly or unwillingly and even when you
do not receive what is your right.65

160
There is only one exception to this and that is if I am
ordered to defy a directive of God. In this case, however,
I can practically turn down such an order – in fact, it is
my obligation to do so.
Every moment of my life bears witness that I have
always followed what I have written above and also
urged my friends and students to do so. However, I
consider myself to be unfortunate to have never known
that expressing a difference of opinion on the rulings of
a parliament and resorting to democratic means to
change them is also a crime. I am equally unfortunate to
w
w
not know that submitting practically before the rulings of
w ww
.j a w
the parliament also means that knowledge and reason
ve .a
must also submit to the parliament, and that one should
da l-m
dare not differ with the parliament if it gives a ruling that
hm a
is against a directive of God or an established moral
ad wri
principle or natural law or if it exceeds the limits of its
g h d .o
am rg
right of legislation.
id
The irony of the situation is that the above-stated
i.c
inference has been with made with great honesty and
om
piety by disregarding the very sentence which is
explicitly negating it. I had written:
People have the right to criticize the rulings of the

parliament and also try to point out the mistake in
them; however, no one has the right to differ with
them or rebel against them.
I cannot say whether the intellect be praised of a

person who makes this remarkable inference or his
honesty be lauded.
Nevertheless I re-iterate here that I submit myself to
161
every ruling of the parliament but it is my democratic
and religious right that if there is something wrong in it
or if limits have been exceeded in a certain case or if
somone’s rights have been infringed upon because of it,
I can present my critique on it on the basis of arguments.
Forbidding vice and enjoining virue (amr bi al-ma‘rūf
and nahī ‘an al-munkar) is among the basic principles of
my religion and cultural tradition, and I have been
directed to bear witness to justice for the sake of God
even though this testimony is against our ownselves, our
parents and our relatives. The only requisite of the
w
w
principle of amruhum shūrā baynahum (their system is
w ww
based on their mutual consultation, (41:28)) is that in
.j a w
ve .a
order to settle differences of opinion the opinion of the
da l-m
majority should be practically accepted. It is certainly
hm a
not a requisite of it to regard this majority opinion to be
ad wri
correct as well and that any error found in it should not
g h d .o
be pointed out to people. The right to amend the
am rg
constitutions of the world and constitutional documents
id
i.c
is given because none of them has any divine status. It is
om
the duty of men of learning to continue to evaluate and
examine them, and if any mistake is detected, they
should make an effort to correct it. Whatever was needed
to be done to follow Islam and the Islamic sharī‘ah in
the state of Pakistan at the government level was never
done. And whatever was done was meaningless, baseless
and against the explicit directives of the Qur’ān and
Sunnah. I have being saying this for a long time and
even now have only re-iterated it. This is a requisite of
what I have been directed to do as a well-wisher of God,
His Messenger and all Muslims. It should not be a cause
of horror for any Pakistani, as an old and dear friend has
162
said that my writings have struck horror in the hearts of
the whole nation.
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
163
Islam and Nationhood
(Written in response to criticism on the article:

Islam and the State: A Counter Narrative)
Like colour, ethnicity, language, culture and country,

religion is also an important factor is a determining
w
w
nationhood. Muslims, over centuries, have become a
w ww
.j a w
nation on the basis of their religion. If they are faced
ve .a
with a challenge, at least in the Indian sub-continent,
da l-m
they fervently express this nationhood. On this very
hm a
basis, Quaid e Azam had said that the Muslims of this
ad wri
region are a separate nation with regard to all the
g h d .o
am rg
principles of international law. This is because their
id
culture, social trends, language and literature, disciplines
i.c
of knowledge, customs and traditions, mental
om
framework, temperament, law, moral principles, style of
life and even their calendar and way of naming children
is distinct from other nations. This statement of the
Quaid was based entirely on truth and an expression of
reality from which no one can differ. Accordingly, this
writer too did not express any such difference and at no
place in my article “Islam and the State: A Counter
Narrative” did I say that Muslims are not a nation or
cannot become a nation.
All that I had stated in that article was that it is not a
requirement of Islam or a directive of its sharī‘ah that
the nationhood of Muslims should be based on religion
164
and hence all Muslims must become one nation. I never
stated what my critics are criticizing and to refute what I
have explicit directives of the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth are
needed and they are not available in any way. Hence, in
order to validate a religious directive people have
confined their arguments to the speeches of the Quaid,
the poetry of Iqbal and events of the Pakistan movement.
The Muslims of the sub-continent are a nation and this
is a self-obvious reality. If someone says that the
mosques of Musims have minarets and towers, then who
can deny this? It is a factual statement. However, if a
w
person says that it is the requirement of Islam and a
w
w ww
directive of its sharī‘ah that mosques must have towers
.j a w
ve .a
and minarets, then it is the duty of every scholar to refute
da l-m
this claim and inform people that this is a totally
hm a
unfounded view. Whether a mosque is constructed from
ad wri
hut of grass or whether it is built in the form of a four-
g h d .o
am rg
walled compound with its roof made of stems and
id
branches of palm trees, Islam has no objection to it.
i.c
It is this obligation which I have ventured to fulfil and
om
have explained the correct view of Islam for those of our
youth who are lured into terrorist activities by being told
that the existence of Arab, Iranian, Pakistani or Afghan
nations is absolutely unlawful and that the basis of
nationhood of Muslims is Islam and their system is
khilāfah; moreover, since this system can in no way be
enforced in the nation-states of modern times, hence
such states should be obliterated from the face of the
earth. I had sought to explain to them that nation-states
are not tantamount to kufr (disbelief) and that all natural
factors which are regarded to be the foundation of
nationhood for other nations are valid for Muslims as
165
well. According to the Qur’ān, the mutual relationship
between Muslims is that of brotherhood and not
nationhood. Hence, Muslims who by accepting the
notion of a nation-state are living, for example, in the
US, the UK, Germany, France, India or even Pakistan
are not violating any directive of the sharī‘ah. The
sources of Islam are absolutely devoid of any directive
which says that Islam itself is a basis of nationhood. If in
the times of the Pakistan movement, Muslims insisted
that they were a separate nation from the Indians and on
this very basis demanded for themselves a separate
w
w
homeland, then there was nothing wrong in this.
w ww
.j a w
Similarly, if right after the creation of Pakistan they
ve .a
declared themselves to be a Pakistani nation, then this
da l-m
too cannot be objected to. From the context of politics, a
hm a
person can agree with the views of Mawlānā Abū al-
ad wri
Kalām Āzād and regard Quaid e Azam’s views to be
g h d .o
am rg
incorrect and vice versa and we have the right to give
id
preference to either of these views; however, from as far
i.c
as the context of religion is concerned, neither of these
om
two political views can be objected to. Thus, Quaid e
Azam too never objected to Abū al-Kalām’s view on this
basis. This is because his opinion was not that Muslims
and Hindus cannot live together as one nation because
this would be against Islam and Islamic sharī‘ah and
hence they demanded a separate homeland for
themselves. His opinion was that in order to protect the
Muslim culture, their economic, political and social
spheres as well as religious traditions from the
hegemony of the Hindus, he was demanding a separate
homeland for them; morever, he contended that the basis
of his demand according to all statutes of international
166
law was that Muslims were a separate nation, and it is
the right of every nation to demand a homeland in areas
where it exists in majority.
I have expressed my view on this subject above. Every
person has a right to criticize it. However, I respectfully
request my readers that they should spend some time in
understanding my view before they attempt to do so.
w
w
w ww
______________
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
167
Khilāfah
It is an undeniable fact that for the past many

centuries, the word khilāfah is being used as a term.
However, it is certainly not a religious term. It needs to
be understood that religious terms cannot be coined by
w
scholars like Rāzī, Ghazālī, Māwardī, Ibn Ḥazm and Ibn
w
w ww
Khaldūn. Similarly, not every word which Mulims start
.j a w
using in a particular sense becomes a religious term. On
ve .a
the contrary, religious terms can only be coined by God
da l-m
hm a
and His messengers, and are acceptable only when their
ad wri
meaning as a term is validated from the Qur’ān and
g h d .o
Ḥadīth or other divine scriptures. Words such as ṣawm,
am rg
ṣalāh, ḥajj and ‘umrah etc are regarded as religious
id
terms because God and His messengers have accorded
i.c
om
them this status, and have used them at various instances
as such. On the other hand, the word khilāfah is a word
of the Arabic language and means “vicegerency,”
“succession,” and “political authority.” It is used as a
common Arabic word in one of these meanings at all
places in the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth. It may be noted that
certain verses of the Qur’ān have generally been cited in
a way to convince people that they are used as terms. In
all such verses, people have actually not translated the
words khilāfah and khilāfah in the translations of the
verses and have kept them intact in their original Arabic
form. By doing this they want to give the impression that
these words have been used as religious terms. If all
168
these verses are looked up in any authentic translation,
one will be at a loss to understand how this inference
was made, just as one of my critics seems to be at a loss
at the inferences made by me!
Presented below are the Urdu translations of two very
competent scholars:
1. Verse 40 of Surah Baqarah
And when your Lord said to the angels: “I have to

make a nā’ib66 in the earth.” (Shāh ‘Abd al-Qādir)
w
And when your Lord told the angels: “I will make a
w
w ww
nā’ib in the earth.” (Maḥmūd al-Ḥasan)
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
2. Verse 26 of Sūrah Ṣu‘ad
hm a
ad wri
O David! We have made you a nā’ib in the country;
g h d .o
so govern people with justice. (Shāh ‘Abd al-Qādir)
am rg
id
i.c
O David! We have made you a nā’ib in the country;
om
so govern people with justice. (Maḥmūd al-Ḥasan)
3. Verse 55 of Sūrah Nūr
God has promised that those among you who have

accepted faith and have done righteous deeds, in fact
He will in the coming times make them ḥākim67 in
the country the way He made ḥākim those prior to
them. (Shāh ‘Abd al-Qādir)
66. The word nā’ib means “deputy” or “vicegerent.”

67. The word ḥākim means “ruler(s).”
169
God has promised those among you who have
accepted faith and have done righteous deeds, in fact
He will in the coming times make them ḥākim in the
country the way He made rulers those prior to them.
(Maḥmūd al-Ḥasan)
The words nā’ib and ḥākim used in these verses are

translation of the Arabic words khalīfah and istikhlāf,
and it is quite evident that they do not have any religious
connotation in them except if a person claims that every
word used in the Qur’ān becomes a religious term.
w
w
Similar is the case with the Aḥādīth and Āthār. The
w ww
.j a w
word khalīfah and all its derivatives are used in them in
ve .a
the same meanings as the ones stated earlier. So much so,
da l-m
in one Ḥadīth,68 the word khalīfah is used for God
hm a
Himself in the meaning of “successor.” It is for this very
ad wri
reason that when meanings such as “rightly guided
g h d .o
am rg
government” or “government in accordance with the way
id
of prophethood” need to be expressed, then words such as
i.c
rāshidah and ‘alā minhāj al-nubuwwah have to be
om
appended with the word khilāfah. By regarding such
appended words to be understdood with the word khilāfah,
our scholars have made khilāfah a term. As such, it
certainly is a term of political science and sociology of
the Muslims just as the words fiqh, kalām, ḥadīth and
other similar ones have become terms, but it cannot be
regarded as a religious term. No one except God and His
Messenger have the authority to coin a religious term.
This is solely their prerogative. If some word is regarded
as a religious term, then it has to be deduced from the

170
words of these two authorities. It cannot be adduced
from works like the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldūn.
As far as the view is concerned that according to Islam
there should be only one global government in the
world, it is evident to every person of learning that the
Qur’ān is absolutely devoid of any such directive. Two
Aḥādīth are, however, cited in favour of this view. One
of them is: God’s Messenger (sws) is reported to have
said that prophets ruled the Israelites; so, when one of
them passed away, another would take his place; but
there is no prophet after me; however, there will be
w
w
rulers and they will be plenty. It was asked: “What is
w ww
.j a w
your directive about them O Prophet!” He replied:
ve .a
“Fulfil your oath of allegiance with the first one and then
da l-m
with the one who is the first after him.”69 The second
hm a
Ḥadīth is: “When the oath of allegiance is pledged to
ad wri
two rulers, kill the second one.”70 Though this second
g h d .o
am rg
narrative is not sound as far as its chain of narration is
id
concerned, yet even if it is regarded to be correct, it is an
i.c
incontestable reality that none of these Aḥādīth state in
om
any sense what has been derived from them. What is
said in these narratives is that if Muslims pledge their
oath of allegiance to a ruler and then another person
rebels against him and invites people to pledge
allegiance to him, then each Muslim should adhere to his
first oath of allegiance. Moreover, if the second person
claims to be their ruler and some people even pledge
their oath of allegiance to him, then he should be

171
executed.
Such is the nature of these directives that their cogency
can be made evident to every person. Thus, after the
demise of the Prophet Muḥammad (sws) when a member
of the Anṣār tribe suggested that a ruler each from the
Anṣār and the Muhājirūn should be appointed, ‘Umar
(rta) on this very principle opined that two swords
cannot exist in one sheathe, and Abū Bakr (rta) also
cautioned people at this instance that a state can only
have one ruler. This is because such an arrangement will
result in severe differences, disorder instead of order will
w
w
arise and the discipline of the state will be ruined, and
w ww
.j a w
instead of [following] the way on which the Prophet
ve .a
(sws) left his people this religious innovation that one
da l-m
state will be governed by two rulers will emerge.71
hm a
If the ascription of these Aḥādīth to the Prophet (sws)
ad wri
is correct, then they imply what has been explained
g h d .o
am rg
above. No logic or reasoning can deduce from them that
id
Islam has directed its followers to set up a single
i.c
government in the whole world. Similarly, no reasoning
om
can deduce from these narratives that if the adherents of
Islam are able to convert the majority of people of other
countries to Islam, then they cannot set up their own
government and if they do so, as in the case of today’s
fifty odd Muslims countries, they will be regarded as
sinners.
Scholars of Islam must bear in mind that the precepts
of God’s religion must remain pure and unaltered. No
71. Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥusayn al-Bayhaqī, Al-Sunan

al-kubrā, vol. 8 (Makkah: Maktabah dār al-Bāz, 1994), 145,
(no. 16326-16327).
172
scholar, jurist or Ḥadīth doctor has the authority to make
people liable for a directive for which the Almighty has
not made them liable. Hence I have written and would
like to repeat that the establishment of United States of
Islam based on the union of countries in which Muslims
are in majority can be the desire of every person and we
can also strive to fulfil this desire, but this view has no
basis that such a union is a directive of the Islamic
sharī‘ah, and if Muslims defy this, they will be guilty of
committing a sin.
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
______________
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
173
State and government are two separate entities. In the

terminology of political science, a state signifies the
political organization of a society, while a government
refers to those in authority; they are responsible for
w
running and managing the affairs of the state. Consider
w
first the state. The types of state which have as yet
w ww
.j a w
emerged are primarily three:
ve .a
First, the state founded in the Arabian Peninsula. The
da l-m
hm a
Almighty made it specific for His own self after He
ad wri
Himself had ascertained its boundaries. Thus, at His
g h d .o
behest the universal centre of His worship and preaching
am rg
was set up in Arabia, and at the end of he seventh
id
century AD it was declared through Muḥammad (sws):
i.c
‫( ﻵﻹ ﻳﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ دﻳﻨﺎن‬no non-Muslim can become its citizen
om
till the Day of Judgement).72 Earlier, the same status was
enjoyed by Palestine for centuries. The addressees of
Islam and the Islamic sharī‘ah here too are individuals
in their various capacities. However, if for such a state it
is said that its religion is Islam and only Islam shall reign
in it, then this statement is very comprehensible on all
grounds. It cannot be objected to.
Second, the states whose boundaries would be
determined by their conquerors. They would govern
72. Abū ‘Abdullāh Mālik ibn Anas, Mu’aṭṭā’, vol. 2 (Cairo:

Dār iḥyā’ al-turāth al-‘arabi, n.d.), 892, (no. 1584).
174
them by making their inhabitants subservient to them. In
such states, the religion of the royal family or of the ruler
would be considered as the religion of the state.
Disregarding whether their birth was legitimate or
illegitimate, if these states are dubbed as Muslim,
Christian or Communist states, then this too cannot be
regarded as incomprehensible.
Third, the nation-states of the modern era whose
boundaries are ascertained by international treaties and
which become a source of nationhood themselves for
their citizens as soon as they come into existence. Thus
w
w
in spite of having commonality or diversity in colour,
w ww
.j a w
ancestry, language and culture they call themselves
ve .a
Egyptians, Americans, Afghans and Pakistanis and
da l-m
express their nationhood in this respect. No one is
hm a
superior or subservient here. All, in fact, are regarded as
ad wri
equal citizens in all respects and in this capacity
g h d .o
am rg
participate in the affairs of the state.
It is about this third type of states that I had written73
id
i.c
that they can have no religion. Pakistan is an example of
om
such a state. Everyone knows that it was not created
from a divine decree so that like Arabia it only belongs
to Muslims nor did Mulsims after conquering it make its
non-Muslim inhabitants subservient to them nor did
these inhabitants become the citizens of this state by
virtue of a pact with the Muslims. They have remained
the inhabitants of this land for centuries the way
Muslims have been and just as this state belongs to
Muslims it also belongs to non-Muslims. India was not
73. Reference is to the article: “Islam and the State: A

Counter Narrative.”
175
divided on the basis that one part of it will belong to the
Muslims and the other part to Hindus and people of
other religions shall be subservient to them. The
principle of this division was that areas of British India
in which Muslims exist in majority shall be made a
separate country and the rulers of the principalities
would have the liberty to either remain free or become
part of India or Pakistan regardless of whether their
public has a majority of Muslims or of Hindus or of any
other religious denomination. If, on the authority of the
majority, such a state is regarded as a Muslim or a
w
w
Christian or a Hindu one, then this will be mere coercion
w ww
.j a w
and oppression which cannot be endorsed by any person
ve .a
who has been directed by his Lord to adhere to justice at
da l-m
all cost and to bear testimony to the truth, even if this
hm a
testimony goes against his own people. It is essential that
ad wri
now this testimony in favour of the non-Muslims of
g h d .o
am rg
Pakistan be penned down in historical records. This is
id
actually an evidence of the same fact which the founder
i.c
of Pakistan, Quaid i Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah had
om
explained while addressing the Constituent Assembly on
11 August 1947. He had declared:
You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you

are free to go to your mosques or to any other place
of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong
to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to
do with the business of the State. As you know,
history shows that in England, conditions, some time
ago, were much worse than those prevailing in India
today. The Roman Catholics and the Protestants
persecuted each other. Even now there are some
176
States in existence where there are discriminations
made and bars imposed against a particular class.
Thank God, we are not starting in those days. We are
starting in the days where there is no discrimination,
no distinction between one community and another,
no discrimination between one caste or creed and
another. We are starting with this fundamental
principle that we are all citizens and equal citizens of
one State. The people of England in course of time
had to face the realities of the situation and had to
discharge the responsibilities and burdens placed
w
w
upon them by the government of their country and
w ww
.j a w
they went through that fire step by step. Today, you
ve .a
might say with justice that Roman Catholics and
da l-m
Protestants do not exist; what exists now is that
hm a
every man is a citizen, an equal citizen of Great
ad wri
Britain and they are all members of the Nation.
g h d .o
am rg
Now I think we should keep that in front of us as our
id
i.c
ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus
om
would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease
to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because
that is the personal faith of each individual, but in
the political sense as citizens of the State.74
A question that can be raised on this is: does Islam

acknowledge such a state? I had tried to answer this
question by saying that Islam addresses the rulers of a
society.75 If they are Muslims, then they are the real
74. http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/constituent
_address_11aug1947.html
75. Reference is to the article: “Islam and the State: A
177
addressees of Islam’s directives related to the
collectivity. Islam has not given any directive to
Islamize a state. Thus its followers can live as citizens in
such nation-states and as a nation on the basis of
nationhood the way they currently live in many states.
Nothing in this is against Islam and the Islamic sharī‘ah.
This is my stance regarding the nation-states of these
times.
Consider next the government. Only two statements
endorsed by knowledge and reason can be given about
it: first, the rulers of a state will be chosen by the
w
w
Almighty, and second, they will be chosen by the
w ww
.j a w
inhabitants. After the termination of the institution of
ve .a
prophethood the first of the above options is not
da l-m
possible. Only the second one remains. Its essential
hm a
consequence is that the majority will have the right to
ad wri
rule. If Muslims have this majority and if on its basis
g h d .o
am rg
they become the rulers of a state, then it is their
id
democratic and human right that if their religion has
i.c
given them a directive regarding the collectivity, then
om
they should follow it and also decide all matters of the
followers of this religion in accordance with the sharī‘ah
revealed by God through His last prophet. It is precisely
this what the Quaid e Azam implied when he would
speak of Islam, Islamic civilization and the Islamic
sharī‘ah.
The relationship of the sharī‘ah with the nation-states
of today is of the nature just described. I had
endeavoured to put across this very understanding76
Counter Narrative.”
76. Ibid.
178
Thus, in accordance with this understanding, I had also
presented a comprehensive list of directives of the
sharī‘ah that relate to the collectivity. I had also written
that Muslims have been given these directives with the
warning that those who do not accept the verdicts of the
Book of God after acknowledging it will be regarded as
wrongdoers (ẓālim), defiant (fāsiq) and disbelievers
(kāfir) on the Day of Judgedment. Men of learning can
differ with the list I have compiled and also alter it.
However, if even after understanding this difference
between state and government and after viewing this list
w
w
they claim that I have confined the sharī‘ah to an
w ww
.j a w
individual or negated all directives that relate to the
ve .a
spheres of politics, economics and the social set-up and
da l-m
they are also not feigning ignorance, then I dare say that
hm a
they have not understood my views on this topic at all.
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
______________
179
Mosques
Mosques have a compelling influence in the Muslim

society. Considering this extraordinary importance of the
Mosque pulpit, the Prophet (sws) set the rule that none
other than the heads of the state and their viceroys may
lead the Friday Congregation and deliver a sermon on the
w
w
occasion. The service cannot legitimately be assumed by
w ww
.j a w
an individual on his own accord. However, when the
ve .a
ruler is not able to fulfil his duty in this regard, under a
da l-m
hm a
valid excuse, individual scholars can take his stead and
ad wri
lead the congregation and deliver the sermon that too
g h d .o
with the express will and permission by the authorities.
am rg
This norm established by the last Messenger of God
id
indeed indicates that, in the true religion of God, the hub
i.c
om
of the authority is the mosque. There is no Pope in
Islam. Nor a Brahman. Muslims choose their political
leadership and expect from their rulers to lead the
worship rites and rituals. This abolishes difference
between religion and politics forever.
The caliphate established and run by the pious
Companions (rta) of the Prophet (sws) followed this
sunnah with all its spirit and in perfect grandeur. The
saddest tragedy in the Muslim ummah did not, however,
wait long. Marred by unworthy deeds, the subsequent
rulers were no longer able to face the public in the
weekly congregations. They had to relinquish the pulpit
of the mosques to the clergy. A direct consequence of
180
this failure on the part of the rulers has been that the
religion was denuded of its grandeur and politics its
beauty. The party that merited honour and prosperity has
remained subservient for centuries. Contrarily, the party
which should have remained subservient to has got out
of line to the extent that any effort to bend it down to its
original position is feared to face myriad problems.
Mosques are now fortresses controlled by the sects. The
leaders of such sects occupying the fortresses safely hurl
stones at one another. The facility of the pulpit on the
Friday Congregation yields great power to the clergy.
w
w
Our society has reaped a strong faction of the
w ww
.j a w
professional clergymen which is literally a black spot on
ve .a
Muslim scholarship. When directed at the opponents the
da l-m
tongues of the clergy spawn poisonous snakes which
hm a
shower lethal secretion. Every caller to the truth falls
ad wri
victim to them. They spare no one. Research and
g h d .o
am rg
education are always their most favourite victims.
id
Mosques are open and accommodating for only the
i.c
preaching of heresies and sectarianism. They are mostly
om
closed to the propagators of the pure message of the
religion based on the Qur’ān and the Sunnah. It has been
made impossible for a true and honest scholar of Islam
to make the mosque a centre of his preaching and fulfil
his duty to propagate the religion under the command of
God.
This awful misery prevailing in our mosques is
appreciated by all possessed of understanding.
Correction and reforms are possible. But the only way to
achieve this is to adopt the Sunnah of the Prophet (sws)
introduced in the beginning of this essay. A positive
effort in that front, in my view, requires the following
181
gradual steps:
1. The headquarters of all the administrative units in
the country are shifted to the central congregational
mosques in the locality. Administrative units are decided
and categorized keeping in consideration the objective
that the central congregational mosque in a locality
fulfils all the needs and requirements of the local
populace.
2. Offices and courts necessary for an administrative
unit are set up beside the mosque in every centre.
3. In the central and provincial capitals one particular
w
w
mosque is declared the central congregational mosque.
w ww
.j a w
4. The head of the state takes the responsibility to
ve .a
deliver the Friday Sermon and lead the congregation in
da l-m
the main mosque of the central capital. Similarly, in the
hm a
provincial capitals, the governors lead the prayer and
ad wri
deliver the sermon. In the small administrative units, the
g h d .o
am rg
representatives of the state and government officials
id
discharge this duty.
i.c
5. Friday congregations are banned in any other
om
mosque.
6. Government should manage and administer the
mosques.
7. Every scholar is given the right to hold classes and
gatherings in the mosque with a view to educate and
train the masses and deliver sermon of moral and
religious teachings according to his understanding and
views.
______________
182
“Their System is based on their Consultation”77
According to the Qur’ān, the system of government

of an Islamic State is based on the principle: ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ٰ ۡ < ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
ۡ < < ۡ : ‫و‬:
ۡ < : ۡ : (And their system is based on their
(٣٨:٤٢) ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
consultation, (42:38)). The extensive meaning this short
w
verse encompasses and the guidance obtained from it
w
w ww
about the political set-up envisaged by Islam are detailed
.j a w
out below.
:
ve .a
The first word that occurs in the verse is <‫( ۡﻣﺮ‬amr). The
da l-m
hm a
word amr has many meanings in Arabic. Anyone who
ad wri
has a linguistic appreciation knows that for all such
g h d .o
words the implied meaning is determined from the
am rg
context in which they are used. Before we ascertain its
id
i.c
implied meaning in the above verse, we shall examine its
om
various connotations in Arabic.
In Yazīd ibn al-Jaham al-Hilālī’s following couplet it
means “to urge” or “to advise”:78
‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻣﺮت ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺨﻞ م ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬

‫( ﻟﺒﺨﻞ ﺣﻤﺪ‬b‫ ﻋ‬J´‫ ﺣ‬:‫ﻓﻘﻠﺖ ﻟﻬﺎ‬
Laqad amarat bilbukhli ummu muḥammadi
77. The Qur’ān (41:38).

78. Yaḥyā ibn ‘Alī ibn Khaṭīb al-Tabrīzī, Sharḥ Dīwān al-
ḥamāsah li Abī al-Tammām, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-qalam,
n.d.), 340.
183
Fa qultu lahā: huththī ‘alā al-bukhli ahmadā
(Umm Muḥammad urged me to be stingy; so I said to
her: “If you must urge someone to be stingy then let it be
your son Ahmad.”)
‘Amr ibn al-Ṣabghah al-Raqqāshī uses it in exactly the

same way we use “matters” for our general affairs of
life:79
‫ﻵﻹ ﻟﻴﻘﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺎء ﻣﺎ ﺷﺎء ﻧﻤﺎ‬

‫ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺳﺘﻄﺎع ﻣﻦ ﻵﻹﻣﺮ‬JO‫ﻳﻶﻹم ﻟﻔ‬
w
w
w ww
alā liyaqul man shā’a mā shā’a innamā
.j a w
ve .a
Yulāmu al-fatā fīmā istaṭā‘a min al-amri
da l-m
(Let anyone say what he likes, for a young man can
hm a
only be reproached in matters which are under his
ad wri
control.)
g h d .o
am rg
In Abū Ṣakhar al-Hudhalī’s following couplet, it
id
i.c
denotes “commandments and authority”:80
om
ٰ ‫ﻣﺎ و ﻟﺬي‬
‫ﺑ¬( و ﺿﺤﻚ و ﻟﺬي‬
‫ﻣﺎت و ﺣﻴﺎ و ﻟﺬي ﻣﺮه ﻵﻹﻣﺮ‬
Amā wa alladhī abkā wa aḍhaka wa alladhī
Amāta wa aḥyā wa alladhī amruhu al-amru
(Listen! By Him Who made us weep and laugh, Who
gave death and life and Whose commandments are the
real commandments.)
79. Ibid., vol. 2, 162.

80. Ibid., vol. 2, 66.
184
Ṣafiyyah bint ‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib uses it in a way in
which together with “commandments and authority” it
connotes “affairs of state”:81
ً
‫ﻳﺸﺎ‬RS Jµ‫ﻵﻹ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺒﻠﻎ ﻋ‬
‫ﻓﻔﻴﻢ ﻵﻹﻣﺮ ﻓﻴﻨﺎ و ﻵﻺﻣﺎر‬
‘alā man mublighuṇ ‘annā Qurayshaṇ
Fa fīmā al-amru fīnā wa al-imārū
(Hark ! who will deliver my message to the Quraysh
w
that as they do not accept our social position, so they
w
w ww
should tell us that why are the affairs of state in our hands
.j a w
and why are we considered worthy of consultation?)
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
In the Qur’ān also, it has been used in all these
ad wri
meaning, and at every instance it is the context which
g h d .o
determines the meaning that is implied. In the verse of
am rg
Sūrah Shūra under discussion, it is quite evident from its
id
context and placement that here it means “system.” This
i.c
om
meaning has been incorporated in it from the depth found
in its general meaning of “directive.” When the word
“directive” becomes related to people, it prescribes certain
limits for itself and establishes certain rules and
regulations. In such cases, it implies both the directives
which emanate from political authority and the collective
affairs. Thus a little deliberation shows that the English
word “system” is used to convey the same meaning.
Since the Qur’ān has not specified it by any other
adjective except by appending it to a pronoun, all sub-
systems which are part of the political system must be
81. Ibid., vol. 2, 276.

185
considered included in its connotation. In fact, all affairs
of state like the municipal, national and provincial
affairs, political and social directives, rules of
legislation, delegation and revocation of powers,
dismissal and appointment of officials, interpretation of
Islam for the collective affairs of life – all of them fall
under the principle laid down in this verse. In other
words, no area or department under an Islamic
government can be beyond the jurisdiction of this
ٰ ۡ < (shūrā). It is a verbal noun
principle.
Next comes the word ‫ﺷﻮري‬
w
(maṣdar) of the category (b‫( ﻓﻌ‬fu‘lā) and means “to
w
w ww
.j a w
consult.” Owing to the fact that it occurs as an
ve .a
enunciative (khabar) in the given verse, the: meaning of:
: ۡ : ۡ ‫ﺷﺎورﻫﻢ )( ﻵ‬
ۡ<ۡ7
da l-m
the same as of the verse: ‫ﻓﺎذ‬ 7 ¨ 7‫ﻹﻣﺮ‬
the
: : ۡ :9 : : is: not
9ٰ verse :
: ۡ : (Consult them in the affairs of the state 7
hm a
23‫ﷲ‬
7 (b‫·ﻣﺖ ﻓﺘﻮ_ﻞ ﻋ‬²
ad wri
and when you reach a decision, put your trust in God,
g h d .o
am rg
(3:159)), which is often quoted as its parallel. To convey
id
the same meaning as this verse, the: words should,
ْ < ‫ﻳﺸﺎو‬
7 < ‫ﻫﻢ‬ْ < ‫ﻵﻹﻣﺮ‬ْ: :
i.c
perhaps, have been something like ‫رون‬ 7 (7) ‫( و‬And
om
in the affairs [of state] they are consulted). In this case, it
would have been necessary that in the whole society the
rulers and the ruled be distinct. The ruler in such a case
would have to be divinely appointed or nominated by an
innocent Imām or be someone who had seized power by
force. Through whatever means he reached the position
of head of state, he would have only been bound to
consult people in matters of national interest before
forming his own opinion. He would not have been bound
to accept a consensus or a majority opinion. Acceptance
or rejection of an opinion would have rested on his
discretion. He would have all the right to accept a
186
ٰ ۡ < ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
minority opinion and reject a majority one.
However, the style and pattern of the words ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ<<ۡ:
:
ۡ < ۡ : (their system is based on their consultation)
‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
demands that even the head of an Islamic State be
appointed through consultation; the system itself be based
on consultation; everyone should have an equal right in
consultation; whatever is done through consultation
should only be undone through consultation; everyone
that is part of the system should have a say in its affairs,
and in the absence of a consensus, the majority opinion
should decide the matter.
w
w
The difference in meaning of the two verses can be
w ww
.j a w
appreciated if the following example is kept in mind. If
ve .a
it is said: “The ownership of this house shall be decided
da l-m
after consulting these ten brothers,” then it means that
hm a
only the ten brothers have the authority to make
ad wri
g h d .o
decisions and the opinion of any one of them cannot
am rg
prevail over the others. If all of them do not agree on the
id
matter, a majority opinion would be decisive. But, if the
i.c
above sentence is changed a little to: “In deciding the
om
ownership of this house, these ten brothers shall be
consulted.” then this sentence only means that someone
else has the final say. It will be his opinion which will be
carried out in the end. The only thing he must do is to
consult the ten brothers before forming his own opinion.
Obviously, he cannot be forced to accept the consensus
or majority opinion of the brothers.
Since, in the opinion of this writer, the< collective
system of the Muslims is based on ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬ ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ < < ۡ : (their
ٰ ۡ ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
system is based on their consultation), the election of
their ruler as well as their representatives must take place
through consultation. Also, after assuming a position of
187
authority, they will have no right to overrule a consensus
or a majority opinion of the Muslims in all the collective
affairs.
Mawlānā Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī comments on this
verse in the following words:
:
ۡ < ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬
ٰ ۡ ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬ < < :
ۡ < ۡ (their system is based on
The words ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
their consultation), by their nature and scope entail
five things:
First, people whose interests and rights relate to the
w
collective affairs should be given the freedom to
w
w ww
express their opinion, and they should be kept
.j a w
ve .a
totally aware of the actual way in which their affairs
da l-m
are being run; they should also have the right to
hm a
object and to criticize if they see anything wrong in
ad wri
the way their affairs are being conducted and the
g h d .o
right to change those in authority if the faults are not
am rg
rectified. It is outright dishonesty to forcibly silence
id
i.c
people or to run affairs without taking them into
om
confidence. No one can regard this attitude to be in
accordance with this verse.
Second, the person who is entrusted to run the

collective affairs of the people should be chosen
through their absolute free consent. Consent
obtained through force and intimidation, greed and
gratification, deception and fraud is no consent at
all. The ruler of a country is not one who obtains
this position by hook or by crook; the real ruler is
the person whom people choose freely without any
compulsion.
188
Third, people chosen for consultation should enjoy
the confidence of the majority. Consequently, those
who are worthy of consultation can in no way be
thought to enjoy the confidence of the people in the
truest sense if they acquire this position through
force, extortion, fraud or by leading people astray.
Fourth, people who are consulted must express their

opinions in accordance with their knowledge, faith
and conscience and should have complete freedom
w
for such expression. If, because of fear, greed or
w
w ww
some prejudice people are led to give opinions which
.j a w
are against their belief and conscience, then this is
ve .a
da l-m
disloyalty and infidelity, and is a negation of the
hm a
principle of consultation.
ad wri
g h d .o
Fifth, a decision which is made through the
am rg
consensus or majority opinion of the members of the
id
i.c
shūrā or which has the mandate of the people
om
behind it must always be accepted. Because if one
person or group insists on an opinion, then
consultation becomes useless. The Almighty has not
said: “They are consulted in their affairs;” on the
contrary, He has said: “Their system is based on
their consultation.” Merely consulting people does
not fulfil this directive; it is necessary that a
consensus or majority opinion be considered as
decisive in running the affairs.82
82. Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī, Tafhīm al-Qur’ān, 3rd ed., vol. 4

(Lahore: Idārah tarjumān al-Qur’ān, 1984), 509-510.
189
This principle of consultation as laid down by the
Qur’ān is also in accordance with the established norms
of sense and reason. No Muslim can be free of faults or
shortcomings. He can be the most distinguished as far as
piety and knowledge are concerned; he can be the most
suitable for the position of authority he holds and can
even consider himself so. But even with these abilities,
he cannot attain the position of head of state without the
general opinion of the Muslims. Also, earning this
position after being elected through a majority mandate
does not suggest that he cannot err or has the prerogative
w
w
to overrule a consensus or a majority opinion of the
w ww
.j a w
authorized people. The Prophet (sws) had this
ve .a
prerogative because he, being divinely guided, could not
da l-m
err. Even so, not one example can be cited from history
hm a
in which he ignored a majority opinion in favour of his
ad wri
own.
g h d .o
am rg
A Muslim ruler is indeed only one individual and
id
everyone will acknowledge that the opinion of a group
i.c
of people has more chances of being correct than that of
om
a single person. A God-fearing Muslim ruler should
regard his own opinion in the way a great jurist has
expressed: “We consider our opinion as correct but
concede the possibility of an error, and consider the
opinion of others as incorrect but concede the possibility
of its correctness.”
Moreover, if the people consulted know that even their
consensus and majority opinion have the possibility of
being rejected, they would not agree to offer their
opinion in the first place. Even if forced to do so, they
would never take serious interest in it. They would never
deeply reflect on the issue under discussion. They would
190
reluctantly come to sessions conducted for consultation
only to leave disappointed. They would never have
mental and emotional involvement with the political
system or the various institutions of the state. While
delineating on this psychological aspect, Abū Bakr al-
Jaṣṣās writes:
‫( ﺟﻬﺔ ﺗﻄﻴﻴﺐ —ﻔﻮﺳﻬﻢ و رﻓﻊ‬b‫وﻏ ﺟﺎﺋﺰ أن ﻳﻜﻮن ﻵﻻﻣﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎورة ﻋ‬

() ‫أﻗﺪ رﻫﻢ وﻟﺘﻘﺘﺪي ﻵﻻﻣﺔ ﺑھ )( ﻣﺜﻠھ ﻵﻹﻧھ ﻟﻮ _ﺎن ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻫﻢ‬
() ‫ﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎط ﻣﺎ ﺷﻮورو ﻓﻴھ و ﺻﻮ ب ﻟﺮأي ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺳﺌﻠﻮ ﻋﻨھ ﺛﻢ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ‬
w
w
‫ ﻣﻨھ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺑﻮﺟھ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ )( ذﻟﻚ ﺗﻄﻴﻴﺐ‬0º‫ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻌﻤﻮﻵﻹ ﻋﻠﻴھ وﻵﻹ ﻣﺘﻠ‬
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
‫—ﻔﻮﺳﻬﻢ وﻵﻹ رﻓﻊ ﻵﻻﻗﺪ رﻫﻢ ﺑﻞ ﻓﻴھ ﻳﺤﺎﺷﻬﻢ وأﻋﻶﻹﻣﻬﻢ ﺑﺎن أر ء ﻫﻢ ﻏ‬
da l-m
hm a
‫ ﻟھ ﻓﻜﻴﻒ ﻳﺴﻮغ‬Jµ‫ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ وﻵﻹ ﻣﻌﻤﻮل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻬﺬ ﺗﺄوﻳﻞ ﺳﺎﻗط ﻵﻹ ﻣﻌ‬
ad wri
‫ﺗﺄوﻳﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺄوﻟھ ﻟﺘﻘﺘﺪي ﺑھ ﻵﻻﻣﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻋﻠﻢ ﻵﻻﻣﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬ ﻟﻘﺎﺋﻞ ﺑﺎن‬
g h d .o
am rg
‫ء أﺷﺎرو ﺑھ‬J©‫ﻔﺪ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ وﻟﻢ ﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑ‬U ‫ﻫﺬه ﻟﻤﺸﻮرة ﻟﻢ‬
id
i.c
om
It is not proper to consider that this directive of
consultation is merely to please and honour the
Companions of the Prophet nor is it proper to think
that it has been given so that the ummah should
follow the Prophet in this regard in such matters. On
the other hand, if the Companions knew that their
opinion would neither be followed nor held in any
regard after they had used all their intellectual
abilities to form it, this would not have pleased or
honoured them; instead they would have been totally
discouraged, considering that their opinions were
neither good enough to be accepted nor fit enough to
be followed. Therefore, such an interpretation of this
191
directive of consultation is baseless and cannot be
accepted. Furthermore, how can we regard as correct
the interpretation that this directive was merely given
to teach the Prophet’s way to the ummah, when
actually the person who says this himself knows that
the ummah is aware of the fact that giving such an
opinion was neither of any use nor was it followed in
a particular matter?83
Here, there is the possibility that someone might quote

the offensive launched by the caliph Abū Bakr (rta)
w
against those who in his times had desisted from paying
w
w ww
zakāḥ and his attitude about the departure of the army
.j a w
ve .a
led by Usāmah ibn Zayd as testimony against what has
da l-m
been said above. Consequently, it is necessary that the
hm a
true nature of these two incidents be explained. Imām
ad wri
Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī comments on these in the following
g h d .o
words:
am rg
id
i.c
Deliberation on the action taken against those who
om
were evading zakāh reveals a few facts:
First, this matter had nothing to do with the caliph or

the members of the shūrā. Abū Bakr (rta) had never
presented this issue in the shūrā. Matters in which
there is no direct guidance provided by the Qur’ān
and Sunnah or those which relate to the general
well-being of the public are generally presented in
the shūrā. The matter of zakāh evasion has been
explicitly dealt with in the Qur’ān. In an Islamic
83. Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī al-Jaṣṣāṣ, Aḥkām al-Qur’ān,

vol. 2, (Beirut: Dār al-kitāb al-‘arabī, 1997), 41.
192
state, people lose their rights of Muslim citizenship
if they refuse to pay zakāh to the public treasury.
This is categorically laid down in the Islamic
sharī‘ah. Therefore, Abū Bakr (rta) was not required
to present this matter before the shūrā. On the
contrary, it was his responsibility as a caliph to
implement a directive of the Qur’ān. Consequently,
this is precisely what he did. An example to
illustrate this even further is that if a group of people
creates a law and order situation in an Islamic state
by going on a rampage of killing people, then the
w
w
caliph is not required to ask the permission of the
w ww
.j a w
shūrā to deal with this nuisance; it is indeed his duty
ve .a
to freely use his authority to implement the
da l-m
punishment prescribed by the Qur’ān for such
hm a
criminals.
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
Second, those who had expressed their reservations
id
on this action of the caliph Abū Bakr (rta) did so
i.c
because they had misunderstood a Ḥadīth of the
om
Prophet (sws). Abū Bakr (rta) himself explained this
Ḥadīth in conjunction with another detailed Ḥadīth,
which he himself had heard from the Prophet (sws).
This satisfied the people [and they never insisted on
calling a meeting of the shūrā]. It is obvious that a
Ḥadīth which is narrated by Abū Bakr (rta) himself
is extremely reliable and therefore has great
importance.
Third, the declaration of the caliph Abū Bakr (rta)

that he would fight alone with these evaders of
zakāh if he finds no one to fight with them is not an
193
expression of veto from him; it is on the contrary an
expression of the responsibility imposed on a caliph
by Islam in implementing a definite and explicit
directive. In Islam, the real responsibility of a caliph
in implementing the directives of God and His
Prophet (sws) is that he should try his utmost in
their implementation even if no one supports him.
He is not required to be bound by the opinion of the
people in categorical matters of the sharī‘ah. Only
matters in which there is no direct guidance
provided by the Qur’ān and Sunnah or those which
w
w
relate to the general well being of the public need
w ww
.j a w
the approval of the people eligible for consultation.
ve .a
da l-m
Similar is the case of dispatching the army led by
hm a
Usāmah (rta). All arrangements for this had already
ad wri
been completed in the life of the Prophet (sws)
g h d .o
am rg
himself. It is he who had selected the people who
id
would constitute this army. The Prophet (sws)
i.c
himself had hoisted the flag of the army. If the
om
Prophet (sws) had not fallen severely sick, the army
would have been on its way. The Prophet (sws)
could not recover from his sickness and died. Abū
Bakr (rta) then assumed charge as caliph. He quite
naturally thought that his greatest responsibility as a
caliph was to send the army which had been
prepared by the Prophet (sws) and about whose
early departure the Prophet (sws) was very anxious.
As the caliph, it was his great honour as well as his
primary responsibility to execute a prior directive of
the Prophet (sws). He was not required to consult
his people for this because all matters concerning
194
the army had already been settled by the Prophet
(sws). As the successor to the Prophet (sws), it was
his duty to enforce these directives instead of
amending them. So, when some people, because of
the peculiar circumstances which had arisen,
regarded this campaign to be against the call of the
day, Abū Bakr (rta) asserted unequivocally that he
would not furl the flag which had been unfurled by
the Prophet (sws).
Consequently, these two incidents can in no way be
w
presented as evidence to the fact that a ruler can
w
w ww
veto the decision of his shūrā members. The only
.j a w
ve .a
thing to which they bear testimony is that in the
da l-m
enforcement of explicit directives of God and His
hm a
Prophet (sws), no ruler is required to consult his
ad wri
shūrā members. In fact, his real duty is to
g h d .o
implement them.84
am rg
< < :
id
ۡ ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ <ۡ <:
i.c
According to the Qur’ānic directive of ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
om
(their system is based on their consultation), the details
of the methodology adopted by the Prophet (sws) and his
Companions (rta) for the participation of the Muslims in
the affairs of the state in their own times, keeping in
view their social conditions, are based on the following
two points:
I. Muslims shall be consulted in the affairs of state
through their leaders in whom they profess confidence.
It is recorded:
84. Amīn Aḥsan Iṣlāḥī, Islāmī Riyāsat, 1st ed., (Lahore:

Makatbah markazī anjuman-i khuddām al-Qur’ān, 1977), 37-37.
195
: < 7 ْ < ْ ‫ﻟﻬﻢ‬ : : 9 : : ۡ : : < 9ٰ : 9 : 9ٰ : ْ < : : 9 :
: : g: ‫ﻗﺎل ﺣ‬
ْ < : ‫ذن‬
()7 ‫ﻟﻤﺴﻠﻤﻮن‬ 7 7 : ‫ﻢ‬:‫وﺳﻠ‬ ‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ ﻋﻠ‬23‫( ﷲ‬b‫ ﺻ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ن رﺳﻮل‬
:9 : < ْ : ْ : ْ : ْ : ْ :9 ْ < ْ : : ْ : ْ : : 9 : : : ْ : ْ
JO‫ﻓﺎرﺟﻌﻮ ﺣ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻤﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺎذن‬7 ‫ﻣﻨﻜﻢ‬7 ‫ذن‬7 ‫دري ﻣﻦ‬ 7 ‫( ﻵﻹ‬¤7 7 ‫زن‬7 ‫ ﻫﻮ‬J°‫ﺳ‬
7 ‫ﻋﺘﻖ‬7
<ْ : ْ : ْ < < : : < : ْ : : 7 : ْ :
‫ﻢ‬v‫ﻢ ﻣﺮ‬v‫ﻓﺎؤ‬R² ‫ﻟﻴﻨﺎ‬7 ‫ﻳﺮﻓﻊ‬
When Muslims at the Prophet’s behest consented to
free the prisoners of Hawāzin, the Prophet said: “I
could not know who among you has shown his
consent and who among you has not. Therefore, go
back, and send your leaders that they may inform
w
us.”85
w
w ww
.j a w
It is narrated about Abū Bakr (rta):
ve .a
da l-m
: : : : : 9 : : ۡ : : < 9ٰ : 9 : 9ٰ : ْ < : ْ ً : 9 < : : ‫أن‬ْ : ‫أﻋﻴﺎه‬
< : ْ : ‫ﻓﺈن‬
ْ :
hm a
‫ﺟﻤﻊ‬ ‫ﻴھ وﺳﻠﻢ‬ 7 ‫ ﻋﻠ‬23‫( ﷲ‬b‫ ﺻ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ رﺳﻮل‬7 ‫ﻓﻴھ ﺳﻨﺔ‬ 7 7 ‫ﻳﺠﺪ‬ 7 7
: ْ : : : ْ < < ْ : : : ْ : : ْ < : : : ْ : ْ < : : : :9 : <
ad wri
:
g h d .o
‫ﺑھ‬
7 7 J«‫أﻣﺮ ﻗ‬ ٍ (b‫ﻓﺈذ أﺟﺘﻤﻊ رأﻳﻬﻢ ﻋ‬7 ‫وﺧﻴﺎرﻫﻢ ﻓﺎﺳﺘﺸﺎرﻫﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﻨﺎس‬7 ‫رؤس‬
am rg
Then if he could not find a practice of the Prophet in
id
i.c
this matter, he would gather the influential among his
om
people and consult them, and when they would reach
a conclusion, he would decide according to it.86
During the time of the Prophet (sws), the tribal chiefs

held this position of trust. The people of the tribes of
Aws, Khazraj and Quraysh professed confidence in
every sense of the word in their respective leaders.
Indeed, these leaders were neither elected to this position

86. Abū Muḥammad ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-
Dārimī, Sunan, 1st ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-kitāb al-‘arabī,
1407 AH), 69, (no. 65).
196
nor was an election needed in the social conditions
which existed at that time. It was, because of their social
status, intellect and experience that their people turned to
these chiefs in all their political and collective affairs.
Before the advent of Islam, it was their tribes’ complete
faith in them which conferred this position on them and
this state continued even after they accepted Islam.
However, before accepting Islam, a person could say
that his tribal chief had seized power by force and that he
was not in a position to show his mistrust in him, but
after accepting faith every person from among the
w
w
Muslim public could express his lack of confidence in
w ww
.j a w
his chief in front of the Prophet (sws). If the majority in
ve .a
a tribe had expressed their lack of confidence in their
da l-m
leader, he could certainly not have retained his position.
hm a
The Prophet (sws) in his own times made all the
ad wri
important decisions after consulting these tribal chiefs
g h d .o
am rg
and during the time of the Rightly Guided Caliphate
id
also, the position of trust commanded by them
i.c
continued.
om
While narrating the proceedings of a shūrā called to
session in the time of the caliph Umar’s (rta) rule to
decide the fate of the conquered lands of Syria and Iraq,
Qāḍī Abū Yūsuf writes:
‫ ﻓﺎﺧﺘﻠﻔﻮ ﻓﺄﻣﺎ ﻋﺒﺪ‬g ‫ ﻓﺎﺳﺘﺸﺎر ﻟﻤﻬﺎﺟﺮﻳﻦ ﻵﻻوﻟ‬:‫ ﻗﺎل‬Rw‫ ﻓﺎﺳﺘ‬: ‫ﻗﺎﻟﻮ‬

‫ﻘﺴﻢ ﻟﻬﻢ ﺣﻘﻮﻗﻬﻢ و رأي‬U ‫ ﻋﻨھ ﻓ ﺎن رأﻳھ إن‬23‫ ﷲ‬JL‫ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻮف ر‬
‫ة‬Rw‫( ﻋ‬T‫ ﻋﻨﻬﻢ رأي ﻋﻤﺮ ﻓﺎرﺳﻞ إ‬23‫ ﷲ‬JL‫( و ﻃﻠﺤﺔ و ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ ر‬b‫ﻋﺜﻤﺎن و ﻋ‬
‫ ﻓﻬﻢ‬R¿‫·رج ﻣﻦ ﻛ ﺋﻬﻢوأ‬À‫ ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻹوس وﺧﻤﺴﺔﻣﻦ ﻟ‬:‫ﻣﻦ ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎر‬
The people said: you should now seek formal
197
consultation. At this, he consulted the early
Muhājirūn and there existed a difference in their
opinions. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ‘Awf maintained that
the land should be rightfully distributed among them,
while ‘Uthmān, ‘Alī, Ṭalhah and Ibn ‘Umar were in
agreement with ‘Umar’s view. Then he called ten
people from the Anṣār: five from the leading people
of the Aws and five from those of the Khazraj.87
‘Umar (rta) while explaining his own position in

relation to the members of the shūrā said:
w
w
w ww
(¤‫ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺣﻤﻠﺖ ﻣﻦ أﻣﻮرﻛﻢ ﻓﺄ‬JO‫ﻮ )( أﻣﺎﻧ‬v Á‫( ﻟﻢ أزﻋﺠﻜﻢ أﻵﻹ ﻵﻹن ﺗﺸ‬¤‫أ‬
.j a w
ve .a
‫ﻢ … وﻟﺴﺖ رﻳﺪ ن ﺗﺘﺒﻌﻮ ﻫﺬ ﻟﺬي ﻫﻮ ي‬v‫و ﺣﺪ _ﺄﺣﺪ‬
da l-m
hm a
I have bothered you with the burden of coming here
ad wri
so that you can help me in my responsibilities owing
g h d .o
to this position you have entrusted me with. I am a
am rg
human being just like you … and do not want that
id
i.c
you follow my desires in these affairs.88
om
The manner in which such sessions would be held< was
: : ْ:
: 7 : ‫ﻟﺼﻶﻹة‬
that first a person would loudly announce: ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬
(al-ṣalāh jāmi‘ah); which meant that people should
gather for prayer. When people would gather, ‘Umar
(rta) would pray two rak‘āt. He would then deliver a
brief speech and would table the agenda on which he
wanted to consult the people. The issues of the
87. Abū Yūsuf Ya‘qūb ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Ḥabīb ibn Sa‘d,
Kitāb al-khirāj, 1st ed (Cairo: Al-Maktabah al-azhariyyah li al-
turāth, n.d.), 35.
88. Ibid., 35-36.
198
conquered lands of Syria and Iraq and the participation
of the caliph himself in the battle of Nihāwand were
discussed and settled in these meetings. Similarly, the
issues of the salaries of soldiers, appointment of
representatives, organization of offices, freedom of trade
for other nations and their taxes were all decided in these
meetings. Balādhurī writes that there was another group
of the leaders of the Muhājirūn (the ruling party) who
would see to the day to day affairs of the country and
would regularly assemble at the Masjid-i Nabawī for this
purpose:
w
w
w ww
.j a w
‫_ﺎن ﻟﻠﻤﻬﺎﺟﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ )( ﻟﻤﺴﺠﺪ ﻓ ﺎن ﻋﻤﺮ ﻳﺠﻠﺲ ﻣﻌﻬﻢ ﻓﻴھ و‬
ve .a
da l-m
‫ إﻟﻴھ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮر ﻵﻻﻓﺎق‬0Ã‫ﻳﺤﺪﺛﻬﻢ ﻋﻤﺎ ﻳﻨﺘ‬
hm a
In the mosque [of the Prophet], sessions of the
ad wri
Muhājirūn would be convened in which ‘Umar
g h d .o
am rg
would sit and present to them all the happenings and
id
events reported to him from the various parts of his
i.c
empire. 89
om
II. The tradition was established that among the
various groups present in an Islamic State, only that
group assumed political authority which enjoyed the
confidence of the majority of Muslims.
Before his death, the Prophet (sws) clarified that the
Quraysh would be his successors and not the Anṣār:
: : 9 < 9ٰ < : 9 : : 9 ٌ : : ْ ْ : < () :‫ﻵﻻﻣﺮ‬
: < ‫ﻵﻹ‬: ‫ﻳﺶ‬RS : : :9
ْ : ْ ‫ﻫﺬ‬
7 7 ْ : (b‫ﻋ‬: 7‫)( ﻟﻨﺎر‬7 23‫ﷲ‬
‫وﺟﻬھ‬ ‫ﻵﻹ ﻛـﺒھ‬7 ‫ﻌﺎدﻳﻬﻢ ﺣﺪ‬
7 7 ٍ 7 ‫ن‬7
89. Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā ibn Jābir Balādhurī, Futūḥ al-Buldān,
(Qum: Manshūrāt al-Arummiyyah, 1404 AH), 266.
199
< : : ‫ﻣﺎ‬:
: 79 ‫ﻗﺎﻣﻮ‬
.‫ﻟﺪﻳﻦ‬
Our political authority shall remain with the
Quraysh. In this matter, whoever opposes them as
long as they follow Islam, God shall cast him face
down in Hell.90
< 7 ‫وﻵﻹ‬: ‫ﻳﺸﺎ‬RS
Consequently, he told the Anṣār:91 ‫ﻘﺪﻣﻮﻫﺎ‬U
:
ْ< 7
ْ : ‫ﻗﺪﻣﻮ‬ 9:<: ً < 9:
(In this matter, bring forward the Quraysh and do not try
to supersede them). The Prophet (sws) stated thus the
reason for the decision he had declared:
w
w
ْ :9 : : ٌ : : < :9
ْ 7 7 : 7 ‫ﻫﻢ ﻟ‬RÅ‫و_ﺎ‬
ْ < < 7 : : ‫ﻤﺴﻠﻤﻬﻢ‬7 ْ : < ‫ﺗﺒﻊ ﻟ‬
w ww
‫ﻫﻢ‬RÅ‫ﺎ‬ ْ < < 7 ْ < ‫ﻟﺸﺄن‬
ْ 7 ْ < ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻤﻬﻢ ﻟ‬ ‫)( ﻫﺬ‬7 ‫ﻳﺶ‬PQ7 ‫ﻟﻨﺎس‬
.j a w
7 77 7 ٍ
ve .a
da l-m
People in this matter follow the Quraysh. The
hm a
believers of Arabia are the followers of their
ad wri
believers and the disbelievers of Arabia are the
g h d .o
followers of their disbelievers.92
am rg
id
i.c
Thus, the Prophet (sws) made it very clear that since the
om
majority of the Arabian Muslims professed confidence in
the Quraysh, they were solely entitled to take charge as
the rulers < of Arabia in the light of the Qur’ānic directive
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬
‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬ ۡ < < ۡ : (their system is based on their
consultation), and that they would be passed on the
political authority after the Prophet (sws) not because of

91. Abū al-Faḍl Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī ibn Ḥajar al-‘Asqalānī, Al-
Talkhīṣ al-Ḥabīr fī takhrīj aḥādith al-rāfi‘ī al-kabīr, vol. 2
(Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1989), 96.
200
any racial precedence or superiority, but only by virtue of
this position.
Those who have studied the history of the Arabs know
that before the advent of the Prophet (sws), the Quraysh
were at the helm of the state’s affairs and their leaders
were considered as the leaders of the Arabs. After the
battles of Badr and Uḥud, though several of their leaders
had been killed, yet in the capacity of a party they
enjoyed the confidence of all the Arabs. All their
prominent people who had accepted faith were present in
Madīnah and many of them had distinguished
w
w
themselves in the service of Islam. It was these people
w ww
.j a w
who were called the Muhājirūn and after the general
ve .a
acceptance of faith by the Arabs their leaders enjoyed
da l-m
the same confidence as the influential Arabs in the pre-
hm a
Islamic era. Hence, elections were not needed to confirm
ad wri
g h d .o
this reality. There was no room for a difference of
am rg
opinion in the fact that the Quraysh had the popular
id
support of the masses behind them and that no tribe
i.c
could challenge this position of theirs.
om
There is no doubt that as far as Madīnah was
concerned, the Anṣār under Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubādah (rta) and
Sa‘d ibn Mu‘ādh (rta), the respective leaders of Aws and
Khazraj, had more influence among the local population.
They were no less than the Muhājirūn as regards the
services they had rendered for the cause of Islam. They
had offered their unconditional support and help to the
Muhājirūn when the latter had migrated to Madīnah.
Together with them, they had fought gallantly in the
battles of Badr, Uḥud, Aḥzāb and Ḥunayn. The
relationship of brotherhood and fraternity they had
established with them was an exceptional one.
201
Particularly, the way they had offered them monetary
assistance – to please the Almighty – bears no parallel in
history. Had the Islamic State been confined only to
Madīnah, it can be said with certainty that after the
Prophet (sws), they would have assumed political
authority. But after the conquest of Makkah, when a
large number of Arabs of other territories accepted
Islam, the political scene changed drastically. The extent
of confidence commanded by the Muhājirūn of the
Quraysh out-proportioned that of the Anṣār.
However, there was still a chance that owing to the
w
w
perfectly natural emotions of tribal affiliation and owing
w ww
to the spirit of outdoing each other in serving Islam, the
.j a w
ve .a
Anṣār might have come forward and challenged the
da l-m
Quraysh. Particularly, the fact that they commanded
hm a
more influence locally in Madīnah could have caused
ad wri
them to put undue trust in their strength. If such a
g h d .o
situation, God forbid, had arisen the Munāfiqūn
am rg
(Hypocrites) would have certainly tried to benefit from
id
i.c
it, and keeping in view the social conditions which
om
prevailed at that time, only a war could have settled their
dissension.
Therefore, the Prophet (sws), sensing that this
untoward situation might arise, decided once and for all
the fate of this matter in his own life in the presence of
Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubādah (rta), the supreme< leader of the Anṣār.
ْ : ‫ﻣﻦ‬ < :9 :
ْ 7 ‫ﻵﻹﺋﻤﺔ‬
He is reported to have said:93 ‫ﻳﺶ‬RS 7 ([After me],
the political leaders should be from the Quraysh).
Consequently, in the Thaqīfah of Banū Sā‘idah, when the
leaders of the Anṣār were delivering stirring speeches to
93. Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, Musnad, vol. 3, 129, (no. 12329).

202
prove their entitlement to the leadership of the Arabs,
Abū Bakr (rta) reminded them of the Prophet’s above
mentioned decision in the following words:
: : ‫ﻢ‬::‫وﺳﻠ‬
: ْ : : ‫ﻗﺎل‬
‫وأﻧﺖ‬
9 : : ۡ : : < 9ٰ : 9 : 9ٰ : ْ < : : 9 : < ْ : : : ْ : ْ : : :
‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ ﻋﻠ‬23‫( ﷲ‬b‫ ﺻ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻋﻠﻤﺖ ﻳﺎ ﺳﻌﺪ أن رﺳﻮل‬ 7 ‫وﻟﻘﺪ‬
ٌ : : ْ < < : : ْ 9 : ٌ : : :9 <9 : : ْ : ْ : : < : < ٌ ْ : < ٌ :
‫وﻓﺎﺟﺮﻫﻢ ﺗﺒﻊ‬ 7 ‫ﻫﻢ‬7 7 7 ‫ﻟ‬: ‫ﻟﻨﺎس ﺗﺒﻊ‬ 7 ‫ ﻓ‬7‫ﻳﺶ وﻵﻹة ﻫﺬ ﻵﻻﻣﺮ‬RS ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪ‬ 7
< ْ < ْ : ْ : : ْ : ٌ ْ : ‫ﻟھ‬: :
< ‫ﻓﻘﺎل‬ : : ْ7 :‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻵﻻﻣﺮ <ء‬
: : ‫وأﻧﺘﻢ‬ْ : ‫ﻟﻮزر <ء‬
: < ‫ﻧﺤﻦ‬ < ْ ‫ﺻﺪﻗﺖ‬: ‫ﺳﻌﺪ‬ : ‫ﻗﺎل‬: ‫ﻔﺎﺟﺮﻫﻢ‬7
77
O Sa‘d! You know very well that the Prophet (sws)
had said in your presence that the Quraysh shall be
w
given the khilāfah because the nobles among the
w
w ww
Arabs follow their nobles and their commoners
.j a w
ve .a
follow their commoners. Sa‘d replied: “What you
da l-m
say is correct, we are your advisers and you are our
hm a
rulers.”94
ad wri
g h d .o
In another report, the words are:
am rg
id
: : :9 : ْ : ْ : : < : : ْ ْ ْ : ْ :
ْ : < ْ 9 : ْ ‫ﻬﺬ‬7
i.c
‫ﻳﺶ‬RS
ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 0Æ‫ﻟ‬ 7 ‫إﻵﻹ ﻟ‬7 ‫ﻌﺮف ﻟﻌﺮب ﻫﺬ ﻵﻻﻣﺮ‬U 7 ‫ﻟﻢ‬
om
The people of Arabia do not acknowledge anyone’s
political leadership except that of the Quraysh.95
After this verification by Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubādah (rta), the

chief of the Anṣār, it became clear to those present that
they had strayed from the right course in the heat of
discussion and that the right course was to elect their
ruler from the group which held majority in the public;
that whoever would be elected would be the khalīfah of
94. Ibid., vol. 1, 5, (no. 18).

95. Ibid., vol. 1, 55, (no. 391).
203
the Muslims and it would be obligatory to obey him; that
this course had been outlined by the Prophet (sws)
himself and they should not adopt a different one.
The Rightly Guided Caliphate was also founded on the
basis of this decision declared by the Prophet (sws).
When the leaders of the Anṣār submitted to it, ‘Umar
(rta), considering the delicacy of the situation which had
arisen in the Thaqīfah, proclaimed the rule of Abū Bakr
(rta) being sure of the fact that the leaders of the Quraysh
would not differ with him and would, in fact, endorse his
w
step. Later, he himself stated this reason for his step and
w
w ww
warned that no one should dare present it as a violation
ٰ ۡ < ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﺷﻮري‬ ۡ < < ۡ : (their system is
.j a w
of the Qur’ānic principle ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
ve .a
da l-m
based on their consultation):
hm a
: : 9 : ‫أﻵﻹ‬: : ‫وﺗﻤﺖ‬ ً : ْ : ْ : : < : ْ : ْ : : : :9 : < : ْ : ٌ < ْ :9 :9 : ْ : : :
ْ : 9 : : ‫ﻓﻠﺘﺔ‬
ad wri
‫وإﻧﻬﺎ‬ 7 Ra‫ﺑ‬
ٍ (\‫إﻧﻤﺎ _ﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﻴﻌﺔ أ‬7 ‫ ن ﻣﺮؤ أن ﻘﻮل‬Á‫ﻓﻶﻹ ﻐ‬
g h d .o
< : ْ : ْ < : ْ < ْ : ْ < ْ 7 : ْ : : : : 9 : : : : 9ٰ : 9 : : : : : ْ : : ْ :
am rg
‫ﻘﻄﻊ ﻵﻻﻋﻨﺎق‬U ‫ﻣﻨﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻫﺎ وﻟﻴﺲ‬R¿ (Ç‫ و‬23‫وﻟﻜﻦ ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ﻗﺪ _ﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﺬﻟ‬
id
:‫ﻓﻶﻹ‬: g: ‫ﻟﻤﺴﻠﻤ‬ ْ < ْ : ً : ْ: : < ْ ْ:
i.c
< : : : < : : :
7 7 ْ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ْ 7 ‫ﻣﺸﻮرة‬
ٍ 7 ‫ﻋﻦ ﻏ‬ ْ ‫ﺑﺎﻳﻊ رﺟﻶﻹ‬ : ‫ﻣﻦ‬ْ Ra‫ﺑ‬
ٍ (\‫ﻣﺜﻞ أ‬7 ‫إﻟﻴھ‬
7 7
om
: ْ < ‫أن‬
:‫ﻘﺘﻶﻹ‬ ً :9 : < : : : :9 7 : : : < < : : <
ْ : ‫ﻐﺮة‬U
7 ‫ﻟﺬي ﺑﺎ ﻌھ‬ 7 ‫ﻳﺒﺎﻳﻊ ﻫﻮ وﻵﻹ‬
No one among you should have the misconception
that the oath of allegiance to Abū Bakr took place
suddenly. No doubt, the oath was pledged in this
way, but the Almighty protected the Muslims from its
evil consequences [which might have arisen] and
remember! There is none among you like Abū Bakr,
whose greatness cannot be surpassed. Now, if a
person pledges an oath of allegiance to someone,
without the opinion of the believers, no one should
pledge allegiance to him as well as to whom he
204
[himself] pledged allegiance because by doing this
both of them shall present themselves for execution.96
At the time of the death of Abū Bakr (rta) also, the

Muhājirūn of the Quraysh enjoyed the people’s
confidence. Since no other tribe of the Arabs including
the Anṣār had challenged this position, they continued to
hold their position of authority, and there was no need to
turn to the general public in this regard. Therefore, the
leaders of the Muhājirūn of the Quraysh nominated
‘Umar (rta) as the new ruler and both the Anṣār and the
w
Muhājirūn – the two big tribes of the Muslims –
w
w ww
accepted the appointment. Consequently, without any
.j a w
ve .a
difference of opinion, ‘Umar (rta), in direct accordance
da l-m
with the Islamic constitution, assumed the position of
hm a
khilāfah. Ibn Sa‘d reports:
ad wri
g h d .o
(¤ ‫ أﺧ‬: ‫ ﻟﺼﺪﻳﻖ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺳﺘﻌﺰﺑھ دﻋﺎ ﻋﺒﺪ ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻮف ﻓﻘﺎل‬Ra‫أن ﺑﺎﺑ‬
am rg
id
‫ ﻋﻦ أﻣﺮ أﻵﻹ وأﻧﺖ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑھ‬Jµ‫ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ ﻟﺨﻄﺎب ﻓﻘﺎل ﻋﺒﺪ ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺴﺄﻟ‬
i.c
9ٰ
om
‫ ﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ رأﻳﻚ ﻓﻴھ‬23‫ ﻫﻮ و ﷲ‬: ‫ و ن ﻓﻘﺎل ﻋﺒﺪ ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ‬: Ra‫ ﻓﻘﺎل ﺑﻮﺑ‬Jµ‫ﻣ‬
‫أﻧﺖ ﺧ ﻧﺎﺑھﻓﻘﺎل‬:‫( ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ ﻓﻘﺎل‬¤ ‫ ﺧ‬:‫ﺛﻢدﻋﺎ ﻋﺜﻤﺎن ﺑﻦ ﻋﻔﺎنﻓﻘﺎل‬
‫ﻳﺮﺗھﺧ ﻣﻦﻋﻶﻹﻧﻴﺘھو ﻧھﻟﻴﺲﻓﻴﻨﺎﻣﺜﻠھ‬RÈ‫ﺑھأن‬VW‫ ﻟﻠﻬﻢﻋﻠ‬:‫ﻋﺜﻤﺎن‬
When ill-health overtook Abū Bakr and the time of
his death approached, he summoned ‘Abd al-
Raḥmān ibn ‘Awf and said: “Tell me about ‘Umar
ibn al-Khaṭṭāb.” ‘Abd al-Raḥmān replied: “You are
asking me about something of which you know
better.” Abū Bakr said: “Although [this is correct

205
yet I want your opinion].” ‘Abd al-Raḥmān
answered: ‘”By God! He is even better than the
opinion you hold about him.” Then he [Abū Bakr]
called ‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān and asked him: “Tell me
about ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb. ‘Uthmān replied: “You
know him better than us.” Abū Bakr said: “Still! O
Abū ‘Abdullāh! [I want your opinion].” [At this],
‘Uthmān answered: “Indeed, in my opinion, his
inner-self is better than his outer-self and no one
among us can parallel him.”97
w
Ibn Sa‘d mentions that Abū Bakr (rta), besides these
w
w ww
two, consulted all the prominent leaders of the Anṣār and
.j a w
ve .a
the Muhājirūn:
da l-m
hm a
‫و ﺷﺎور ﻣﻌﻬﻤﺎ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺑﻦ زﻳﺪ أﺑﺎ ﻵﻻﻋﻮر و ﺳﻴﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻟﺤﻀ و ﻏ ﻫﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
JLRÉ‫ﻟ‬JL‫ ﻟﻠﻬﻢ ﻋﻠﻤھ ﻟﺨ ة 'ﻌﺪكﻳﺮ‬:‫ﻟﻤﻬﺎﺟﺮﻳﻦو ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎر ﻓﻘﺎل ﺳﻴﺪ‬
am rg
‫ ﺧ ﻣﻦ ﻟﺬي ﻌﻠﻦ و ﻟﻢ ﻳﻞ ﻫﺬ ﻵﻻﻣﺮ أﺣﺪ‬RÊ‫و ﻳﺴﺨط ﻟﻠﺴﺨط ﻟﺬي ﻳ‬
id
i.c
om
‫أﻗﻮىﻋﻠﻴھﻣﻨھ‬
And he, besides these two, consulted Abū al-A‘war
Sa‘īd ibn Zayd and Usayd ibn al-Ḥuḍayr as well as
other prominent leaders of the Anṣār and the
Muhājirūn, so Usayd said: “Indeed after you O Abū
Bakr! I consider him the best. He is happy on happy
occasions and sad on sad occasions. His inner-self is
better than his outer-self. No one is more suited to
bear the burden of this khilāfah.” 98
97. Ibn Sa‘d, Al-Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 3, 199.

98. Ibid.
206
After this, Ibn Sa‘d reports that some people differed
from Abū Bakr’s (rta) opinion but he satisfied them. He
then called ‘Uthmān (rta) and said:
9ٰ
R•‫ ﺑﻦ أ\( ﻗﺤﺎﻓﺔ )( أ‬Ra‫ ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ ﻫﺬ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻬﺪ ﺑﻮﺑ‬23‫ ﺑﺴﻢ ﷲ‬: ‫ﺘﺐ‬v
ً
‫ة د ﺧﻶﻹ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ‬R•‫ﻋﻬﺪه ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ ﺧﺎرﺟﺎ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ وﻋﻨﺪ أول ﻋﻬﺪه ﺑﺎﻵﻻ‬
‫( ﺳﺘﺨﻠﻔﺖ ﻋﻠﻴﻜﻢ‬¤ ‫ و ﻳﻮﻗﻦ ﻟﻔﺎﺟﺮ و ﻳﺼﺪق ﻟ ﺎذب‬RÅ‫ﻳﺆﻣﻦ ﻟ ﺎ‬
‫'ﻌﺪي ﻋﻤﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻟﺨﻄﺎب ﻓﺎﺳﻤﻌﻮ ﻟھ و أﻃﻴﻌﻮ‬
w
Write: “In the name of God the Most Gracious, the
w
w ww
Ever Merciful. This is the will of Abū Bakr ibn Abī
.j a w
Quḥāfah which he made at the end of his worldly
ve .a
da l-m
life, when he is about to leave it and at the
hm a
beginning of his next life when he is about to enter
ad wri
it, at a time when disbelievers accept faith, the
g h d .o
defiant express belief and liars speak the truth. I
am rg
make ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb your khalīfah.
id
i.c
Therefore, listen to him and obey him.”99
om
This letter was sealed. According to Abū Bakr’s (rta)
directive, ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (rta) and Usayd ibn
Sa‘īd (rta) accompanied ‘Uthmān (rta), who took the
letter out to the people and said:
‫أﺗﺒﺎ ﻌﻮن ﻟـﻤﻦ )( ﻫﺬ ﻟﻜﺘﺎب؟ ﻓﻘﺎﻟﻮ —ﻌﻢ‬

Will you pledge allegiance to the person in whose
favor a will has been made in this letter. The people
99. Ibid., vol. 3, 200.

207
said: “Yes.” 100
Ibn Sa‘d reports:

ً ً
‫ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺧﺎﻟﻴﺎ ﻓﺄوﺻﺎه‬Ra‫و ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺟﻤﻴﻌﺎ و رﺿﻮ ﺑھ و ﺑﺎ ﻌﻮ ﺛﻢ دﻋﺎ ﺑﻮﺑ‬RS‫ﻓﺎ‬
‫ﺑﻤﺎ أوﺻﺎه ﺑھ‬
All accepted and agreed to pledge allegiance to
‘Umar. Then Abū Bakr called ‘Umar in solitude and
gave him whatever advice he wanted to.101
w
w
When ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (rta) was severely
w ww
.j a w
wounded and his death looked imminent, the political
ve .a
situation was still unchanged. The Muhājirūn of the
da l-m
hm a
Quraysh still enjoyed the majority mandate of the
ad wri
Muslims. Therefore, according to the Islamic
g h d .o
constitution, only an election of a leader by the majority
am rg
group was required. The people who held responsible
id
i.c
positions asked ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb : (rta), as reported
102 : ْ : : < 9 : < : : : ْ : < ْ : : :
om
by Ibn Sa‘d: ‫ﻣﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻨﺎ‬7 ‫ﻟﻴﻨﺎ ﻵﻹ ﺗﻮ‬7 ‫ﻌﻬﺪ‬U ‫( ﻵﻹ‬Will you not leave
a will for us? Will you not appoint a ruler for us?).
‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (rta), however, adopted another
way: instead of appointing a khalīfah by consulting the
shūrā members, as had been done by Abū Bakr (rta), he
entrusted the matter to six prominent leaders:
ً
‫ت ﻟﻜﻢ )( أﻣﺮ ﻟﻨﺎس ﻓﻠﻢ أﺟﺪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻟﻨﺎس ﺷﻘﺎﻗﺎ أﻵﻹ إن‬PË‫( ﻗﺪ ﻧ‬¤‫أ‬
100. Ibid.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid. vol. 3, 343.
208
‫( ﻋﺒﺪ‬T‫ أ‬: ‫( ﺳﺘﺔ‬T ‫ﻳﻜﻮن ﻓﻴﻜﻢ ﻓﺎن _ﺎن ﺷﻘﺎق ﻓﻬﻮ ﻓﻴﻜﻢ و ﻧﻤﺎ ﻵﻹﻣﺮ‬
‫( و ﻟﺰﺑ و ﻃﻠﺤﺔ و ﺳﻌﺪ‬b‫ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ و ﻋﺜﻤﺎن و ﻋ‬
I have deliberated on the matter of khilāfah and have
reached the conclusion that there is no difference
among the people in this affair as long as it is one of
you. If there is any difference, it is within you.
Therefore, this matter is entrusted to the six of you:
‘Abd al-Raḥmān, ‘Uthmān, ‘Alī, Zubayr, Ṭalḥah
and Sa‘d.103
w
w
What he meant was that since the people only looked to
w ww
.j a w
them for khilāfah and if they agreed to accept anyone
ve .a
among them as khalīfah, the people would not differ with
da l-m
their decision. < ْ : : ْ< : : : ْ< 9:: ْ< : : : ْ < ْ<
hm a
He further said:104 ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻜﻢ‬ ‫ﻢ‬v‫ﻓﺎﻣﺮو ﺣﺪ‬ 7 ‫ﻓﺘﺸﺎورو‬
7 ‫( ﻗﻮﻣﻮ‬rise,
ad wri
g h d .o
consult and make anyone amongst yourselves as the
am rg
ruler). However, since there was a chance that some
id
miscreants might create disorder or that these six might
i.c
om
prolong matters, ‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (rta) appointed
the Anṣār as the custodians over the six because, being a
minority group, they were not a party to the whole affair.
Ibn Sa‘d narrates through Anas ibn Mālik:
‫( أ\( ﻃﻠﺤﺔ ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎري ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﻳﻤﻮت ﺑﺴﺎﻋﺔ ﻓﻘﺎل‬T‫أرﺳﻞ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻟﺨﻄﺎب إ‬

:PŸ‫ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﻣﻚ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻹﻟﻨﺼﺎر ﻣﻊ ﻫﻮﻵﻹء ﻟﻨ‬g ‫ ﻳﺎ أﺑﺎ ﻃﻠﺤﺔ ﻛﻦ )( ﺧﻤﺴ‬:
(b‫أﺻﺤﺎب ﻟﺸﻮرى ﻓﺎﻧﻬﻢ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺳﻴﺠﺘﻤﻌﻮن )( ﺑﻴﺖ أﺣﺪﻫﻢ ﻓﻘﻢ ﻋ‬
103. Ibid., vol. 3, 344.

104. Ibid.
209
J«‫ﻬﻢ ﻳﻤ‬v Á‫ ك أﺣﺪ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ وﻵﻹ ﺗ‬Á‫ذﻟﻚ ﻟﺒﺎب ﺑﺄﺻﺤﺎﺑﻚ ﻓﻶﻹ ﺗ‬
‫ ﻳﻮﻣﺮو أﺣﺪﻫﻢ‬JO‫ﻟﻴﻮم ﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚﺣ‬
‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb just before his death summoned
‘Abū Ṭalḥah Anṣārī. When he arrived, ‘Umar said:
“Abū Ṭalḥah take fifty men from your tribe Anṣār
and go to these people of the shūrā. I reckon they will
be present at the house of someone amongst
themselves. Stand at their door with your comrades
and let no one go inside and do not give them more
than three days for electing a leader.”105
w
w
w ww
.j a w
‘Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb (rta) instructed them in the
ve .a
following words about the leaders of the Anṣār:
da l-m
hm a
‫ء‬JÌ ‫ﻢ ﻣﻦ‬v‫و ﻣﻌﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺷﻴﻮخ ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎر وﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ أﻣﺮ‬RÎ‫ﺣ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
Call the leaders of the Anṣār to you, but they have
am rg
no share in political authority.106
id
i.c
om
Ibn Sa‘d reports that when all of them had assembled,
‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ‘Awf (rta) opined that three of them
should withdraw themselves in favour of three others.
Consequently, Zubayr (rta) withdrew in favour of ‘Alī
(rta), and Ṭalḥah (rta) and Sa‘d (rta) withdrew in favour
of ‘Uthmān (rta) and ‘Abd al-Raḥmān ibn ‘Awf (rta)
respectively. Then he asked ‘Uthmān (rta) and ‘Alī (rta)
to give him the right to decide, if he withdraws. When
105. Ibid., vol. 3, 346.

106. Abū Muḥammad ‘Abdullāh ibn Muslim in Qutaybah,
Al-Imāmah wa al-siyāsah, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-ma‘rifah,
n.d.), 28.
210
both agreed, he said to ‘Alī (rta):
9ٰ : : 9 : : ‫ﻴھ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻴﻚ‬23‫وﺳﻠﻢ و ﻟﻘﺪم و ﷲ‬
: < 9ٰ : 9 : 9ٰ : ْ < :
7 ۡ ‫ﻋﻠ‬: 23‫ﷲ‬ (b‫ ﺻ‬23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫ ﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ رﺳﻮل‬PQ‫أن ﻟﻚﻣﻦ ﻟ‬
. ‫ﻟﺌﻦ ﺳﺘﺨﻠﻔﺖﻟﺘﻌﺪﻟﻦوﻟﺌﻦ ﺳﺘﺨﻠﻒﻋﺜﻤﺎنﻟﺘﺴﻤﻌﻦوﻟﺘﻄﻴﻌﻦ‬
You have the honour of being among the earliest
who accepted Islam as well as being a relation of the
Prophet of God. By God! If you are entrusted with
khilāfah, promise that you will rule with justice and
if ‘Uthmān (rta) is made the khalīfah, you shall
listen to him and obey him.107
w
w
w ww
After ‘Alī (rta) agreed, he turned to ‘Uthmān (rta) and
.j a w
ve .a
repeated what he had said; when both showed their
da l-m
approval, he said: “O ‘Uthmān! Extend your hand!
hm a
When he did so, ‘Alī and others pledged their oath of
ad wri
allegiance to him.”108
g h d .o
There can be two opinions about the khilāfah of ‘Alī
am rg
(rta). This difference however, is not about any basic
id
i.c
principle, but about whether the Muhājirūn of the
om
Quraysh elected their leader with freedom or under
coercion. This discussion is not relevant to our topic.
Therefore, even if it is left out, the fact remains that
throughout the period of the Rightly Guided Caliphate,
power remained with those who commanded the
majority support of the Muslims ie. the Muhājirūn of the
Quraysh and that their prominent leaders elected the
ruler. This is also a reality that all the four caliphs were
elected basically by the same principle. They were

108. Ibid.
211
elected from the leaders of the majority group and all the
leaders of the other groups were also consulted in this
election. The only difference is that when they agreed on
‘Umar (rta), Abū Bakr (rta) himself enforced this
decision, and ‘Umar (rta), when he found that their
difference was betweeen six eminent leaders, entrusted
the responsibility of electing one from among the six on
the six persons themselves.
w
w
w ww
___________
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
212
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Economic Issues
213
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
214
The Question of Interest
If a person lends money to someone and then demands

profit on it, then this is called “interest”. At first sight,
there does not seem to be any difference between it and
rent. However, a deep deliberation reveals the stark
w
difference between the two: rented out items can be used
w
while keeping them intact. However, money cannot be
w ww
.j a w
used in this way; it is in fact used up and after spending
ve .a
it, it is needed to be produced again. Therefore, if
da l-m
hm a
something in addition is demanded over the original
ad wri
amount, this in fact becomes an oppression. Since this
g h d .o
difference between interest and rent is subtle, and human
am rg
intellect can falter in understanding this difference, the
id
i.c
Almighty has delineated the truth in this matter. In the
om
sharī‘ah He has given mankind through his prophets, He
has informed them that demanding an increase over the
lent amount is unjust and hence not allowed. It is for this
very reason that interest has remained prohibited at all
times and in all the sharī‘ahs revealed by the Almighty.
The Qur’ān has explicitly forbidden it. There is no
difference of opinion in this matter.
However, the religious legality of the system of
banking which prevails in our societies has recently
come under discussion. It is contended that since the
bank only receives a portion from the profit of a
commercial venture it had financed on the basis of a loan
215
hence the very reason for which interest was regarded as
prohibited does not exist in the banking system. This
view has been put forth by some scholars of Egypt and
Syria. Mawlānā Waḥīd al-Dīn Khān (b. 1926 AD), a
celebrated scholar and preacher from India too, has
corroborated it to some extent in his book Fikr-i Islāmī.
In my opinion, this view of the scholars can be
considered intellectually convincing; however, it is
essential for this that the following remedial measures be
introduced in the banking system.
Firstly, if a commercial venture financed by a bank
w
w
loan runs into losses or needs to be discontinued for
w ww
.j a w
some reason, the demand for profit by the bank should
ve .a
cease that very day. It should only demand the principal
da l-m
amount.
hm a
Secondly, if things are being sold on installments, then
ad wri
g h d .o
until these installments are complete, the bank should
am rg
remain a partner in the ownership of the sold item, fulfil
id
the rights of ownership and receive rent on it.
i.c
Thirdly, in a loan given for non-commercial purposes
om
except for inflationary adjustments, no interest should be
demanded on it.
If these measures are taken, then the banking system
becomes just to a great extent. However, there are two
more questions which arise.
Firstly, what is the ruling on people who do not charge
interest but procure an interest-bearing loan to meet their
personal and business needs?
Secondly, should saving schemes through which
governments acquire loans for their needs from people
and also give them profit be regarded as prohibited?
The answer to the first question is that no objection can
216
be raised on paying interest because the prohibition of
interest is based on the Qur’ānic principle of akl al-
amwāl al-bāṭil (devouring wealth through unfair means),
and a person who pays interest does not devour the
wealth of some other person through unfair means. In
fact, he pays a part of his legitimately earned wealth to
the borrower in lieu of the loan he provides. The issue of
interest is mentioned at more than one instance in the
Qur’ān. Not at one place has the Qur’an condemned
those who pay interest. In fact, it calls them oppressed
and asked the lender to give them time if they are facing
w
w
financial constraints. Those who regard paying of interest
w ww
.j a w
as prohibited do not base their view on any verse of the
ve .a
Qur’ān or any implicit or explicit deduction from any of
da l-m
its verses. They base their view on a Ḥadīth narrative
hm a
which says that the Prophet (sws) has cursed the person
ad wri
9 :9 ‫ﻟﻌﻦ‬
g h d .o
who consumes interest and makes others consume it. The
< : 7 ْ < : ‫ﻟﺮﺑﺎ‬
words of the narrative are: ‫وﻣﺆ_ﻠھ‬ : 7 … <J°‫ﻟﻨ‬
: 9 ‫آ_ﻞ‬ : : : .109 In
am rg
7 7
this narrative, the word ‫_ﻞ‬7ْ‫ <ﻣﻮ‬is used for a person who
id
i.c
om
makes others consume interest. Linguistically, it can refer
to a person who pays interest and also to people who are
the agents of professional lenders and in this capacity
hunt for potential customers for their masters. If lending
on interest becomes a business, then such agents are its
essential need; without them, the business of lending
interest bearing loans cannot be run. If the narrative
relates to such people, then there is no complexity in the
narrative because this is blatant co-operation with evil
(ta‘āwun ‘ala al-ithm). As agents of interest-lenders,
those who prepare agreements and documents for them

217
and act as witnesses, their matter too is no different. The
service provided by bank staff of these times is of similar
nature. However, people who acquire interest-based loans
cannot in any way be regarded as guilty of co-operation
with evil (ta‘āwun ‘ala al-ithm). This expression can
only be used for an act done by perpetrators of a sin and
for those who reap the benefits of this sin. Those who
acquire interest-based loans do not acquire it to help the
devourers of interest, they obtain loans for their personal
and business needs. If this is co-operation, then it is not
more than the co-operation done by our scholars and
w
w
righteous individuals when they deposit their own wealth
w ww
.j a w
and that of their institutions in banks. If interest is
ve .a
prohibited at the state level and all forms of interest
da l-m
transactions are brought to an end, then such people who
hm a
still pay interest can be regarded as criminals who have
ad wri
g h d .o
breached a law. If the Ḥadīth narrative cited above refers
am rg
to them, then the directive should relate to the scenario
id
just stated – when interest transactions had been
i.c
om
prohibited in the time of the Prophet (sws).
The answer to the second is that the referred to saving
schemes are not like general interest transactions. The
reason for this is that through these schemes, a
government borrows money from the lenders not on
their conditions but on its own conditions. Not only this,
it ascertains the rate of profit itself as well and also keeps
increasing or decreasing it on its own discretion.
Although this is not exactly the same as returning a loan
taken from someone with some addition to the principal
amount without the lender demanding this addition, yet
this arrangement is something close to it. It is known
that interest has been forbidden because it can result in
218
oppression and exploitation. However the intensity of
this oppression and exploitation is greatly reduced in this
arrangement. For the pious, it is befitting that they do not
benefit from such schemes. However, if the general
masses especially the orphans, widows and retired
personnel who are apprehensive in investing their wealth
in business ventures benefit from these schemes for their
essential expenses, it is hoped that they will not be held
accountable for this by their God.
w
w
w ww
.j a w
______________
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
219
Insurance
Insurance is a sort of contract for mutual help in which

people pay a fixed amount in installments. The purpose
is that if any of them is inflicted with losses relating to
their persons or their wealth they are compensated from
w
this pooled money in a prescribed manner. The money
w
w ww
given is never returned and all the people or institutes
.j a w
which provide this service are granted this right by
ve .a
da l-m
people who enter into this contract of mutual help with
hm a
them that in return for this service they can spend the
ad wri
accumulated money in whatever way they want.
g h d .o
This is an extraordinary scheme which has been
am rg
chalked out to compensate losses and to help people in
id
i.c
difficult circumstances. Its benefits are now
om
acknowledged everywhere. After the termination of the
institutions of tribes, fraternities and ‘āqilah, this is the
best substitute for them which contemporary economic
systems have provided to this world. There seems to be
no objection against it; however, Islamic scholars
generally regard it to be prohibited. Following are the
objections they have raised against insurance:
1. The amounts which insurance companies pay to
their clients are generally more than the installments
their clients have paid them; this is interest and interest
is forbidden in Islam. Moreover, insurance companies
further invest this money in interest-based schemes.
220
Some part of the interest earned by them is also used in
paying off their clients who had bought their insurance
policies.
2. Insurance policy holders repeatedly receive large
sums of money against death, accidents or losses. This is
gambling which is prohibited in the Islamic sharī‘ah.
3. The entity for which an insurance policy is
purchased does not typically exist; the locus of the
contract is also not ascertained and the policy holders do
not even know the number of installments and the time
until which they will have to pay them. In the
w
w
terminology of the jurists these are called gharar
w ww
.j a w
(deception), jahālah (ignorance) and ghaban
ve .a
(embezzlement) respectively in the presence of which no
da l-m
contract is allowable. The Prophet (sws) has forbidden
hm a
such deals.
ad wri
A little deliberation will show that all these three
g h d .o
am rg
objections are baseless.
id
The first of these is not tenable because the
i.c
installments paid by an insurance policy holder are not
om
loans. They are given by him for the help and support of
others on the condition that he too could be the recipient.
Thus they are never returned. If insurance institutions
invest the amonts in interest-bearing transactions, it is
because they have been given the right by the policy
holders to use them. No responsibility of the nature of
this use rests on the policy holders. If a person is to
receive insurance money for the purpose he had bought a
policy, then as per the contract, he receives it from the
accumulated amount. This is the real nature of insurance,
and it must be viewed on its basis.
The second of these objections is not tenable because
221
gambling is a game and a matter of purely chancing
one’s luck. People who buy insurance policies do so to
become part of a system which caters to helping one
another in case of losses. The nature of the two is
entirely different, and the basis of religious directives is
not marginal similarity between two things; it is and
should be based on the actual nature of the two.
The third of these objections is not tenable because the
directives of the Prophet (sws) related to gharar
(deception), jahālah (ignorance) and ghaban
(embezzlement) are not of the nature of an absolute
w
w
prohibition: they are meant to resolve disputes and to
w ww
.j a w
close the door to ways which may result in these evils in
ve .a
cases of financial transactions. Insurance, however, is
da l-m
not a financial transaction. It is a scheme which relates to
hm a
mutual help. It is executed and managed by individuals
ad wri
and institutions that are given the right to use the
g h d .o
am rg
accumulated money in return for the service they
id
provide. It is not appropriate at all to judge it by ignoring
i.c
the nature of this scheme.
om
______________
222
Distribution of Inheritance
The Islamic law of inheritance is mentioned in the

eleventh and twelfth verses of Sūrah Nisā’. In these
verses, the Almighty has promised eternal punishment
for those who have the audacity to change this law or
w
intentionally disobey it. Though this promise relates to
w
violating all the bounds and limits which the Almighty
w ww
.j a w
has clearly stated in His Book, yet its mention right after
ve .a
the law of inheritance shows how people who would in
da l-m
hm a
particular disobey it would face grave consequences.
ad wri
The Qur’ān says:
g h d .o
: 7 ۡ : ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ۡ ۡ : ‫ﺟﻨ ٍﺖ‬ 9ٰ : < ۡ ۡ < r : ۡ < : : : 9ٰ < 9 ۡ : : 9ٰ < ۡ < < : ۡ
am rg
‫ﺗﺤﺘﻬﺎ‬ ۡ 7 ‫ﺗﺠﺮي‬ ‫ﺪﺧﻠھ‬ 7 ‫ و رﺳﻮﻟھ ﻳ‬23‫ﻄﻊ ﷲ‬
7 7 7 ‫ ‚ و ﻣﻦ ﻳ‬23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫ﺗﻠﻚ ﺣﺪود‬7
id
r‫و‬: ‫ﻟھ‬: ‫رﺳﻮ‬ 9 ٰ : 9 ۡ < : ۡ : ٰ ۡ 7 7 ‫ﻹﻧﻬ <ﺮ ٰﺧ‬
ٰ ۡ : ۡ‫ﻵ‬
i.c
ۡ < : ‫و‬: :23‫ﻣﻦ ۡﻌص ﷲ‬ ۡ 7 : ‫ﻟﻔﻮز‬
ۡ : ‫و‬: .‫ﻟﻌﻈﻴ<ﻢ‬ :
ۡ ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫و ذﻟ‬: ‚ ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬ ۡ 7 ‫ﻦ‬: ‫ﻠﺪﻳ‬
om
7
ٌ ۡ < 9 ‫ﻋﺬ ٌب‬ : : r : : : ۡ ً : ً : < ۡ ۡ < r : ۡ < < :9 : : :
(١٤-١٣ :٤) g ‫ﻣﻬ‬ 7 ‫ و ﻟھ‬Ð ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬7 ‫ﺪ‬7 ‫ﺪﺧﻠھ ﻧﺎر ﺧﺎﻟ‬ 7 ‫ﻳﺘﻌﺪ ﺣﺪوده ﻳ‬
These are the bounds set by God; [do not exceed
them] and [remember that] those who obey God and
His Messenger, God shall admit them in gardens
watered by running streams. They shall abide in them
forever and this is the supreme success. And those
who defy God and His Messenger and transgress His
bounds shall be cast into a Fire wherein they will
abide forever. And for them is a shameful
punishment. (4:13-14)
223
So stern is this promise that a person who has faith in
the Hereafter shudders on reading it; however, with great
sorrow one has to say that following the footsteps of the
Jews, Muslims are reckless enough not only to change
this law but also to violate it practically. It is a fact that
the breaches which take place in this regard are
tantamount to rebelling against God. Men deprive
women from inheritance. If in some place this law has
been implemented at the state level, they sign documents
to illegally evade courts of law by putting unlawful
pressure on them; in cases where the shares of men and
w
w
women are not equal, they are bold enough to make
w ww
.j a w
them equal; they only regard the eldest son to be worthy
ve .a
of their legacy. In villages, in particular, they insist on
da l-m
common ancestral property; they try to adopt ways and
hm a
means to usurp the share of the orphans. In short, they
ad wri
try to do everything which can be called open rebellion
g h d .o
am rg
against this divine law.
id
This situation entails that Muslims be warned from
i.c
mosques and from the pulpits, their attention be directed
om
again and again through radio, television and
newspapers, and institutions of education and instruction
teach them that the life of this world and its wealth and
riches are mere deception and illusion. Instead of a share
in the eternal kingdom of God on the Day of Judgement,
what is it that these people are choosing for themselves?
In the words of the Qur’ān, it is as if they are filling their
bellies with fire. Muslims should, moreover, be told that
eternal Hell is no ordinary torment. They should shield
themselves from it and distribute all their inheritance
with full honesty in the very manner prescribed by God
in this regard. The Prophet (sws) is reported to have said
224
that if a person illegally takes possession of a piece of
land even the size of a hand, then on the Day of
Judgement that piece of land will be made his neck-
110
brace.
What exactly is this law of inheritance? I have
presented it in detail in my book Mīzān.111 Here, just as
a reminder, I am providing a short summary of it:
1. If the deceased has outstanding debts to his name,
then first of all they should be paid off from the wealth
he has left behind. After this, any will he may have
bequeathed should be carried out. The distribution of his
w
w
inheritance should then follow.
w ww
.j a w
2. No will can be made in favour of an heir ordained by
ve .a
the Almighty except if his circumstances, or the services
da l-m
rendered by him or his needs in certain situations call for
hm a
it.
ad wri
g h d .o
3. After giving the parents and the spouses their shares,
am rg
the children are the heirs of the remaining inheritance. If
id
the deceased does not have any male offspring and there
i.c
are only two or more girls among the children, then they
om
shall receive two-thirds of the inheritance left over, and
if there is only one girl, then her share is one-half. If the
deceased has only male children, then all his wealth shall
be distributed among them. If he leaves behind both
boys and girls, then the share of each boy shall be equal
to the share of two girls and, in this case also, all his
wealth shall be distributed among them.
4. In the absence of children, the deceased’s brothers

111. Ghāmidī, Mizān, 499-500.
225
and sisters shall take their place. After giving the parents
and spouses their shares, the brothers and sisters shall be
his heirs. The proportion of their shares and the mode of
distribution shall be the same as that of the children
stated above.
5. If the deceased has children or if he does not have
children and has brothers and sisters, then the parents
shall receive a sixth each. If he does not even have
brothers and sisters and the parents are the sole heirs,
then one-third of his wealth shall be given to the mother
and two-thirds to the father.
w
w
6. If the deceased is a man and he has children, then his
w ww
.j a w
wife shall receive one-eighth of what he leaves, and if he
ve .a
does not have any children, then his wife’s share shall be
da l-m
one-fourth. If the deceased is a woman and does not
hm a
have any children, then her husband shall receive one-
ad wri
half of what she leaves and if she has children, then the
g h d .o
am rg
husband’s share is one-fourth.
id
7. In the absence of these heirs, the deceased can make
i.c
someone an heir. If the person who is made an heir is a
om
relative and has one brother or one sister, then they shall
be given a sixth of his share and he himself shall receive
the remaining five-sixth. However, if he has more than
one brother or sister, then they shall be given a third of
his share and he himself shall receive the remaining two-
thirds.
______________
226
The Right to make a Will
It is repeatedly stated in the law of inheritance

mentioned in the Qur’ān that the inheritance should be
distributed after disbursing any will made by the
deceased. Two questions arise on this.
w
First, is there a limit imposed on the amount a person
w
can will in favour of someone or does he have the
w ww
.j a w
discretion to will any amount he wants to?
ve .a
Second, can a will be made in favour of people who
da l-m
hm a
have been made the heirs of the deceased by the
ad wri
Almighty?
g h d .o
The answer to the first question is that the words of the
am rg
Qur’ān impose no limit on the amount that is to be
id
willed. The Almighty has unconditionally mentioned
i.c
om
that this distribution of inheritance shall take place once
the will of the deceased has been executed. No limit can
be imposed on this willed amount as per the dictates of
language and style of the relevant verses. The narrative
which is attributed to the Prophet (sws) in this regard has
an entirely different connotation: one of his companions
expressed his wish before him that after his death he
wanted to donate all his wealth for the cause of God. The
Prophet (sws) replied that this would be too big an
amount given for this purpose and that if a person has
wealth, he should not leave his heirs empty-handed. The
companion then asked if he could donate two thirds and
later asked if he could reserve half of his wealth for this
227
purpose. At this, the Prophet (sws) gave him the same
reply. The companion further asked if he could give one-
third of his wealth. The Prophet (sws) responded by
saying that this was quite enough.112 Everyone can see
that this was a comment of the Prophet (sws) in a
particular case. It cannot be regarded as a legal limit
imposed by the Prophet (sws).
The answer to the second question is that the Almighty
Himself has made a will in favour the heirs of a
deceased. So no Muslim can dare make a will in this
regard. Thus, on the basis of familial relationship, no
w
w
will can be made in their favour; however, a will can
w ww
.j a w
certainly be made in favour of these very heirs because
ve .a
of some need they may have or because of some service
da l-m
they may have rendered for the deceased or because of
hm a
any similar matter. Thus if one of the children of a
ad wri
person is school going and as such is not earning while
g h d .o
others are, or if one of the children has served his parents
am rg
id
more than the others, or if a person fears that after his
i.c
demise there will be no one to look after and provide for
om
his wife, then a will can be made in favour of each of
these. Just as a will can be made in favour of friends or
for the purpose of charity, it can similarly be made in
favour of these heirs. There is nothing in the sharī‘ah
which hinders it.

______________

228
Inheritance of an Orphaned Grandchild
The Qur’ān has not explicitly mentioned the share of a

grandfather in the legacy of his grandchild or that of a
grandchild in the legacy of his grandfather. However,
since the words ‫( أوﻵﻹد‬awlād) and ‫( آﺑﺎ‬ābā) can refer both
w
on the basis of meaning and usage to grandparents and
w
grandchildren, there has remained a consensus among
w ww
.j a w
Muslim jurists that if none of the direct parents or direct
ve .a
children are present, then the shares which have been
da l-m
hm a
fixed for them will be given to indirect parents and
ad wri
indirect children respectively.113 However, one situation
g h d .o
which can arise is that one or more children die in the
am rg
lifetime of a parent and one or more children are alive
id
i.c
after his death. The ijtihād of the jurists in this case is
om
that the offspring of the deceased children will not be
given any inheritance from the grandfather and in the
presence of their paternal uncles they will be deprived of
it except if the grandfather has made a will in their
favour. In current times, some scholars are of the
opinion that this ijtihād of the jurists seems incorrect. A
grandson is like a son and hence in the event of a son’s
death, he should get the share that his father would have
113. The words “direct parents” and “direct children” refer

to the parents and children while the word “indirect parents”
and “indirect children” refers to grandparents and
grandchildren. (Translator)
229
got had he been alive. In my opinion, this opinion is
correct. Consequently, in the following paragraphs I will
try to answer the objections raised on this view by
Mawlānā Sayyid Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī a revered and
respected scholar of Islam. Following are these
objections:114
1. As per the Qur’ān, whoever gets a share in the
inheritance of a deceased is entitled to it because he is
near in kin (aqrab) to him and not because he is a
substitute of some other kin. Thus the suggestion of
granting a share to the grandchild from the inheritance of
w
w
his grandfather introduces the very wrong notion of
w ww
.j a w
substitution in the Islamic law of inheritance of which
ve .a
there is no evidence found in the Qur’ān. Moreover, after
da l-m
accepting the principle of substitution this inheritance is
hm a
confined to the children of the children and no sound
ad wri
g h d .o
reasoning can be presented in favour of this either.
am rg
2. As per the Qur’ān, only those who are alive have a
id
share in the legacy of a person at the time of his death.
i.c
Contrary to this, this view also grants a share to people
om
who have died in the lifetime of that person.
3. The Qur’ān has explicitly allocated the shares of
some relatives and no addition or reduction can be made
to them. However, if this view is adopted, then an
addition is made in some shares fixed by the Qur’ān and
a reduction is made in some others.
The answer to the first question is that the grandson is
not being given a share as a substitute for his father in
the capacity of an heir: it is being given to him because
114. Sayyid Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī, Tafhīmāt, 9th ed., vol 3

(Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1983), 173-190.
230
after the death of his father he has become aqrab to his
grandfather the way his father was. Thus he is a
substitute for his father in this regard. When his father
was alive, his father was aqrab of his own father with
regard to being his offspring. After his death, his son has
become aqrab to his father and on this basis has become
entitled to inheritance. During the lifetime of the father,
a person is like a son to his grandfather and after his
father’s death also he is like a son to his grandfather. The
only difference which death has caused is that in
becoming the aqrab of his grandfather he has become a
w
w
substitute for his father. This substitution does not refer
w ww
.j a w
to the one understood by Sayyid Mawdūdī; it is a
ve .a
substitution in being aqrab to the deceased which
da l-m
according to his own opinion is the basis of the Islamic
hm a
law of inheritance. If a deceased does not have children
ad wri
all the way down, then it is in this very capacity that
g h d .o
am rg
brothers and sisters become substitutes of children, and
id
as per the Qur’ān in the same manner receive their share
i.c
in exactly the same proportion as prescribed for the
om
children. For this substitution, the last verse of Sūrah
Nisā’ is an explicit source. The reason to deny it to the
children of children is that after the death of the wife or
the husband no heir can become a wife or husband to
any extent so that he or she be regarded as the substitute
of the deceased with regard to being their aqrab.
The answer to the second objection is that the share
being given to the grandson is not the share of the father
given to the son as his heir; the share is being given to
him because it is, in fact, his own share because after the
death of the father he is his substitute to his grandfather
and an aqrab to the grandfather in the same capacity.
231
This does not in any way affect the Qur’ānic principle
that inheritance only belongs to the heirs who are alive at
the time of the death of the person whose inheritance is
to be distributed. The suggestion of giving a share to an
orphaned grandchild is to make someone an heir who is
alive at the time of death of the person whose inheritance
is to be distributed.
The third objection has arisen because of the
misunderstanding that this methodology of distribution
of inheritance among the grandsons shall also be
employed when no one from the children is present. The
w
w
Mawlānā has explained this objection with an example.
w ww
.j a w
He writes:
ve .a
da l-m
… Suppose that a person had only two sons and both
hm a
died during his lifetime; one of them had four sons
ad wri
and the other only one. As per the Qur’ān, all these
g h d .o
am rg
grandchildren are equal with regard to being sons to
id
their grandfather and hence each of them should
i.c
receive an equal share from the inheritance of their
om
grandfather. However, on the basis of this principle
of substitution half of his inheritance will be
received by one grandson and the remaining half
shall be divided equally between the other four
grandsons.115
The answer to this objection is that this may not be the

case. In this scenario, the same method of distribution
can be adopted: each grandson be given an equal share.
The Qur’ān itself guides us to this. It has adopted one
115. Mawdūdī, Tafhīmāt,vol 3, 182.

232
method in distributing the share to an heir in the
presence of other heirs and another in their absence.
Thus in the presence of children, the parents shall
receive one sixth each; if the deceased does not have
children but has brothers and sisters, then the shares of
the brothers and sisters shall remain the same; however,
if the parents are the only heirs of the deceased, then the
mother’s share shall be one-third and the father’s share
shall be two-thirds. Same is the case with kalālah
relatives. If someone among them is made an heir and he
or she has one brother or one sister, then they shall be
w
w
given a sixth of his or her share; however, if he or she
w ww
.j a w
has more than one brother or sister, then they shall be
ve .a
given a third of his or her share. Thus it is not necessary
da l-m
that in case of grandsons, one of the two options be
hm a
insisted upon. This is purely an issue in which ijtihād
ad wri
can be exercised. In this regard, whatever the method
g h d .o
am rg
adopted, it should be in accordance with the principles
id
prescribed by the Qur’ān, and in all cases be based on
i.c
justice.
om
______________
233
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
234
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Jihad and Punishments
235
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
236
Jihād and War in Islam
Jihād means to exert oneself fully in an endeavour.

Just as this term appears in the Qur’ān for a general
struggle in the way of God, it also appears as a term for
waging war in His way (qitāl fī sabīl-Allāh). Two forms
w
of this war have been described:
w
w ww
.j a w
1. War against the denial of Islam
ve .a
2. War against oppression and injustice
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
The first kind of war does not concern the sharī‘ah
g h d .o
(Divine law); instead, it relates to the Divine principle of
am rg
conclusive argument from God, which principle
id
manifests itself in this world on the basis of God’s direct
i.c
om
decree and through those personalities whom He grants
the status of risālat.116 In human history, this status was
given for the last time to the Prophet Muḥammad (sws).
The battles that the Prophet (sws) and his companions
fought under this principle against the defiance of Islam
were not just battles; instead, they were Divine
punishment which, exactly in accordance with God’s
ways and His Judgement, visited first the polytheists of
116. Translator’s note: When used as a specific term in the

Qur’ān, Risālat in Ghāmidī’s interpretation refers to the
special position of a messenger and prophet of God sent to a
people as His final judgement for or against them.
237
Arabia and the Israelites and the Nazarenes there and
then, after them, some peoples outside the Arabian
Peninsula. The Divine scheme of sending prophets and
messengers ended with Prophet Muḥammad (sws).
Therefore, with the passing away of the Prophet (sws)
and his companions, that Divine process has ended in
which a certain people could be declared as infidels,
battles and wars could be waged against them, and the
vanquished in such fighting could be killed or
subjugated and made subservient through jizyah (a
tribute). No one until the Judgement Day has any right
w
w
now to wage a war against any nation for this purpose or
w ww
.j a w
to subjugate a vanquished people by making them
ve .a
subservient through jizyah.
da l-m
The second form of war, however, does relate to the
hm a
sharī‘ah. Therefore, the only possibility for Muslims to
ad wri
wage a war as jihād is in a fight against oppression and
g h d .o
am rg
injustice. In the sharī‘ah, this is the only reason for an
id
armed jihād. This jihād is not done for self-interest,
i.c
wealth, conquest, rule, fame, honour, affiliation,
om
partisanship, or animosity. It is God’s war that His
servants fight in His way on His command and in
accordance with His directives. They are only His
instruments in this war. They have no personal
objective; just the objectives of God, which they intend
to achieve. Therefore, they are not supposed to deviate
from this position to the slightest extent.
Important sections of the law given by the Qur’ān for
this form of war are summarized below:
1. The directive of war and jihād has been given to the

Muslims as a collectivity. None of the pertinent verses in
238
the Qur’ān addresses the Muslims in their individual
capacity. As in the case of the verses related to hudūd-o
ta‘zīrāt (legal punishments in the sharī‘ah and Islamic
law), the Muslims become addressees of these verses too
as a collectivity. Therefore, in these matters also, only
their collectivity has the right to take any steps. No
individual or group from amongst their collectivity has
the right to take any steps in this regard on their behalf.
2. In the Qur’ān, this directive is actually for ending
religious persecution. Religious persecution means that,
through oppression or torture, a person is coerced into
w
w
renouncing his or her faith. All other violations of
w ww
.j a w
people’s rights in relation to life, wealth, intellect and
ve .a
opinion fall under the same category. Therefore, this
da l-m
kind of jihād can be done against any form of oppression
hm a
and injustice.
ad wri
3. Jihād does not become obligatory for the Muslims
g h d .o
am rg
until their military strength against their enemy reaches a
id
certain level. Therefore, it is imperative that, to fulfil this
i.c
responsibility, they should strive for consolidation of
om
their moral and ethical fabric and also do their best in the
endeavour to augment their military strength to the
extent that the Qur’ān requires in the directive that it
gave when, in view of the situation the Muslims were
facing in the times of the Prophet, it specified 1:2 as the
proportion between them and their enemies.
4. Shirking from jihād becomes a crime only when a
Muslim chooses to sit back even after the general call
has been made. In this situation, aversion is indeed a
crime similar to a great transgression. If such call has not
been made, this jihād is still a great privilege that every
Muslim should try to have. However, in this case, it is
239
just a privilege in its import. It is not the kind of
obligation which, if left unfulfilled, makes a person a
transgressor.
5. jihād cannot be waged in disregard of ethical
bounds. Basic ethical and moral imperatives remain
effective in all situations and precede every directive.
God has not permitted any person to violate these ethical
and moral principles even in battle or war. In this regard,
the most important guideline that the Qur’ān has given
pertains to the sanctity of treaties and pacts. God has
placed violation or breach of pact amongst the worst of
w
w
sins. Therefore, help, in violation of a treaty, cannot be
w ww
.j a w
provided to Muslims even if they are persecuted by
ve .a
another nation with whom the treaty has been made.
da l-m
Similarly, no steps can be taken against people who are
hm a
not involved in war or choose to remain neutral in that
ad wri
situation. This jihād can be done only against the
g h d .o
am rg
combatants.
id
i.c
om
______________
240
The Taliban’s Line of Reasoning
The self-appointed “warriors of God” known to the

world as the Taliban have taken countless innocent lives
in the last ten years. They insist that they are doing all
this for God and in submission to His directives. Even
w
after their cowardly attack on They have restated this
w
stance even after their cowardly attack on Malālah
w ww
.j a w
Yūsufza’ī. In support of this stance, they present the
ve .a
Qur’ān and Ḥadīth and certain incidents from the
da l-m
hm a
lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (sws). Since people
ad wri
are generally unaware of religion and religious
g h d .o
disciplines, they may be influenced by such
am rg
argumentation. For this reason, we would like to present
id
some facts in the following paragraphs.
i.c
om
1. No doubt jihād is a directive of Islam. The Qur’ān
requires of its followers that, if they have the strength,
they should wage war against oppression and injustice.
The primary purpose of this directive is to curb
persecution, ie. to oppress and coerce people to give up
their religion. Those having insight know that Muslims
are given this directive of jihād in their collective
capacity; individuals are not the addressees of the
Qur’ānic verses of jihād. Thus, only the collectivity
(state) has the right to launch such an armed offensive.
No individual or group of Muslims has the right to
decide for any such action on the collectivity’s behalf. It
is for this reason that the Prophet (sws) is reported to
241
have said: “A Muslim ruler is a shield; war can only be
waged under him.”117 Everyone can readily see whether
the Taliban are following this principle or blatantly
violating it.
2. The jihād directed by Islam is the war for the cause
of God; therefore, it cannot be waged while disregarding
moral obligation. Ethics and morality supersede
everything in all circumstances; in war also, the Almighty
has not allowed anyone to deviate from moral principles.
Hence, it is absolutely certain that jihād can only be
waged against combatants. The law of Islam is that if a
w
w
person attacks through his tongue, he shall be countered
w ww
.j a w
through the tongue, and if he financially supports the
ve .a
warriors, he will be stopped from that, but unless he picks
da l-m
up arms, his life cannot be taken. So much so, if right in
hm a
the battle field the enemy surrenders, he shall be taken a
ad wri
prisoner, but cannot be executed. The words of the verse
g h d .o
am rg
which mentions the directive of jihād are: “And fight in
id
the way of Allah with those who fight against you, and do
i.c
not transgress bounds [in this fighting]. Indeed, God does
om
not like the transgressors.” (2:190) The Prophet (sws)
forbade the killing of women and children during war.118
The reason for this is also that even if they come out with
their army, they are not generally combatants. At best,
they can boost the morale of the combatants and urge
them through the tongue to fight.
This is the sharī‘ah of God. But what are the Taliban
doing? Men of learning like Mawlānā Ḥasan Jān,

242
Mawlānā Sarfarāz Na‘īmī and Dr Muḥammad Fārūq
Khān never undertook to wage war against them.
Malālah Yūsufza’ī is an innocent girl. She never took up
arms against them. In spite of this, the Taliban insist that
all these people deserve death. Merely because they had
dared to differ with them? There is no doubt that a
political authority of Muslims has the right to punish
criminals; it also is correct that in the penal sharī‘ah
there is no difference between a man and a woman. The
Qur’ān clearly states that whether a woman or a man is
guilty of theft, both will be punished, and both have the
w
w
same punishment. The same is true for an adulterer and
w ww
.j a w
an adulteress. But when did the Taliban have political
ve .a
authority on the persons just mentioned? And when did
da l-m
these persons commit crimes punishable by death as per
hm a
the sharī‘ah? The Qur’ān (5:32) explicitly states that the
ad wri
death punishment cannot be meted out for any crime
g h d .o
am rg
except murder or spreading anarchy in the land. Who
id
among the aforementioned is guilty of murderer or
i.c
spreading anarchy by threatening the life, wealth or
om
honour of someone? In reality, the Taliban themselves
are guilty of these crimes and their daily confessions
corroborate the charge-sheet that will be presented
against them on the Day of Judgment.
3. Polytheism, disbelief and apostasy are indeed grave
crimes; however, no human being can punish another for
them. That is the right of God alone. In the Hereafter, He
will punish such criminals, and in this world also, it is
He Who does so if He wills. Hereafter is not under
discussion here. In this world when the Almighty
decides to reward and punish people on the basis of their
deeds, He sends His messenger towards them. The
243
messenger conclusively communicates the truth to his
people such that they are left with no excuse before God
to deny it. After that, the verdict of God is passed and
those who, even after the conclusive communication of
the truth, insist on disbelief and polytheism are punished.
This is an established practice of God, described in the
Qur’ān in the following words: “And for each
community, there is a messenger. Then, when their
messenger comes, their fate is decided with full justice,
and they are not wronged.” (10:47)
This punishment is generally given in the manner it
w
w
was meted out to the people of Noah (sws), Hūd (sws),
w ww
.j a w
Ṣāliḥ (sws), Lot (sws), those of Shu‘ayb (sws) and to
ve .a
some other nations. However, if a messenger has a
da l-m
substantial number of companions and, after migrating
hm a
from his people, he is also able to gain political authority
ad wri
at some place, then this punishment is implemented
g h d .o
am rg
through his and his companions’ swords. This second
id
situation arose in the case of Muhammad (sws). Thus the
i.c
active adversaries among the deniers were first killed;
om
after that, a general order of slaying the ordinary deniers
was given. For the latter, the declaration of the
punishment was made in the 9 AH on the day of ḥajj-i
akbar: “Then when the sacred months [after the ḥajj-i
akbar] have passed, kill these Idolaters wherever you
find them, and [for this objective] capture them and
besiege them, and lie in wait for them in each and every
ambush. But if they repent and are diligent in the prayer
and give zakāh, then let them alone.” (9:5)
This is the punishment of God that was meted out to
the Idolaters of Arabia. When such a punishment
descends on the perpetrators, no exception is given to
244
women and children, and they are destroyed the way the
nations of Noah (sws), Hūd (sws), Ṣāliḥ (sws), Lot (sws)
and that of Shu‘ayb (sws) were destroyed. It is thus
mentioned in the narratives that when troops were sent
to implement this punishment, the Prophet (sws) was
asked about the women and children of the Idolaters; at
this, he replied that they were also from among them.119
It was these people about whom he had directed that if
they would embrace faith at that time but later become
apostates, they would deserve the same punishment of
death.120
w
w
In spite of the conclusive communication of the truth,
w ww
.j a w
the punishment of these people was deferred till 9 AH
ve .a
because they were not active adversaries, and there was
da l-m
a chance that they might repent and, hence, be saved
hm a
from the punishment. On the other hand, those who,
ad wri
besides their rejection of the truth, became open and
g h d .o
am rg
active adversaries were not given this respite. They were
id
killed whenever it became possible. Abū Rāfi‘, Ka‘b ibn
i.c
Ashraf, ‘Abdullāh ibn Khaṭal and his slave-girls and
om
from among the prisoners of the battles of Badr and
Uḥud ‘Uqbah ibn Abī Mu‘īt, Naḍr ibn al-Ḥārith and Abū
‘Izzah et al. were killed for this very reason. Blood
money for the murder of some deniers was also not paid
for the same reason.
This was the verdict of God that is necessarily
implemented after the conclusive communication of the
truth by His messengers. It is about this verdict that the
119. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, 3, 1097, (no. 2850);

Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, 3, 1364, (no. 1745).
120. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, 3, 1098, (no. 2854).
245
Qur’ān has said: “You shall never see any change in this
practice of God.” (17:77) Its nature is the same as of the
sacrifice of Ishmael (sws) and the incident of Khiḍr. It is
not related to us, ordinary human beings. Just as we
cannot, for the sake of help, drill a hole in the boat of a
poor person against his will or kill a disobedient boy or,
like Abraham (sws), embark upon slaughtering any of
our sons on the basis of a dream, similarly, we cannot
undertake the task of punishing people for polytheism,
disbelief or apostasy, except if a revelation comes from
God and He directly gives such an order. Everyone
w
w
knows that the door to this has permanently been closed.
w ww
.j a w
The incidents which the Taliban are presenting to
ve .a
support their measures are of the nature just described.
da l-m
This is nothing but audacity to generalize for themselves
hm a
what specifically rests in the hands of God. There can be
ad wri
no greater a crime than this on God’s earth; Every
g h d .o
am rg
believer should seek God’s refuge from this.
id
i.c
om
______________
246
Itmām al-Ḥujjah121 of the Messengers
This world has been made as a place of a trial for

mankind. Its essential consequence is reward and
punishment for which the Day of Judgement has been
fixed. In order to prove to it to mankind in the same
manner as scientific facts are proven in a laboratory, the
w
w
Almighty on several occasions brought about lesser days
w ww
.j a w
of judgement in this very world. The way which was
ve .a
adopted for this was that the Almighty would send His
da l-m
hm a
messenger to any nation He intended. That messenger
ad wri
would conclusively convey the truth to it, after which its
g h d .o
fate would be decided with full justice in this world. The
am rg
way this would happen is that those would accept the
id
truth would be salvaged and those who would reject it
i.c
om
would face the wrath and torment of God and would
either be eternally wiped out from the face of the earth or
would face the eternal punishment of subjugation and
live in eternal humiliation. The accounts of the nations
of Noah (sws), the ‘Ād, the Thamūd, the people of Lot
(sws) and other similar nations related in the Qur’ān are
the accounts of such punishments.
The Qur’ān states that no nation faces this punishment
unless a messenger of God conclusively 9ٰ
: : ۡ : delivers : < :9 < : :
9 the truth
ً ۡ < : ‫ﻧﺒﻌﺚ‬
to them. Thus it is said: (١٥:١٧) ‫رﺳﻮﻵﻹ‬ JO‫ﺣ‬: g: ۡ ‫ﻣﻌﺬﺑ‬
7 7 ‫و ﻣﺎ ﻛﻨﺎ‬
121. The term itmām al-ḥujjah refers to the conclusive
communication of the truth.
247
(We never punish unless We send a messenger, (17:15)).
A question arises on this: how exactly is the truth
conclusively communicated? It is evident from the
Qur’ān that three things are required for this:
Firstly, the presence of a messenger of God and he
invites a nation to profess faith in him.
Secondly, the nation is given enough time so that if its
people want they come to see the messenger and directly
hear the message of God from his tongue because the
person of a messenger itself is a sign of God.
Thirdly, God’s help and close relationship with the
w
w
messenger and his companions manifests itself in such a
w ww
grand way before the eyes of their addressees that no one
.j a w
ve .a
can form another opinion about it.
da l-m
God says that after this no one is left
9ٰ : with
: :9an : excuse
ۡ < : ‫ﺌﻶﻹ‬7
:9 :
hm a
ۢ
for disbelief to presentٌ :9 < before God: 23‫ﷲ‬
7 (b‫ﻋ‬ ‫ﻠﻨﺎس‬7
7 ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ﻳﻜﻮن‬ ‫ﻟ‬
: ۡ : ‫ﺣﺠﺔ‬
< <9 ‫'ﻌﺪ‬
ad wri
(١٦٥:٤) ‫ﻟﺮﺳﻞ‬
7 (so that after the messengers people
g h d .o
am rg
are left with no excuse which they can present before
id
God, (4:165).
i.c
Thus if it is possible for the believers to punish the
om
rejecters, they are directed to do so. Otherwise the angels
carry out this task.
Muḥammad (sws) was also a messenger of God and
was sent to his people to bring about this lesser day of
judgement for the last time on the face of the earth. Thus
after he had done itmām al-ḥujjah, his companions were
also directed to implement divine punishment on the
rejecters.
Thus about the Idolaters of Arabia, it is stated:
‫ﺧﺬوﻫﻢ‬ ۡ < ۡ < < 9 ۡ : : ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬

ۡ < ۡ < < ‫و‬: ‫وﺟﺪﺗﻤﻮﻫﻢ‬ < ۡ : : ۡ ۡ <ۡ < < ۡ : < < < ۡ < < ۡ:ۡ : : : ۡ : :
g 7 vRw‫ﻟﻤ‬ ‫م ﻓﺎﻗﺘﻠﻮ‬Rp‫ﻓﺎذ ﻧﺴﻠﺦ ﻵﻹﺷﻬﺮ ﻟ‬7
7
248
: ٰ :9 < : : : ۡ < : ۡ : : ۡ : :9 < ۡ < : ۡ < < ۡ : ۡ < ۡ < < ۡ :
<‫ﺗﻮ‬: ٰ ‫و‬: ‫ﻟﺼﻠﻮة‬ ‫ﻓﺎن ﺗﺎﺑﻮ و ﻗﺎﻣﻮ‬7 ¨ ‫ﻣﺮﺻﺪ‬ ٍ ‫وﻫﻢ و ﻗﻌﺪو ﻟﻬﻢ _ﻞ‬RÒ‫و ﺣ‬
: 9
ٌ ۡ 7 ‫ﻏﻔﻮر‬ ٌ ۡ :23‫ﷲ‬9ٰ ‫ن‬: 9 7 ‚ ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻠﻬﻢ‬
< : <9 : : : ٰ :9
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﻓﺨﻠﻮ‬
ۡ
(٥:٩) ‫رﺣﻴﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻮة‬v‫ﻟﺰ‬
Then when the sacred months [after the ḥajj] have
passed, kill these Idolaters wherever you find them,
and [for this purpose] capture them and besiege them,
and lie in wait for them in each and every ambush.
But if they repent and are diligent in the prayer, and
give zakāh, then leave them alone. Indeed, God is
Forgiving, Most Merciful. (9:5)
w
w
Similarly, about the People of the Book of Arabia, the
w ww
.j a w
words are:
ve .a
: : 9 : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫ن‬: ‫ﻣﻮ‬Rp ٰ ۡ : ۡ : : 9ٰ : ۡ < ۡ < : : ۡ : 9 < :
ۡ < 7 9 : <‫ﻹ ﻳ‬: ‫و ﻵ‬: R•7 ‫ﻮم ﻵ ۡﻹ‬
da l-m
‫م‬R‫ﺣ‬ 7 7 ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻴ‬7 ‫ و ﻵﻹ‬23‫ﺑﺎﷲ‬
7 7 ‫ﺆﻣﻨﻮن‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻵﻹ ﻳ‬ 7 ‫ﻗﺎﺗﻠﻮ‬7
hm a
< ۡ < 9ٰ : : ٰ ۡ < ۡ < : ۡ : 9 : 9 : ۡ : ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : : : r < ۡ < : : < 9ٰ
ad wri
‫ ﻌﻄﻮ‬JO‫ﻟﻜﺘﺐ ﺣ‬7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ وﺗﻮ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﺤﻖ‬7 ‫دﻳﻦ‬7 ‫ﺪﻳﻨﻮن‬7 ‫ و رﺳﻮﻟھ و ﻵﻹ ﻳ‬23‫ﷲ‬
g h d .o
(٩:٢٩) ‫ن‬:‫ﻐﺮو‬ ۡ : ‫ﺔ‬::‫ﻟﺠﺰﻳ‬
ۡ < 7 ‫و <ﻫ ۡﻢ ٰﺻ‬: 9 ‫ ٍﺪ‬:‫ﻳ‬9 ‫ﻋﻦ‬ ۡ ۡ
am rg
7
id
i.c
Fight with those from among the People of the Book
om
who believe neither in God or the Last Day, nor hold
that forbidden which has been forbidden by God and
His Messenger, nor adopt the Religion of Truth as
their own religion until they pay the jizyah after being
subdued and live a life of submission. (9:29)
It is evident from the context of these verses that their

directive was specific to the Idolaters and People of the
Book of Arabia. However, we see that those of the
companions who succeeded him dealt with certain
nations outside Arabia in the very manner mentioned in
these verses for the People of the Book of Arabia. This
249
obviously was a decision that was based on their opinion
and can be regarded as correct or otherwise. In our
opinion, this decision taken by them was absolutely
correct. The reason is that the essential components
needed for the itmām al-ḥujjah of a messenger existed
for all these nations as well. Its details follow.
1. The Prophet (sws) was still living in this world
when he sent his envoys to these nations and invited
them to profess faith in him. Everyone aware of the
history of his times knows that he had written letters to
heads of state of these nations and warned them that
w
w
since he is the messenger of God and since he has
w ww
invited them to accept Islam, the only way left for them
.j a w
ve .a
to succeed in this world and in the next was to respond
da l-m
positively to this invitation. These letters were written to
hm a
the following heads of state: Negus of Abyssinia,
ad wri
Maqawqas of Egypt, Khusro Parvez of Persia, Heraclius
g h d .o
of Rome, Mundhir ibn Sāwī of Bahrain, Hūdhah ibn ‘Alī
am rg
of Yamāmah, Ḥārith ibn Abī Shamr of Damascus and
id
i.c
Jayfar of Amman. There is not much difference between
om
the content of these letters. Following is the letter written
to Heraclius, the Caesar of Rome. The style, majesty and
authority with which these letters were written will
become evident from it:
: ْ : 7 (T‫ھ إ‬77 ‫ورﺳﻮﻟ‬

: ‫ﻫﺮﻗﻞ‬ < : : 23‫ﷲ‬9ٰ :9 : < ۡ 7 : 9 ‫ﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ‬ٰ ۡ : 9 23‫ﷲ‬ 9ٰ ۡ
‫ﻋﻈﻴﻢ‬
7 7 7 ‫ﻋﺒﺪ‬ ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬
ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻢ‬
7 ‫ﻟﺮﺣﻴ‬ 7 7 ‫ﺑﺴﻢ‬
7 7
: ْ ْ : : : < ْ : 9 : < ْ : :9 : : < ْ : : :9 ٌ : : <
7 7‫ﺑﺪﻋﺎﻳﺔ ﻵﻹ‬
‫ﺳﻶﻹم‬ 7 7 7 ‫( دﻋﻮك‬¤7‫ﺎ‬7‫( ﻣﻦ ﺗﺒﻊ ﻟﻬﺪى ﻣﺎ 'ﻌﺪ ﻓ‬b‫ﻟﺮوم ﺳﻶﻹم ﻋ‬ 7 9
: ْ 7 ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻚ‬ : ْ : : ْ : : ْ :9 : : ْ : ْ : :9 : : : ْ : : ْ< ْ: ْ : ْ ْ:
‫ﺛﻢ‬ ‫ﺎن‬7‫ﻓﺈن ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺖ ﻓ‬7 g7 ‫ ﺟﺮك ﻣﺮﺗ‬23‫ﻳﺆﺗﻚ ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﺳﻠﻢ ﺗﺴﻠﻢ‬ 7
<ْ : ْ : : : : ْ : : : : : ْ : : : : ْ : ْ : : 9 :ْ
‫_ﻠﻤﺔ ﺳﻮ ٍء ﺑﻴﻨﻨﺎ وﺑﻴﻨﻜﻢ ﻵﻹ‬ ٍ 7 (T ‫ﻌﺎﻟﻮ‬U ‫ﻟﻜﺘﺎب‬ 7 7 ‫ ﻗﻞ ﻳﺎ ﻫﻞ‬g ‫ﻵﻻرﻳﺴﻴ‬ 7 7 7
ً ْ : : < ْ : : :9 :
ً : ْ : ‫'ﻌﻀﺎ‬ : ْ < : 9ٰ : < ْ :
‫دون‬ 7 < ‫رﺑﺎﺑﺎ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻳﺘﺨﺬ 'ﻌﻀﻨﺎ‬ 7 ‫ﺑھ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ وﻵﻹ‬ 7 7 ‫ك‬Rw‫ﻧ‬7 ‫ وﻵﻹ‬23‫—ﻌﺒﺪ ﻵﻹ ﷲ‬
250
: < 7 ْ < ‫ﻧﺎ‬: 9 :‫ﺷﻬﺪو ﺑﺎ‬
‫ﻣﺴﻠﻤﻮن‬
< < : ْ : 9 : : ْ : 9ٰ
< : ْ ‫ﻓﻘﻮﻟﻮ‬ ‫ﺎن ﺗﻮﻟﻮ‬7‫ ﻓ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7
7
In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Ever
Merciful. From Muḥammad, the servant and
messenger of God, to Heraclius, the ruler of Rome.
Peace to him who follows the guidance. After this I
invite you to accept Islam. If you become Muslims
you will live in peace. God will give you a double
reward for this. If you turn away, then you will also
be responsible for the sin of your subjects. People of
the Book! Come to what is common between us: we
w
shall not worship anyone except God and nor
w
w ww
associate anyone with him and none of us will make
.j a w
anyone except God his Lord. Then if they turn away,
ve .a
tell them: “Bear witness that we are Muslims.”122
da l-m
hm a
2. These letters were written in Muḥarram 7th hijrah
ad wri
g h d .o
after the Prophet (sws) had returned from Ḥudaybiyyah.
am rg
He lived for about four years after this. During this time,
id
he even journeyed to Tabūk which was undertaken in
i.c
om
anticipation of any attack from the Romans. The people
of these nations as well as their ruling nobles could have
come to meet him if they wanted, and could have seen
the last Messenger of God from their very eyes.
3. God’s help and the close relationship that
manifested itself in the battles of Badr, Uḥud, Aḥzāb and
Khaybar between the Idolaters and the People of the
Book of Arabia, and as a consequence of which
punishment they were declared worthy of punishment,
also manifested itself before all those nations when, in
accordance with the explicit predictions of the Qur’ān,
122. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol 1, 8-9, (no. 7).

251
the Quraysh of Makkah were subdued in spite of all their
might and majesty, all their leadership was killed,
Makkah was conquered, the Quraysh were stripped of
the custodianship of the foremost House of God, people
in multitudes entered in the folds of Islam, the sharī‘ah
was implemented and no other religion could politically
and religiously dominate Arabia. Not only this, the
empires of all these nations crumbled to dust when
onslaughts were launched against them – nations whose
rulers had been told that they will necessarily be
subdued after itmām al-ḥujjah by the Messenger of God.
w
w
Without accepting faith their kingdoms could not
w ww
flourish on the face of the earth.
.j a w
ve .a
All these are established facts which manifested
da l-m
themselves before people of those times. Whatever the
hm a
companions of the Prophet (sws) did was on these very
ad wri
grounds. They would have necessarily directed the
g h d .o
am rg
attention of people to these facts when they would have
id
delivered their message. There is no reason to make this
i.c
evil estimation about them that without communicating
om
these facts to people they would have punished an
individual or a nation in this manner.
______________
252
Islamic Punishments
Among the directives of the sharī‘ah which relate to

the government are punishments prescribed by the
Almighty for certain specific crimes. What are these
punishments? I have detailed them out in my treatise
Mīzān123 in its chapter “Ḥudūd-o Ta‘zīrāt” (The Penal
w
w
Sharī‘ah).124 What needed further elucidation in this
w ww
.j a w
regard has been presented in my treatises Maqāmāt and
ve .a
Burhān. In the following paragraphs, I summarize below
da l-m
hm a
all the important aspects of this discussion covered in
ad wri
both these books.
g h d .o
1. Punishments for only five crimes have been
am rg
prescribed by the sharī‘ah. They are: fornication, falsely
id
i.c
accusing someone of fornication, theft, murder and injury
om
and creating disorder in the land. It is generally
understood that the sharī‘ah has also prescribed the
punishments for drinking, apostasy and blasphemy against
the Prophet (sws). I have argued that this is totally
baseless. There is no punishment of these crimes in the
sharī‘ah. All these issues relate to ijtihād and whatever
opinion is formed about them will be on this very basis.
2. Our jurists generally opine that if a criminal who has
committed intentional murder is forgiven by the heirs of
the slain person, then the government is also bound to

253
forgive him. This is view is not correct in the opinion of
this writer. Thus, in my article “Punishment for
Intentional Murder,”125 I have analyzed all the pertinent
verses and shown that in such cases qiṣāṣ does not
become mandatory; however, as an option, it is not ruled
out. Thus, keeping in view the nature of the crime and the
circumstances of the criminal, the government and the
society have the full right to insist in exacting qiṣāṣ and
reject the lenience given by the heirs of the slain person.
3. The punishments of waging war against God and the
Prophet (sws) and spreading anarchy in the land
w
w
mentioned in verses 33-34 of Sūrah Mā’idah are not
w ww
.j a w
specific to robbery only. They are meant for all criminals
ve .a
who rebel against the law and attack the life, wealth,
da l-m
honour and freedom of expression of people.
hm a
Consequently, when murder becomes terrorism,
ad wri
fornication becomes rape and theft assumes the form of
g h d .o
am rg
robbery or people take to prostitution, become notorious
id
for their ill-ways and vulgarity, become a threat to
i.c
honourable people because of their immoral and
om
dissolute practices, or rise against the government in
rebellion, or create a law and order situation for the
government by indulging in hijacking, vandalism and
intimidation and by committing other similar crimes,
then such people are criminals of spreading anarchy in
the society. In such cases, a court of law can give any of
the prescribed punishments keeping in view the nature of
the crime and the circumstances of the criminal.
4. The death penalty can only be given for murder and
for spreading anarchy in the land. The Almighty has
125. The article appears in this book. (Translator).

254
explicitly stated that apart from these two crimes, neither
an individual nor a government has the right to take the
life of a person.
5. Though diyat is an everlasting law which must be
obeyed in all times by all Muslim societies, yet its
amount, nature and other related affairs have been left
upon the ma‘rūf (custom) of a society. According to this
directive, each society is bound to follow its own ma‘rūf.
Since no law about diyat exists in our society, our rulers
can adopt the custom of the Arab society or can legislate
afresh keeping in view the circumstances and
w
w
expediencies of our society. No objection whatsoever
w ww
.j a w
can be raised against this as per the Islamic sharī‘ah.
ve .a
6. The punishment of fornication prescribed by the
da l-m
sharī‘ah for both married men and women and
hm a
unmarried ones is a hundred lashes as stated in verse 24
ad wri
of Sūrah Nūr. No doubt, the Prophet (sws) did stone to
g h d .o
am rg
death some criminals of his times who were guilty of
id
fornication. However, this was administered to criminals
i.c
guilty of rape and profligacy and in accordance with
om
verses 33-34 of Sūrah Mā’idah. It has no connection
with the punishment mentioned in Sūrah Nūr for
common criminals of fornication.
7. The punishments for fornication and theft
mentioned in the Qur’ān are extreme punishments of
these crimes, and shall be administered to the criminals
when the crime has been committed in its complete form
and a criminal does not deserve any lenience viz a viz
the circumstances in which he committed the crime. The
most important thing in this regard is his religious
awareness. These punishments cannot be given to those
who are non-Muslims or are Muslims by birth but
255
because of a lack of awareness of their religion are akin
to non-Muslims. The reason for this is that the purpose
of these punishments is not merely to root out the crime
but also to inflict the scourge of God on these criminals
and make them an example before others. These were
the people who had submitted themselves to God and
His Messenger with full awareness, pledged obedience
to them, accepted their religion as their religion. Despite
this, they were incriminated with crimes such as theft
and fornication to the extent that God exposed them and
matters reached the courts of law.
w
w
8. The condition of four witness stated in the Qur’ān
w ww
.j a w
for the punishment of fornication relates to consensual
ve .a
sex. It cannot be applied to rape. Hence a woman who
da l-m
complains of rape is a petitioner and not someone who is
hm a
accusing someone of fornication. The law is bound to
ad wri
hear out her complaint and punish the person found
g h d .o
am rg
guilty of this heinous crime through any means except if
id
investigation proves that the woman had falsely accused
i.c
an innocent person of fornication.
om
9. Except for fornication, crimes whose punishment is
prescribed by the sharī‘ah are proven through all means
that are universally accepted by legal ethics.
Consequently, circumstantial evidence, medical
examinations, post mortem reports, finger prints, DNA
tests, testimony of witnesses, confession of criminals,
oaths and various other similar means form permissible
evidence in the matter of these crimes just as they are in
the matter of other common crimes. There is nothing in
the Qur’ān and Sunnah contrary to this.

256
Punishment for Blasphemy
against the Prophet (sws)
The law for punishing blasphemy against the Prophet
w
w
(sws) that is invoked in Pakistan has no foundation in the
w ww
.j a w
Qur’ān or Ḥadīth. Therefore, a pertinent question is:
ve .a
what exactly is the justification for this law? Some
da l-m
scholars have proffered Q. 5: 33-34 as a possible basis.
hm a
In their opinion, God, in these verses of Sūrah Mā’idah,
ad wri
g h d .o
has prescribed the punishment for muḥārabah (rebellion)
am rg
and fasād fi al-arḍ (disorder), and they believe that
id
blasphemy against the Prophet (sws) is also a form of
i.c
om
this offence of muḥārabah:
The text of the verse with its translation is:
: ً : : ۡ : ۡ : ۡ : ۡ : : r : ۡ < : : : 9ٰ : ۡ < : < : ۡ : 9 < ¢ : : : 9

‫ﻓﺴﺎد ۡن‬ ‫ﻵﻹرض‬
7 ()7 ‫ و رﺳﻮﻟھ و ﻳﺴﻌﻮن‬23‫ﻳﺤﺎرﺑﻮن ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬ 7 ‫ﻧﻤﺎ ﺟﺰؤ‬7
:ۡ ۡ < ۡ : : ۡ 9 ۡ < < < ۡ : : ۡ ۡ ۡ : : : 9 : < ۡ : ۤۡ < : 9 : < ۡ : ۤۡ < : 9 : < 9
‫ﺧﻶﻹف و ﻳﻨﻔﻮ‬ ٍ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻳﺪﻳﻬﻢ و رﺟﻠﻬﻢ‬ 7 7 ‫ﻘﻄﻊ‬U ‫ﻘﺘﻠﻮ و ﻳﺼﻠﺒﻮ و‬
ٌ :
ٌ ۡ 7 : ‫ﻋﺬ ب‬: ‫ة‬R•‫ﻵﻹ‬ ٰ ۡ < :
ۡ ‫و‬: ‫ﻧﻴﺎ‬ ۡ < 9 () ‫•·ي‬ ۡ < : ‫ﻚ‬7: ‫ﻵﻹرض ‚ ٰذﻟ‬
ٌ ۡ 7 ‫ﻟﻬﻢ‬ ۡ : ۡ ‫ﻣﻦ‬
.‫ﻋﻈﻴﻢ‬ 7 : 7 ()7 ‫ﻟﻬﻢ‬ : ‫ﻟﺪ‬
7 7
: 7
ٌ ۡ < : 23‫ﷲ‬ ٰ
: 9 ‫ن‬: 9 : ۤ‫ﻓﺎﻋﻠﻤﻮ‬
ۡ < : ۡ : ¨ ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ‬ ۡ < 7 ۡ : ‫ ۡن‬: ‫ﻗﺒﻞ‬
ۡ ۡ : : ‫ﻘﺪرو‬U ۡ : ۡ ۡ < : : ۡ 7 : 9 ‫ﻵﻹ‬: 9 7
‫ﻏﻔﻮر‬ 7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﺗﺎﺑﻮ‬
(٣٤-٣٣: ٥) .‫رﺣﻴﻢ‬ ٌ ۡ 7 :9
The punishment of those who fight against God and
257
His Prophet or create disorder in territory is that they
be executed in an exemplary manner or be crucified
or have their hands and feet cut off from opposite
sides or be banished. This disgrace is theirs in the
world, and in the Hereafter a severe retribution shall
they have, except those who repent before you
overpower them. So [do not exceed in severity with
them and] know well that God is Oft-Forgiving,
Ever-Merciful. (5:33-34)
As other viewpoints on foundations for blasphemy
w
w
laws, this opinion too needs to be reviewed for the
w ww
.j a w
following reasons:
ve .a
Firstly, the word used in the verse is yuḥāribūn (they
da l-m
fight/rebel against). This word entails that the sentences
hm a
of punishment mentioned in the verse be given only if
ad wri
the offender persists in blasphemy defiantly, resorts to
g h d .o
am rg
disruption or disorder, refuses to desist even after
id
repeated exhortation and admonition and, in contrast to
i.c
an attitude of consequent submission, actually takes a
om
stance of retaliation. On the other hand, if the accused
pleads that he’s not guilty or gives an excuse to explain
his attitude and shows no volition for persistence, he
cannot, in any sense of the word, be indicted for
muḥārabah or fasād fi al-arḍ.
Secondly, the Qur’ān says that the sentence will not be
applicable to those offenders who, despite their prior
proclamation and persistence, submit and repent before
the law apprehends them. Therefore, the directive is that
those who have repented shall not be given these
sentences. This aspect also entails that, before any action
is taken against such offenders, they be called to repent
258
and reform and be repeatedly warned that, if they are
believers, they should not destroy their own future in the
Hereafter by their wrong attitude or notions and, if they
do not believe in God or the Prophet (sws), they should
show regard for the feelings and sentiments of Muslims
and abstain from this grave violation any further.
Thirdly, the verse does not make capital punishment
obligatory. It gives the court room for a lenient sentence
in consideration of the nature of offence and the state of
the offender. The recommendation of banishment in the
verse is for such offenders as deserve leniency.
w
w
In the present law, none of the aspects mentioned
w ww
.j a w
above has been considered. For sentencing, this law
ve .a
depends solely on testimony. There is no consideration
da l-m
whatsoever for confession or denial, which consideration
hm a
the verse entails; there is no room for clemency on the
ad wri
repentance and reform shown in response to exhortation
g h d .o
am rg
and admonition; and, as such, there is no other option
id
except capital punishment. It would indeed be
i.c
commendable even if the ‘ulamā were to accept the
om
muḥārabah verse as the foundation for blasphemy
punishment and, consequently, show willingness to have
amendments made to the existing law. Even that would
end all criticisms on the present law. It is obvious from
the Qur’ān that capital punishment can only be given in
two cases: first, if a person murders another and, second,
if he disrupts law and order in a country and, as such,
becomes a threat to the life, property and honour of
people. If the law is amended in accordance with the
requirements of the muḥārabah verse, the requirement of
confining capital punishment to these two cases will be
fulfilled. Furthermore, the law will also be closer to the
259
views of the highly venerated scholar of Islamic law,
Imām Abū Ḥanīfah and to those of the great Ḥadīth
compiler, Imām Bukhārī. In this regard, it is this opinion
that seems more advisable. The Ḥanafīs have a majority
in Pakistan, but, incongruously, their viewpoint has been
completely ignored in enacting this law. Therefore, it is
a fact that the blasphemy law in its present state is
against not only the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth but also the
opinion of Ḥanafī jurists. It should most certainly be
changed for it has blemished the name of Islam and
Muslims throughout the world.
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
II
da l-m
hm a
Narratives related to punishment for blasphemy that
ad wri
are often cited also need to be understood correctly. Abū
g h d .o
Rāfi‘ was one of those people who were guilty of
am rg
bringing out the tribes against Madīnah in Ghazwah-e
id
i.c
: 9 : : ۡ : : < (Battle
Khandaq 9ٰ : 9 : of9ٰ : the< :
Ditch). In :Ibn Isḥāq’s words:
:: : :ْ: : 9: ْ:ْ
‫ﻢ‬:‫وﺳﻠ‬ ْ
om
‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ﻋﻠ‬ 23‫ﷲ‬ (b‫ﺻ‬ 23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫رﺳﻮل‬ ( b‫ﻓﻴﻤﻦ ﺣ·ب ﻵﻻﺣ· ب ﻋ‬7 . About Ka‘b
ibn Ashraf, the historians write that after Ghazwah-e
Badr (Battle of Badr), he went to Makkah and recited
vengeance inspiring elegies for those of the Quraysh
who had fallen in battle, wrote odes (tashbīb) that
prefaced the names of some Muslim women and caused
much distress to Muslims, and, while residing in the
domain of the Prophet’s government, endeavoured to
incite people against him. Some narratives describe that
he even went to the extent of devising deception to
assassinate the Prophet (sws). ‘Abdullāh ibn Khaṭal was
sent for zakāh (obligatory alms) collection by the
260
Prophet (sws). He was accompanied by a person from
amongst the Anṣār and a servant. On the way, Ibn Khaṭal
killed the servant on the pretext of insubordination,
became an apostate, and ran away to Makkah.126 Not
only this; all three people mentioned here persisted in
their denial of the Prophet (sws) even after the truth of
his message had become conclusively evident to them.
And, God Almighty has mentioned repeatedly in the
Qur’ān that, as a Divine principle, the direct addressees
of a rasūl127 are within the range of Divine punishment.
For that reason, if they go on to the extent of hostility,
w
w
they can also be killed.
w ww
.j a w
These details show that the wrongdoers in question
ve .a
were not merely guilty of blasphemy but had also
da l-m
committed all the other crimes mentioned above.
hm a
Therefore, they were killed in response to these offences.
ad wri
g h d .o
‘Abdullāh ibn Khaṭal was a murderous fugitive. It was
am rg
decreed on these grounds that he be killed even if he was
id
hiding behind the covers of the Ka‘bah.
i.c
om
It was indeed offenders of this kind to whom Sūrah
Aḥzāb refers. In order to sow the seeds of doubt in
Muslims, to turn them away from the Prophet (sws), and
to damage their reputation and the moral credibility of
their religion badly, these wrongdoers would engage in
126. ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Hishām, Al-Sīrah al-nabawiyyah, 2nd

ed., vol. 3 (Beirut: Al-Maktabah al-‘uḍwiyyah, 1999), 47, 248;
Ibid., vol. 4, 44; Shiblī Nu‘mānī, Sīrat al-nabī, vol. 1 (Lahore:
Idārah islāmiyyāt, n.d.), 253.
127. As a specific term in the Qur’ān, a messenger of God
sent as Divine judgment for or against his people and direct
addressees; plural: rusul.
261
many activities as cooking up stories about personal
lives of Muslims, slandering them and carrying on
scandal-mongering, sometimes expressing desire to
marry ladies from amongst the Prophet’s holy wives,
and spreading rumours of all kinds to unnerve and
demoralize Muslims. They would sometimes tease
Muslim ladies who went out to the fields at night or
before daylight to pay heed to the call of nature. When
reprimanded for this behaviour, these evildoers would
come up with lame excuses as having approached a
woman only because they mistook her for the slave-girl
w
w
of such and such person and because they needed to ask
w ww
.j a w
her about such and such matter. The Qur’ān alludes to
ve .a
these aspects of their mischief, and narratives in Muslim
da l-m
tradition record many of the related instances in quite
hm a
some detail.128 Muslim ladies, therefore, were told to put
ad wri
their cloaks over themselves to appear different from
g h d .o
am rg
slave-girls so that the mischievous miscreants would not
id
have pretexts to tease them. Furthermore, the
i.c
troublemakers were also warned that if they would not
om
stop and would persist in their evil, they would be
executed in an exemplary manner:
: ْ : < ْ < ْ : ٌ : : ْ < < : :9 : : < : < ْ : ْ : ۡ :9 ۡ :
7 7 : ()7 ‫ﻟﻤﺮﺟﻔﻮن‬
‫ﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ‬ 7 ‫ﻗﻠﻮﺑﻬﻢ ﻣﺮض و‬
7 7 () ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﻘﻮن و‬
7 ‫ﻳﻨﺘھ‬7 ‫ ﻦ ﻟﻢ‬7 ‫ﻟ‬
< < < < : : ْ : : < ْ : ً : :9 :7 : : < : < : :9 < ْ : :9 : ْ < :
‫أﺧﺬو‬7 ‫ﻘﻔﻮ‬Ô
7 ‫ أﻳﻨﻤﺎ‬g 7‫ﻗﻠﻴﻶﻹ ﻣﻠﻌﻮﻧ‬
7 ‫إﻵﻹ‬7 ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬7 ‫ﻳﺠﺎوروﻧﻚ‬
7 ‫ﺑﻬﻢ ﺛﻢ ﻵﻹ‬7 7 ‫ﻟﻨﻐﺮﻳﻨﻚ‬
7
128. Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, Jāmi‘ al-Bayān, 4th ed.,
vol. 10 (Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 2005), 332; Ismā‘īl
ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-‘Aẓīm, 5th ed., vol. 3
(Beirut: Mu’assasah al-rayyān, 1999), 518; Muḥammad ibn
‘Umar al-Zamakhsharī, Al-Kashshāf, vol. 3 (Beirut: Dār iḥyā’
al-turāth al-‘arabī), 569.
262
ً ْ: <9<
(٦١-٦٠ :٣٣) ‫ﻘﺘﻴﻶﻹ‬U 7 :
7 ‫وﻗﺘﻠﻮ‬
[Even after this measure] If these hypocrites do not
desist and also those with a disease in their hearts
and those too who spread lies in Medina, we shall
make you rise against them; then they shall not be
able to stay amongst you but with difficulty; cursed
shall they be; wherever found, they shall be killed in
an exemplary manner. (33: 60-61).
Other narratives of similar nature that are often related

are usually not credible enough in terms of historical
w
w
authenticity of the sanad (chain of narrators). However,
w ww
.j a w
even if they were to be assumed reliable enough, the
ve .a
nature of events described would still fall within the
da l-m
hm a
scope of same context: after full manifestation of
ad wri
hostility in their blasphemy and sacrilege, these people
g h d .o
were within the purview of the same law that the Qur’an
am rg
has described as a Divine custom pertaining to the denial
id
i.c
of a rasūl by his people and direct addressees. Some
< :ْ< :
: ْ < were also vindicated on these grounds.129‫ﻵﻹ ﻘﺘﻞ‬
om
murders
R7Å‫ﺑ ﺎ‬7 ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻢ‬
ٍ7 is a description of the same principle. The
‘ulamā are aware of these aspects, yet they insist on
deriving the law for punishment of blasphemy from
these narratives.
Here, someone might also refer to oft-related incident
in which ‘Umar (rta) is reported to have struck off the
head of a man who refused to accept the Prophet’s legal
verdict on a certain occasion. Our ‘ulamā relate this
129. “No Muslim shall be sentenced to death in retaliation

for these deniers.” Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 6, 2534,
(no. 6517).
263
incident from the pulpits and directly encourage people
to show the same attitude as reflected in the narrative
towards those whom they perceive as blasphemers of the
Prophet (sws). However, the fact is that not just the first
and second degree of Ḥadīth collections (in terms of
authenticity) but also the third degree works are devoid
of this narrative. Even Ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, who often
relates narratives in all categories, has not regarded it
worthy of consideration. This narrative comes from a
gharīb (with isolated chain of narrators) and mursal
(with omissions in the chain) Ḥadīth that has been cited
w
w
by some exegetes in their commentaries; however, those
w ww
.j a w
acquainted to some extent with Ḥadīth sciences have
ve .a
clarified that, in the chain, its attribution to Ibn ‘Abbās
da l-m
(rta) is absolutely implausible. Moreover, in the sanads
hm a
of Ibn Mardawayh and Ibn Abī Ḥātim, the narrator Ibn
ad wri
Lahī‘ah is ḍaī‘if (“weak”).130 The view that exegetes
g h d .o
am rg
relate this very narrative also as shān-e nuzūl (an
id
occasion for the revelation) of Q. 4:65 is also ill-
i.c
founded. Although this verse of Sūrah Nisā’ is not in
om
want of description of any reason of revelation, yet,
quite contrary to this one, the narrative that Imām
Bukhārī and other leading scholars of Ḥadīth have
related as the occasion of revelation for this verse and
which narrative is often cited by exegetes is one that
pertains to a water dispute between the Prophet’s
paternal cousin, Zubayr, and a person from the Anṣār.
When the matter was presented to the Prophet (sws), he
told Zubayr to irrigate his field and leave the remaining
water for the Anṣārī. The Anṣārī immediately retorted by
130. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-‘Azīm, vol.1, 681.

264
saying: “O Prophet of Allāh, is this because Zubayr is
your cousin?” This highly impudent remark was clearly
an imputation of injustice and nepotism. Therefore, it is
related that the Prophet’s face changed colour, but he did
not say anything save repeating his statement with more
clarity and decreed that the water be retained up to the
edges of the field and the rest be left for the Anṣārī.131
One must “commend” the ‘ulamā on their choice in
selection for ignoring this highly credible narrative
reported by Bukhārī and Muslim that reflects the
Prophet’s forbearance, forgiveness, compassion and
w
w
kindness; instead, they are enthusiastically and zealously
w ww
.j a w
relating everywhere a weak and improbable narrative
ve .a
related to how ‘Umar (rta) struck off someone’s neck.
da l-m
hm a
III
ad wri
g h d .o
On the issue of blasphemy against the Prophet (sws),
am rg
is the opinion of majority of jurists based on any
id
i.c
directive in the Qur’ān or Ḥadīth related specifically to
om
this punishment? The answer to this question is clearly
in the negative. The basis of jurists’ opinion on
punishment to a Muslim is apostasy and, to a dhimmī,132
it is violation of pact. The jurists say that a Muslim who
blasphemes against the Prophet (sws) becomes an
apostate, and the punishment for apostasy is death.
Similarly, if a non-Muslim dhimmī is guilty of this
offence, he loses protection of the pact with him, and,
131. Ibid., 680.

132. Non-Muslims (of conquered lands) who were granted
protection and rights under pact in a Muslim government.
265
therefore, he too deserves capital punishment. According
to the jurists, the reason for this inference is that the
directive about non-Muslim Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the
Book133) in verse 29 of Sūrah Tawbah (9th Sūrah of the
Qur’ān) entails they be killed if they refuse to remain
subjugated and subservient under Muslim rule.
Therefore, infer the jurists, if a dhimmī shows an attitude
of sacrilege and disrespect to the Prophet (sws), it means
that he has rebelled against Muslim sovereignty and does
not accept his subjugation under Muslim rule.134 In
Islamic law, this argumentation probably began with this
w
w
statement of ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Abbās (rta):
w ww
9ٰ
.j a w
ve .a
‫ ورﺳﻮﻟھ أو ﺳﺐ أﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻻﻧﺒﻴﺎء ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺬب ﺑﺮﺳﻮل‬23‫أﻳﻤﺎ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﺳﺐ ﷲ‬
: 9 : : ۡ : : < 9ٰ : 9 : 9ٰ
da l-m
‫ ردة ﻳﺴﺘﺘﺎب ﻓﺈن رﺟﻊ وإﻵﻹ ﻗﺘﻞ وأﻳﻤﺎ‬01‫ﻢ و‬:‫وﺳﻠ‬ ‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ ﻋﻠ‬23‫( ﷲ‬b‫ ﺻ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7
hm a
ad wri
‫ أو ﺳﺐ أﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻻﻧﺒﻴﺎء أو ﺟﻬﺮ ﺑھ ﻓﻘﺪ —ﻘﺾ‬23‫ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪ ﻋﺎﻧﺪ ﻓﺴﺐ ﷲ‬
g h d .o
am rg
‫ﻟﻌﻬﺪﻓﺎﻗﺘﻠﻮه‬
id
i.c
A Muslim who blasphemes against God or the
om
Prophet or any of God’s messengers is guilty of
denying the Prophet (sws). This is apostasy, which
entails that repentance be demanded of the offender.
If he repents, he shall be released; if not, he shall be
killed. Similarly, if anyone from amongst non-
Muslims protected under pact becomes hostile by
openly blaspheming against God or the Prophet
(sws) or any of God’s messengers, he is guilty of
133. In the Prophet’s time, the Israelites and the Nazarenes.

134. For details, see for example: Abū Muḥammad ‘Alī ibn
Aḥmad ibn Sa‘īd ibn Ḥazm, Al-Muḥallā bi al-āthār, 1st ed.,
vol.13 (Beruit: Dār iḥyā’ al-turāth al-‘arabī, 1999), 234.
266
violating the pact; you shall kill him too.135
It is this argumentation which, according to the jurists,

is the foundation of the punishment for blasphemy.
However, deliberation on the Qur’ān and the Ḥadīth
clearly shows that, after the age of the Prophet’s
Companions, this basis has become ineffective forever.
In my works, Mīzān and Burhān, I have argued at length
that the punishment for apostasy was specific to the
peoples who had been afforded conclusive evidence of
truth by the Prophet (sws) himself but reverted to their
w
w
denial after < having accepted faith. The Prophet’s
< ْ < ْ : ‫دﻳﻨھ‬ : :9 : ‫ﻣﻦ‬
< : ْ 7 ‫ﺑﺪل‬ ْ : (kill the one who changes
w ww
statement: ‫ﻓﺎﻗﺘﻠﻮه‬
.j a w
ve .a
136
his religion ) relates to the same peoples. The decree of
da l-m
the punishment for them was in accordance with the
hm a
sunnat-e ilāhī (the Divine way and principle) that has
ad wri
g h d .o
been described in the Qur’ān in relation to the direct
am rg
addressees of the rusul. It has no relation to Muslims in
id
times after the Prophetic age.
i.c
om
The issue of violation of pact is also similar in nature.
No one now is dhimmī in the world and no one can be
subjugated as such now. Verse 29 of Sūrah Tawbah is an
offshoot of the same Divine principle mentioned above.
Therefore, the right to wage war against any peoples
perceived as deniers of the truth has ended forever the
right to keep them subjugated and subservient by
imposing jizyah (tribute) on them. Until the end of the
135. Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Qayyim,

Zād al-ma‘ād fī hadyi khayr al-‘ibād, 1st ed., vol. 4 (Beirut:
Dār al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1998), 379.
136. Al-Bukhārī, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, 3, 1098, (no. 2854).
267
world, no one now has any right whatsoever to wage a
war against any people for this particular purpose or any
right to impose jizyah to keep the vanquished
subjugated.137 Non-Muslim citizens of Muslim States are
not dhimmīs or condemned to death in any principle or
living under any grant of “protection” lifting which
would entail their death. This diction and these notions
belong to the past. They cannot, in any way, form the
foundation for argumentation now.
Now, therefore, only two possibilities remain: first,
that,in consideration of Islam and the interests of
w
w
Muslims, laws [based without foundational religious
w ww
texts] be enacted and a punishment be prescribed as
.j a w
ve .a
ta‘zīr.138 Second, verses 33-34 of Sūrah Mā’idah be used
da l-m
as foundation for the enactment. It is this second
hm a
possibility about which this article has already
ad wri
emphasized that, if these verses of Sūrah Mā’idah are
g h d .o
used as a foundation, three aspects must be kept in mind
am rg
as the words of the Qur’ān necessitate their inclusion:
id
i.c
1. A person regarded as guilty of blasphemy be invited
om
to repent and reform and be repeatedly warned that, if he
is a believer, he should not destroy his own fate in the
Hereafter and should submit to God and the Prophet
(sws), and, if he does not believe in God or the Prophet
(sws), he should show regard for the feelings and
sentiments of Muslims and abstain from persisting in
137. For details of the argumentation for these views, see my

book chapter “Qānūn-e Jihād” in: Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 579-609.
138. A non-textual (not directly emanating from any
foundational religious text) punishment decided on the basis
of reasoning.
268
this grave offence.
2. His case be filed in the court only if he refuses to
change or repent, persists in his blasphemy with
defiance, causes disruption, pushes away all efforts to
convince him and, instead of showing remorse, actually
resorts to belligerence and hostility.
3. Instead of having the option of capital punishment
only, room for lighter sentences be left in consideration
of any extenuating circumstances related to the actual
nature and circumstance of offence and the capacity and
state of the offender.
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
______________
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
269
The Punishment of Intentional Murder
Religion and ethics have always accorded sanctity to

human life. The Almighty has explicitly stated in His
Book that no one should kill another person; it is the
greatest sin after polytheism. The Qur’ān insists that the
w
Israelites were given this directive with the emphasis
w
w ww
that the killing of one human being is equivalent to the
.j a w
killing of the whole mankind. This directive is found in
ve .a
da l-m
the Talmud even today in almost the same words. The
hm a
Qur’ān has referred to it in Sūrah Mā’idah.
ad wri
Consequently, it is said:
g h d .o
ۡ : ۡ : ۢ ً ۡ : : : : ۡ : r : 9 : : ۡ : ۡ ۤۡ : ٰ : : ۡ : : : ٰ ۡ : ۡ
am rg
‫—ﻔﺲ‬
ٍ 7 ‫'ﻐ‬7 ‫آءﻳﻞ ﻧھ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺘﻞ —ﻔﺴﺎ‬RÈ 7 7 Jµ‫ﺑ‬7 (b‫ ﻛﺘﺒﻨﺎ ﻋ‬ÕÖ ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ﺟﻞ ذﻟ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7
id
: 9 : : : 9 : : : : ۡ : : ۡ:
i.c
(٣٢:٥) . ‫ﺟﻤﻴﻌﺎ‬ ً : :
ۡ 7 ‫ﻗﺘﻞ ﻟﻨﺎس‬ : ۡ
: ‫ﻓﺴﺎد )( ﻵﻹرض ﻓ ﺎﻧﻤﺎ‬
7 7ٍ ‫و‬
om
It is this [rebelliousness of man] because of which
We laid it down [in the Mosaic sharī‘ah] for the
Israelites that he who killed a human being without
the latter being guilty of killing another or because of
spreading anarchy in the land should be looked upon
as if he killed all mankind. (5:32)
It is evident from the above mentioned directive that

the life of a human being can only be taken in two
instances: when a person has killed someone or when a
person while rebelling against the collective system
attacks the life, wealth or honour of others. The words
270
“spreading anarchy in the land” refer to this latter
practice. Apart from these two instances, every killing is
an unjustified act. According to Islam and the Islamic
sharī‘ah, such a killing is a crime not only against God
but also against the heirs of the murdered person as well
as against the society and the government. The Almighty
has specified that such criminals will not deserve any
lenience from Him in the Hereafter; their faith and deeds
will bear no fruit and they will be consigned to the
eternal punishment of Hell:
: < 9ٰ : : : : ۡ ً ٰ < : 9 : : r < : : : ً 9 : : < 9 ً ۡ < ۡ < ۡ : 9 ۡ : :
7 ۡ : 23‫ﷲ‬
w
‫ﻋﻠﻴھ‬ ‫ﻏﻀﺐ‬
7 ‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ و‬7 ‫ﺧﻠﺪ‬
7 ‫ﻣﺘﻌﻤﺪ ﻓﺠﺰآؤه ﺟﻬﻨﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺎ‬ 7 ‫و ﻣﻦ ﻘﺘﻞ‬
w
w ww
: :9 : : : r : : : :
r : ‫ﻋﺪ‬
.j a w
(٩٣:٤) . ‫ﻋﻈﻴﻤﺎ‬ً ۡ 7 : ‫ﻋﺬ ًﺑﺎ‬: ‫ﻟھ‬ ‫و ﻟﻌﻨھ و‬
ve .a
da l-m
And he who intentionally kills a believer, his reward
hm a
is Hell. He shall abide therein forever, and the wrath
ad wri
and the curse of God are upon him. And He has
g h d .o
am rg
prepared for him a dreadful doom. (4:93)
id
i.c
The second party to a murder is the heirs of the victim.
om
The Qur’ān has stated that the Almighty has given them
full authority on the life of the murderer. Hence no court
of law or government can treat the murderer with any
lenience without the consent of the heirs. It is the
responsibility of the court and the government that if the
heirs insist on qiṣāṣ, they should help them and
implement their will in this regard with full force in a
just manner. It is said:
ً ۡ < ۡ : ‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬
ۡ : : ‫ﻣﻈﻠﻮﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻘﺪ‬ : 7 < ‫ﻣﻦ‬ 9 : ۡ : 9 < 9ٰ : : 9 : ۡ : 9 : ۡ : 9 < < ۡ : : :
ۡ : ‫و‬: ‚ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺤﻖ‬
7 : 7 ‫ﻵﻹ‬7 23‫ﷲ‬9 ‫م‬R‫ ﺣ‬JO‫ﻟ‬7 ‫ﻘﺘﻠﻮ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ‬U ‫و ﻵﻹ‬
ً ۡ < ۡ : ‫_ﺎن‬ r 9 7 ‚ ‫ﻟﻘﺘﻞ‬
: : ‫ﻧھ‬ ۡ : ۡ ۡ ۡ < ‫ﻓﻶﻹ‬ ً ٰۡ < 9 : : ۡ : :
: : ‫ﺳﻠﻄﻨﺎ‬
(٣٣:١٧) . ‫ﻣﻨﺼﻮر‬ 7 ()7 ‫ف‬RÊ‫ﻳ‬ 7 ‫ﻴھ‬7
ٖ 7 ‫ﻮﻟ‬7 ‫ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ ﻟ‬
271
Do not wrongfully kill any person whose life has
been held sacred by God. And [remember that]
whoever is killed wrongfully, We have given his heir
an authority. So he should not exceed the bounds in
taking a life because he has been helped. (17:33)
The third party to a murder is the Muslim society

which is represented by its government. In this regard,
the directive of God is that exacting the qiṣāṣ of a
murdered person is mandatory upon the government.
Hence a government is bound by the sharī‘ah to trace
w
the murderer of a person killed in the area that lies in its
w
w ww
jurisdiction, arrest him and exact qiṣāṣ from him
.j a w
ve .a
according to the law. The government has been directed
da l-m
that complete equality must be observed in this regard
hm a
and the social status of a person should not be given any
ad wri
preference in any way in this matter. The low in status
g h d .o
and the high, the rich and the poor, the noble and the
am rg
ignoble, the master and the slave – all are equal in the
id
i.c
eyes of the law in this regard; no discrimination can be
om
made between them. The Qur’ān states:
< ۡ : ۡ ‫و‬: Rp‫ﺑﺎﻟ‬

‫ﻟﻌﺒﺪ‬ 9 < ۡ < 9 < ۡ : ٰ ۡ : ۡ < : 7 ۡ ‫ﻜﻢ‬< < ‫ﻋﻠﻴ‬ : 7 < ‫ﻣﻨﻮ‬
ۡ : : ‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬ ۡ < : ٰ ‫ﻦ‬: ‫ﻟﺬﻳ‬ۡ 7 : 9 ‫ﻬﺎ‬:<‫ﻳ‬9 :‫‡ﻳﺎ‬
7 < 7 Rp‫( ‚ ﻟ‬b‫)( ﻟﻘﺘ‬7 ‫ﻟﻘﺼﺎص‬
: ۡ:ۡ 9‡ ٌ ٰ : ۡ ۡ <: : ٰۡ < ۡ ٰۡ < ۡ : ۡ : ۡ
‫ﻟﺒﺎب‬
7 ‫( ﻵﻹ‬T7 ‫ﻟﻘﺼﺎص ﺣﻴﻮة ﻳﺎو‬ 7 : 7 ()7 ‫ و ﻟﻜﻢ‬....‚ J´‫ﺑﺎﻵﻹﻧ‬7 J´‫ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺒﺪ و ﻵﻹﻧ‬ 7
: ۡ < : 9 : ۡ < : 9 : :7
(١٧٩-١٧٨: ٢) ‫ﻟﻌﻠﻜﻢ ﺗﺘﻘﻮن‬
Believers! Qiṣāṣ of those [among you] who are killed
has been made mandatory upon you. If such a
murderer is a free-man, then this free-man should be
killed in his place and if he is a slave, then this slave
should be killed in his place and if the murderer is a
272
woman, then this woman should be killed in her
place … And there is life for you in qiṣāṣ O men of
insight that you may follow the limits set by God.
(2:178-179)
The mandatory nature of exacting qiṣāṣ is only

revoked when the heirs of the murdered person do not
insist on taking life for life and want to treat the criminal
with lenience. After this, it is left to the discretion of the
court and the government to either insist on exacting
qiṣāṣ and to not accept this relief given by the heirs of
w
the murdered person or to accept this relief keeping in
w
w ww
view the nature of the crime and the circumstances in
.j a w
ve .a
which it was committed and direct the murder to pay
da l-m
diyat to these heirs according to the custom of the
hm a
society. The succeeding words of the above quoted verse
ad wri
of Sūrah Baqarah (2:178) read:
g h d .o
ۡ : ۡ ۢ‫ﻓﺎﺗﺒﺎع‬
am rg
ۡ ‫ﺑﺎ‬7 ‫ھ‬7‫ۡﻟﻴ‬:7 ‫دآٌء‬:: ‫و‬: ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺮوف‬
ۡ ٌ 9 : ٌ ۡ : ‫ھ‬7‫ﺧﻴ‬ ۡ 7 : ‫ﻣﻦ‬ :
r : :0ª‫ﻓﻤﻦ <ﻋ‬
:
‚ ‫ﺣﺴﺎن‬ < 7 : 7 ‫ء‬JÌ
ۡ 7 ‫ﻟھ‬ 7 ۡ:
id
ٍ 7 7
i.c
ٌ : ۡ : : ۡ < 9 :9 ۡ 9 ٌ ۡ ۡ : : ٰ
om
(١٧٨: ٢) ‚ ‫رﺣﻤﺔ‬ ‫رﺑﻜﻢ و‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﺗﺨﻔﻴﻒ‬ 7 ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ذﻟ‬
Then for whom there has been some relief from his
brother, then this should be followed according to the
custom and diyat should be paid with kindness. This
is a kind of concession and a mercy from your Lord.
(2:178)
A little deliberation will show that the relief mentioned

in this verse has precisely the same style in which relief
is mentioned in the verse that states the obligation of
fasting. It is mentioned in this verse that fasting is
obligatory for the believers; however, if a person is sick
273
or is traveling, he can opt not to fast in which case he will
have to make up for the missed fasts later. If both verses
are placed parallel to one another, one can see the
similarity. At one place, it is said: “Believers! Fasts have
been made mandatory upon you.” At the other, the words
are: “Believers! Qiṣās has been made mandatory upon
you.” At one place, it is stated: “Then he who is sick or is
a traveler.” The words at the other are: “Then for whom
there has been some relief from his brother.” At one
place, it is said: “He should complete the count in other
days.” At the other, the words are: “The relief should be
w
w
followed according to the custom.” Students of the
w ww
.j a w
Qur’ān can see that the construction of both verses is
ve .a
exactly the same and in both verses permission has been
da l-m
given to benefit from the relief granted; however,
hm a
accepting the relief has not been made mandatory. Hence
ad wri
just as in the case of fasting Muslims are not bound to
g h d .o
am rg
necessarily give up fasting if they are sick or are
id
traveling, similarly in the qiṣāṣ verse, the government
i.c
and the society on whom qiṣāṣ has been made mandatory
om
have not been bound to necessarily accept the decision of
the heirs of the murdered person in case they have
decided to show relief. After this relief shown by them,
qiṣāṣ has only lost its mandatory status and become
optional; the right to take qiṣāṣ has not been abrogated in
any way. Thus the government and the society have all
the right to insist on taking qiṣāṣ keeping in view the
nature of the crime and the circumstances of the criminal
and not accept this relief granted.
It is evident from these details that the Qur’ān
definitely insists that without the consent of the heirs no
lenience can be shown to the murderer; however, it does
274
not insist in any way that if the heirs intend to show
lenience, then it is essential to not exact qiṣāṣ from him.
This difference has much wisdom in it. If the second of
these options is insisted upon, then the right of the
society is breeched and the same deplorable situation
will arise as the one that arose in the cases of Raymond
Davis and Shah Rukh Jatoi. If the first of these options is
not insisted upon, then the right of the heirs is violated
and the whole wisdom underlying the directive is
rendered null and void. This wisdom was to extinguish
the fire of revenge ignited in the hearts of the victim’s
w
heirs and to heal the wound caused by his death so that if
w
w ww
they adopt a soft attitude, this would be a direct favour to
.j a w
ve .a
the murderer and his family from which very useful
da l-m
results can be expected.
hm a
The cardinal mistake committed by our jurists is that
ad wri
they have not taken into consideration this difference
g h d .o
and in this way by severing the link of such a heinous
am rg
crime as murder from the society have made it a dispute
id
i.c
between the murderer and the heirs of the victim. The
om
ordinance of qiṣāṣ and diyat is based on this very
opinion of our jurists. It needs to be amended as soon as
possible and brought in line with the Book of God in all
respects. As per the dictates of our faith and beliefs, we
are bound by the Qur’ān and Sunnah and not to a
particular interpretation of these sources. We request our
scholars to deliberate on our recommendations. This
matter relates to God’s religion and should be viewed
while rising above all prejudices.
(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleemr)

_________________
275
The Law of Evidence
Since the Qur’ān has in no way bound the Muslims to

adopt a particular method in proving a crime, it is
absolutely certain that a crime stands proven in Islamic
law just as it is in accordance with the universally
w
acceptable methods of legal ethics endorsed by sense and
w
w ww
reason. Consequently, if circumstantial evidence, medical
.j a w
check-ups, post mortem reports, finger prints, testimony
ve .a
da l-m
of witnesses, confession of criminals, oaths and various
hm a
other methods are employed to ascertain a crime, then this
ad wri
would be perfectly acceptable by Islamic law.
g h d .o
It is to this fact that the following words of the Prophet
am rg
(sws) allude to:
id
i.c
: : :9 ْ : < : ْ : :9 < ْ : : < : 9 : ْ
7 ْ : 0×‫( <ﻟﻤﺪ‬b‫ﻋ‬: g ‫ﻟﻴﻤ‬
om
‫ﻋﻠﻴھ‬ 7 ‫ و‬0×‫ﻟﻤﺪ‬
7 (b‫ﻟﺒﻴﻨﺔ ﻋ‬ 7
To substantiate a crime is the claimant’s
responsibility, and the person who refutes it will
have to swear an oath.139
In the words of Ibn Qayyim:
‫ ﻟﺤﻖ‬g ‫ و رﺳﻮﻟھ و _ﻶﻹم ﻟﺼﺤﺎﺑﺔ ﺳﻢ ﻟ ﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺒ‬23‫ﻟﺒﻴﻨﺔ )( _ﻶﻹم ﷲ‬

‫ ﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻟﺒﻴﻨﺔ )( ﺻﻄﻶﻹح ﻟﻔﻘﻬﺎء ﺣﻴﺚ ﺧﺼﻮﻫﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺎﻫﺪﻳﻦ أو‬0Ã‫ﻓ‬
139. Al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, vol. 3, 626, (no. 1341).

276
g ‫ﻟﺸﺎﻫﺪ و ﻟﻴﻤ‬
The word bayyinah in the language of the Qur’ān,
the Prophet (sws) and his Companions is the name
of everything by which the truth becomes evident.
Hence contrary to its connotations in the
terminology of the jurists, it has a wider meaning
because they only use it for two witnesses or an oath
and a witness.140
However, there are two exceptions to this:
w
Firstly, if a person accuses a chaste and righteous man
w
w ww
or woman having a sound reputation of fornication. In
.j a w
this case, the Qur’ān stresses that the accuser shall have
ve .a
da l-m
to produce four eye-witnesses. Anything less than this
hm a
will not prove his accusation. Circumstantial evidence or
ad wri
medical examination in this case is absolutely of no
g h d .o
importance. If a person is of lewd character, such things
am rg
have a very important role, but if he has a morally sound
id
i.c
reputation, Islam wants that even if he has faltered, his
om
crime should be concealed and he should not be
disgraced in the society. Consequently, in this case, it
wants four eye-witnesses to testify and if the accuser
fails to produce them, it regards him as guilty of qadhf.
The Qur’ān says:
ۡ ٰ : ۡ < ۡ < ۡ : : : : < : : ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : ۡ : :9 < ٰ : ۡ < ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : : ۡ :9 :
g: ‫ﺛﻤﻨ‬7 ‫ﻓﺎﺟﻠﺪوﻫﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﺑﺎر'ﻌﺔ ﺷﻬﺪآء‬7 7 ‫ﻟﻤﺤﺼﻨﺖ ﺛﻢ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺎﺗﻮ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﺮﻣﻮن‬ 7 ‫و‬
: 9 : 9 :ۡ
: ۡ 7 ‫ﻵﻹ‬7 .‫ﻟﻔﺴﻘﻮن‬ < ٰ ۡ < : <
< ‫ ﻚ‬¢‫و وﻟ‬: ¨ ‫ﺑﺪ‬ : ً
ً : ‫ﺷﻬﺎدة‬ :
: : ‫ﻟﻬﻢ‬ : <
ۡ < ‫ﻘﺒﻠﻮ‬Uۡ : : : ً
ۡ : ‫و ﻵﻹ‬9 ‫ﺟﻠﺪة‬ :ۡ:
‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ‬ 7 ‫ﻫﻢ‬ 7
140. Abū ‘Abdullāh Shams al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr
ibn Ayyūb ibn Sa‘d ibn Qayyim, I‘lām al-muwaqqi‘īn ‘an
rabb al-‘ālamīn, vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār al-jīl, 1973), 90.
277
ٌ ۡ 23‫ﷲ‬
ٌ ۡ 7 ‫ﻏﻔﻮر‬ : 9 < : 9ٰ : 9 : : : : ٰ
ۡ • 7 ۡ‫ﺗﺎﺑﻮ‬
< ۡ ‫و‬: ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫'ﻌﺪ ذﻟ‬
: ‫ﻓﺎن‬7 ¨ ۡ‫ﺻﻠﺤﻮ‬ < : :
(٥-٤: ٢٤) .‫رﺣﻴﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
Upon those who accuse honourable women [of
fornication] and bring not four witnesses as
evidence [for their accusation], inflict eighty lashes,
and never accept their testimony in future. They
indeed are transgressors. But those who repent and
mend their ways, God is Most-Forgiving and Ever-
Merciful. (24:4-5)
Secondly, to purge an Islamic state from prostitutes
w
who, in spite of being Muslims, do not give up their life
w
w ww
of sin, the only thing required, according to the Qur’ān,
.j a w
is that four witnesses who are in a position to testify that
ve .a
da l-m
a particular woman is a prostitute by profession should
hm a
be called forth. In this case, it is not necessary at all that
ad wri
they be eye-witnesses. If they testify with full
g h d .o
responsibility that she is known as a prostitute in the
am rg
society and the court is satisfied with their testimony,
id
i.c
then they can be given any of the punishments fixed by
om
the Qur’ān for habitual criminals. The Qur’ān says:
ۡ 9 ً : : ۡ : : 9 ۡ : : ۡ < ۡ : ۡ : ۡ < : 9 ۡ : : : ۡ : ۡ ۡ : ۡ 9ٰ :
ۡ < ‫ﻣﻨ‬
¨ ‫ﻜﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻬﻦ ر'ﻌﺔ‬7‫ﻓﺎﺳﺘﺸﻬﺪو ﻋﻠﻴ‬ 7 ‫ﻧﺴﺂ®ﻜﻢ‬
7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﻔﺎﺣﺸﺔ‬ 7 g ‫ﺗ‬7 ‫ ﻳﺎ‬JO7 ‫و ﻟ‬
9< ٰ : : ۡ : ۡ : < ۡ : ۡ : 9 < 9ٰ : : : 9ٰ : ۡ < < ۡ : 9 < ۡ < ۡ : : ۡ < : ۡ :
23‫ ﻳﺘﻮﻓﻬﻦ ﻟﻤﻮت و ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﷲ‬JO‫ت ﺣ‬7 ‫)( ﻟﺒﻴﻮ‬7 ‫ﻓﺎﻣﺴﻜﻮ ﻫﻦ‬ 7 ‫ﺷﻬﺪو‬ 7 ‫ﻓﺎن‬7
ً
(١٥:٤) .‫ﺳﺒﻴﻶﻹ‬ۡ 7 : ‫ﻦ‬: 9 ‫<ﻟﻬ‬:
And upon those of your women141 who commit
fornication, call in four people from among
yourselves to testify over them; if they testify [to
141. Ie., those among Muslim women who habitually

commit fornication.
278
their ill-ways], confine them to their homes till death
overtakes them or God formulates another way for
them. (4:15)
Barring these two exceptions, the sharī‘ah does not in

any way bind the court to follow any prescribed
procedure to ascertain a crime. Consequently, in cases of
ḥudūd punishments or in those of evidence in any other
crime, in the view of this writer, it has been left to the
discretion of the judge whether he accepts someone as
witness or not. In this regard, there is to be no
w
discrimination between men and women. If a woman
w
w ww
testifies in a clear and definite manner, her testimony
.j a w
ve .a
cannot be turned down simply on the basis that there is
da l-m
not another woman and a man to testify alongside her.
hm a
Likewise, if a man records an ambiguous and vague
ad wri
statement, it cannot be accepted merely on the grounds
g h d .o
that he is a man. If a court is satisfied by the statements
am rg
of witnesses and by any circumstantial evidence, it has
id
i.c
all the authority to pronounce a case as proven and if it is
om
not satisfied, it has all the authority to reject it even if ten
men have testified.
Except in cases where the Qur’ān has used the words
‫( ﻣﻨﻜﻢ‬minkum: from among you) as in 4:15 above,
similar is the case with the testimony of non-Muslims: it
is left to the discretion of a judge.
Here it should remain clear that our jurists hold a
different view in this matter. Ibn Rushd has summed up
the opinions of the jurists on this issue in his celebrated
treatise Bidāyah al-Mujtahid in the following words:
: (T‫ﻌﺎ‬U ‫ ﻟﻘﻮﻟھ‬g ‫ و ﻣﺮأﺗ‬RØ‫( ﻧھ ﺗﺜﺒﺖ ﻵﻻﻣﻮ ل ﺑﺸﺎﻫﺪ ﻋﺪل ذ‬b‫ﻔﻘﻮ ﻋ‬U ‫و‬
279
() ‫ﺟﻞ و ﻣﺮأﺗﺎن ﻣﻤﻦ ﺗﺮﺿﻮن ﻣﻦ ﻟﺸﻬﺪ ء و ﺧﺘﻠﻔﻮ )( ﻗﺒﻮﻟﻬﻤﺎ‬RÅ
‫ﻘﺒﻞ ﺷﻬﺎدة ﻟﻨﺴﺎء )( ﻟﺤﺪود‬U‫ﻟﺤﺪود ﻓﺎﻟﺬي ﻋﻠﻴھ ﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮر ﻧھ ﻵﻹ‬
‫ﻘﺒﻞ إذ _ﺎن ﻣﻌﻬﻦ رﺟﻞ‬U : ‫د ت وﻗﺎل أﻫﻞ ﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮ‬PŸ‫ﻵﻹﻣﻊ رﺟﻞ وﻵﻹ ﻣ‬
‫( ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﻵﻼﻳﺔ وﻗﺎل ﺑﻮﺣﻨﻴﻔھ‬b‫ء ﻋ‬JÌ ‫ ﻣﻦ و ﺣﺪة )( _ﻞ‬Ùv ‫و_ﺎن ﻟﻨﺴﺎء‬
‫ﻘﺒﻞ )( ﻵﻻﻣﻮ ل وﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻋﺪ ﻟﺤﺪود ﻣﻦ أﺣ ﺎم ﻵﻻﺑﺪ ن ﻣﺜﻞ ﻟﻄﻶﻹق‬U :
‫ﻘﺒﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ )( ﺣﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ أﺣ ﺎم ﻟﺒﺪن‬U ‫و ﻟﺮﺟﻌﺔ و ﻟﻨ ﺎح و ﻟﻌﺘﻖ وﻵﻹ‬
‫و ﺧﺘﻠﻒ أﺻﺤﺎب ﻣﺎﻟﻚ )( ﻗﺒﻮﻟﻬﻦ )( ﺣﻘﻮق ﻵﻻﺑﺪ ن ﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺎل‬
w
‫ ﻵﻹ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﻵﻹ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺎل ﻓﻘط ﻓﻘﺎل ﻣﺎﻟﻚ و ﺑﻦ‬JO‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻟﻮ_ﺎﻵﻹت و ﻟﻮﺻﻴﺔ ﻟ‬
w
w ww
.j a w
‫ ﻘﺒﻞ ﻓﻴھ ﺷﺎﻫﺪ و ﻣﺮأﺗﺎن وﻗﺎل أﺷﻬﺐ و ﺑﻦ‬: ‫ﻟﻘﺎﺳﻢ و ﺑﻦ وﻫﺐ‬
ve .a
da l-m
Jµ‫د ت ﻋ‬PŸ‫ ﻵﻹ ﻘﺒﻞ ﻓﻴھ ﻵﻹ رﺟﻶﻹن و ﻣﺎ ﺷﻬﺎدة ﻟﻨﺴﺎء ﻣ‬: ‫ﻟﻤﺎﺟﺸﻮن‬
hm a
‫ ﻵﻹ‬JO‫ ﻣﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮر )( ﺣﻘﻮق ﻵﻻﺑﺪ ن ﻟ‬0Ã‫ﻟﻨﺴﺎء دون ﻟﺮﺟﺎل ﻓ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
ً ‫ﻳﻄﻠﻊ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﺮﺟﺎل‬
‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻟﻮﻵﻹدة و ﻵﻹﺳﺘﻬﻶﻹل وﻋﻴﻮب ﻟﻨﺴﺎء‬
am rg
id
There is a general consensus among the jurists that in
i.c
om
financial transactions a case stands proven by the
testimony of a just man and two women on the basis
of the verse: “If two men cannot be found, then one
man and two women from among those whom you
deem appropriate as witnesses.” However; in cases of
ḥudūd, there is a difference of opinion among our
jurists. The majority say that in these affairs the
testimony of women is in no way acceptable whether
they testify alongside a male witness or do so alone.
The Ẓāhīrīs on the contrary maintain that if they are
more than one and are accompanied by a male
witness, then owing to the apparent meaning of the
verse their testimony will be acceptable in all affairs.
280
Imām Abū Ḥanīfah is of the opinion that except in
cases of ḥudūd and in financial transactions their
testimony is acceptable in bodily affairs like divorce,
marriage, slave-emancipation and rajū‘ [restitution of
conjugal rights]. Imām Mālik is of the view that their
testimony is not acceptable in bodily affairs. There is
however a difference of opinion among the
companions of Imām Mālik regarding bodily affairs
which relate to wealth like advocacy and will-
testaments which do not specifically relate to wealth.
Consequently, Ash-hab and Ibn Mājishūn accept two
w
male witnesses only in these affairs, while to Mālik
w
w ww
Ibn Qāsim and Ibn Wahab two female and a male
.j a w
ve .a
witness are acceptable. As far as the matter of women
da l-m
as sole witnesses is concerned, the majority accept it
hm a
only in bodily affairs, about which men can have no
ad wri
information in ordinary circumstances like the
g h d .o
physical handicaps of women and the crying of a
am rg
baby at birth. 142
id
i.c
om
The jurists have based their view upon the following
verse of the Qur’ān:
:9 ٌ < : : ۡ : < : : ۡ < : ۡ :9 ۡ : ۡ < : 9 ۡ ۡ : ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : ۡ :
‫ﺟﻞ و‬RÅ g7 ‫ﻓﺎن ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻮﻧﺎ رﺟﻠ‬7 ¨ ‫ﻜﻢ‬7 ‫رﺟﺎﻟ‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻦ‬7 ‫ﺷﻬﻴﺪﻳ‬ ‫و ﺳﺘﺸﻬﺪو‬
9: : < : : < ٰ ۡ : 9 : ۡ : : : < 9 : : ۡ : ۡ 7 : ۡ : 9 7 ٰ : ۡ
R7Ø‫ﺣﺪ˜ﻬﻤﺎ ﻓﺘﺬ‬7 ‫ﻀﻞ‬U 7 ‫ء ن‬7‫ﻣﻦ ﻟﺸﻬﺪآ‬7 ‫ﻣﻤﻦ ﺗﺮﺿﻮن‬7 ‫ﻦ‬7 ‫ﻣﺮ ﺗ‬ :
ٰ ۡ <‫ﻤﺎ ﻵ ۡﻹ‬: ‫ﺣﺪ˜<ﻬ‬
(٢٨٢:٢) ‚ ‫ي‬R•
ٰۡ
7
And call in two male witnesses from among your
142. Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad

ibn Rushd al-Qurṭubī, Bidāyah al-mujtahid wa nihāyah al-
muqtaṣid, vol. 2 (Beirut: Dār al-fikr, n.d.), 648.
281
men [over the document of loan]. And if two men
cannot be found, then one man and two women
from among those whom you deem appropriate as
witnesses so that if either of them gets confused the
other reminds her. (2:282)
In the opinion of this writer, this view of our jurists

concerning the testimony of a woman is not correct
owing to the following two reasons.
Firstly, the verse has nothing to do with the bearing of
witness over an incident. It explicitly relates to testifying
w
w
over a document. It is very evident that in the second case
w ww
.j a w
witnesses are selected by an external agency, while in the
ve .a
first case the presence of a witness at the site of an
da l-m
incidence is an accidental affair. If we have written a
hm a
document or signed an agreement, then the selection of
ad wri
witnesses rests upon our discretion, while in the case of
g h d .o
am rg
adultery, theft, robbery and other similar crimes whoever
id
is present at the site must be regarded as a witness. The
i.c
difference between the two cases is so pronounced that no
om
law about one can be deduced on the basis of the other.
Secondly, the context and style of the verse is such
that it cannot relate to law or the judicial forums of a
state. It is not as if after addressing a court of law it has
been said that if such a law-suit is presented before them
by a claimant, then they should call in witnesses in this
prescribed manner. On the contrary, this verse directly
addresses people who borrow and lend money over a
fixed period. It urges them that if they are involved in
such dealings, then an agreement between the two
parties must be written down, and to avoid disputes and
financial losses only witnesses who are honest, reliable
282
and morally sound should be appointed. At the same
time, their personal involvement and occupations should
be suited to fulfil this responsibility in a befitting
manner. The verse should not be taken to mean that a
law-suit will only stand proven in court if at least two
men or one man and two women bear witness to it. It is
reiterated that the verse is merely a guidance for the
general masses in their social affairs and counsels them
to abide by it so that any dispute can be avoided. It is for
their own benefit and welfare that this procedure should
be undertaken.
w
Consequently, about all such directives the Qur’ān
w
w ww
says:
.j a w
ۤ : : :9 : ‡ : : :9 ۡ : 9ٰ : ۡ < ۡ : < ٰ
ve .a
ۡ < ۡ ‫( ﻵﻹ‬¤‫و ۡد‬: ‫ﺎدة‬
(٢٨٢:٢) ‫ﺗﺮﺗﺎﺑﻮ‬ 7 : ‫ﻠﺸﻬ‬7 ‫ <م ﻟ‬:‫و ﻗﻮ‬: 23‫ﷲ‬ ۡ ‫ذﻟ‬
: ‫ﻜﻢ‬7
7 ‫ﻋﻨﺪ‬7 ‫ﻗﺴط‬
da l-m
hm a
This is more just in the sight of God; it ensures
ad wri
accuracy in testifying and is the most appropriate
g h d .o
am rg
way for you to safeguard against all doubts. (2:282)
id
i.c
Ibn Qayyim comments on this verse in the following
om
manner:
()‫ ﻳﺤﻔﻆ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺻﺎﺣﺐ ﻟﻤﺎل ﺣﻘھ ﻵﻻ‬JO‫ﻓﻬﺬ )( ﻟﺘﺤﻤﻞ و ﻟﻮﺛﻴﻘﺔ ﻟ‬

‫ء وﻫﺬ ﺷﺊ‬JÌ ‫ﻢ ﻓﺎن ﻫﺬ‬v‫ﻳﻖ ﻟﺤﻜﻢ وﻣﺎ ﻳﺤﻜﻢ ﺑھ ﻟﺤﺎ‬R-
It relates to the heavy responsibility of testifying by
which a person of wealth protects his rights. It has
no concern with the decision of a court. The two are
absolutely different from each other.143
In recent times, two new arguments have been
143. Ibn Qayyim, I‘lām al-muwaqqi‘īn, vol. 1, 90.

283
advanced by various quarters to lend support to the view
of the jurists concerning the testimony of women.
The first of these arguments is based on the words ‫ر'ﻌﺔ‬
‫( ﺷﻬﺪ ء‬arba‘atah shuhadā: four witnesses) of 24:4 and
‫( ر'ﻌﺔ ﻣﻨﻜﻢ‬arba‘ataṇ minkum: four [witnesses] among
you) of 4:15. It is held that since ‫( ر'ﻌﺔ‬arba‘atah) is in
the feminine gender and according to the established
principle of Arabic grammar the ‫( ﻣﻌﺪود‬ma‘dūd: the
counted object) this ‫‘( ﻋﺪد‬adad: the numeral) qualifies
should be masculine. Consequently, by the words ‫ر'ﻌﺔ‬
‫( ﺷﻬﺪ ء‬arba‘atah shuhadā: four witnesses) four men are
w
w
necessarily implied; women cannot be included.
w ww
.j a w
On a first look, this argument seems to be based on
ve .a
strong grounds since it is in accordance with the rules of
da l-m
Arabic grammar. However, a closer look reveals how
hm a
baseless it actually is. Any one who has some knowledge
ad wri
g h d .o
of Arabic knows that this rule not only states that from
three to ten if the ‫( ﻣﻌﺪود‬ma‘dūd: the counted object) is
am rg
masculine the ‫‘( ﻋﺪد‬adad: the numeral) is feminine but
id
i.c
also says that if the ‫( ﻣﻌﺪود‬ma‘dūd: the counted object) is
om
a noun that is used both for masculine and feminine
entities, then also its ‫‘( ﻋﺪد‬adad: the numeral) shall
necessarily be feminine.
Consequently, in the following verses the ‫‘( ﻋﺪد‬adad:
the numeral) of ‫( زو ج‬azwāj: pairs), which is the counted
object is ‫( ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬thamāniyah) which is in the feminine
gender:
ۡ : : : 9 ‫ء‬¢ ‫ﻗﻞ‬
‫ﻳﻦ‬RØ‫ﻟﺬ‬
: ۡ ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ : ۡ ۡ :9 :
ۡ < ‚ g7 ۡ ‫ﺛﻨ‬ ‫ﻟﻤﻌﺰ‬
: : ٰ:
: ۡ : ‫ﺛﻤﻨﻴﺔ‬
7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ و‬g7 ‫ﻟﻀﺎن ﺛﻨ‬
7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ¨ ‫زو ٍج‬ 7
ۡ : : ۡ < ۡ : : :9 :
(١٤٣:٦) g7 ‫م ﻵﻹﻧﺜﻴ‬7 ‫م‬R‫ﺣ‬
[Take] eight pairs: of sheep a pair, and of goats a
284
pair; say, has He forbidden the two males or the two
females. (6:143)
Consider also the following verses:

:9
: < ‫ﻵﻹ‬7 ‫ﺧﻤﺴﺔ‬
ۡ < < 7 : ‫ﻫﻮ‬ : :9 : :
: ۡ < < ‫ر‬: :‫ﺛﻠﺜﺔ ﻵﻹ <ﻫﻮ‬ :9
< ۡ : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: <
(٧:٥٨)‫ﺳﺎدﺳﻬﻢ‬ ٍ : ۡ ‫و ﻵﻹ‬: ‫'ﻌﻬﻢ‬
7 7 ٍ ٰ ‫ﻧﺠﻮي‬
ٰ ۡ ‫ﻣﻦ‬
ۡ 7 ‫ﻳﻜﻮن‬
There is not a secret consultation between three, but
He makes the fourth among them, – nor between
five but He makes the sixth. (58:7)
As in the case of ‫( ر'ﻌﺔ ﻣﻨﻜﻢ‬arba‘ataṇ minkum), the
w
‫( ﻣﻌﺪود‬ma‘dūd: the counted object) of ‫( ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ‬thalāthah:
w
w ww
three) and that of ‫( ﺧﻤﺴﺔ‬khamsah: five) has been
.j a w
ve .a
suppressed because it is so obvious. The suppressed
da l-m
‫( ﻣﻌﺪود‬ma‘dūd: the counted object) is something to the
hm a
effect of PŸ— (nafr: group). Since nafr is a word that can
ad wri
g h d .o
be spoken both for masculine and feminine genders, its
‫‘( ﻋﺪد‬adad: the numeral) in the verse is also feminine.
am rg
id
Similar examples can be found in the following
i.c
Aḥadīth also:
om
: : :ْ:ْ ْ : ْ : ْ < : : :
‫ﻵﻻر'ﻌﺔ‬ 0ª‫ﻳﻜ‬
7 g7 ‫ﻵﻹﺛﻨ‬7 ‫وﻃﻌﺎم‬
The food of two suffices for four.144
: :ْ : :: ٌ: ::
ٍ 7 ‫و‬: ‫ﺛﻨﺎن <دون‬
‫ﺣﺪ‬ 7 0Ü‫ﻳﺘﻨﺎ‬: ‫إذ _ﺎن ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ ﻓﻶﻹ‬
If there are three people [present] two [of them]
should not whisper.145
144. Al-Dārimī, Sunan, vol. 2, 136, (no. 2044).

285
< :9 : ْ < : ْ : : : :9 ٌ : : : < : < : ْ : ْ < ْ :
‫ﻟﺠﻨﺔ‬ ‫إﻵﻹ وﺟﺒﺖ ﻟھ‬7 ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﻳﺸﻬﺪ ﻟھ ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ‬ ٍ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻣﺎ‬
If three bear witness for a Muslim, he shall
definitely enter paradise.146
: ْ : ْ : :9 : :9 ْ : : : : ْ : < : : ْ : <
‫ﻳﺴﺘﻴﻘﻆ‬
7 JO‫ﻟﻨﺎ®ﻢ ﺣ‬
7 7 ‫ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
ٍ ‫رﻓﻊ ﻟﻘﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ‬ 7
Three people cannot be held liable: [one among
them is] a person who is sleeping until he
awakens.147
In these Aḥadīth also, the numerals ‫( ر'ﻌﺔ‬arba‘atah)
w
and ‫( ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ‬thalāthah) are feminine and any one who
w
w ww
knows the language can in no way insist that the ‫ﻣﻌﺪود‬
.j a w
ve .a
(ma‘dūd: the counted object) of these numerals are only
da l-m
men and that women cannot be implied.
hm a
The second of these arguments is that since 2:282
ad wri
g h d .o
(quoted above) mentions that a woman might get
am rg
confused thereby casting a doubt in her testimony, so in
id
accordance with the following words attributed to the
i.c
om
Prophet (sws) whereas a ḥadd punishment can in no case
be given in cases in which they have testified, a ta‘zīr
punishment can be given in such cases:
ْ :ْ <ْ :ْ< <ْ <:ْ
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺒﻬﺎت‬7 ‫درؤ ﻟﺤﺪود‬7
Do not enforce a ḥadd punishment if there is a
doubt.148
The following Aḥadīth are of similar meaning also:

147. Abū Dā’ūd, Sunan, vol. 4, 139, (no. 4398).
148. Ibn Ḥajar, Al-Talkhīṣ al-Ḥabīr, vol. 4, 56.
286
ْ < ْ : : ْ ‫ﻣﺎ‬: g: ‫ﻟﻤﺴﻠﻤ‬< ْ ْ : ‫ﻟﺤﺪود‬
: < < ْ ‫درءو‬
<:ْ
‫ﺳﺘﻄﻌﺘﻢ‬ 7 7 ْ ‫ﻋﻦ‬
Refrain from enforcing ḥudūd as much as is possible
for you.149
ً : ْ : ‫ﻟھ‬
‫ﻣﺪﻓﻌﺎ‬ ْ < ْ : : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫ﻟﺤﺪود‬
< : ‫وﺟﺪﺗﻢ‬ <:ْ
: < < ْ ‫دﻓﻌﻮ‬
Withdraw ḥudūd wherever you can find a plea.150
A little deliberation shows that this argument also is

baseless.
w
Firstly, if in a particular case a woman does in fact get
w
w ww
puzzled while giving her testimony and the court reaches
.j a w
ve .a
the conclusion that her testimony has become ambiguous
da l-m
as a result, it certainly has the right to disregard her
hm a
testimony. However how can this be made a general
ad wri
principle of law and on its basis a woman’s testimony be
g h d .o
am rg
forsaken forever? Just as there is a chance that she might
id
get puzzled while giving her testimony, there is an equal
i.c
if not a stronger one that she may testify in a clear and
om
unambiguous manner. The Qur’ān has mentioned her
testifying in a state of confusion as a chance occurrence
and not as a general or a certain one. A chance is just a
chance and on what grounds can it be made a general
principle?
Secondly, the Ḥadīth in no way means that if there is
some doubt, a ḥadd punishment shall not be given; it
only means that in case of doubt no punishment at all
can be given. The word ḥadd has not been used as a term

150. Ibn Mājah, Sunan, vol. 2, 850, (no. 2545).
287
here; it is used in its literal sense for the term came into
existence much after the Prophet (sws). What he has
reported to have said is based on the universal principal
of the ethics of law that since in case of doubt a crime
does not stand proven, the criminal cannot be punished.
Consequently, if these people say that a ta‘zīr
punishment can be given on the basis of a woman’s
testimony, then this only means that the crime stands
proven in their eyes. But then the question arises: if the
crime stands proven, then why can a ḥadd punishment
not be given? And if they contend that if a woman’s
w
w
testimony always leaves room for doubt then a crime
w ww
.j a w
cannot be considered to be proven; so on what basis
ve .a
should the ta‘zīr punishment be administered?
da l-m
A crime, obviously, cannot be regarded to be proven
hm a
ten, twenty, ninety or ninety nine percent. It is either
ad wri
proven one hundred percent or not proven at all.
g h d .o
am rg
Consequently, it is absolutely baseless to accept a state
id
between proof and lack of proof in a crime and in no
i.c
way can it be accepted that a ḥadd punishment will be
om
administered on certain grounds and ta‘zīr punishment
on certain other grounds. No doubt that the nature of the
crime and the circumstances of the criminal do have a
bearing on the extent of punishment that is to be given.
However, to imply that the “extent” of proof forms a
basis for punishment is something common sense totally
rejects and human nature completely discards.

______________
288
Islamic Punishments: Some Important Issues
The sharī‘ah ordained by the Almighty regarding

punishments has already been elaborated upon by me in
my book Mīzān.151 It is shown in this book that the
sharī‘ah has specified the punishments of only five
crimes.152 The punishments of all other crimes have been
w
w
left to the rulers of a state to legislate.
w ww
.j a w
However, in this regard, as far as the prevailing
ve .a
concepts are concerned, four questions may arise:
da l-m
(1) Has not the sharī‘ah fixed the punishment of
hm a
drinking liquor as eighty lashes?
ad wri
g h d .o
(2) Is death not the punishment for apostasy according
am rg
to the sharī‘ah?
id
(3) Can a state award death penalty in crimes whose
i.c
om
punishments have not been ordained by the sharī‘ah?
(4) Can the jail punishment be given to criminals for
the crimes mentioned in (3)?
I now present my viewpoint in detail on these
questions.
1. The Punishment of Drinking Liquor
The answer to the first question is that the punishment

of drinking liquor was fixed at eighty lashes by ‘Umar

152. ie, Muḥārabah, Murder, Fornication, Theft and Qadhf.
289
(rta) after he in his capacity of a caliph had consulted the
members of his shūrā. In the time of the Prophet (sws),
this offence was punished by punching and kicking the
offender, and by beating him with twisted sheets of cloth
or with twisted pieces of date-palms. The caliph Abū
Bakr (rta) had decreed that this crime be punishable by
forty lashes, and then the caliph ‘Umar (rta) in his own
times increased it to eighty lashes when he saw that
people were not desisting from it. In the words of Ibn
Rushd:153
w
‫ب ﻟﺨﻤﺮ و ﺷﺎرة‬R¿ ‫ )( زﻣﺎﻧھ‬Ù‫ﻓﻌﻤﺪة ﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮر ﺗﺸﺎور ﻋﻤﺮ و ﻟﺼﺤﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻛ‬
w
w ww
.j a w
ً g ‫( ﻋﻠﻴھ ﺑﺎن ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﻟﺤﺪ ﺛﻤﺎﻧ‬b‫ﻋ‬
‫ﻳﺔ ﻓﺎﻧھ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﻴﻞ‬PŸ‫( ﺣﺪ ﻟ‬b‫ﻗﻴﺎﺳﺎ ﻋ‬
ve .a
da l-m
‫ ي‬Á‫ ﻫﺬى وإذ ﻫﺬى ﻓ‬Ra‫ وإذ ﺳ‬Ra‫ب ﺳ‬R¿ ‫ ﻋﻨھ إذ‬23‫ ﷲ‬JL‫ﻋﻨھ ر‬
hm a
ad wri
The general opinion in this regard is based on the
g h d .o
consultation of ‘Umar (rta) with the members of his
am rg
shūrā. The session of this shūrā took place during his
id
i.c
period when people started indulging in this habit
om
more frequently. ‘Alī (rta) opined that, by analogy
with the punishment of qadhf, its punishment should
also be fixed at eighty lashes. It is said that while
presenting his arguments, he had remarked: “When
he [– the criminal –] drinks, he will get intoxicated
and once he gets intoxicated, he will utter nonsense;
and once he starts uttering nonsense, he will falsely
accuse other people.”
It is evident from this, that the punishment of drinking

is not part of the sharī‘ah. It is only the prerogative of
153. Ibn Rushd, Bidāyah al-Mujtahid, vol. 2, 332.

290
the Prophet (sws) to regard anything as part of the
sharī‘ah, and if he has done so in a particular case, Abū
Bakr (rta) or ‘Umar (rta) can in no way alter it. Had this
punishment been part of the sharī‘ah, neither would
have Abū Bakr (rta) replaced it with forty lashes, nor
would ‘Umar (rta) have increased it to eighty lashes. It is
clear that if the Prophet (sws) punished such criminals
by beating them, he did so not in the capacity of a law-
giver but in the capacity of a Muslim ruler. His
successors punished such criminals by whipping them
with forty and eighty lashes respectively in their capacity
w
w
as rulers. Consequently, it can be safely said that the
w ww
punishment of drinking is not a ḥadd;154 it is a ta‘zīr155
.j a w
ve .a
which the parliament of an Islamic State can adopt and if
da l-m
needed legislate afresh in this regard.
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
2. The Punishment of Apostasy
am rg
id
i.c
The answer to the second question is that the
om
punishment of apostasy has arisen by misunderstanding
a Ḥadīth. This Ḥadīth has been narrated by Ibn Abbās
(rta) in the following way:
< < < ْ : ‫دﻳﻨھ‬ :9 : ْ :

< : 7 ‫ل‬: ‫ﺑﺪ‬
‫ﻓﺎﻗﺘﻠﻮه‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬
Execute the person who changes his faith.156
Our jurists regard this verdict to have a general
154. Punishments ordained by God.

155. Punishments legislated by the rulers of an Islamic State.
291
application for all times upon every Muslim who
renounces his faith from the times of the Prophet (sws)
to the Day of Judgement. In their opinion, this Ḥadīth
warrants the death penalty for every Muslim who, out of
his own free will, becomes a disbeliever. In this matter,
the only point in which there is a disagreement among
the jurists is whether an apostate should be granted time
for repentance before executing him, and if so what
should be the extent of this period. The Hanafite jurists
however, exempt women from this punishment. Apart
from them, there is a general consensus among the
w
w
jurists that every apostate, man or woman, should be
w ww
punished by death.
.j a w
ve .a
In my opinion, this view of our jurists is not correct.
da l-m
The verdict pronounced in this Ḥadīth has a specific
hm a
application and not a general one: it is only confined to
ad wri
the people towards whom the Prophet (sws) had been
g h d .o
am rg
directly sent to do itmām al-ḥuujjah (conclusive
id
communication of the truth). The Qur’ān uses the words
i.c
mushrikīn for these people.
om
I now elaborate upon this view.
In this world, we are well aware of the fact that life has
been endowed to us not because it is our right but
because it is a trial and a test for us. Death puts an end to
it whenever the duration of this test is over, as deemed
by the Almighty. Commonly, He fixes the length of this
period on the basis of His knowledge and wisdom.
However, in case of the direct and foremost addressees of
a rasūl (Messenger of God), once the truth is unveiled to
them in its ultimate form after which they have no excuse
but stubbornness and enmity to deny it, they lose their
right to live. The Almighty had blessed them with life to
292
try and test them, and since after tmām al-ḥujjah this trial
becomes totally complete, therefore the law of the
Almighty in this regard is that generally such people are
not given any further right to live and the death sentence
is imposed upon them.
This punishment is enforced upon the direct addressees
of a rasūl in one of the two ways depending upon the
situation which arises. In the first case, after doing itmām
al-ḥujjah upon his nation, a rasūl and his Companions
(rta) are not able to achieve political ascendancy in their
territory and migrate from their people. In this case,
w
w
divine punishment descends upon their nation in the form
w ww
.j a w
of raging storms, cyclones and other calamities, which
ve .a
completely destroy them. The nations of the ‘Ād and the
da l-m
Thamūd and the people of Noah (sws) and Lot (sws)
hm a
besides many other nations met with this dreadful fate, as
ad wri
g h d .o
is mentioned in the Qur’ān. In the second case, a rasūl
am rg
and his companions are able to acquire political
id
ascendancy in a land where after doing ittmām al-ḥujjah
i.c
om
upon their people they migrate. In this case, a rasūl and
his Companions subdue their nation by force, and execute
them if they do not accept faith. It was this situation
which had arisen in the case of the rasūl Muhammad
(sws). On account of this, the Almighty bade him declare
that those people among the mushrikīn who had not
accepted faith until the day of ḥajj al-akbar (9th hijrah)
should be given a final extension by a proclamation made
in the field of ‘Arafāt on that day. According to the
proclamation, this final extension would end with the last
day of the month of Muḥarram, during which they had to
accept faith, or face execution at the end of that period.
The Qur’ān says:
293
ۡ < ۡ < < 9 ۡ : : ‫ﺣﻴﺚ‬
‫و‬: ‫وﺟﺪﺗﻤﻮﻫﻢ‬
< ۡ : : ۡ ۡ <ۡ < < ۡ : < < < ۡ < < ۡ:ۡ : : : ۡ : :
g 7 vRw‫ﻟﻤ‬ ‫م ﻓﺎﻗﺘﻠﻮ‬Rp‫ﻓﺎذ ﻧﺴﻠﺦ ﻵﻹﺷﻬﺮ ﻟ‬7
7
: ٰ :9 < : : : ۡ < : ۡ : : ۡ : :9 < ۡ < : ۡ < < ۡ : ۡ < ۡ < < ۡ : ۡ < ۡ < <
‫ﻓﺎن ﺗﺎﺑﻮ و ﻗﺎﻣﻮ ﻟﺼﻠﻮة‬7 ¨ ‫ﻣﺮﺻﺪ‬ ٍ ‫وﻫﻢ و ﻗﻌﺪو ﻟﻬﻢ _ﻞ‬RÒ‫ﺧﺬوﻫﻢ و ﺣ‬
: : : 9ٰ ‫ن‬: 9 7 ‚ ‫ﺳﺒﻴﻠﻬﻢ‬
ٌ ۡ < 23‫ﷲ‬
ٌ ۡ 7 9 ‫ﻏﻔﻮر‬ <9 : : : ٰ :9 : ٰ :
ۡ < : ۡ : ‫ﻓﺨﻠﻮ‬
(٥:٩) .‫رﺣﻴﻢ‬ 7 ۡ ‫ﻮة‬v‫و ﺗﻮ< ﻟﺰ‬
When the forbidden months are over, slay the
Idolaters wherever you find them. Seize them,
besiege them and every where lie in ambush for
them. But if they repent from their ill beliefs and
establish the prayer and pay zakāh, then spare their
w
w
lives. God is Most-Forgiving and Ever-Merciful.
w ww
(9:5)
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
A Ḥadīth illustrates this law in the following manner:
hm a
: : : ْ : < : ْ : : 9 : : : 9 : 7 : < ‫أن‬
< 9ٰ ‫إﻵﻹ‬: 9 ‫إﻟھ‬
ً : 9 : < ‫ن‬: 9 : ‫و‬: 23‫ﷲ‬ < ْ <
ْ : ‫أﻣﺮت‬
ad wri
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ‬ 7 7 ‫ ﻳﺸﻬﺪو أن ﻵﻹ‬JO‫أﻗﺎﺗﻞ ﻟﻨﺎس ﺣ‬ 7
g h d .o
9 < : : : : < : : : : : : : 9 < ْ < : : : : 9 < < : 9ٰ < ْ < :
am rg
Jµ‫ﻣ‬7 7 ‫ﻚ ﻋﺼﻤﻮ‬7 ‫ﺘﺬ ﻓﻌﻠﻮ ذﻟ‬7‫ﻘﻴﻤﻮ ﻟﺼﻶﻹة وﻳﺆﺗﻮ ﻟﺰ_ﺎة ﻓ‬7 ‫ و‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫رﺳﻮل‬
id
9ٰ : : ْ < < : : : ْ ْ 9 : : 9 ْ < : : ْ : : ْ < : :
i.c
7 (b‫وﺣﺴﺎﺑﻬﻢ ﻋ‬
23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻵﻺﺳﻶﻹم‬
7 7 ‫ﺑﺤﻖ‬ 7 7 ‫إﻵﻹ‬7 ‫دﻣﺎءﻫﻢ وأﻣﻮ ﻟﻬﻢ‬7
om
I have been directed to wage war against these people
until they testify to the oneness of God and to the
prophethood of Muhammad, establish the prayer and
pay zakāh. If they accept these terms, their lives will
be spared except if they commit some violation that
makes them lose this protection from Islamic law and
[in the Hereafter] their account rests with God.157
This law, as has been stated before, is specifically

meant for the mushrikīn on whom Muhammad (sws) had

294
directly done itmām al-ḥujjah. Apart from them, it has
no bearing upon any other person or nation. So much so,
that even the people of the Book who were present in his
times were exempted from this law by the Qur’ān.
Consequently, where the death penalty for the mushrikīn
is mentioned in the Qur’ān, adjacent to it has also been
stated in unequivocal terms that the People of the Book
shall be spared and granted citizenship if they pay jizyah.
The Qur’ān says:
: : 9 : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫ن‬: ‫ﻣﻮ‬Rp

ۡ < 7 9 : <‫ﻹ ﻳ‬: ‫و ﻵ‬: R• ٰ ۡ ۡ : ۡ : : 9ٰ : ۡ < ۡ < : : ۡ : 9 < :
‫م‬R‫ﺣ‬ 7 7 ‫ﻮم ﻵﻹ‬ 7 7 ‫ﺆﻣﻨﻮن‬
7 ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻴ‬7 ‫ و ﻵﻹ‬23‫ﺑﺎﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻵﻹ ﻳ‬
7 ‫ﻗﺎﺗﻠﻮ‬
7
w
ٰ9 : : ٰ ۡ < ۡ < : ۡ : 9 : 9 : ۡ : ۡ : ۡ < ۡ : : : r < ۡ < : : < 9ٰ
w
w ww
JO‫ﻟﻜﺘﺐ ﺣ‬7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ وﺗﻮ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﺤﻖ‬ 7 ‫دﻳﻦ‬7 ‫ﺪﻳﻨﻮن‬7 ‫ و رﺳﻮﻟھ و ﻵﻹ ﻳ‬23‫ﷲ‬
.j a w
: ۡ < 7 ‫و <ﻫ ۡﻢ ٰﺻ‬: 9 ‫ﺪ‬:‫ﻳ‬9 ‫ﻋﻦ‬ : ۡ ۡ <ۡ<
ve .a
(٢٩:٩) .‫ﻐﺮون‬ ٍ ۡ : ‫ﺔ‬:‫ﻟﺠﺰﻳ‬7 ‫ﻌﻄﻮ‬
da l-m
hm a
Fight against those among the people of the Book
ad wri
who neither believe in God nor in the Last Day, and
g h d .o
am rg
who do not forbid what God and His Prophet have
id
forbidden and do not accept the religion of truth as
i.c
their own religion, until they pay jizyah out of
om
subjugation and lead a life of submission. (9:29)
The foregoing discussion outlines a law of the

Almighty. There is a natural corollary to this divine law
as obvious as the law itself. As stated earlier, the death
penalty had been imposed upon these mushrikīn if they
did not accept faith after a certain period. Hence, it
follows that if a person among the mushrikīn after
accepting faith reverted to his original state of disbelief,
he had to face the same penalty. Indeed, it is this
reversion about which the Prophet (sws) is reported to
have said: “Execute the person who changes his faith.”
295
The relative pronoun “who” in the above quoted
Ḥadīth qualifies the mushrikīn of the times of the
Prophet (sws) just as the words “the people’ (al-nās) in
the Ḥadīth quoted earlier are specifically meant for the
mushrikīn. When the basis of this law as narrated in
these Aḥādīth has been specified in the Qur’ān, then
quite naturally this specification should also be sustained
in the corollary of the law. Our jurists have committed
the cardinal mistake of not relating the relative pronoun
“who” in the Ḥadīth “Execute the person who changes
his faith” with its basis in the Qur’ān as they have done
w
in the case of “the people” (al-nās) of the Ḥadīth quoted
w
w ww
above. Instead of interpreting the Ḥadīth in the light of
.j a w
ve .a
the relationship between the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth, they
da l-m
have interpreted it in the absolute sense, totally against
hm a
the context of the Qur’ān. Consequently, in their opinion
ad wri
the verdict pronounced in the Ḥadīth has a general and
g h d .o
an unconditional application. They have thereby
am rg
incorporated in the Islamic Penal Code a punishment
id
i.c
which has no basis in the sharī‘ah.
om
3. The Capital Punishment
The answer to the third question is that the death

sentence can only be given to a person who has killed
someone or to someone who is guilty of spreading
disorder in a society. No other person can be punished
by death. The Qur’ān says:
: : 9 ‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬
‫ﻟﻨﺎس‬ : : 9 : : ‫ﻓ‬: ‫ﻵﻹرض‬
: : : ‫ﺎﻧﻤﺎ‬ : ًۢ ۡ : : : : ۡ :
: : ۡ : ۡ : 7 ۡ ‫'ﻐ‬
ۡ : ۡ () ‫ﻓﺴﺎد‬
7 7 ٍ ‫—ﻔﺲ و‬ ٍ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ ﻗﺘﻞ —ﻔﺴﺎ‬
ًۡ :
(٣٢:٥) ‚‫ﺟﻤﻴﻌﺎ‬7
296
He who killed a human being without the latter
being guilty of killing another or of spreading
disorder in the land should be looked upon as if he
had killed all of mankind. (5:32)
This is the verdict of the Qur’ān. Hence, except for

these two offences, neither a person nor an Islamic
government has any right to administer the death
sentence to a person.
w
4. The Jail Punishment
w
w ww
.j a w
The answer to the fourth question is that the jail
ve .a
da l-m
punishment is not merely a punishment; it is in fact a
hm a
barbarity that man has invented for himself. It is therefore
ad wri
not expected from an Islamic government to include it in
g h d .o
its penal code. No doubt, dark cells, underground
am rg
dungeons and castle turrets have always existed in the
id
i.c
known history of mankind. The Prophet Joseph’s tale of
om
imprisonment has been narrated both in the Qur’ān and in
the Bible. The historian’s pen also bears witness to the
tragic deaths of two great scholars of Islam, Imām Abū
Ḥanīfah (d. 767 AD) and Imām Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1327
AD), both of whom died in captivity. But it must be borne
in mind, that before the eighteenth century jails were only
used as temporary lock ups. Criminals were usually
detained in them during the course of their inquiry and
investigation, or when they awaited the infliction of
punishments like whipping, execution and other similar
sentences. The concept of confining an offender behind
bars for two, four or ten years as a penalty for a crime has
297
originated and gained acceptance only in the past three
centuries. It is now a fairly common practice to punish
most criminals in this manner.
Although various institutions akin to the prison existed
in Europe in the fourteenth century like the Delle Stinche
in Florence, it is generally believed that “The Walnut
Street Jail” set up in Philadelphia in 1790 was the first
modern prison. Its antecedents are to be found in the
reformitories and houses of correction established in
London (1557), Amsterdam (1596), Rome (1704) and in
Ghent (1773), an old city of Belgium. Subsequently, as
w
w
the Western civilization acquired ascendancy, prisons
w ww
.j a w
were established all over the world. Within the precincts
ve .a
of these inhuman institutions, man is made to starve the
da l-m
personality within him for months and years; while his
hm a
offspring, unaware about the concepts of crime and
ad wri
punishment, spend their childhood helplessly watching
g h d .o
am rg
him bear the agony of life.
id
The whipping sentence is over in a while, hands are
i.c
cut once and for all, crucifixion ends a criminal’s life
om
after an extreme physical torture, and execution severs
irrevocably every string of his relation with this world;
but it is this punishment in which the inner personality of
a person is continually tormented. Some of his daily
routines, in which everyone has an unconditional
freedom, become totally dependent on others. He sleeps
and awakes upon the will of others. He sits and stands at
the direction of others. His eating and drinking habits are
governed by others, and even in a matter as personal as
relieving one’s self, he has to seek permission from
others. He is made to beg for a glass of water, a loaf of
bread and even a puff of a cigarette, and on many
298
occasions he is made to lose his self-respect to obtain
them. He is deprived from the love and affection of his
parents, wife and children, and is made to suppress some
of his desires upon which the Almighty has posed no
restriction even in the holy month of Ramaḍān, during
which restraint and control are the keywords. In short, he
faces a Hell on earth, in which he neither lives nor
perishes.
Also, it is not the criminal alone who has to endure this
punishment. His entire family is made to suffer with him
as well. The most affected among them is his wife. The
w
w
extent of moral, psychological, social and economic
w ww
.j a w
problems she has to bear if her husband is jailed for nine
ve .a
or ten years can only be estimated by the faithful wives
da l-m
who themselves have undergone this traumatic
hm a
experience. The children also suffer an ordeal no less.
ad wri
Everyone knows how adversely they are affected
g h d .o
am rg
psychologically, when they observe their father being
id
tortured and tormented for years and years. Whipping,
i.c
cutting off hands, crucifixion and execution all are
om
punishments which either mete out extreme physical
suffering for a while or decide the fate of a criminal once
and for all. But in case of imprisonment, every time the
children visit their father confined in the clutches of a
murky cell, intense sentiments build up and strengthen in
their minds, after which how can they be expected to have
poised and balanced personalities? They can rightly
question the society about the ethical grounds on which
they were deprived of paternal care and affection when
the Almighty had blessed them with it.
Consider also, that every society wishes that after being
punished and chastised, a criminal should mend his ways
299
and correct himself. It is quite evident that the most
effective way to achieve this purpose is to keep him in
healthy company and in a conducive environment. Oddly
enough, through this punishment he is kept isolated from
people who might have a good influence upon him. His
family, clan and even the society are in no way given the
opportunity to reform and rehabilitate him. He is put away
for years in the company of criminals in such a manner
that even if he desires to reform himself, he is not given
any chance to do so. Quite expectedly, during the period
of confinement, his association with other criminals
w
w
becomes a perfect source for stimulating his evil instincts.
w ww
.j a w
His criminal tendencies develop further, as he begins to
ve .a
view everything on their basis. This companionship also
da l-m
provides him with an almost unlimited opportunity of
hm a
discussing, planning and perfecting the art of breaching
ad wri
the law. An omnipresent mafia is a source of perpetual
g h d .o
am rg
inspiration for him to emulate the records set by the
id
masterminds of the trade. With such a set up what good a
i.c
society expects from such a highly qualified law breaker
om
once he is injected back in the society, is something quite
beyond imagination.
It should also be kept in mind that after flogging a
criminal, amputating his hands and inflicting other
similar punishments upon him, we have no means to
know when he decides to change his ill-ways – an event
that might occur anytime during his life. Common sense
demands that if a criminal intends to correct himself he
should be readily provided with the opportunities to
change himself and to lead a life of a responsible citizen.
But of all the punishments, it is this punishment in which
the law fixes for him the time when he should actually
300
change, even though it has no means of ascertaining it.
Owing to all these evils and ill-effects, the Islamic Penal
Code though understandably contains a provision for
house arresting a criminal or exiling him with his family if
needed, it does not sanction in any way the confining of a
criminal in a prison for years.
____________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
301
What is Diyat?
The law of diyat mentioned in the Qur’ān has given

rise to some questions that they have remained a hot
subject of debate in present times. They are:
1. Has the sharī‘ah fixed the quantity of diyat, and in
w
accordance with this, is the diyat of a woman half that of
w
a man?
w ww
.j a w
2. What is the nature of diyat? Is it a financial
ve .a
compensation for the loss suffered by the heirs of the
da l-m
hm a
slain or by the wounded person himself, or is it the price
ad wri
of life or a limb, or something besides these two?
g h d .o
As an answer to the first question, consider the
am rg
following verses of the Qur’ān that have been revealed
id
regarding law of diyat:
i.c
om
ً ۡ < : : : ۡ : : ًÝ : : : 9 ً ۡ < : < ۡ : 9 ۡ : ۡ < : : : :
ًÝ : : ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺎ‬
‫ﺧﻄـﺎ‬ 7 ‫ﻵﻹ ﺧﻄـﺎ ¨ و ﻣﻦ ﻗﺘﻞ‬7 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺎ‬ 7 ‫ﺆﻣﻦ ن ﻘﺘﻞ‬ ٍ 7 ‫ﻤ‬7 ‫و ﻣﺎ _ﺎن ﻟ‬
: ‫ﻓﺎن‬ : : <
ۡ ‚ ‫ﻳﺼﺪﻗﻮ‬ : ۤ : ٌ
9 : : ۡ : 9 ۤ ۡ : (T‡ ‫ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬: 9 < ٌ : ۡ :::<ۡ ۡ ::
: 7 ‫و‬: 9 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺔ‬ <
‫_ﺎن‬ 7 ۡ 9 9 ‫ﻵﻹ ن‬7 ‫ﻫﻠھ‬ ٖ 7 7 : : 9 ‫دﻳﺔ‬ ٍ 7 9 ‫رﻗﺒﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻳﺮ‬Rp‫ﻓﺘ‬ 7
:ۡ ۡ : : ۡ : : ۡ < 9 : : : < ۡ ۡ : : ٌ ۡ < : < : ۡ 9 9 < : ۡ : ۡ < :
‫ﻗﻮم‬
Þ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ن _ﺎن‬7 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺔ ‚ و‬ ٍ 7 ‫رﻗﺒﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻳﺮ‬Rp‫ﻓﺘ‬
7 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻦ‬ 7 ‫ﻋﺪو ﻟﻜﻢ و ﻫﻮ‬ ٍ ‫ﻗﻮم‬ ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7
: ۡ <9 : : : < ۡ ۡ : : ۡ : ‡ ٌ : :9 : <9 ٌ : : ٌ : ۡ 9 ۡ < : ۡ : : ۡ < : ۡ :
¨ ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺔ‬
ٍ 7 ‫رﻗﺒﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻳﺮ‬Rp‫ﺗ‬ 7 ‫ﻫﻠھ و‬ ٖ 7 (T7 ‫ﻓﺪﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻴﺜﺎق‬7 ‫ﺑﻴﻨﻜﻢ و ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ‬
9< ٰ : : : 9ٰ : 9 ً : ۡ : ۡ : : : < ۡ : ۡ : < : : ۡ : ۡ : 9 ۡ : :
23‫ ‚ و _ﺎن ﷲ‬23‫ﷲ‬ 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ ﺗﻮﺑﺔ‬ß g7 ‫ﻣﺘﺘﺎ'ﻌ‬ 7 ‫ﺷﻬﺮﻳﻦ‬
7 ‫ﻓﺼﻴﺎم‬
7 ‫ﻳﺠﺪ‬ 7 ‫ﻓﻤﻦ ﻟﻢ‬
(٩٣-٩٢: ٤) .‫ﺣﻜﻴﻤﺎ‬ ً ۡ 7 : ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻤﺎ‬
ًۡ7:
It is unlawful for a believer to kill a believer except
if it happens by accident. And he who kills a
302
believer accidentally must free one Muslim slave
and pay diyat to the heirs of the victim except if they
forgive him. If the victim be a Muslim belonging to
a people at enmity with you, the freeing of a Muslim
slave is enough. But if the victim belongs to an ally,
diyat shall also be given to his heirs and you will
also set free a Muslim slave. Then he who does not
have a slave, must fast two consecutive months. This
is from God a way to repent from this sin: He is
Wise, all-Knowing. (4:92-93)
w
The actual words of the verse are ‫( ﻫﻠھ‬T ‫دﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬
w
w ww
(paying diyat to his heirs). Their most appropriate
.j a w
ve .a
grammatical analysis in the opinion of this writer is to
da l-m
regard them as the inchoative (mubtadā’) of a suppressed
hm a
enunciative (khabar) ie. ‫ﻳﺮ رﻗﺒﺔ ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺔ و دﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬Rp‫( ﻋﻠﻴھ ﺗ‬it
ad wri
is incumbent upon him to pay diyat to his heirs). The
g h d .o
am rg
word diyat in these verses occurs as a common noun,
id
about which we all know that its meaning is determined
i.c
by the context in which it is used and by its linguistic
om
: 9ٰ ‫ن‬:9 7 (Indeed,
ۡ < < < ۡ‫ﺎ‬:‫ ﻳ‬23‫ﷲ‬
and customary usage.ً For ۡ example, consider the
Qur’ānic verse: (٦٧:٢) ‫ة‬PQ' : : : ‫ﺗﺬﺑﺤﻮ‬
ۡ < : : ‫ ۡن‬: ‫ﻢ‬v‫ﻣﺮ‬
God
ٌ : : : ordains you to sacrifice a cow, (2:67)). The word
‫ة‬PQ' is a common noun. Therefore, it is absolutely certain
that the Jews were directed to sacrifice an animal whose
nameٌ in the linguistic and customary usage of the Arabs
was ‫ة‬PQ' : : : . If they had sacrificed any cow, they would
have, no doubt, fulfilled this divine directive. In other
words, if someone obligates us about something and
mentions the obligated thing as a common noun, it
simply means that he has directed us to obey the ‫ﻣﻌﺮوف‬
(custom) in this regard. Also, since a common noun
303
denotes generality, every meaning associated with it
shall be considered as implied, without any
specification, lest something within the context poses a
hindrance. Therefore, in the above verse diyat means
something which in the general custom and usage is
called diyat. And the Arabic words ‫( ﻫﻠھ‬T ‫دﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ‬
simply mean that the family of the murdered person
should be given what the general custom and tradition
terms as diyat.
In Sūrah Baqarah, where the directive of diyat in case
of intentional murder has been given, it has been
w
qualified by the word ‫( ﻣﻌﺮوف‬custom):
w
w ww
.j a w
: ٌ : ۡ ٌۢ : 9 : ٌ ۡ : ۡ : ۡ r : : < ۡ : :
ve .a
‫ﺣﺴﺎن‬ۡ 7 ۡ < ۡ : 7 ‫ﻓﺎﺗﺒﺎع‬
ٍ : ‫ﺑﺎ‬7 7 ‫ھ‬7‫ۡﻟﻴ‬7 ‫دآء‬: ‫و‬: ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺮوف‬ 7 ‫ء‬JÌ ‫ھ‬7‫ﺧﻴ‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ ﻟھ‬0ª‫ﻋ‬7 ‫ﻓﻤﻦ‬
da l-m
hm a
(١٧٨:٢)
ad wri
g h d .o
Then for whom there has been some remission from
am rg
his brother, then it should be followed according to
id
the ma‘rūf and diyat should be paid with goodness.
i.c
om
(2:178)
It is evident from the above mentioned verses of Sūrah

Nisā’ and Sūrah Baqarah that in case of intentional as
well as un-intentional murder, diyat should be paid
according to the custom and tradition of the society. In
his own period, the Prophet (sws) obeyed this Qur’ānic
injunction by following the prevailing ‫( ﻣﻌﺮوف‬custom) of
the Arab Society. Whatever has been stated in the
Aḥādīth is just an explanation of this ‫( ﻣﻌﺮوف‬custom)
during that period. It should be clear that no directive of
the Prophet (sws) obligates Muslims to follow it.
An important question that needs explanation concerns
304
the actual Arab custom about diyat. A study of pre-
Islamic Arabic poetry and the recorded account of
battles between various Arab tribes shows that the diyat
of every person whose blood relation with his tribe was
‫ﻳح‬àá (a person whose blood relation with some tribe is
definite), was fixed at ten camels. The diyat of an ally or
a maid was half of the ‫ﻳح‬àá and the diyat of a woman
was also half that of a man. The author of Āghānī while
describing the events of a battle between the tribes of
Aws and Khazraj writes:
w
ً ‫( ﻓﻴﻬﻢ وﻫﻮ ﻟﺤﻠﻴﻒ‬T‫و_ﺎﻧﺖ دﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﻮ‬
w
Rw‫ﻳح ﻋ‬RÒ‫ﺧﻤﺴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ ودﻳﺔ ﻟ‬
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
And in their custom, the diyat of a mawlā ie ally was
five camels and that of a ‫ﻳح‬àá was fixed at ten
da l-m
hm a
camels.158
ad wri
g h d .o
According to Dr Jawwād ‘Alī:
am rg
id
i.c
‫ﻳح وﺗﻜﻮن‬RÒ‫و ﻣﺎ إذ _ﺎن ﻟﻘﺘﻴﻞ ﻫﺠﻴﻨﺎ ﻓﺘﻜﻮن دﻳﺘھ ﻧﺼﻒ دﻳﺔ ﻟ‬
om
‫دﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﺮأة ﻧﺼﻒ دﻳﺔ ﻟﺮﺟﻞ‬
If the slain person was a maid’s son, his diyat was
half that of a ṣarīh and the diyat of a woman was
half that of a man.159
158. Abū al-Faraj ‘Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn al-Aṣbahānī, Kitāb al-

aghānī, vol. 3 (Lebanon: Dār al-fikr li al-ṭabā‘ah wa al-nashr,
n.d.), 41.
159. Dr Jawwād ‘Alī, Al-Mufaṣṣal fī tārīkh al-‘arab qabl al-
islām, 2nd ed., vol. 5 (Beirut: Dār al-‘ilm li al-malāyīn, 1986),
592.
305
Some tribes because of their high social status
accepted twice the actual amount of diyat, while some
paid twice the actual amount as a favour and blessing
upon the other tribe. Dr Jawwād ‘Alī writes:
‫ _ﺎﻧﻮ‬Ra‫ ﺑﻦ ﻳﺸ‬Ra‫ ﺑﻦ ﺑ‬23‫روى إن ﻟﻐﻄﺎرﻳﻒ وﻫﻢ ﻗﻮم ﻟﺤﺎرث ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﷲ‬

‫ و ﻌﻄﻮن ﻏ ﻫﻢ دﻳﺔ و ﺣﺪة إذ وﺟﺒﺖ‬g ‫ﻳﺄﺧﺬون ﻟﻠﻤﻘﺘﻮل ﻣﻨﻬﻢ دﻳﺘ‬
‫وﻫﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻟﻐﻄﺎرﻳﻒ أ ﻀﺎ وﻗﺪ‬Ra‫ ﺑﻦ ﻳﺸ‬Ra‫ ﻋﺎﻣﺮ ﺑﻦ ﺑ‬Jµ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ و_ﺎن ﻟﺒ‬
Jµ‫ﻳﻒ دﻳﺘﺎن وﻟﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﻗﻮﻣھ دﻳﺔ وورد إن ﺑ‬PŒ‫ﻮر ﺑﺎﻟﻐ‬v‫ف ﻋﺎﻣﺮ ﻟﻤﺬ‬R²
w
w
g ‫ دﻳﺘ‬g ‫ﻵﻻﺳﻮد ﺑﻦ رزن _ﺎﻧﻮ ﻳﻮدون )( ﻟﺠﺎﻫﻠﻴﺔ دﻳﺘ‬
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
It is said that Ghaṭārīf or the people of the tribe
da l-m
Ḥārith ibn ‘Abdullāh ibn Bakr ibn Yashkur used to
hm a
accept two diyats for their slain, and if it became
ad wri
obligatory for them to pay diyat, they used to pay a
g h d .o
am rg
single diyat. Likewise, for Banī ‘Āmir ibn Bakr ibn
id
Yashkur, whose ancestor ‘Āmir was, in fact, called
i.c
om
Ghaṭrīf, two diyats were fixed, while for the rest of
the nation it was single. Similarly, according to most
traditions, the tribe of Banī Aswad ibn Razan in pre-
Islamic times used to pay double diyat to others.160
He goes on to say:
(b‫وﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻫﺬ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺿﻌﻒ و ﻧﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ رﻏﺒﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ )( ﻵﻹﻓﻀﺎل ﻋ‬

‫ذوى ﻟﻘﺘﻴﻞ‬
This regularity in paying two diyats was not because
160. Ibid., 593.

306
of some weakness but as a favour to the family of
the slain.161
The diyat of kings, called the Diyat al-Mulūk, was

fixed at a thousand camels. Qarād ibn Ḥansh al-Ṣāridī
while eulogizing Banī Fazārah says:162
‫وﻧﺤﻦ رﻫﻨﺎ ﻟﻘﻮس ﺛﻤﺖ ﻓﻮدﻳﺖ‬

‫ﻋﺎ‬RS ‫ رى‬âŸ‫( ﻇﻬﺮ ﻟ‬b‫ﺑﺄﻟﻒ ﻋ‬
Wa naḥnu rahana al-qawsa thummut fūdiyat
w
Bi alfiṇ ‘alā ẓahr al-fazāriyyi aqra‘ā
w
w ww
(And we pledged a bow, and from the wealth of
.j a w
Fazārīyyi a thousand camels were given as remittance
ve .a
da l-m
for this.)
hm a
ad wri
‫ ﻟﻠﻤﻠﻮك ﺳﻌى ﺑﻬﺎ‬g ‫ ﻣﺌ‬Rw‫'ﻌ‬
g h d .o
am rg
‫ﻋﺎ‬RÈ‫ﻟﻴﻮ)( ﺳﻴﺎر ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤﺮو ﻓﺎ‬
id
i.c
Bi ‘ashri mi’īna li al-mulūki sa‘ā bihā
om
Liyūfiya Sayyār ubnu ‘Amriṇ fa asra‘ā
(Ten hundred camels which is the diyat of kings.
Sayyār Ibn ‘Amr strove to carry out this promise and
fulfilled the responsibility without delay.)
A few years before the birth of the Prophet (sws), this
custom underwent a drastic change. It is said that ‘Abd
al-Muṭṭalib, the grandfather of the Prophet (sws) vowed
161. Ibid.
162. ‘Abd al-Qādir ibn ‘Umar al-Baghdādī, Khazānah al-
adab wa lubb lubāb lisān al-‘arab, 1st ed., vol. 7 (Beirut: Dār
al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1998), 349.
307
that if God would bless him with ten sons, he would
slaughter one of them as a sacrifice. And when God
fulfilled his wish, he set out to fulfil his own pledge. A
lot was cast to select which among the ten sons should
be sacrificed. It fell upon ‘Abdullāh. So when ‘Abd al-
Muṭṭalib was on his way to sacrifice him, some people
stopped him and suggested to sacrifice a camel instead.
It has been indicated before that during that time the
quantity of diyat was fixed at ten camels. Hence, once
again, a lot was cast, this time in the name of ‘Abdullāh
and ten camels. Again, it fell upon ‘Abdullāh and the
w
w
process was repeated until the number of camels reached
w ww
.j a w
one hundred. According to the traditions, after this event
ve .a
the quantity of diyat among the Arabs, particularly the
da l-m
hm a
Quraysh was re-fixed at a hundred camels. In the words
ad wri
of Ibn Abbās (rta):
g h d .o
ً
am rg
‫ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ وﻋﺒﺪ ﻟﻤﻄﻠﺐ أول ﻣﻦ ﺳﻦ دﻳﺔ‬Rw‫_ﺎﻧﺖ ﻟﺪﻳﺔ ﻳﻮﻣﺌﺬ ﻋ‬
id
i.c
‫ﻳﺶ و ﻟﻌﺮب ﻣﺎﺋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ‬RS () ‫ﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻣﺎﺋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ ﻓﺠﺮت‬
om
During that period, diyat was ten camels. It was
‘Abd al-Muṭṭalib who first of all fixed it at one
hundred camels. As a result, this quantity was
adopted by the Quraysh and the Arabs.163
Zuhayr has mentioned the same amount of diyat in his

poetry. While eulogizing two Arab chiefs, Haram ibn
Sanān and Ḥārith ibn ‘Awf, because the two had paid
three thousand camels as diyat to stop a war between
163. Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Sa‘d al-Zuhrī, Al-

Ṭabaqāt al-kubrā, vol. 1, (Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, n.d.), 89.
308
‘Abas and Fazārah, he says:164
‫ ﻓﺄﺻﺒﺤﺖ‬g ‫ﻌﻔى ﻟ ﻠﻮم ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺌ‬U

‫ﻳﻨﺠﻤﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻤﺠﺮم‬
Tu‘affa al-kulumu bi al-mi’īna fa aṣbaḥat
Yunajjimuhā man laysa fīhā bi mujrimī
(By means of hundreds of camels the wounds shall be
healed. So, those who were just innocent began to pay
these camels in small lots.)
w
It is evident from this couplet that after this war the
w
w ww
diyat of the slain was paid in installments. According to
.j a w
ve .a
Aghānī:
da l-m
hm a
g ‫و_ﺎﻧﺖ ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ آﻵﻹف 'ﻌ )( ﺛﻶﻹث ﺳﻨ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
Hence it was three thousand camels which were
am rg
given in three years.165
id
i.c
Zuhayr has pointed out that ‫( ﻓﺎل‬young camels) were
om
given as diyat:166
‫ﻓﺎﺻﺒح ﻳﺤﺪى ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻶﻹدﻛﻢ‬

‫ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺎل ﻣﺰﻧﻢ‬JO‫ﻣﻐﺎﻧﻢ ﺷ‬
Fa aṣbaḥa yuḥda fīhimu min tilādikum
Maghānimu shattā min ifāliṇ muzannamī
(From your inherited wealth, camels of various ages
164. Al-Baghdādī, Khazānah al-adab vol. 3, 9.

165. Abū al-Faraj al-Aṣbahānī, Kitāb aghānī, vol 10, 297.
309
which are ifāl ie, well bred young camels are sent to the
families of the slain.)
About this specification of ‫( ﻓﺎل‬ifāl), al-Zawzanī, a

commentator of the Sab‘ah Mu‘allaqāt writes:
‫ﻌﻄﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻨﺎت ﻟﻠﺒﻮن و ﻟﺤﻘﺎق و ﻵﻹ ﺟﺬ ع‬U ‫ﺧص ﻟﺼﻐﺎر ﻵﻹن ﻟﺪﻳﺎت‬

The poet has particularly mentioned young camels
because only two-year olds, three-year olds and
four-year olds were given as diyat.167
w
w
w ww
The diyat of wounds also existed in Arabia. A study of
.j a w
pre-Islamic Arabic reveals that the words ‫( رش‬arsh) and
ve .a
‫( ﻧﺬر‬nadhr) were used in this meaning besides others.
da l-m
hm a
According to the Lisān al-‘Arab:
ad wri
g h d .o
‫ﺻﻞ ﻵﻹرش ﻟﺨﺪش ﺛﻢ ﻗﻴﻞ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺧﺬدﻳﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ رش و ﻫﻞ ﻟﺤﺠﺎز‬
am rg
id
‫ﻳﺴﻤﻮﻧھ ﻟﻨﺬر‬
i.c
om
The word ‫( رش‬arsh) is, in fact, ‫( ﺧﺪش‬khadsh) ie,
bruise or wound. Then it began to be used for the
money which was exacted as diyat for wounds. The
people of Ḥijāz used the word ‫( ﻧﺬر‬nadhr) for this.168
We have mentioned above that it was this Arabic

custom which the Prophet (sws) while obeying the
167. Abū ‘Abdullāh al-Ḥusayn ibn Aḥmad al-Zawzanī,

Sharḥ al-mu‘allaqāt al-sab‘, 1st ed. (Lahore: Dār al-nashr al-
kutub al-islamiyyah, n.d.), 80.
168. Muḥammad ibn Mukarram ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-‘arab,
1st ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dār ṣādir, n.d.), 246.
310
Qur’ān, enforced during his own time. Consequently, in
some Āḥadīth it has been mentioned that the Prophet
(sws) continued with the Arabic custom in the matters of
diyat, which had existed before his own prophethood. To
further quote Ibn Abbās (rta):
: 9 : 9ٰ : ْ < :
<23‫ﷲ‬9ٰ (b‫ﺻ‬ 23‫ﷲ‬
7 ‫ﻫﺎ رﺳﻮل‬RS‫ﻳﺶ و ﻟﻌﺮب ﻣﺎﺋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ ﻓﺎ‬RS () ‫ﻓﺠﺮت‬
:9 : : ۡ : :
‫( ﻣﺎ _ﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﻠﻴھ‬b‫ﻢ ﻋ‬:‫وﺳﻠ‬ ‫ﻴھ‬
7 ‫ﻋﻠ‬
Among the Quraysh and in Arabia, the quantity of
diyat adopted was one hundred camels. Consequently,
w
later on the Prophet continued with it.169
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
In another Ḥadīth, which linguists present in support
da l-m
of the word ‫( ﻣﻌﻘﻠﺔ‬ma‘qulah) and which has also been
hm a
reported in slightly different words in the Musnad of
ad wri
Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal, this matter has been stated in the
g h d .o
am rg
following way:
id
ً
i.c
(b‫ﻳﺶ ﻋ‬RS ‫ﻳﺶ و ﻵﻻﻧﺼﺎر ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎ ﻓﻴھ ﻟﻤﻬﺎﺟﺮون ﻣﻦ‬RS g ‫ﻛﺘﺐ ﺑ‬
om
(T‫رﺑﺎﻋﺘﻬﻢ ﻳﺘﻌﺎﻗﻠﻮن ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﻗﻠﻬﻢ ﻵﻹو‬
A treaty between the Anṣār and the Quraysh was
documented by the Prophet in which it was written
down that the Muhājirūn of the Quraysh would
continue according to their previous state and the
matter of diyat would be conducted between them as
before.170

170. Ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al-‘arab, vol. 11, 462.
311
On the contrary, in Yemen (southern Arabia), the
custom was that in various forms of murder and in
various types of wounds, the amount of diyat was fixed
by the ruler. But when Yemen became a part of the
Islamic State during the Prophet’s time, a letter was sent
by him to the chiefs of Yemen in which he fixed the
same quantity of diyat for them which was enforced in
his own territory. Dr Jawwād ‘Alī, while writing about
this Arabic custom, says:
g ‫ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ وﻟﻢ ﺗﺤﺪد )( ﻟﻘﻮ ﻧ‬g ‫ﻓﺖ ﻟﺪﻳﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻟﻌﺮب ﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻴ‬R² ‫وﻗﺪ‬
w
w
‫( ﻟﻤﻠﻚ‬T‫و ﻧﻤﺎ ﺗﺮك أﻣﺮ ﻣﻘﺪ رﻫﺎ أ‬
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
Diyat was paid according to the custom in southern
da l-m
Arabia also, but no regular legislation had been done
hm a
in this regard; instead, the determination of its amount
ad wri
had been left upon the discretion of the ruler.171
g h d .o
am rg
The epistle of the Prophet (sws) which he wrote to the
id
i.c
people of Yemen172 is reproduced here:
om
< : ‫ ْأوﻟ‬: JL‫ﻳﺮ‬
‫ﻴﺎء‬7
: ْ : ْ : :9 ٌ : : < :9 : : 9 : ْ : ً ْ : ً ْ < : : : ْ ْ : :9 :
‫إﻵﻹ أن‬7 ‫ﻓﺈﻧھ ﻗﻮد‬7 ‫ﺑﻴﻨﺔ‬
ٍ 7 ‫ﻣﺆﻣﻨﺎ ﻗﺘﻶﻹ ﻋﻦ‬ 7 ‫أن ﻣﻦ ﻋﺘﺒط‬
<
: 7 ‫ﻵﻻﻧﻒ إذ‬: ْ : ْ ْ
: ‫ﻣﻦ ﻵﻺﺑﻞ‬ ً :
ْ 7 ‫ﻣﺎﺋﺔ‬7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ : : 7 ‫ﻟﻨﻔﺲ‬: 9 () ‫وأن‬
9 ْ :9 : : < ْ : ْ
‫أوﻋﺐ‬ 7 7 ()‫و‬
7 7 77 7 9 7 < ‫ﻟﻤﻘﺘﻮل‬ 7
ْ : : ْ : ْ : < : 9 ْ : : :9 : < : 9 9 << ْ
g7 ‫و)( ﻟﺒﻴﻀﺘ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ 7 g7 ‫و)( ﻟﺸﻔﺘ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﻠﺴﺎن‬ :
7 7 ()‫و‬ : :
7 : : 9 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ 7 ‫ﺟﺪﻋھ‬:
()‫و‬ : < : 79 g7 ْ ‫ﻟﻌﻴﻨ‬ : ْ:ْ : <: 9 ْ <9 : < : 9 : < : 79
7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ ()‫و‬
7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺼﻠﺐ‬7 ()‫و‬7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬7 RØ‫ﻟﺬ‬
7 ()‫و‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬
171. Dr Jawwād ‘Alī, Al-Mufaṣṣal, vol. 5, 593.
172. A little deliberation shows that the ratios of diyats
which have been stated in this epistle are the last word as far
as justice and fairness are concerned. Our rulers while
legislating in this regard should take them into consideration.
312
ْ ْ < ْ 7 ‫ﻟﻴﺪ‬: ْ ()‫و‬: ] 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ ْ ْ9
7 : < : ()‫و‬
‫ﻟﻤﺄﻣﻮﻣﺔ‬ : 7 : 79 ‫ﻧﺼﻒ‬ : 79 ‫ﻧﺼﻒ‬ < ْ 7 ‫ﺣﺪة‬7 : 7 :‫ﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻟﻮ‬
7 [ ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬ 7 7 7 7
: : ْ : : ْ : :9 :<ْ : : 9 < << : : ْ : : 9 < <<
ْ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ة‬Rw‫ﻋ‬ ‫ﻟﻤﻨﻘﻠﺔ ﺧﻤﺲ‬
7 7 ()‫و‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬
7 7 ‫ﻟﺠﺎ®ﻔﺔ ﺛﻠﺚ‬ 7 7 ()‫و‬ 7 < ‫ﻟﺪﻳﺔ‬7 7 ‫ﺛﻠﺚ‬
9‫ﻟﺴﻦ‬ 97 ()‫و‬: ‫ﻣﻦ ْﻵﻺﺑﻞ‬ ْ ٌ ْ : ْ : ْ
9 7 : ‫ﻣﻦ أﺻﺎﺑﻊ‬ : : ْ 7 ‫أﺻﺒﻊ‬< 9 < ()‫و‬: ‫ْﻵﻺﺑﻞ‬
ْ
7 7 7 7 7 : : 7 Rw‫ﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻋ‬ 7 7 ‫ﻟﻴﺪ و‬ 77 ٍ ‫_ﻞ‬ 7 7 7 77
<‫ﻘﺘﻞ‬: ْ < ‫ﻟﺮﺟﻞ‬
: < : 9 9 :
‫ﻵﻺﺑﻞ وأن‬ ْ ْ ٌ ْ : : < ْ : ْ ْ 7 ‫ﺧﻤﺲ‬ ٌْ:
7 7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﻤﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﺧﻤﺲ‬ 7 7 (7 )‫ﻵﻺﺑﻞ و‬ 7 7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
: < ْ : : :9 ْ : : : : : ْ : ْ
‫دﻳﻨﺎر‬
ٍ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻫﺐ أﻟﻒ‬ 7 ‫أﻫﻞ‬
7 ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮأة وﻋﻠى‬ 7 7
He who wrongfully kills a Muslim and his crime is
legally proven shall be taken revenge from, except if
the heirs of the murdered person agree to accept
w
diyat. In this case, the diyat of life is one hundred
w
w ww
camels and that of a nose also when it is completely
.j a w
ve .a
cut off. The diyat of a tongue or lips or testicles or
da l-m
the male reproductive organ or the back or both eyes
hm a
is one hundred camels as well. The diyat of a single
ad wri
foot [and a hand],173 however, is half. A wound
g h d .o
which reaches the stomach and one which reaches
am rg
the brain shall have one-third diyat. The diyat of an
id
i.c
injury because of which a bone is displaced is fifteen
om
camels. For each of the fingers of the hand and feet,
the diyat is ten camels, for the teeth it is five and for
an injury because of which a bone is exposed, it is
five as well. A man shall be executed in place of a
woman and those who can pay diyat only in the
form of gold, the diyat is one thousand dinārs.174
(Nasā’ī: no. 4853)
173. These words have been taken from another text of a

Ḥadīth recorded in Sunan Nasā’ī in which this epistle has been
recorded. See: Al-Nasā’ī, Al-Sunan al-mujtabā, vol. 8, 58, (no.
4854).
174. al-Nasā’ī, Al-Sunan al-mujtabā, vol. 8, 57, (no. 4853).
313
After this explanation about the law of diyat, it
becomes evident that Islam has neither prescribed any
specific amount for diyat nor has it obligated us to
discriminate in this matter between a man or a woman, a
slave or a free man and a Muslim or a non-Muslim. The
law of diyat was in force in Arabia before the advent of
Islam. The Qur’ān has directed us to pay diyat just
according to this law both in case of intentional as well
as un-intentional murder. By this Qur’ānic directive,
diyat, became an eternal law of the sharī‘ah for all times
w
w
and for every society; however its quantity, nature and
w ww
.j a w
other related affairs have been left by the Qur’ān upon
ve .a
the customs and traditions of a society. The Prophet
da l-m
(sws) and his Rightly Guided Caliphs (rta) decided all
hm a
the cases of diyat according to the customs and traditions
ad wri
g h d .o
of the Arabian society during their own times. The
am rg
quantities of diyat which are mentioned in our books of
id
Ḥadīth and Fiqh are in accordance with this custom and
i.c
om
tradition, which itself has its roots in the social
conditions and cultural traditions of the Arabs. However,
since then, the wheel of fortune has revolved through
fourteen more centuries and the tide of time has sped
past innumerable crests and falls. Social conditions and
cultural traditions have undergone a drastic change. In
present times, it is not possible to pay diyat in the form
of camels nor is it a very wise step to fix the amount of
diyat on this basis. The nature of ‫( ﻋﺎﻗﻠھ‬Āqilah:
community/tribe) has completely changed and various
forms of un-intentional murder have come into existence
which could never have been imagined before. We know
that the guidance provided by the Qur’ān is for all times
314
and for every society. Hence, in this regard, it has
directed us to follow the ‫( ﻣﻌﺮوف‬custom) which may
change with time. As per this Qur’ānic directive, every
society is to obey its custom, and since in our own
society no law about diyat previously exists, those at the
helm of affairs of our state can either continue with the
above mentioned Arab custom or re-legislate in this
regard; whatever they do, if the society accepts this
legislation, it will assume the status of our ‫ﻣﻌﺮوف‬
(custom). It is obvious that those in authority in any
society can revise and re-structure the laws which are
w
based on the ‫( ﻣﻌﺮوف‬custom), keeping in view the
w
w ww
.j a w
collective good of the masses. Ibn ‘Ābidīn, a celebrated
ve .a
Hanifite scholar, writes:
da l-m
hm a
‫ﻳح ﻟﻨص وﻫى ﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬RÒ‫ﻋﻠﻢ أن ﻟﻤﺴﺎﺋﻞ ﻟﻔﻘﻬﻴﺔ أﻣﺎ إن ﺗﻜﻮن ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺑ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
‫ﺜ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺒﻨﻴھ‬v‫ب ﺟﺘﻬﺎد ورأي و‬RÎ' ‫ﻵﻻول و ﻣﺎ إن ﺗﻜﻮن ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‬
am rg
id
‫ف زﻣﺎﻧھ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻟﻮ_ﺎن )(زﻣﺎن ﻟﻌﺮف ﻟﺤﺎدث‬R² () ‫( ﻣﺎ_ﺎن‬b‫ﻟﻤﺠﺘﻬﺪﻋ‬
i.c
om
‫وط ﻵﻹﺟﺘﻬﺎد ﻧھ ﻵﻹﺑﺪ ﻓﻴھ ﻣﻦ‬R¿ () ‫ﻟﻘﺎل ﺑﺨﻶﻹف ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻟھ أوﻵﻹ وﻟﻬﺬ ﻗﺎﻟﻮ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﺎد ت ﻟﻨﺎس ﻓﻜﺜ ﻣﻦ ﻵﻻﺣ ﺎم ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻶﻹف ﻟﺰﻣﺎن‬
‫ورة أو ﻓﺴﺎد أﻫﻞ ﻟﺰﻣﺎن ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻟﻮ'ﻘى‬àæ ‫ف أﻫﻠھ أو ﻟﺤﺪوث‬R² ‫ﻟﺘﻐ‬
‫ر ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺎس وﻟﺨﺎﻟﻒ‬RÎ‫·م ﻣﻨھ ﻟﻤﺸﻘﺔ و ﻟ‬É‫( ﻣﺎ_ﺎن ﻋﻠﻴھ أوﻵﻹ ﻟ‬b‫ﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻋ‬
‫ر و ﻟﻔﺴﺎد‬RÎ‫( ﻟﺘﺨﻔﻴﻒو ﻟﺘﻴﺴ ودﻓﻊ ﻟ‬b‫ ﻌﺔ ﻟﻤﺒﻨﻴﺔﻋ‬Rw‫ﻗﻮ ﻋﺪ ﻟ‬
It should be noted that juristic issues either stand
proven by a categorical injunction which is the first
type, or stand proven by ijtihād and opinion [which
is the second type]. Most issues of the second
category are based by the Mujtahids upon the
315
customs and traditions of a particular period in such
a way that if they would have been present in this
age which has a certain custom and tradition, they
would have given a different opinion. Hence, about
the conditions of ijtihād, they also state the
condition that it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the habits and common practices of
the people because with the change in times a lot of
the directives change. This may be due to a number
of reasons. For example, a change in the general
custom, requirement of a situation or fear of disorder
w
w
in the general condition of the people in case a
w ww
directive is continued in its original state it might
.j a w
ve .a
create difficulties for them or inflict a loss upon
da l-m
them. This would be against the principles of the
hm a
sharī‘ah which are based upon facility, comfort, and
ad wri
prevention of damage and disorder.175
g h d .o
am rg
Consider now the second question: what is the nature
id
i.c
of diyat? In this matter, there are generally two views.
om
One group of scholars regards it as the monetary value
of human life, while another group considers it to be the
monetary compensation of the financial loss inflicted by
the murderer upon the family of the murdered person.
In the opinion of this writer, both these views are
incorrect. The first one is merely based upon a
misconception. In the pre-Islamic Arab society, cases of
murder were usually settled by ‫( ﺛﺎر‬thār: revenge), ‫ﻗﺼﺎص‬
(qiṣāṣ) and diyat respectively. As is evident from the
order, ‫( ﺛﺎر‬thār) was the foremost objective of the Arabs.
175. Ibn ‘Ābidīn, Rasā’il, 1st ed. (Damascus: Al-Maktbah al-

hāshimiyyah, 1325 AH), 125.
316
They used to believe that the soul of the deceased is
transformed into a bird which flies away, and unless
revenge is taken, it wanders about in the wilderness
crying out (¤‫( ﺳﻘﻮ‬¤‫( ﺳﻘﻮ‬isqūnī! isqūnī: quench my thirst!
quench my thirst!). Some of them believed that only that
slain person remains alive in his grave whose death had
been avenged, and if his murder is not avenged, his soul
dies and darkness descends upon his grave. Due to these
beliefs, they always preferred ‫( ﺛﺎر‬thār) and accepted
‫( ﻗﺼﺎص‬qiṣāṣ) only when they could not help it, let alone
diyat. Umm Shamlah says:176
w
w
w ww
‫ﻓﻴﺎﺷﻤﻞ ﺷﻤﺮ و ﻃﻠﺐ ﻟﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﻟﺬى‬
.j a w
ً ً
ve .a
‫ﻘﺒﻞ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎ وﻵﻹ ﻋﻘﻶﻹ‬U ‫أﺻﺒﺖ وﻵﻹ‬
da l-m
hm a
Fa yā shamlu shammir waṭlubi al-qawma billadhī
ad wri
Uṣibta wa lā taqbal qiṣāsaṇ wa lā ‘aqlā.
g h d .o
(Therefore, O Shamlah! rise and get ready to avenge
am rg
the harm inflicted upon you by your enemies and listen!
id
i.c
Do not accept qiṣās or diyat at any cost.)
om
‘Abbās ibn Mirdās, while inciting ‘Āmir, a tribesman
of the Khuḍā‘ah tribe to revenge says:177
‫وﻵﻹ ﺗﻄﻤﻌﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻌﻠﻔﻮﻧﻚ ﻧﻬﻢ‬

‫ﺑﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺜﻤﻞ‬RS (b‫أﺗﻮك ﻋ‬
176. Al-Tabrīzī, Sharḥ Dīwān al-ḥamāsah li Abī al-
Tammām, vol. 1, 292.
177. Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn Sayyidah,. Al-Muḥkam wa al-
muḥīṭ al-a‘ẓam 1st ed., vol. 10 (Beirut: Dār al-kutub al-
‘ilmiyyah, 2000), 347.
317
Wa lā taṭma‘an mā ya‘lifūnaka innahum
Atawka ‘alā qurbāhumu bi al-muthammalī
(And don’t even think about the diyat they are
tempting you with, for, in spite of having a blood
relationship, they have brought a deadly poison for you.)
In this matter, the severity of their emotions, even after

accepting Islam can be seen from the following verses of
Miswar ibn Ziyādah, when he was offered seven diyats
upon the murder of his father by the governor of
Madīnah, Sa‘īd ibn al-‘Āṣ. He says:178
w
w
w ww
‫أ'ﻌﺪ ﻟﺬي ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻌﻒ —ﻌﻒ ﻛﻮﻳﻜﺐ‬
.j a w
ve .a
‫رﻫﻴﻨﺔ رﻣﺲ ذي ﺗﺮ ب وﺟﻨﺪل‬
da l-m
hm a
A ba‘ad alladhī bi al-na‘afi na‘afi kuwaykibiṇ
ad wri
Rahīnati ramsiṇ dhī turābiṇ wa jandalī
g h d .o
am rg
(What! after the person who was buried at the foot of
id
Mount Kuwaykab in a grave of mud and stone.)
i.c
om
Jµ‫( ﻣﻦ أﺻﺎﺑ‬b‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻘﻴﺎ ﻋ‬RØ‫ذ‬
‫( ﺟﺎﻫﺪ ﻏ ﻣﺆﺗﻞ‬¤ ‫و'ﻘﻴﺎى‬
Udhakkaru bi al-buqyā ‘alā man aṣābanī
Wa buqyāya annī jāhiduṇ ghayru mu’tilī
(I am being advised to show mercy upon a cruel
person who has inflicted me with this grief. The only
mercy I can show is to take revenge at all costs.)

Tammām, vol. 1, 83-84.
318
‫ﻓﺎن ﻟﻢ أﻧﻞ ﺛﺄري ﻣﻦ ﻟﻴﻮم وﻏﺪ‬
‫ ﻋﻤﻨﺎ ﻓﺎﻟﺪﻫﺮ ذوﻣﺘﻄﻮل‬Jµ‫ﺑ‬
Fa in lam anal tha’rī min al-yawmi aw ghadiṇ
Banī ‘amminā fa al-dahru dhū mutaṭawwalī
(O you, the sons of my paternal uncle, it does not
matter if, today or tomorrow, I am not able to take
revenge, for this world has a long life.)
‫ﻳﻬﺔ‬RØ ‫ ﻟﻴﻮم‬0ç‫ ﻗﻮ‬Jµ‫ﻓﻶﻹﻳﺪ ﻋ‬
w
‫ﺑﺔ أو ﻋﺠﻞ‬àæ ‫ﻟﺌﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻋﺠﻞ‬
w
w ww
.j a w
Fa lā yad‘unī qawmī liyawmi karīhatiṇ
ve .a
la in lam u‘ajjil ḍarbataṇ aw u‘ajjalī
da l-m
(If, without any hesitation, I do not attack my enemies
hm a
or become a target of their attack, my nation should
ad wri
g h d .o
never call me for any battle.)
am rg
id
‫ب ﻣﺮة‬Rp‫ﻧﺨﺘﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻨﺎ _ﻠ ﻞ ﻟ‬
i.c
om
‫ﻓﻨﺤﻦ ﻣﻨﻴﺨﻮﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻜﻢ ﺑ ﻠ ﻞ‬
Anakhtamu ‘alaynā kalkal al-ḥarbi marrataṇ
Fa naḥnu manīkhuhā ‘alaykum bikalkalī
(You have placed the chest of war upon us; so listen!
we have also decided that unless we place it upon you,
we would not remain at ease.)
‫ﻘﻮل رﺟﺎل ﻣﺎ أﺻﻴﺐ ﻟﻬﻢ أب‬

‫ﻌﻘﻞ‬U ‫( ﻟﻤﺎل‬b‫وﻵﻹ ﻣﻦ أخ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻋ‬
Yaqūlu rijāluṇ mā usība lahum abuṇ
Wa lā min akhiṇ aqbil ‘ala al-māli tu‘qalī
319
(Those people are offering me diyat and urging me to
accept money, whose fathers and brothers never fell prey
to the sword of a killer.)
Hence, it was a result of these emotions that they

considered the acceptance of diyat as shameful, and
regarded it to be equivalent to selling the blood of the
murdered person. Rabī‘ah ibn ‘Ubayd, a poet of the tribe
Banī Naṣr says:179
‫( ﻟﻢ أﻫﺒﻚ وﻟﻢ أﻗﻢ‬¤ ‫أذو ب‬
w
w
w ww
‫ ﻵﻹﺟﻶﻹب‬RÎ‫ﻟﻠﺒﻴﻊ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺤ‬
.j a w
ve .a
A dhuwābu innī lam ahabka wa lam aqum
da l-m
hm a
Li al-bay‘i ‘inda taḥadhdhuri al-ajlābī
ad wri
(O Dhuwāb! I have not forgiven your murder; nor in
g h d .o
the midst of business in the market of Ukāẓ am I selling
am rg
your blood (ie, accepting your diyat).)
id
i.c
om
However, it is evident that such emotional utterances
have got nothing to do with the actual nature of diyat.
They can only be regarded as sentimental statements over
the loss of dear ones, and one often comes across such
instances in one’s life. People who have tried to ascertain
the nature of diyat from these utterances can only be
regarded as those who are devoid of any linguistic
appreciation. They probably did not realize that human
life or human limbs are priceless. No mother, father,
brother or son, at any rate, can ever be willing to accept

Tammām, vol. 1, 349.
320
diyat on the pretext that the monetary worth of the
deceased son, brother or father is what is actually being
received. Hence, if this opinion is accepted, the result,
obviously, would be that a society would never benefit
from the expediency upon which the law itself is based.
On these grounds, this opinion, regrettably, stands
rejected.
As far as those people are concerned who regard it to
be a monetary compensation of the inflicted economic
loss, they must realize that the basic nature of a thing
must exist in every small or large part it constitutes.
w
w
Even a cursory look at the law of diyat reveals that diyat
w ww
.j a w
is not given solely in cases of murder, but in case of loss
ve .a
of a human organ or limb like a nose, ear, eye and tooth
da l-m
as well. It is quite evident that the loss of such limbs
hm a
does not result in any economic loss for the affected
ad wri
person or family. After all, if a toe or a finger, or even a
g h d .o
am rg
tooth is lost, what financial damage is incurred? Apart
id
from other reasons, this internal contradiction in the
i.c
premises of the view is enough to prove it a fallacy.
om
Since both the views about the nature of diyat are not
correct, what then is the correct view point? To answer
this question, it is necessary to have recourse to ancient
Arabic traditions for a solution.
We find a lot of instances, in which the subject of
diyat has been discussed in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry.
Episodes of homicide and murder were so rampant in the
ancient Arab society that the subjects of ‫( ﺛﺎر‬thār), ‫ﻗﺼﺎص‬
(qiṣāṣ) and ‫( دﻳﺖ‬diyat) were often versified in their
poetical compositions. No doubt, they often used to
challenge the sense of honour of those who accepted
diyat, and provoked them to revenge, but apart from
321
these sentimental utterances, we find many instances
where a more serious treatment of the topic reveals very
clearly their own concepts about the actual nature of
diyat.
A careful study shows that in such instances they used
the words ‫ ﻣﺔ‬Rè (gharāmah) or ‫( ﻣﻐﺮم‬maghram) which
literally means “penalty.” Just as in English, these words
imply the exaction of fine from an offender as a
punishment for a crime, the word ‫ ﻣﺔ‬Rè (gharāmah)
denotes this meaning in Arabic. It has been indicated
before that the Arab poets used this word in instances
w
w
when they talked about the nature of diyat. To quote
w ww
.j a w
Zuhayr:180
ve .a
da l-m
‫ ﻣﺔ‬Rè ‫ﻳﻨﺠﻤﻬﺎ ﻗﻮم ﻟﻘﻮم‬
hm a
ad wri
‫وﻟﻢ ﻳﻬﺮ ﻘﻮ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﺠﻢ‬
g h d .o
am rg
Yunajjimuhā qawmuṇ liqawmiṇ gharāmataṇ
id
Wa lam yuharīqū baynahum mil’a miḥjamī
i.c
om
(In small lots those camels began to be given by one
nation to the other, as a fine; though the givers did not
even shed a drop of blood among those who were
receiving it.)
This same concept about diyat continued to persist in

later times as well. ‘Ujayr al-Salūlī, a poet of the Umayyad
period has said:181

181. Abū ‘Uthmān ‘Amr ibn Baḥar al-Jāḥiẓ, Al-Bayān wa
al-tabyīn (Beirut: Dār muṣ‘ab, n.d.), 121.
322
ً
ً ‫ﻣﻈﻠﻮﻣﺎ وﻳﺮﺿﻴﻚ‬
‫ﻇﺎﻟﻢ‬ ‫ك‬RÊ‫ﻳ‬
‫وﻳﻜﻔﻴﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺣﻤﻠﺘھ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻐﺮم‬
Yasurruka maẓlūmaṇ wa yurḍika ẓālimaṇ
Wa yakfīka mā ḥammaltahu ‘inda maghramī
(If you are oppressed he makes you happy by taking
revenge, and if you are the oppressor, he pleases you by
taking your side; and as a result of this oppression, when
you are paying a fine (diyat), whatever amount you
burden him with, he alone pays it.)
w
Hence, it is quite evident from this discussion that
w
w ww
diyat is neither a monetary compensation for an
.j a w
ve .a
economic loss nor a monetary worth of human life. By
da l-m
nature, it is ‫ ﻣﺔ‬Rè (gharāmah) ie, a fine or penalty
hm a
imposed on the criminal in lieu of ‫( ﻗﺼﺎص‬qiṣāṣ) in case of
ad wri
intentional murder and, indeed, in all cases of un-
g h d .o
am rg
intentional murder.
id
i.c
om
_______________
323
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
324
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
Miscellaneous Issues
325
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
326
Verdicts of God
If, after the truth is conclusively conveyed by

messengers of God, they and their companions are able to
acquire political authority in some place, it is the verdict
of God that there are only two situations which will be
faced by their rejecters. If there are polytheists among
w
w
them, they shall be put to death and if there are people
w ww
.j a w
among them who are monotheists to any extent, they
ve .a
shall be subjugated. It was in order to implement this
da l-m
hm a
verdict that the Almighty directed Muslims to wage war
ad wri
and to carry out mass killings of the polytheists of Arabia
g h d .o
in Sūrahs Baqarah, Anfāl and Tawbah. This directive has
am rg
nothing to do with the sharī‘ah and its injunctions. In my
id
book, Mīzān, I have written:
i.c
om
It is evident from these details that all these armed
campaigns and offensives were not merely qitāl
(war), they were in reality a divine punishment. This
punishment, which is meted out to those to whom
the truth is communicated to such an extent that they
are left with no excuse to deny it, is an established
practice of God. As a divine scheme, it descended
first upon the Idolaters and the People of the Book
of Arabia and then to certain other nations outside it.
Consequently, it is absolutely certain that fighting
those who have deliberately rejected the truth and
forcing the vanquished to lead a life of subjugation
327
by imposing jizyah on them is no longer allowed.
Till the Day of Judgement, neither can any one
attack any nation of the world for this purpose, nor
does he have the authority to subjugate the
vanquished by imposing jizyah on them. For
Muslims, the only ground for war is injustice and
oppression. This is the sole reason for warfare which
they can now justify. They cannot wage war in the
name of religion on any other ground.182
About the progeny of Abraham (sws) also, the verdict
w
of God is that if they adhere to the truth and present it to
w
w ww
other peoples of this world with full certainty and while
.j a w
maintaining full integrity of its contents, the Almighty
ve .a
da l-m
will grant them dominance over their addressees who
hm a
reject them. However, if the progeny of Abraham (sws)
ad wri
do not adhere to the truth, then the Almighty will mete
g h d .o
out the punishment of humiliation and subjugation to
am rg
them through these very addressees. This promise is
id
i.c
both to the Israelites and the Ishmaelites. The Qur’ān
om
(22:78) has specifically pointed out that the Ishmaelites
were chosen to bear witness to religion in the same way
that the Israelites were chosen for this task before them.
So, the promises which are mentioned in the Old
Testament (Deuteronomy, 28:1-25) for the Israelites, and
the Qur’ān has referred to them at various places, (eg.
2:40; 17:8), will be understood to also exist for the
Ishmaelites. However, this does not mean that the
Ishmaelites can take the initiative with regard to
themselves and attack various nations of the world. They
have been given this right neither in the Old Testament,
182. Ghāmidī, Mizān, 599.

328
nor in the Qur’ān. The promise of dominance manifests
itself at the behest of God and it is brought about by God
Himself through various circumstances that He Himself
creates. The only obligation of the Ishmaelites is to
follow all the directives of God, and to discharge, as
much as they can, the responsibility of bearing witness
to religion with sincerity and honesty – the responsibility
for which God has chosen them.
One corollary of this verdict is that the Almighty has
specifically allocated the area of Palestine and its
surrounding land of Kanan to the Israelites and the area
w
of the Arabian peninsula to the Ishmaelites so that all the
w
w ww
nations of the world are able to observe God’s close link
.j a w
ve .a
with these nations and receive guidance. Thus, for this
da l-m
very reason, He directed the Israelites to expel the
hm a
inhabitants of this area of their inheritance, leave no
ad wri
polytheist or disbeliever alive in that area and leave no
g h d .o
territory adjacent to this area in the political control of
am rg
the polytheists or disbelievers except if they agreed to
id
i.c
live in subservience by paying tribute. If these nations
om
did not agree to this, then the Israelites were directed to
execute their men and enslave their women and children.
In the twentieth chapter of the book of Deuteronomy,
this directive is mentioned in full detail. It is on the basis
of this directive that the Prophet Solomon (sws) forced
the queen of Sheba to submit to his rule. After the
conquest of Makkah, all contracts with the Idolaters of
the Arabian peninsula were revoked on its basis as well.
The injunction of ‫( ﻵﻹ ﻳﺠﺘﻤﻊ دﻳﻨﺎن )( ﺟﺰﻳﺮة ﻟﻌﺮب‬two religions
cannot exist together in the land of Arabia)183 should
183. Mālik ibn Anas, Mu’aṭṭā’, vol. 2, 892, (no. 1584).

329
also be seen in the light of this directive. Consequently,
on this very basis, in the land of Arabia, neither can a
place of worship be built to worship someone other than
God nor can a polytheist or a disbeliever be allowed to
live. All these directives are related to this centre of
monotheism – the land of Arabia and do not relate to any
other part of the world.
These are the verdicts of God which are mentioned very
clearly in divine scriptures. The Torah also elucidates
them with all their details and so does the Qur’ān.
Muslims are unfortunate that in recent times some of their
w
w
celebrated thinkers have been unable to understand the
w ww
.j a w
true nature of these verdicts. The political interpretation of
ve .a
Islam has been born from the womb of these verdicts. It is
da l-m
under the influence of this interpretation that a number of
hm a
militant and jihādī movements have sprung up all over the
ad wri
globe and as a result the entire Muslim ummah is
g h d .o
am rg
suffering its consequences. In order to redress this state of
id
affairs, it is essential that an awareness be created about
i.c
these verdicts at the global level and people be educated
om
about them so that no extremist is left with a possibility of
creating nuisance by wrongly generalizing the scope of
these verdicts.
______________
330
The Lawful and the Unlawful
The Arabic word zīnat refers to an object which a

person uses to embellish something to satisfy his
aesthetic taste. Thus, dress and jewellery are the zīnat of
the body; curtains, sofas, carpets, rugs, sculptures,
portraits and paintings are the zīnat of the house;
w
w
orchards, gardens and buildings and other similar things
w ww
.j a w
are the zīnat of the city; music is the zīnat of the voice
ve .a
and poetry is the zīnat of words. The sufistic
da l-m
hm a
interpretation of religion and sufistic religions consider
ad wri
these things to be an optical illusion, and generally
g h d .o
regard them to be prohibited, undesirable, worthy of
am rg
being forsaken and impediments to spiritual
id
advancement. However, the Qur’ān does not subscribe
i.c
om
to this view. It refutes all these religions, and
vehemently says that all these things are lawful; in fact,
it chidingly inquires of the person who dares regard as
unlawful what God has created for man:
ۡ :9 9ٰ : : ۡ : : 9 : ۡ : ۡ <
: ۡ : Jۤۡ O‫ﻟ‬: 9 23‫ﷲ‬
7 7 9 ‫ﻣﻦ‬
(٣٢ :٧) ‚ ‫ﻟﺮزق‬ 7 ٰ 79 ‫و‬: ‫ﻌﺒﺎده‬7
: 7 ‫ﻟﻄﻴﺒﺖ‬ :
ٖ 7 : 7 ‫ج ﻟ‬R• 7 7 ‫زﻳﻨﺔ‬7 ‫م‬R‫ﺣ‬ ‫ﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ‬
Tell [them]: “Who has forbidden you the zīnat
which the Almighty has created for His servants,
and who has forbidden the wholesome among the
edibles?” (7:32)
Not only this, the Qur’ān goes on to declare that the

331
wholesome among edibles, and all these objects of zīnat
have been created in this world solely for the believers,
and as such only belong to them. The rejecters of God
receive these through them as a by-product and because
of the period of trial which they have to endure in this
world. Thus, in the Hereafter, they shall solely be
reserved for the believers; the rejecters will have no
share in them; they shall be deprived of them forever:
: ٰ : : ٰ ۡ : ۡ :9 ً : : : ۡ <9
‫ﻚ‬7 ‫ﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ‚ ﻛﺬﻟ‬ ٰ : ۡ () ‫ﻣﻨﻮ‬
7 ‫ﻟﺤﻴ‬
7 7 ‫ﺼﺔ ﻳﻮم‬7 ‫ﻮة ﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ ﺧﺎﻟ‬ ۡ < : ٰ : ۡ 7 : 9 ‫ ﻟ‬01
: 7 ‫ﻗﻞ‬ۡ <
7 : ‫ﻠﺬﻳﻦ‬7
: ۡ < : ۡ 9 ‫ﻘﻮم‬7: ٰ ٰۡ < 9 : <
ٍ ۡ ‫ﻵﻹﻳﺖ ﻟ‬
w
(٣٢ :٧) ‫ﻌﻠﻤﻮن‬ 7 ‫—ﻔﺼﻞ‬ 7
w
w ww
.j a w
Tell [them]: “They are for the believers in this world
ve .a
[though shared by others]; but on the Day of
da l-m
Judgement, they shall be theirs alone.” Thus do We
hm a
explain Our revelations for those who want to know.
ad wri
g h d .o
(7:32)
am rg
id
This is an amazing declaration of the Qur’ān. Contrary
i.c
to general religious concepts and teachings of sufistic
om
religions, it presents a completely different aspect of
religious life. Instead of urging people to forego the
pleasures of this world in order to attain the nearness of
God and union with Him, it urges the believers to
abstain from being spendthrifts but to benefit without
any hesitation from all the objects of zīnat within the
limits prescribed by God and to show gratitude on His
favours.
¨ ‫ﻓﻮ‬RÊ‫ﺗ‬ ۡ < : ۡ ‫و‬: ‫_ﻠﻮ‬

ۡ < 7 ۡ < ‫ﻵﻹ‬: ‫و‬: ‫ﺑﻮ‬R¿ ۡ < < ‫و‬: 9 ‫ﻣﺴﺠﺪ‬ 9 < ‫ﻋﻨﺪ‬
ٍ 7 ۡ : ‫_ﻞ‬ ۡ < : : ۡ 7 ‫ﺧﺬو‬
: ۡ ‫زﻳﻨﺘﻜﻢ‬
7 ۡ < < ‫دم‬ ۤۡ : ٰ
: : ٰ Jµ‫ﻳﺒ‬
7 7
: ۡ
(٣١ :٧) g 7‫ﻓ‬RÊ‫ﻟﻤ‬
ۡ < ۡ < 9 < : r :9
7 ‫ﻳﺤﺐ‬ 7 ‫ﻧھ ﻵﻹ‬7
332
Children of Adam! Embellish yourselves with zīnat
whenever you attend your mosques and eat and
drink, but avoid excess. He does not love those who
commit excesses. (7:31)
After this, the question arises: what exactly are the

things regarded prohibited or unlawful by the sharī‘ah?
The Qur’ān has answered this question in the succeeding
verses of Sūah A‘rāf quoted above: besides some
edibles, only five things are unlawful: lewd acts,
usurping the rights of others, wrongful oppression,
w
polytheism and religious innovations.
w
w ww
Only these things are unlawful and prohibited in the
.j a w
ve .a
sharī‘ah of God. Nothing else is unlawful in it. This
da l-m
verse, in fact, is a divine declaration on what is unlawful;
hm a
thus, no one has the right to declare anything as unlawful
ad wri
besides these. Consequently, now something can only be
g h d .o
am rg
regarded as unlawful if it contains traces of any of the
id
unlawful things mentioned above. Narratives of the
i.c
Prophet (sws) and of the Companions (rta), historical
om
reports and the statements of previous scriptures will be
understood in the light of this verdict of the Qur’ān.
Anything which deviates from it or is against it shall not
be accepted. The Qur’ānic words are:
ۡ : ۡ ۡ : ۡ ۡ : : : : : : : ۡ : : : : : : : ۡ : 9 : : :9 : : :9 ۡ <
7 ‫'ﻐ‬7 :0¡‫ﻟﺒ‬: ‫و‬: ‫ﻵﻹﺛﻢ‬
7 ‫ﻣﻨﻬﺎ و ﻣﺎ ﺑﻄﻦ و‬7 ‫ﺣﺶ ﻣﺎ ﻇﻬﺮ‬7 ‫\( ﻟﻔﻮ‬7 ‫م ر‬R‫ﻧﻤﺎ ﺣ‬7 ‫ﻗﻞ‬
9 ٰ : ً ٰ ۡ < ۡ 9 : < ۡ : : 9ٰ ۡ < ۡ < ۡ : : 9 : ۡ
ۡ < ۡ < : ‫ ۡن‬: ‫و‬: 9 ‫ﺳﻠﻄﻨﺎ‬
‫ﻵﻹ‬: ‫ﻣﺎ‬: 23‫ﷲ‬
7 (b‫ﻋ‬: ‫ﻘﻮﻟﻮ‬U ‫ ٖﺑھ‬7 ‫ل‬éê‫ﻳ‬
7 ‫ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ‬23‫ﺑﺎﷲ‬
7 7 ‫ﻮ‬vRw‫ﺗ‬
7 ‫ﻟﺤﻖ و ن‬ 7
: ۡ<: ۡ:
(٣٣ :٧) ‫ﻌﻠﻤﻮن‬U
Tell [them]: “My Lord has only forbidden all lewd
acts, whether overt or disguised and usurping the
333
rights of others and wrongful oppression and that
you worship with Him what He did not sanction and
that you tell of God what you know not.” (7:33)
______________
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
da l-m
hm a
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
334
Forbidding Wrong
One of the necessary requirements of faith is that

people be exhorted to do good and to abstain from
wrong. Both the exhortation and admonition should be
done with sagacity and benevolence in the manner of
suggestion and advice. The righteousness or deviation of
w
w
people is a matter that is in God’s hands. He is aware of
w ww
.j a w
those who have deviated from His path as well as of
ve .a
those who will be guided. Therefore, in calling people to
da l-m
truth and justice, no one should play the keeper of
hm a
morals or decree Heaven or Hell for any of his or her
ad wri
addressees. It is obvious from the Qur’ān that, in his role
g h d .o
am rg
of calling people to the truth, none of the messengers of
id
God was allowed to go beyond effective and clear
i.c
communication or exhortation and reminding. God
om
Almighty says:
: ْ RØ‫ﻣﺬ‬
ْ : < ْ ْ : ‫ﻟﺴﺖ‬
(٢٢-٢١ :٨٨) PŒ‫ﺑﻤﺴﻴ‬
: : ‫إﻧﻤﺎ‬
ٌ 7 < ‫أﻧﺖ‬ : : 9: ْ : :9
ٍ 7 7 ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ‬7 7
Your task is to admonish; you are not responsible
for their supervision. (88:21-22)
However, matters are different in the domain of

authority. For example, on attaining maturity, a man
may become a husband to a wife and, as a consequence
of this relationship, a father to his children. Nature and
religion entail that a certain degree of authority be
335
granted to him in both these roles. Similar is the role of
institutions and governments. When they are formed,
their heads are also granted a certain degree of authority.
It is regarding the ambit of this authority that the Prophet
(sws) is reported to have said:
ْ : ‫ﻓﺒﻠﺴﺎﻧھ‬ : ْ : ْ: ْ : 9 : < ْ: ً: ْ < ْ < ْ ::
7 7 7 : 7 7 ‫ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻊ‬
‫ﻓﺈن ﻟﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻓﺈن ﻟﻢ‬7 ‫ ْ <ه ﺑﻴﺪه‬7 ‫ﻓﻠﻴﻐ‬ Ra‫ﻣﻨﻜﻢ ﻣﻨ‬7 ‫ﻣﻦ رأى‬
ْ
ْ < : ‫ﻚ‬7 ‫وذﻟ‬ : : :: ْ: : ْ : ْ :
7 : 7 ‫أﺿﻌﻒ‬
‫ﻵﻺﻳﻤﺎن‬ ‫ﻓﺒﻘﻠﺒھ‬
7 7 7 ‫ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻊ‬
7
He amongst you who sees a wrong should redress it
by hand; if he does not find in himself the strength
w
w
to do it, then by his tongue; and, if even that is not
w ww
.j a w
possible, he should despise the wrong in his heart --
ve .a
and this is the lowest level of faith.184
da l-m
hm a
The Arabic word used here for “wrong” is munkar. It
ad wri
does not refer to sins of purely religious nature; instead,
g h d .o
it refers to those wrongs that all humankind, regardless
am rg
of religion or creed, regards as evil. Theft, perjury,
id
i.c
dishonesty, misappropriation, embezzlement, fraud,
om
adulteration, violation of others’ rights, indecency,
causing injury to life or damage to property or honour,
and other violations of these kinds fall within the
category of munkar. This statement attributed to the
Prophet (sws) also relates to these wrongs. It is an
offshoot of the Qur’ānic directive of amr bi’l-ma‘rūf
(commanding right) and nahī ‘an al-munkar (forbidding
wrong). The Prophet (sws) has warned that, if, in the
realm of one’s authority, one does not even regard these
wrongs as evil, one falls below the lowest level of faith.

336
The words in lam yastaṭi‘ also need to be properly
understood. They do not refer to the kind of ability that
entails responsibility. The reason is that in the absence of
this kind of ability, a person does not remain accountable
and therefore does not fall in the levels of faith. In this
reported statement, the words connote “strength” and
“courage” that may increase or decrease with the level of
one's faith. It is therefore only in the sphere of one's
authority that one might be considered as having fallen
to lower levels of faith if one does not remedy a wrong
by hand. The reason for this difference is that, in this
w
latter case, the person does not make the required
w
w ww
endeavour to eradicate evil despite having the right and
.j a w
ve .a
the authority to do so. The moral imperative here does
da l-m
not at all mean that, for achieving a higher level of faith,
hm a
people have the right to gather their followers on their
ad wri
own and go out as vigilantes to end wrong. Such steps,
g h d .o
if taken, translate into the worst kind of disorder, which
am rg
has no sanction at all in religion. All directives in
id
i.c
religion are given ْ : in< 9: relation
: : ْ < ‫إﻵﻹ‬9: ‫—ﻔﺴﺎ‬ < 79 : <‫[( ﻵﻹ ﻳ‬in His directives,] God
to one’s ability and
om
authority. ‫وﺳﻌﻬﺎ‬ 7 23‫ﷲ‬ ‫ﻠﻒ‬
does not burden any soul with what is beyond it,
(2:286)) is an unequivocal principle that is kept in
consideration in all the directives of religion and the
divine law. It is this principle that should be kept in mind
to understand the Prophet’s statement regarding the
prohibition of wrong.
______________
337
Transfer of Reward to the Dead
As a principle, the Almighty has made it clear in the

Qur’ān that each person is responsible for his deeds. No
one else can be held accountable for what a person does;
nor can a person himself take responsibility of some
w
other person’s deeds. Similarly, the Qur’ān has also
w
w ww
made it clear that on the Day of Judgement whatever a
.j a w
person will earn will be as a result of his own deeds:
ve .a
da l-m
ۡ ۡ : ۡ :9 ۡ : : ٰ ۡ < : ۡ 9 ٌ : : < : :9 :
ٰ : ‫ﻣﺎ‬: ‫ﻵﻹ‬: 9 ‫ﻶﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬7
r : ۡ : ‫ن‬: 9 : ‫و‬: .0ë‫ﺳ‬ 7 7 : 7 ‫ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟ‬
hm a
‫ﺳﻌﻴھ‬ ‫ و ن‬.‫ي‬R• ‫وزر‬7 ‫زرة‬7 ‫ﺗﺰر و‬ 7 ‫ﻵﻹ‬
ٰ ۡ : ۡ : : : ۡ < ٰ ۡ < :9 < ٰ < : ۡ :
ad wri
(٤١-٣٨ :٥٣) .()‫ ﺛﻢ ﻳﺠﺰ˜ھ ﻟﺠﺰآء ﻵﻹو‬.‫ﺳﻮف ﻳﺮي‬
g h d .o
am rg
That no soul shall bear another’s burden and that [in
id
i.c
the Hereafter] a man shall only receive that which he
om
strove [for in this world] and that what he has earned
shall soon be shown to him; he shall then be fully
rewarded. (53:38-41)
It is also is a fact that it is not the form of a person’s

deeds which reaches the Almighty and makes that
person eligible to reward; on the contrary, it is the piety
of the heart which makes him eligible to this reward.
This piety obviously is not something transferable. It
resides in the heart of a person. It cannot be acquired
from there and transferred to some other place so that a
person is able to benefit from its blessings. Animal
338
sacrifice is a great worship ritual. While sacrificing an
animal, we offer it to God by placing it in the direction
of the Baytullāh and by turning our own selves in its
direction with the sentiment that it is in fact we who are
offering ourselves to God. The Qur’ān states:
<ۡ
ۡ 7 ‫ﻟﺘﻘﻮي‬ ۡ :9 < : :
< 9 ‫ﻟﻜﻦ‬
ٰ ‫ﻳﻨﺎﻟھ‬ ۡ 7 ٰ ‫و‬: ‫دﻣﺂؤﻫﺎ‬ :<
: 7 ‫و ﻵﻹ‬: ‫ﻟﺤﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬ :
: < ۡ < 23‫ﷲ‬ < 9ٰ
: 9 ‫ﻟﻦ‬
: ‫ﻳﻨﺎل‬ ۡ :: :
(٣٧:٢٢) ‚ ‫ﻣﻨﻜﻢ‬
The flesh and blood [of] these [sacrificed animals]
does not reach God; it is only your piety that reaches
Him. (22:37)
w
w
w ww
If both these verses of the Qur’ān are considered, then
.j a w
only one option remains: viz a viz a person benefiting or
ve .a
da l-m
being penalized for a good or evil deed done by someone
hm a
else: his intention or efforts directly or indirectly affect
ad wri
the other person’s good or evil deeds. This can have
g h d .o
many forms. For example, he instructed and educated
am rg
someone in goodness and piety or set a practical
id
i.c
example of some virtuous act or played a role in
om
providing resources for the virtuous deed. On this very
basis, the Prophet (sws) is reported to have said:
: : :: : ::ْ < : ْ ْ : :
< < : : ‫—ﻘﻄﻊ ﻋﻨھ‬
‫ﺟﺎرﻳـﺔ‬ ٍ : : ‫ﺛﻶﻹﺛﺔ إﻵﻹ ﻣﻦ‬
ٍ : 7 : ‫ﺻﺪﻗﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻋﻤﻠھ إﻵﻹ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻵﻺﻧﺴﺎن‬7 ‫إذ ﻣﺎت‬
:
< ْ : ‫ح‬7 ‫ﺻﺎﻟ‬: ‫وﻟﺪ‬ < ::ْ ْ
‫ﻳﺪﻋﻮ ﻟھ‬ ٍ ٍ : ‫ﺑھ أو‬ 7 7 ‫ﻋﻠﻢ <ﻳﻨﺘﻔﻊ‬
ٍ 7 ‫أو‬
When a person dies his deeds too end with his death.
However, three things are an exception to this:
ṣadaqah-i jāriyah, knowledge which is beneficial
and pious children who pray for their parents.185

339
The mention of children in this narrative should not be
a cause for surprise. The fact is that children are nothing
but the effort of their parents. This is because if the
parents are true believers, then they will be the first ones
to teach and instruct their children about praying to God,
keeping fasts, offering the ḥajj, paying zakāh as well as
other virtuous deeds. Thus if because of some reason
they are unable to do a virtuous deed, then there is no
harm if their children complete their good intention
about a virtuous deed by practically carrying it out. In
w
w
fact, it is evident from various sayings of the Prophet
w ww
.j a w
Muḥammad (sws) that it is in accordance with obedience
ve .a
and decency that children should do so. By having an
da l-m
intention to do such a virtuous deed the parents will also
hm a
be rewarded for its practical completion by their
ad wri
children. It is reported that a lady from the tribe of
g h d .o
am rg
Kath‘am asked: “O Messenger of God! The ḥajj is
id
obligatory upon my father but he is so old that he cannot
i.c
even sit on an animal of conveyance; can I offer the ḥajj
om
186
for him.” The Prophet (sws) replied: “Yes.” Similarly,
a lady from the tribe of Juhaynah inquired from the
Prophet (sws): “My mother had vowed to offer the ḥajj;
now she has died; can I offer it for her.” He replied:
“You should certainly offer it; would you not have paid
back a loan she had borrowed? This is a loan taken from
God; so pay it back and the obligation to pay back the
loan to God is more [than any other].”187

340
In the life of a person, this status of the parents can
also be held by some other individual. For example, his
teacher or some elderly person. Thus such individuals
too must be included in the sphere of application of this
issue. All narratives on this topic must be interpreted in
the light of this principle. Without its existence, if a
person does a deed for someone, then he alone will
receive its reward because it is he who did it. It is
reported about the Prophet (sws) that a lady raised her
child towards him and said: “Can he also offer the ḥajj?”
The Prophet (sws) replied: “Yes, but the reward of this
w
ḥajj shall go to you.”188 What at best can be inferred
w
w ww
from this narrative of the Prophet (sws) is that even if
.j a w
ve .a
there is no possibility of transferring the reward of a
da l-m
virtuous deed to the individual for whom it is done, there
hm a
is no harm in doing such a deed; its reward shall be
ad wri
reaped by its doer at all cost. However, this does not
g h d .o
mean that this saying in any way provides a basis to
am rg
allow gatherings which are so rampant among the
id
i.c
Muslims today by the name of iṣāl-i thawāb (transfer of
om
reward to the dead). All such gatherings indeed come
under the label of religious innovation (bid‘ah). No basis
can be found for them in the Qur’ān and Sunnah.
However, this much should remain clear
ٰ : : :9 in: ۡ this
ۡ issue
:
7 7 ‫ ﻟ ۡﻴﺲ ﻟ‬is
that the style adopted in (٣٩:٥٣) 0ë‫ﻵﻹ ﻣﺎ ﺳ‬7 ‫ﻶﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬7 :
meant to negate entitlement to reward and the principle
188. Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 2, 974, (no. 1336). It is

this principle which the Prophet (sws) explained regarding
doing some virtuous deed on behalf of someone viz. the
reward is for the person who does that particular deed. All
narratives which discuss this subject should be understood in
the light of this principle.
341
stated in it relates to the occasion when the decision of
Paradise or Hell is to be made for a person. This
principle does not relate to the situation in which a
person has already become entitled to Paradise on the
basis of his faith and deeds. In such cases, a person can
receive many favours and gifts of God. Thus the Qur’ān
has specified that if children become worthy of the
lowest level of Paradise because of the extent of their
faith, then the Almighty in order to complete His favour
on their parents will increase the level of the children
and unite them with their parents residing at a higher
w
w
level. The Qur’ān states:
w ww
.j a w
ۤ : : ۡ < : :9 9 < ۡ : ۡ : ۡ : : ۡ ۡ < < :9 9 < ۡ < ۡ : : :9 : ۡ < : ٰ : ۡ :9 :
ve .a
‫رﻳﺘﻬﻢ و ﻣﺎ‬7 ‫ﺑﻬﻢ ذ‬7 7 ‫ﺑﺎﻳﻤﺎن ﻟﺤﻘﻨﺎ‬
ٍ 7 7 ‫ذرﻳﺘﻬﻢ‬ 7 ‫ﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻣﻨﻮ و ﺗﺒﻌﺘﻬﻢ‬ 7 ‫و‬
da l-m
:ۡ ۡ 9 ۡ : : ۡ 9 ۡ < ٰ ۡ : :
hm a
(٢١:٥٢) ‚ ‫ء‬JÌ ٍ ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻬﻢ‬ 7 7 ‫ﻣﻦ‬7 ‫ﻟﺘﻨﻬﻢ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
And those who had accepted faith, and their children
am rg
had followed them in their faith, We shall unite their
id
children with them [with the status they are in] and
i.c
om
not even slightly diminish their deeds. (52:21)
It emanates from this verse that same should be the

case when parents reside at a lower level in Paradise.
The reason for this is that the affection which is
becoming the cause for lifting the children to the level of
parents is present in this case as well.
(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleemr)
______________
342
Compulsive Knowledge
Knowledge is categorised into badīhī (self-evident)

and naẓarī (acquired).189 Badīhī is said to be
spontaneously acquired without thought and
deliberation, whereas naẓarī is considered to be derived,
w
through thought and deliberation, from badīhī. As a
w
result of this categorisation, badīhī stands as
w ww
.j a w
fundamental and every other form of knowledge its
ve .a
corollary. Philosophy began with discussion and analysis
da l-m
hm a
of the external world. Afterwards, when the reality of the
ad wri
sensory perception came to the forefront of
g h d .o
philosophical discussion and badīhī was regarded as
am rg
fundamental, it was understood to be that knowledge
id
i.c
which no one disagrees with. But as man has a tendency
om
to disagree with anything, this tendency finally took
over, and doubts and speculations started to emerge.
Now the situation is that (out of the four major schools
of sceptics),190 one school insists that we only know
what is perceptible to us, and that is foundational, since
all thoughts and ideas originate from what we perceive
through our senses. The brain is a tabula rasa, i.e., a
clean slate with nothing registered in there prior to our
189. Badīhī and naẓarī are also referred to as immediate and

mediate knowledge, respectively (See Aristotelian logic). –
Junaid Hassan (J. H.)
190. All parenthetical additions are mine. – J. H.
343
sensory perceptions. The second school claims that
knowledge is a function of the self and, except our
conscious self, we do not certainly know of anything
else that exists. The third school claims that nothing is
certain except for the perceptible effects. The fourth
school has declared that both the sensory data and
thought cannot be trusted; therefore, nothing in this
world can be referred to as absolute and certain.
What is the outcome of these schools? The first school
has negated the intellect, the soul within man, God, and
the resurrection; the second does not accept the existence
w
w
of the external world; the third disagrees with both of
w ww
.j a w
them and does not recognize anything except for ‘ilm-e-
ve .a
maḥḍ (sheer knowledge),191 whereas, the fourth
da l-m
completely denies knowledge and certainty and is not
hm a
ready to accept any of the aforesaid entities. When
ad wri
Descartes (d. 1650) professed: “I think; therefore, I
g h d .o
am rg
exist” he, after Socrates and Aristotle, once again
id
attempted to free knowledge and philosophy from such
i.c
scepticism.192 However, in the post-modernist era, the
om
191. ‘Ilm-e maḥḍ implies that, though, it is a fact that
something is in our knowledge but what it is, we do not know;
we have no means to analyze it. It is just a state of knowledge
that we find ourselves in. Neither do we know who the
perceiver is, nor do we know what it is that is being perceived,
nor do we know of anything (if at all) in the external world.
(Information in this footnote was provided by the author in a
personal phone conversation, Apr. 14, 2012).
192. Cogito ergo sum. This attempt of Descartes, like that of
his predecessors, could not be decisive because he, too, did not
base his argument on the foundation on which badīhī concepts
stand within the human nature. Thus, Jacques Derrida (d.
344
same “sophist” mind-set wants to prove its point through
dissolution of language. It claims that no symbol or word
(signifier) of a language defines the meaning of any
particular entity (signified), since no particular entity has
any absolute existence. The meaning of each word is
determined on the basis of other words present within a
sentence. If you add or subtract one word, the meaning
of the whole sentence would alter. Thus, meaning is
neither in words nor sentences; it does not exist. No
word in a sentence carries meaning completely on its
own; therefore, it defers the meaning to some other word
w
w
or words of the sentence. Thus using a collection of
w ww
.j a w
words, meanings indicate their direction; context of a
ve .a
passage continuously keeps changing them; they can
da l-m
never be certain and final. Therefore, the values
hm a
associated with words are also meaningless; they too
ad wri
cannot be absolute.193 This is the account of those who
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
2004), first and foremost, criticizes this very tradition based on
om
the metaphysical status of existence and insists that even “my
own self” has no reality because it also has no absolute
meaning.
193. Proponents of this view do not realize that this
argument of theirs itself manifests their belief in the soundness
of reason and intellect. Negation of a belief cannot be
accomplished but by another higher belief; this is man’s
compulsion. Thus, the result of every attempt of negation (of
one concept) is affirmation (of another concept), but man’s
tragedy is that he ignores facts in the heat of emotions.
Individual freedom and individualism, for which these people
strive hard, is also a value, so insisting on negating all values
eventually leads to nothing but to the affirmation of yet
another value. The situation is thus: (neither a
345
tried to pursue truth without divine guidance. Iqbal (d.
1938) was not wrong when he remarked:
194
In contrast to this, the Qur’ān places its argumentation

and reasoning on that fiṭrī (natural) knowledge which is
revealed within the human mind. All human knowledge
and action, thought and reasoning is, in fact, based on
fiṭrī knowledge. No doubt, what catches the eye in the
first place is badīhī (self-evident) knowledge; therefore,
w
w
on its basis man starts his intellectual quest. He does not
w ww
.j a w
realize that it is, in fact, his fiṭrī knowledge that leads
ve .a
him to badīhī concepts and further to higher ideas and
da l-m
hm a
theories. If fiṭrī knowledge were not there, neither badīhī
ad wri
nor thought and reason would be possible. This is
g h d .o
because what we receive from the external world are
am rg
merely subjects. We do not receive any verdict
id
(predicate or copula) associated with them from the
i.c
om
external world; the verdicts to be associated are already
present within our minds.195 It is the mind that passes
place to stay, nor a foot to go).

194. Discursive reasoning is an ocean of confusion.
195. Appreciation of shapes (square, rectangle, or triangle)
and colours, fragrance, music, or taste (sour, sweet, or bitter)
etc. are already present within our minds as jadhrī
(foundational) knowledge. Whenever we encounter, for
example, an apple in the external world, our mind applies its
foundational (inherent) conception of colour and shape on it,
which enables us to recognize the apple as a round, colourful
object – a manifestation of foundational knowledge, which we
refer to as fiṭrī (natural) knowledge. (Information in this
346
verdicts on subjects and continuously transforms them
into new subjects to pass new verdicts on them.196 This
(fiṭrī knowledge innate within the mind) manifests as
human relish and perception, where the relish is the
source of action and the perception the source of
knowledge. It is this knowledge which is the source of
discrimination we make between the self and its
attributes, possessor and possession, action and reaction,
good and bad, wisdom and foolishness, and personality
and its disorders. On the basis of the effects that reach
our mind through our senses, the very knowledge
w
enables us to argue for the effectors – this is what gives
w
w ww
us conviction in the existence of the external world. As
.j a w
ve .a
long as one is a human being, one cannot deny the
da l-m
conclusions and verdicts of fiṭrī knowledge, for it reigns
hm a
over the human mind. Therefore, submission to the
ad wri
verdicts of this knowledge is not optional but man is as
g h d .o
bound to accept them as he is to accept his instincts. You
am rg
may ask when man can deny anything, why can he not
id
i.c
deny fiṭrī knowledge? Of course, he can do so in words
om
but as soon as he utters this denial, his actions and state
of affairs negate him. Thus, it becomes evident on every
humble man that this denial is obviously stubbornness.
This is why Imām Hamīd al-Dīn Farāhī (d. 1930)
referred to fiṭrī knowledge as iḍṭararī (compulsive) and
footnote is based on a telephonic conversation with the author,

Apr. 14, 2012).
196. For example, our mind may pass the following verdict
on crows: Crows are black, where “crows” are a subject, “are”
a copula, and “black” is a predicate. After this, it may take
“black” as a subject and pass a new verdict on it, such as:
Black is a colour. – J. H.
347
rightly claimed that the human mind possesses a place
which is divinely guided – the place that should be
called the centre. This centre yields the knowledge that
we would call fiṭrī. After this come badīhī (self-evident)
and naẓarī (acquired). Therefore, knowledge should not
only be classified into these two but into jadhrī
(foundational),197 fiṭrī (natural), badīhī and then naẓarī,
respectively, as this is what the facts demand. Let us
proceed in the light of the above discussion.
The Qur’ān (See 7:172-174) tells that it is within the
nature of creatures to acknowledge their Creator; their
w
w
being is such that it obligates a creator. If we need to
w ww
affirm the existence of our Creator, we need not to
.j a w
ve .a
indulge in any logical argument about it but simply
da l-m
mention it and, thus, remind each other. Therefore, it is a
hm a
fact that no (cognizant) creature denies its Creator;
ad wri
instead, when reminded, it approaches Him with the
g h d .o
similar zeal with which a famished approaches food. The
am rg
Qur’ān informs that when God asked mankind if He is
id
i.c
not their Lord, all unequivocally replied that indeed He
om
is. Nonetheless, we know that in this worldly life, man
sometimes denies. This is merely haughtiness because
the moment he is denying God, within his scope of
knowledge, at the same time he is still looking for an
actor for every action, a planner for every plan, a
character for every characteristic, an agent for every
outcome, and a knowledgeable and wise organizer for
197. Fiṭrī knowledge is placed somewhere in the mind. Its

sheer presence, before its manifestation, is referred to as jadhrī
knowledge. (Information in this footnote was provided by the
author in a personal phone conversation, Apr. 14, 2012).
348
every organization.198 His entire knowledge is the
account of this contradiction. This is how the actions of
such a person defy him and completely unveils the
haughtiness behind his denial of God.
Similar is the case of the sense of good and evil. The
Qur’ān (91:7-8) states that the distinction between good
and evil and the acknowledgment of good as good and
evil as evil are revealed within man at the time of his
creation. Nonetheless, man sometimes denies but this
denial is, again, nothing but haughtiness. That is
because, while denying, if man himself becomes a
w
w
victim of evil, he without any hesitation refers to evil as
w ww
evil and launches a strong protest against it. Not only
.j a w
ve .a
that but if he receives something good, he shows respect
da l-m
and gratitude for it. Furthermore, whenever he forms a
hm a
society, he certainly sets up a system of justice within it.
ad wri
His laws, courts, and international institutions, all bear
g h d .o
am rg
witness to his inner sense of good and evil.
id
Similar is the case of meanings that words of a
i.c
language communicate. The Qur’ān claims that it is sent
om
down as a criterion to distinguish between right and
198. Here one may argue that this is not always the case. For
example, Atheist Darwinists do not look for a knowledgeable
and wise organizer for the organization present within a living
cell; rather they attribute that to “blind, random, purposeless,
and unguided” processes (mutation and natural selection)
working over long periods of time. Actually, this is the very
contradiction that the author intends to highlight here.
Nowhere else in their lives would they accept to recognize an
organized system without an organizer – such recognitions
only show up when their faith in naturalism compels them to
defy the supernatural. – J. H.
349
wrong (17:42) and as a judge to settle disputes (in
religious matters) within mankind (5:48). It goes on to
say that it has communicated its message with so much
of certainty that, on its basis, mankind will be held
answerable on the Day of Judgement, and people will
either be destined to Paradise or Hell (See, for example,
26:193-195 and 39:28). This claim of the Qur’ān is
established on the innate faith that man has always had
on the certainty and accuracy of his lingual ability and
what he communicates through it. Thus, scholars of
Hadīth and Islamic jurisprudence state the following as
w
an established principle: ‫ ﻣﻮﺟﺐ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻢ و ﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬0ë‫ﻣﺎﺛﺒﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺎب ﻗﻄ‬
w
w ww
.j a w
(what is mentioned in the Qur’ān is definitive; it
ve .a
necessitates the beliefs and deeds.) Nonetheless, the
da l-m
Kalamists – inspired by the labyrinths of philosophy –
hm a
do not accept this principle. They insist that the
ad wri
g h d .o
meanings that words of a language communicate are
am rg
speculative; therefore, instead of the words of the
id
Qur’ān, rational arguments are the criterion for
i.c
distinguishing right from wrong.199 If critically analyzed,
om
this also turns out to be outright haughtiness because the
moment they are claiming this, precisely at the same
time they are communicating their viewpoint in words
without showing any hesitation whatsoever that their
viewpoint will not reach their audience with full
certainty. More so, while listening to others and reading
199. Post-modernist thinkers are striving to snatch this pillar

of faith as well from man. After this, nothing would remain in
man’s hands except meaninglessness and extreme
faithlessness. How far its painful consequences would reach,
no one can estimate.
350
their texts, they also never show any hesitation. When
arguing and debating, their each and every word bears
witness to their faith in words. This is the testimony of
the human soul against itself; no other testimony could
be greater than this. The Qur’ān states:
ْٰ: : : ٌ ْ
: ْ 7 : : 0º‫وﻟﻮْ ﻟ‬9 ،‫ة‬: ‫ﺑﺼ‬ ٰ ْ: < ْ ْ
(١٥-١٤ :٧٥) ‫ﻣﻌﺎذﻳﺮه‬ 7 : ‫—ﻔﺴھ‬
7 (b‫ﻋ‬: ‫ﻵﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬
: 7 ‫ﺑﻞ‬:
7
Man himself is a witness against his own soul, no
matter how many lame-excuses he may invent.’
(75:14-15)
w
w
Ibn Qayyim (d. 1350 AH) writes:
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
‫ ﻵﻹن ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﻤﺮ ده‬،‫ ﺑﻤﺮ د ﻟﻤﺘ ﻠﻢ‬g ‫( ﻟﻴﻘ‬T ‫ﻳﻖ ﻟﻨﺎ‬R- ‫ ﻧھ ﻵﻹ‬0×‫ﻣﻦ د‬
da l-m
hm a
‫ة ﺷﻴﺎء ﻓﻬﻮ ﻣﻠﺒﻮس ﻋﻠﻴھ ﻣﻠﺒﺲ‬Rw‫( ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻔﺎء ﻋ‬b‫ﻣﻮﻗﻮف ﻋ‬
ad wri
g h d .o
،‫( ﻟﻨﺎس؛ ﻓﺎن ﻫﺬ ﻟﻮﺻح ﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﺼﻞ ﻵﻹﺣﺪ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺑ ﻶﻹم ﻟﻤﺘ ﻠﻢ ﻗط‬b‫ﻋ‬
am rg
‫ وﺻﺎر ﻟﻨﺎس‬،‫ و ﻧﺘﻔﺖ ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﻵﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬،‫وﺑﻄﻠﺖ ﻓﺎﺋﺪة ﻟﺘﺨﺎﻃﺐ‬
id
i.c
ً
om
،‫ض ﻫﺬ ﻟﻤﺼﻨﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻔھ‬Rè ‫ وﻟﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻢ‬،‫ ﺑﻞ ﺳﻮأ ﺣﺎﻵﻹ‬،‫_ﺎﻟﺒﻬﺎﺋﻢ‬
g ‫ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻶﻹﺛ‬Ùv ‫ وﺑﻄﻶﻹﻧھ ﻣﻦ‬،‫ورة ﻟﺤﺲ و ﻟﻌﻘﻞ‬RÎ' ‫وﻫﺬ ﺑﺎﻃﻞ‬ ٰ
(١٠٩ /٣g ‫ ) ﻋﻶﻹم ﻟﻤﻮﻗﻌ‬.‫ﻮرة )( ﻏ ﻫﺬ ﻟﻤﻮﺿﻊ‬v‫وﺟﻬﺎ ﻣﺬ‬ ً
Those who claim that we have no means to acquire
the message of a speaker with full certainty –
arguing for this on the basis that the knowledge of
what he intends to say is only possible if we first
deny ten facts200 – are not only muddled themselves
200. That is the denial of homonymy of words, figurative

use of words, alteration (evolution) in the meaning of a word
351
but want to muddle others too. If what they claim
were true, then the information within the speech of
a speaker could never be acquired; talking would
have been meaningless; man would have lost his
distinctive asset that makes him a human being, and
people would have become worse than animals.
Even what this writer intends to achieve from this
writing could not be identified. Therefore, intellect
and sense both suggest that this claim is utterly
wrong. There are more than thirty reasons why it is
wrong, which I have listed elsewhere.201
w
w
w ww
.j a w
ve .a
(Translated by Junaid Hassan)
da l-m
hm a
____________
ad wri
g h d .o
am rg
id
i.c
om
over time, specific and general connotations of words
(according to the “universe of discourse” of the speaker), and
such use of a word that makes the text contradictory to some
logical premise (and, hence, forces the reader to take the word
in some other or figurative meaning to avoid the contradiction)
etc. (According to the sceptics, each of these contributes to
muddle the meaning of what is said. – J. H.) For details, see
‘Alī ibn Muhammad al-Jurjānī, Sharh al-Mawāqif, 1st ed., vol.
2 (Cairo:1325 AH), 51.
201. Ibn Qayyim, I‘lām al-muwaqqi‘īn, vol. 3, 109.
352

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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

This book is a translation1 of some selected essays of

1. The translators, besides myself, include Asif Iftikhar,

When God created man, He placed two things within

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

In the exercise to form a sound understanding of the

An extremely basic fact regarding the Holy Qur’ān –

(Translated by Tariq Mahmood Hashmi)

2. Abū al-Ḥusayn Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ,

I have written in my treatise Mīzān3 that the Qur’ān is

3. English title: Islam: A Comprehensive Introduction.

‫وﻋﻠﻢ ﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺳﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧ ﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻌﺮﻓﻬﺎ ﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء وﻟﻢ ﻳ ﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﻏ ﻫﻢ‬

4. Abū ‘Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfi‘ī, Al-

5. Abū al-Faḍl Qāḍī ‘Iyāḍ ibn Mūsā, Tartīb al-madārik wa

He is the same person who upon seeing the

6. Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn ‘Abbās ibn Mujāhid,

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

It is not customary in various languages of the world

10. Al-Shāfi‘ī, Al-Risālah, 222. It is by not understanding

Imām does not regard the intentionality of a text to be

It is this very nature of a language because of which

11. Javed Aḥmad Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 9th ed. (Lahore: Topical

12. Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 24-41.

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

Muḥammad (sws) has delivered the Qur’ān to the

13. English title: Islam: A Comprehensive Introduction.

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

15. Ghāmidī, Mīzān, 81-196.

(Written in reponse to a query about the project

In order to understand any research being conducted

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

The term ijtihād has originated from a Ḥadīth. In the

16. Abū ‘Īsā Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsā al-Tirmidhī, Sunan, vol. 3

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

The blessed person of Muḥammad (sws) is the sole

If a person wants to study the arguments on the basis

17. Waḥīd al-Dīn Khān, Maṣādir-i sharī‘ah Al-Risālah 7

The Qur’ān says:

19. Tirmidhī, Sunan, vol. 4, 466, (no. 2167).

Religion is the guidance which was first instilled by

20. The Qur’ān, 62:2.

21. The Qur’ān, 87:14-17.

24. The Qur’ān, 4:135; 5:8.

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

Muslims remained a great power in this world for

(You are in a state of humiliation because of leaving

Secondly, this world is a place where harnessing

It is apparent to every keen eye that the greatest issue

(Translated by Dr Shehzad Saleem)

Amongst the various marvels of science and the

The Almighty has prescribed the month of Ramaḍān

This narrative is reported by ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Umar

28. Muslim, Al-Jāmi‘ al-ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 2, 759, (no. 1080).

The successful prophetic mission of Muḥammad (sws)

29. The Arabic word ‘ubūdiyyah covers all the stages of

(Translated by Tariq Mahmood Hashmi)

One major problem presently facing the Pakistani

(Translated by Tariq Mahmood Hashmi)