STURCTURE OF ENGLISH (ELL 20904) LEXICAL CATEGORIES

CHAPTER 1 1. Lexical categories are given notional definition, they are

characterized in terms of their semantic content.
WHAT IS SYNTAX 2. In modern (L), they are defined as morpho syntactically in
1. Syntax is the grammatical structure of sentences. terms of their grammatical properties.
2. The format in which words and phrases are arranged to create
sentences is called syntax. MORPHOLOGY
1. Morphology is a study of words
SYNTAX VS DICTION: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? 2. Their form & their relationship to other words in the same
Syntax – the arrangement of words that make a sentence. (L).
Diction – word choice 3. The structure of words and parts of words, such as stems,
root words, prefixes and suffixes
TWO CONCEPTIONS OF GRAMMAR
Prescriptive grammar
1. Consists of admonitions not to use certain forms/ constructions
hat are common in everyday speech:
- Never split an infinitive
- A preposition is a bad word to end a sentence with

1. Human (L) is a phenomenon amendable to scientific

investigation, rather than something to be regulated by the
decrees of authorities

Descriptive Grammar
1. Observes (L) & creates conceptual categories for it without
establishing rules of (L).
2. Consults intuitions of native speakers on what sounds good.
CHAPTER 5 & 6: THE WONDERFUL WORLD OF
REPRESENTING SENTENCE STURCTURE PHRASES AND CLAUSES
1. A sentence contains a subject that is only given once. 1. Phrase – a group of words that contains a subject OR a
2. A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order predicate (not both)
3. A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This 2. Clause – a group of words that conatins a subject &
is also called an independent clause. predicate
- Independent clasue expres complete thoughts (can be
WHY STUDY SYNTAX sentences)
1. To help us illustrate the patterns of English more effectively - Dependant clauses cannot be sentences on their own.
and clearly.
2. To enable us analyse the structure of English sentences in a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
systematic and explicit way. 1. Prepositional phrases begin w a preposition and ends w a
noun.
CONCLUSION 2. Gives information about a noun/verb.
We have provided an overview of some of the reasons people
have found the study of syntax to be inherent interest or useful. APPOSITIVE PHRASE
1. Is a noun or pronoun that renames, identifies or describes
CHAPTER 2: SYNTAX the noun preceding it.
1. Syntax is a central component of human (L). 2. E.g. Johnny Deep, a handsome actor, starred in Pirates of
2. (L) has often been characterized as a systematic correlation the Caribbean.
between certain types of gestures & meaning. 3. E.g. Kiera Knightly co-starred in the movie, a huge box
3. For spoken (L), the gestures are oral & for signed (L) they office success.
are manual.
4. Syntax deals w how sentences are constructed & users of VERBAL PHRASES
human (L) employ a striking variety of possible arrangement 1. Verbs used as a different part of speech
of the elements in sentences. a. Gerunds – Nouns
5. One of the most obvious yet important ways in which (L) Ends in -ing and are used as nouns
differ is the order of the main elements in a sentence. E.g.
6. In English, the subject comes before the verb & the direct - Swimming in the ocean has been Sharon’s passion since
object follows the verb. she was 5 y/o.
- Bill avoided doing his math assignment because the
ASPECTS OF SYNTATIC STURCTURE Wworld Series was on.
1. Sentence – Subject & Predicate - Talking while chewing gum can lead to accidents.
S+V+C
S+V+O b. Infinitive – Nouns
(DO) Starts w the word “to” followed by a verb and are used as
(IO) nouns.
 CHAPTER 9: STURCTURAL RELATIONS
To be or not to be: That is the question 1. Structural relations – the formal relationships between
I want to learn to speak Japanese items of a tree
2. Why should we care? We want to be able to talk about
CAUTION specific relationships in terms of structures.
1. Sometimes certain prepositional phrase look like infinitives.
2. If it is followed by a verb, then it is an infinitive.
3. E.g. I went to the store (pp) to buy (infinitive) chocolate
milk.

c. Participles – Adjectives
PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPAL PHRASES

PRESENT PARTICIPLES
1. Find in -ing, used as adjective
2. The grinning Cheshire Cat slowly disappeared from Alice’s
view.
3. The losing team ran off the field, crying and moping on the
way towards the lockers room.
4. Don’t get these mixed-up w gerunds that end in -ing but are
used as nouns.

PAST PARTICIPLES CHAPTER 10: BINDING THEORY

1. End in -ed & uses as adjectives 1. Describes the conditions on the structural relations
2. E.g. Covered in slime, rhe Chemist adjuested his formula so between nouns.
to not create a second explosion. 2. Concerned w three types of nouns:
- R-expressions (proper/common nouns)
CHAPTER 7: TREE DIAGRAMS/ LABELLING - Pronouns (he, she, it, his, one, them, him)
PHRASES - Anaphors (himself, herself, themselves)
3. These Noun Phrases are semantically distinct but also
have different syntactic distributions

R-EXPRESSIONS
1. Express content
2. An NP that’s gets it meaning by referring to an entity in the
world.
3. E.g. Bill Clinton, Travis, The woman in the blue suit, a
teddy bear, purple shoes.

ANAPHORS
1. An NP that obligatorily gets its meaning from another NP
in the sentences.
2. Heidi bopped herself on the head with a zucchini
3. Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, etc.

THE MAIN PHRASE STURCTURE RULES PRONOUNS

1. S  NP VP 1. Pronoun is an NP that may (but need not) get its meaning
2. NP  (Det) (AP) N (PP) from another word in the sentence. It can also gets its
3. VP  (Aux) V (NP) meaning from a noun previously mentioned in the
4. PP  (Deg) P (NP) discourse, or by context.
2. Art said that he played basketball.
- Art said that Art played basketball
- Art said that David played basketball
3. I, me, you, he, him. It, one, we, us, they, them, etc.

ANTECEDENT
1. An NP that gives its meaning to pronoun or anaphor.
2. Heidi (antecedent) bopped herself (anaphor) on the head
w a zucchini.

INDEXING
1. Means of representing the meaning of an NP
2. Each index (plural: indices) represents a different reference
a) [Colin]i gave [Andrea]j [a basketball]k.
b) [Art]i said that [he]j played [basketball]k in [the dark]l
c) [Art]i said that [he]i played [basketball]k in [the dark]l
d) [Heidi]i bopped [herself]i on [the head]j w [a zucchini]k

3. Start at the left and assign each NP an index starting w (i)

and working down the alphabet.

CO-INDEXING AND CO-REFERENCE

1. Two NPs that have the same index are said to be co-
indexed.
2. Two NPs that are co-indexed are said to co-refer (that is,
refer to the same entity in the world).
a) [Art]i said that [he]j played [basketball]k in [the dark]l
b) [Art]i said that [he]i played [basketball]k in [the dark]l

SYNTATIC RESTRICTIONS ON ANAPHORS

1. [Heidi]i bopped [herself]I on the head w a zucchini
LOCALITY RESTIRCTIONS ON ANAPHOR
2. [Heidi’s mother]k bopped [herself]k on the head w a
BINDING
zucchini
1. [Heidi]i dance with [herself]i
3. [Heidi’s mother]k bopped [herself]i on the head w a
2. [Heidi]i said that Art danced with [herself]i
zucchini.
3. [Heidi]i said that [herself]i danced with [Art]
- The antecedent for an anaphor can be the subject of the
sentence, but not an NP inside the subject.
BINDING DOMAIN
1. Binding domain – the clause containing the anaphor
2. This definition is overly simplistic, and not really accurate
will do for the purposes of the course.
3. Binding Principle A – An anaphor must be bound in its
binding domain.

PRONOUNS
1. [Heidi]i bopped [her]j on the head
2. [Heidi]i bopped [her]i on the head
3. [Heidi]i said that [she]i dance with Art
4. [Heidi]i said that [she]k dance with Art

BINDING Only restriction on pronouns is that they cannot be bound

1. This fact is captured by binding. within their clause.
2. Binds Free – not bound
a) A binds B if and only if Principle B – Pronouns must be free in their Binding
b) A c-commands B AND Domain
c) A and B are co-indexed
3. Binding is not the same as co-indexing SUMMARY
Indexing has same index: binding requires a c- 1. Antecedent, Anaphor, Index, Pronoun, R-Expression,
command relationship between the co-indexed Co-reference
elements) 2. Binds
4. Binding is a special kind of c-command. It is c- a) A binds B if and only if
command w co-indexing. b) A c-commands B AND
c) A and B are co-indexed
THE PRINCIPLE THAT DEALS W ANAPHORS. 3. Free – not bound
1. Principle A – An anaphor must be bound 4. Binding domain – the clause containing the anaphor
2. In English; an anaphor must be c-commanded & co-
indexed by an antecedent SUMMARY FOR THE BINDING PRINCIPLES
1. Binding Principle A – An anaphor must be bound in its
binding domain
2. Binding Principle B – Pronouns must be free in their
binding domain
3. Binding Principle C – R-expressions must be free
 CHAPTER 11: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

FACTUAL CONDITOINAL SENTENCES

1. Factual Conditionals (What happens if..)
- Relationships that are true and unchanging
a) If oil is mixed with water, it floats.
b) If you boil water too muc, it vaporizes.
2. Relationship based on habit
3. Past or present relationships that are habitually true.
c) If Americans want change, they always vote for the
challenger.
4. Both clauses usually have the same tenses
5. Frequent in conversation

FUTURE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Predictive condition (What will happen if..)
a) if the new leader doesn’t fulfill people’s expectations, he
won’t be smillin this time next year.
b) If the weather is clear, we’ll have lunch outside.
c) If you don’t finsih you homework, there will be no TV

IMAGINATIVE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

1. Hypothetical conditionals (What would happen if..)
2. Express what the speaker percieves to be unlikely yet possible
events or states in the if clauses
3. Can refer to the future as well as the present
a) If I had won alottery I would buy a ferrari
b) If Joe had the time, he would go to Mexico
4. Counterfactual Conditionals
5. Express impossible events/states in the if clauses
6. Reference to the present or past
c) If my grandfather were alive today, he would be experience a
very difficult world (present)
d) If my grandfather had been alive in 1996, he would have been
100 years old. (Past)