Reichardt Cr00032a005 PDF

Chem. Rev.
1594, 94, 231S2358 2319
Solvatochromic Dyes as Solvent Polarity Indicators

Christian Reichardt
Depamnent of Chemistry and Scientific Centre for Material Sciences, Philipps Universily, Hans-Meenvein-Strase, D35032 Marburg, Germany
Received March 23, 1994 (Revised Manuscript Received August 30, 1994)
Contents
I. Scope 2319
(I. Introduction 231 9
111. Linear Free-Energy Relationships 2321
IV. Solvatochromism 2322
A. Solvent Effects on UVNislNear-IR Absorption 2322
Spectra
B. Solvatochromic Comwunds 2323
V. Empirical Parameters of ‘Solvent Polarity from 2323
UVNislNear-IR Spectroscopic Measurements
A. Single Parameter Approaches 2323
B. The h(30) and Scale of Solvent Polarity 2334
C. Multiparameter Approaches 2346
VI. Interrelation between Empirical Solvent Polarity 2349 Christian Reichardt was born in 1934 in Ebersbach, Saxony, Germany.
Parameters Atter a one-year stay 195S1954 at the “Fachschule IOr Energie” in Z i i u ,
VII. Summary and Conclusions 2352 GDR, as teaching assistant, he studied chemistry at the “Carl Schorlem-
VIII. Acknowledgments 2353 mer“ Technical University for Chemistry in Leuna-Merseburg, GDR.
and-after moving illegally to West Germany in 1955-at the Philipps
IX. References 2353 University in Marburg, FRG, where he obtained his Ph.D. in 1962 under
the tutelage of Professor K. Dimroth, and completed his Habilitation in
1967. Since 1971 he has been Professor of Organic Chemistry at
1. scope Marburg. in 1988 he was a visiting professor at the University of
Barcelona, Spain. He has authored and co-authored more than 135
This review compiles positively and negatively papers and patents, and a book entitled Solvents and Solvent Effects in
solvatochromic compounds which have been used to Organic Chemisty, which has been translated into French, Chinese, and
establish empirical scales of solvent polarity by Russian. His research interests are in synthetic organic chemistry
(chemistry of aliphatic dialdehydes, synthesis of polymethine dyes) and
means of UV/vis/near-IR spectroscopic measurements in physical organic chemistry (soivatochromism of organic dyes, solvent
in solution-with particular emphasis on the E ~ ( 3 0 ) effects in organic chemistry, empirical parameters of solvent polarity).
scale derived from negatively solvatochromic pyri-
dinium N-phenolate betaine dyes. careful selection of an appropriate solvent for a
This requires a short discussion of the concept of reaction or absorption under study is part of its
solvent polarity and how empirical parameters of craftsmen’s skill. The influence of solvents on the
solvent polarity can be derived and understood in the rates of chemical reactions was first noted by Ber-
framework of linear free-energy relationships. The thelot and PBan de Saint-Gilles in 1862 in connection
preconditions for the occurrence of solvatochromism, with their studies on esterification of acetic acid with
and further requirements of solvatochromic com- ethanol (“The esterification is disturbed and deceler-
pounds for them to be useful as solvent polarity ated on addition of neutral solvents not belonging to
indicators will be discussed. In addition to spectro- the reaction”)16and followed by the pioneering work
scopically based single parameters of solvent polarity, of Menshutkin in 1890 on the alkylation of tertiary
multiparameter treatments of solvent effects by amines with haloalkanes.”J* Menshutkin’s state-
means of solvatochromic parameters will also be ment that “a chemical reaction cannot be separated
mentioned. from the medium in which it is performed” still
The mutual interrelation between some of the more remains valid-and has recently been more casually
important W/vis/near-IR spectroscopically derived expressed as “In searching to understand the rate of
solvent scales, and their correlations with solvato- a reaction in solution, the baby must not be separated
chromic multiparameter equations will be exemplar- from its bath water“.lS
ily given.
The influence of solvents on the position of chemi-
cal equilibria was discovered in 1896 by ClaisenYO
/I. Introduction Knorr,2l and WislicenusZ2 independently of each
Rates and equilibrium positions of chemical reac- other, simultaneously with the discovery of keto-enol
tions, as well as the position and intensity of absorp- tautomerism in 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds. Claisen
tion bands in W/vis/near-IR, IR, NMR, and ESR wrote, “...It depends on the nature of substituents,
spectroscopy, are ~olvent-dependent.~-~~ Nowadays, the temperature, and for dissolved compounds, also
this is generally k n o w n to every chemist, and the on the nature of the solvent, which of the two forms
OM)9-2665/94/0794-2319$14.M)/0 6 1994 American Chemical Society
2320 Chemical Reviews, 1994, Vol. 94, No. 8 Reichardt
(i.e. keto and enol form) will be the more stable.”22 or (iii) molecules in the corresponding ground and
These results were first reviewed by Stobbe in 1903,23 excited states (-+ physical absorption of electromag-
who divided the solvents used into two groups ac- netic radiation). The extent of this differential sol-
cording to their ability to isomerize tautomeric vation depends on the intermolecular forces between
compounds. To some extent, his classification reflects solute and surrounding solvent molecules. Intermo-
the modern division of solvents into hydrogen-bond lecular forces include nonspecific forces such as
donor (HBD, protic) solvents and non-hydrogen-bond purely electrostatic forces arising from the Coulomb
donor (non-HBD, aprotic) solvents. forces between charged ions and dipolar molecules
In contrast to these more historical investigations, [i.e. iordion, ion/dipole, dipole/dipolel and polarization
a few recent examples from different areas shall forces that arise from dipole moments induced in
demonstrate the powerful influence of solvents on molecules by nearby ions or dipolar molecules [i.e.
chemical reactions and spectral absorptions: ionhonpolar molecule, dipolehondipolar molecule,
(a) The equilibrium constant of the 1:l complex two nonpolar molecules (dispersion energy)], as well
formed between a macrobicyclic cyclophane receptor as specific forces such as hydrogen-bonding between
and pyrene varies by a factor of ca. lo6 upon changing HBD and HBA ions or molecules, and electron-pair
the solvent from carbon disulfide to water, which donor (EPD)/electron-pair acceptor (EPA) f o r ~ e s . ~ O - ~ ~
corresponds t o a solvent-induced difference in the Obviously, intermolecular solute/solvent interactions
Gibbs binding energy of AAG’ = 8.1 k c a V m 0 1 . ~ ~ * ~ ~ are of highly complicated nature and difficult to
(b) Comparison of the unimolecular heterolysis rate determine quantitatively.
constants of 2-chloro-2-methylpropaneobtained in Chemists have tried to understand solvent effects
benzene and in water reveals a rate acceleration of on chemical reactions in terms of the so-calledsolvent
ca. l o l l with increasing solvent polarity.26,27The polarity, which is not easy to define and to express
first-order rate constant of the decarboxylation of quantitatively. What does solvent polarity mean?
6-nitrobenzisoxazole-3-carboxylatevaries by up to 8 The simplicity of idealized electrostatic models for the
orders of magnitude on going from reaction in hexa- description of solvation of ions and dipolar molecules,
methylphosphoric triamide t o reaction in considering solvents as nonstructured continuum,
(c) The intramolecular charge-transfer W h i s h e a r - has led to the use of physical constants, such as static
IR absorption band of the solvatochromic2,6-diphen- dielectric constant (er),permanent dipole moment (N),
yl(2,4,6-triphenyl-l-pyridinio)phenolate betaine dye refractive index (n), or functions thereof, as macro-
36 is shifted from A,,-,= = 810 nm to Am= = 453 nm scopic solvent parameters for the evaluation of me-
(M = 357 nm, A9 = 9730 cm-l) on going from dium effects. However, solute/solvent interactions
diphenyl ether to water as so1vent.l This corresponds take place on a molecular microscopic level within a
to a solvent-induced change in excitation energy of structured discontinuum consisting of individual
ca. 28 kcal/mol. solvent molecules, capable of mutual solventholvent
(d) In the fluorescence spectrum of l-phenyl-4-[(4- interactions. For this reason, and because of neglect-
cyano-1-naphthyl)methylenelpiperidine (711,the emis- ing specific soluteholvent interactions, the electro-
sion maximum is shifted from A,, = 407 nm to Amax static approach to medium effects often failed in
= 694 nm ( M = 287 nm, Aij = 10200 cm-l) by correlating observed solvent effects with physical
changing the solvent from n-hexane to a ~ e t o n i t r i l e . ~ ~ solvent parameters.’ In reality, satisfactory quan-
(e) The solvent-induced IR frequency shift for the titative descriptions of medium effects have to take
C=O stretching vibration of tetramethylurea is Aij into account all nonspecific and specific solute/
= 71 cm-l in going from n-hexane (ij = 1656 cm-l) to solvent, solvent‘solvent and, at higher concentrations,
water (9 = 1585 cm-l) as solvent.31 Corresponding even soluteholute interactions. Therefore, from a
solvent effects on the IR spectra of ethyl acetate [9- more pragmatic point of view, it seems to be more
(C=O)] and acetonitrile [9(C=N)I have been very favorable to define “solvent polarity” simply as the
recently ~ b t a i n e d . ~ ~ t ~ ~ overall solvation capability (or solvation power) of
(0 The solvent-induced difference in the 31PNMR solvents, which in turn depends on the action of all
chemical shift of triethylphosphane oxide, measured possible, nonspecific and specific, intermolecular
in n-hexane and in water, is Ad * 23 ppm.34,35Even interactions between solute ions or molecules and
the NMR chemical shift of the nonpolar solute 129Xe solvent molecules, excluding, however, those interac-
can vary by up to Ad = 200 ppm depending on the tions leading to definite chemical alterations of the
solvent sed.^^,^^ ions or molecules of the solute (such as protonation,
(g) The nitrogen and hydrogen hyperfine splitting oxidation, reduction, chemical complex formation,
constants, as well as the spin densities on the etc.). This definition of solvent polarity was given
nitrogen and carbon atoms, taken from the ESR ~ ~it seems to be becoming more and
in 1 9 6 5 , l ~and
spectrum of the 2-[4-(dimethylamino)phenyllindan- more accepted by the scientific c o m m ~ n i t y . * ~ - ~ ~
1,3-dionyl radical, are highly ~olvent-dependent.~~ Apparently, solvent polarity thus defined cannot
Similar solvent effects on ESR spectra have also been be described quantitatively by single physical solvent
found recently with paramagnetic organometallic parameters such as dielectric constants, dipole mo-
complexes such as Co(CO)3L2 (L = chelating phos- ments, etc. The lack of comprehensive theoretical
~hane).~~ expressions for the calculation or prediction of solvent
Responsible for all these medium effects is the effects on chemical reactivity, and the inadequacy of
differential solvation of (i) reactants and products (- defining solvent polarity in terms of simple physical
position of chemical equilibria); (ii) reactants and solvent characteristics, have led to the introduction
activated complexes (-- rates of chemical reactions); of so-called empirical parameters of solvent polar-
Solvatochromic Dyes Chemical Reviews, 1994, Vol. 94, No. 8 2321
ity.1343347On the basis of the assumption that par-

ticular, carefully selected, well-understood and strongly
solvent-dependent chemical reactions or spectral
absorptions may serve as suitable model processes there are three possibilities of introducing small
for recording medium effects; various empirical sol- changes in order to establish a reaction ~ e r i e s : l , ~ ~ - ~ ~
vent polarity scales have been developed this way.1247 (a)First, one can change the substrate by introduc-
The desmotropic constant, L, introduced by Meyer ing different substituents. This leads, particularly
in 1914 as a measure of the enolization power of in case of meta- and para-substituted benzene de-
solvents for 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds, can be con- rivatives, to the well-known Hammett equation.58A
sidered as the first empirically determined solvent recent, typical example of this kind of LFE relation-
parameter, using the keto-enol tautomerization of ship is the substituent-dependent alkylation of py-
ethyl acetoacetate as the solvent-dependent reference ridinium N-phenolate betaine dyes.59,60
process.48 However, the first real empirical param- (b) Second, one can change the reagent (equal to
eter of “solvent ionizing power” was the Y scale catalyst). This gives, e.g. in case of acid- or base-
introduced by Winstein et al. in 1948, derived from catalyzed reactions, the famous Bransted-Pedersen
the S Nheterolysis
~ of 2-chlor0-2-methylpropane.~~g,~~equation, which establishes a LFE relationship be-
The first suggestion that solvatochromic dyes could tween the strength of acids or bases and their
serve as visual indicators of solvent polarity was effectiveness as catalysts.61 This catalysis equation,
made by Brooker et al. (from the Eastman Kodak first introduced in 1924, was the first LFE relation-
Company in Rochester, NY) in 1951,50but Kosower ship.
was the first t o set up a real spectroscopic solvent
polarity scale in 1958. This was called the 2 scale (c) Third, in order to obtain a reaction series, one
and used the intermolecular charge-transfer (CT) can change the surrounding medium, while leaving
absorption of l-ethyl-4-(methoxycarbonyl)pyridinium all other reaction partners unchanged. In the case
iodide as the solvent-sensitive reference p r o ~ e s s . ~ , ~of
~ sufficiently
,~~ solvent-dependent chemical reactions,
Since then, various additional Whishear-IR-based this leads to kinetically derived empirical parameters
solvent polarity scales have been developed, using of solvent polarity, such as the Y values of W i n ~ t e i n . ~ ~
negatively or positively solvatochromic dyes of dif- A simple modification to the previous equation, by
ferent chemical structure, and, depending on their replacing the reagent R with photons hF and the
structure, capable of registering all or only selected product P with the substrate S in the spectroscopi-
types of intermolecular dye(solute)/solvent interac- cally excited state, leads to
t i o n ~ . The
~ , ~main
~ aim of this paper is to collect
these solvatochromically derived solvent polarity
scales and to compare them with respect to their (SI,+ hij (SI;
usefulness. ground excited
state state
In applying such single-parameter solvent scales,
it is tacitly assumed that the combination of solute/
solvent interactions between the reference solute(s) This replacement now corresponds to an extension
and the solvent is almost the same as with the of the LFE principle, as applied to reaction series, to
particular substrate under consideration. Obviously, so-called absorption series, which are available in all
this is an oversimplification which causes serious areas of absorption spectroscopy (Whishear-IR, IR,
limitations of the single-parameter approach to me- ESR, NMR). In order to establish an absorption
dium effects. Therefore, more recently, multiparam- series, there are two possibilities to alter the param-
eter correlation equations have been developed, eters of this equation:
which consist of up t o four single empirical param- (a) First, one can again change the substrate by
eters, each of them measuring a certain aspect of the introducing different substituents. This leads t o
overall solvation capability of a given solvent (e.g. spectroscopically derived Hammett equations con-
solvent polarizability, dipolarity, Lewis acidity, and necting substituent-induced wavenumber shifts of
Lewis b a s i ~ i t y ) . ’ , ~ ~ If
~ ,the
~ , ~one-parameter
,~~,~~ ap- suitably substituted substrates with Hammett sub-
proach for correlating solvent effects fails, then stituent constants. Examples of Hammett relation-
multiparameter correlations come into play. ships for W/vis spectroscopic data can be found in
This method of proceeding, i.e. the use of reference the l i t e r a t ~ r e . ~ ~ ? ~ ~
or standard compounds in order to establish empiri- (b) Second, only the medium in which the substrate
cal solvent polarity parameters, is quite common in
is to be dissolved is changed. Provided the position
chemistry and takes usually the form of a linear free-
energy (LFE) relations hi^.^^-^^ of the spectral absorption band of the substrate is
sufficiently solvent dependent, this procedure can be
used to establish spectroscopically derived scales of
Ill, Linear Free-Energy Relationships solvent polarity, as described in this paper for U V /
LFE relationships involve empirical relationships vishear-IR absorptions. That is, solvent polarity
between rates or equilibria of chemical reactions, scales as derived by means of absorption spectroscopy
which show some similarity within a so-called reac- and their applications are, in principle, further
tion series. Considering a chemical reaction between examples of LFE r e l a t i o n s h i p ~ . l ~However,
~ ~ - ~ ~ the
a substrate S and a reagent R in a medium M, which important question of whether LFE relationships are
leads, via an activated complex, to the product(s) P, fundamental laws of chemistry,64or only locally valid,
according t o empirical rules,65is still a matter of debate.
2322 Chemical Reviews, 1994, Vol. 94,No. 8 Reichardt
IV. Solvatochromism differential solvation of these two states is respon-

sible for the solvent influence on emission or fluo-
A. Solvent Effects on UVNislNear-IR Absorption rescence spectra. The solvent dependence of the
Spectra position of emission bands in fluorescence spectra has
been often included in the term so1vatochromism.l
It has long been known that W/vis/near-IR ab- The solvent dependence of fluorescence spectra has
sorption spectra of chemical compounds may be been sometimes called solvatofluor~hromism~~ or
influenced by the surrounding medium and that fZuoros~lvatochromism.~~ However, because of the
solvents can bring about a change in the position, close connection between spectral absorption and
intensity, and shape of absorption bands.66-68Hantz- emission, there is no need for special terms for
schlater termed this phenomenon sol~atochromism.~~ fluorescence-based solvatochromism.
However, the now generally accepted meaning of the
term solvatochromism differs from that introduced The solvatochromism observed depends on the
by Hantzsch.l One of the referees has recommended chemical structure and physical properties of the
to replace solvatochromism by the termperizhromism chromophore and the solvent molecules, which, for
(from Greek peri = around) in order to stress that their part, determine the strength of the intermo-
spectroscopic probe molecules cannot only measure lecular solute/solvent interactions in the equilibrium
the polarity of liquid environments, but also that of ground state and the Franck-Condon excited state.
solids, glasses, and surfaces. The term solvato- This is not the place to discuss the relation between
chromism is, however, so well established in the extent and sign of solvatochromismand the structure
literature that it would be difficult t o convince the of solvatochromic dyes; the reader is referred t o
scientific community to change this term to peri- recent review^.^,^^-^^ In general, dye molecules with
chromism, which is certainly a more general expres- a large change in their permanent dipole moment
sion for the spectroscopic phenomena under consid- upon excitation exhibit a strong solvatochromism. If
eration. the solute dipole moment increases during the elec-
A hypsochromic (or blue) shift of the W h i s h e a r - tronic transition (ug< pd, a positive solvatochromism
IR absorption band, with increasing solvent polarity normally results. In the case of a decrease of the
is usually called “negative solvatochromism”. The solute dipole moment upon excitation (ug > pe), a
corresponding bathochromic (or red) shift, with in- negative solvatochromism is usually observed. Sol-
creasing solvent polarity, is termed “positive solva- utes with this particular solvatochromicbehavior can
tochromism”. Obviously, solvatochromism is caused be commonly found among so-called meropolyme-
by differential solvation of the ground and first thine dyes (particularly among merocyanine dyes =
excited state of the light-absorbing molecule (or its vinylogous amides) and among compounds with
chromophore): if, with increasing solvent polarity, inter- or intramolecular CT absorption^.^,^^,^^!^^ In
the ground-state molecule is better stabilized by addition to the dipole moment change on excitation,
solvation than the molecule in the excited state, the ability of a solute to donate or to accept hydrogen
negative solvatochromism will result. Or vice versa, bonds to or from surrounding solvent molecules in
better stabilization of the molecule in the first excited its ground and Franck-Condon excited state deter-
state relative to that in the ground state, with mines further the extent and sign of its solvato-
increasing solvent polarity, will lead to positive chromism.81-86 Some merocyanine dyes (e.g. dye 48
solvatochromism. In this context, “firstexcited state” in Table 150Jg7) even show an inverted solvato-
means the so-called Franck-Condon excited state chromism, i.e. their long wavelength solvatochromic
with the solvation pattern present in the ground absorption band exhibits first a bathochromic and
state. then a hypsochromic band shift as the solvent polar-
Since the time required for a molecule to get ity increases. This is due to a solvent-inducedchange
electronically excited (about s) is much shorter of the electronic ground-state structure from a less
than that required to execute vibrations or rotations dipolar (in nonpolar solvents) to a more dipolar
(about to s), the nuclei of the absorbing chromophore (in polar solvents) with increasing
+
entity (i.e. absorbing molecule solvation shell) do solvent p01arity.l~~
not appreciably alter their positions during an elec-
tronic transition (Franck-Condon principle).70There- The search for quantitative relationships between
fore, the first excited state of a molecule in solution the solvent influence on W h i s h e a r - I R spectra and
has the same solvation pattern as the corresponding physical solvent parameters led Kundt, in 1878, to
ground state and is called Franck-Condon excited propose the rule, later named after him, that increas-
state, whereas the ground state corresponds to an ing dispersion (i.e. increasing index of refraction) of
equilibrium ground state. If the lifetime of the the solvent results in bathochromic shifts of the
excited molecule is large enough, then reorientation solute absorption band.66 Since then, numerous
of the solvent molecules, according to the new excited quantitative relationships between solute light ab-
situation, takes place, and a relaxed excited state sorption and physical solvent properties, based on
with a solvent shell in equilibrium with this state different models for solute/solvent interactions (such
results. It is from this equilibrium excited state that as, for example, the Onsager reaction field approach)
fluorescence can occur. By analogy, there is a have been established. The discussion of these
Franck-Condon ground state after emission with the relationships is outside the scope of this review, and
solvation pattern of the equilibrium excited state, the reader is referred to a selection of publications
which persists briefly until the solvent molecules dealing with various theoretical treatments of solvent
reorganize to the equilibrium ground state. The effects on electronic spectra.74~75,78,79,87-102
The complexity of intermolecular solute/solvent at the respective first places, with regard to their
interactions has led to correspondingly complex, experimentally accessible solvatochromic ranges. In
theoretically derived relationships between solvent- addition, a selection of more recently investigated
induced band shifts and physical parameters of solute solvatofluorchromicdyes is included in Table 1,with
and solvent, which, in general practice, have been l-phenyl-4-[(4-cyano-l-naphthy1)methylenelpiperi-
rather seldom used by chemists in their efforts to dine (71) as the fluorescent compound with the
quantify the term “solvent polarity”. The main largest measured solvatochromic range. Fluorescent
shortcomings of the theoretical treatments of solvent probe molecules have been used not only for the
effects on electronic spectra are the unavoidable use empirical determination of solvent polarities, but also
of simplified model concepts, without due regard t o in the study of microheterogeneous media, organized
the specific solute/solvent interactions such as hy- media as well as biochemical and biological systems.
drogen-bonding, EPDEPA, and solvophobic interac- Very often, the use of polarity-sensitive probe mol-
tions. The lack of reliable theoretical calculations of ecules is the only way to study the structure of
solvent effects in the past, and the inadequacy of binding sites and dynamics of carrier proteins, lipid
defining “solvent polarity” in terms of simple physical layers, and natural membranes on a molecular
solvent constants, have stimulated attempts to in- microscopic level. For more examples of fluorescent
troduce empirical scales of solvent polarity, based on probe molecules the reader is referred t o refs 119a
convenient, well-known, easily measurable, solvent- and 261-271.
sensitive reference processes within the framework Most of these fluorescent probes exhibit a positive
of LFE relationship^.^^-^' solvato(fluor)chromism, i.e. a bathochromic shift of
the emission band with increasing solvent polarity.
B. Solvatochromic Compounds A positive solvato(fluor)chromism of the emission
band usually corresponds to a positive solvato-
Because of the simplicity of UV/vis/near-IR spec- chromism of the absorption band, as shown by the
troscopic measurements, empirical parameters of examples of the merocyanine dyes 5 and 6 in Table
solvent polarity have been preferably determined by 1,the solvent dependence of which has been studied
means of solvatochromic compounds. It is assumed for both their emission and absorption spectrum.llg
that a particular solvent-influenced W h i s h e a r - I R According to the intramolecular charge transfer on
absorption is a suitable, representative model for a excitation, the first Franck-Condon excited state is
large class of other solvent-dependent processes. much more dipolar than the ground state. Stabiliza-
Model processes used to establish spectroscopically tion of this dipolar Franck-Condon excited state,
empirical scales of solvent polarity have been re- before and after relaxation to the equilibrium excited
v i e ~ e d . ’ , ~ ~Solvatochromic
,~’,~~ compounds suitable state, and destabilization of the Franck-Condon
as color indicators for solvent polarity measurements ground state relative to the equilibrium ground state,
have also been r e v i e ~ e d . ~ JIt~should
~ - ~ ~be~noted by differential solvation, leads eventually to the
that the absorption range of suitable solvatochromic observed positive solvato(fluor)chromism. In suitable
reference compounds does not only include the tra- cases, positively solvatochromic fluorescence bands
ditional U V and vis region, but also the near-IR will be more sensitive to solvent polarity changes
region.1° than the corresponding absorption bands. Unfortu-
In Table 1 solvatochromic compounds, which have nately, most of the negatively solvatochromic dyes
been used as UV/vis/near-IR spectroscopic indicators given in Table 1(e.g. the betaine dyes 36 and 37 and
to establish empirical scales of solvent polarity, are their derivatives) .do not exhibit any fluorescence, at
compiled. They are roughly ordered according to least at room temperature.
their solvatochromic range, i.e. their sensitivity to a In the case of the fluorescent polycyclic aromatic
solvent change. Sometimes, these scales have been hydrocarbons (PAH) such as pyrene 78 in Table 1,
-
given a special name or symbol, after the type of the
respective light absorption (n n*,CT, etc.); this
symbol is added in parentheses. Included in Table
instead of the minor solvent-induced shift of their
emission bands, the solvent-dependent ratio of emis-
sion intensities of two selected vibronic fluorescence
1 are also some of those solvatochromic compounds bands have been successfully used to set up a solvent
which have been proposed as solvent polarity indica- polarity scale, called the Pyrene or Py sca1e,258-260
tors, for which, however, a complete solvent scale has
not been worked out. Naturally, there are many V. Empirical Parameters of Solvent Polarity from
more known solvatochromic compounds than those
given in Table 1. It is not easy to draw a distinct U VNis/Near-IR Spectroscopic Measurements
line between plain solvatochromic compounds and
those which have been occasionally proposed as A. Single Parameter Approaches
potential solvent polarity indicators. For a particular From the total of 78 solvatochromic and solvato-
solvatochromic compound of Table 1, most of the fluorchromic compounds in Table 1,which have been
relevant references dealing with this compound are proposed and used as potential empirical solvent
given, with that reference in which that compound polarity indicators, up to now only ca. 18 of them
was first proposed as a solvent polarity indicator have been really used to establish definite, UV/vis/
added in parentheses. near-IR spectroscopically derived scales of solvent
Table 1contains 35 positively solvatochromic dyes polarity: the 2 scale of K o ~ o w e rthe
, ~ ~XR and XB scale
and 35 negatively solvatochromic dyes with 5-(di- of Brooker et a1.,l12 the RPM scale (from German
methylamino)-5’-nitro-2,2’-bisthiophene (1)and 4- “Relatives Polaritatsmass”) of Dahne et al.,llEbthe
(2,4,6-triphenyl-l-pyridinio)-2,6-diphenylphenolate (36) E~cT scale of Armand et a1.,lZ6the n*scale of Kamlet,
Table 1. Compilation of Positively and Negatively Solvatochromic as Well as Some Fluorescent Compounds
Proposed as UVNislNear-IR Spectroscopic Solvent Polarity Indicators, together with Their Solvatochromic
Range, A V
AG (in cm-’) = absorption
formula (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number G (polar solvent) (svmbol)
$4710 =
21460 (CsH14) -
-
(a) Positively Solvatochromic Compounds
n n’
(-1
111
(llla)
16750 (HCONHfizO)
1
$4400 =
17790 (Z-CsHie) -
n n*-
(XR scale)
112-114
(112)
13390 (lutidineH20)
f4240 =
30000 (CsHi4) -
n -(-1n*
25760 (CF3CHzOH)
3 ( Michler’s Ketone )
(H3C)zN-0
f4030 =
30170 (CsH14) -
n - n*
(RPM scale)
118
(118b)
26140 (HzO)
f4010 =
22120 (toluene) -
n -(-1n* 119
(119b)
18110 (HzO)
(for 5)
f4000 =
25640 (C5H12) -
n -(-1n’ 120,121
(121)
21640 (CHzIz)
f3780 =
20640 (CsHi4) -
n -(-1n* 114,122,123
(123)
16860 (H2O)
8 ( Nile Red )
[ Nc,;TN]2e
NC-Fe-L 2M’
$3420 =
23420 (prop.carb.1 -
20000 (H2O)
(for 9)
LMCT
(ELMCT
scale)
124-126
(126)
$2970 =
18120 (C-CsHiz) -
n -(-1n* 114,127-132
(131a)
15150 (CF3CHzOH)
12 ( Phenol blue )
Table 1 (Continued)
Af (in cm-l) = absorption
formula f (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number f (polar solvent) (symbol) refis)
(a)Positively Solvatochromic Compounds (Continued)
+2700 = n-n' 133-137
22620 (CsH14) - (-1 (136~)
19920 (DMSO)
13
n -
(-)
z' 138
(138)
14
+2400 = n-n* 47e, 47j, 53,

34120 (C-CsHlz) - (z*scale) 139-146
31720 (DMSO) (139a)
(for 16)
NE12
1s 20 21
R $2320 = n-z* 47h, 94b, 130,

20730 (CsH14) - (nzzo
scale) 147
18410 (CH30H) (147a)
(for 22)
HJC'
22 ( R = H )
23 (R=C,H,)
b:
d<i3
24 ( R = H )
25 (R=C,H,)
26
27
Table 1 (Continued)
AC (in cm-l) = absorption
formula C (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number C (polar solvent) (symbol) ref(s)
(a)Positively Solvatochromic Compounds (Contiyed)
+2090 = n-n 248,249
F3
19810 (C5H12) - (P,scale) (248)
17720 (F3C-CHOH-CFd
2a
Rx:;ii<sXR
R S R
+2010 =
9190 (C7H14) -
7180 (sulfolane)
LMCT
EN^ scale)
148
(148)
(for 30)
S1890 =
23920 (C7Hi6) -
n -(-1n* 149-151
(150)
22030 (DMSO)
(for 31)
31 ( n = 1 )
32 ( n = 2 )
33 ( n = 3
+SO0 = d-d 103, 105, 107,

18420 (ClCH2CH2Cl) - of CUI1 152-156
16920 (HzO) (152a,d)
clot
CH9-O-y +1440 = Jz-n* 157

CI'
l3rS \ -
26250 (CCl4) -
24810 (DMSO)
(n*scale;
cf. 15-21)
(157)
[G - 5]-N(Me)-Ph-N02
a dentritic polyether
35
(b) Negatively Solvatochromic Compounds
a
RJy
R R
-9730 =
12350 [(HsC6)zoI -
22080 (H2O)
(for 36)
Jz -
[E~(30)or
E: scale]
n*
(with ICT)
solvents:
47a-d, 47j, 54, 77b,
94b, 106,158-173
(36,158a; 3 7 , 1 6 0 ~ )
polymers:
174-176
chromatography:
80,161,177-180
1%
Solvatochromic Dyes Chemical Reviews, 1994,Vol. 94,No. 8 2327
Table 1 (Continued)
AP (in cm-') = absorption
formula 0 (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number .i,(polar solvent) (symbol) refis)
(b) Negatively Solvatochromic Compounds (Continued)
-9500 = n-d 112,113
14600 (toluene) - (XB scale) (112)
24100 (H2O)
a merocyaninedye
3s
-9310 = n-z* 181
15290 (THF) - (with ICT) (181)
24600 (H2O)
-8970 = n-z*
15480 (THF) - (with ICT)
24450 (HzO) [&(33) scale]
-8780 = n-zk 183

11920 (thiophene) - (with ICT) (183)
20700 (glycol) [E:(30) scale]
-8120 = n-z* 184

14970 (CHC13) - (with ICT) (184)
23090 (H2O)
(for 43)
42 ( n = O )
43 ( n = 1 )
44 ( n = 2 )
-7810 = n-n* 185
13590 (EtOAc) - (with ICT) (185)
21400 (H2O)
45
Table 1 (Continued)
A t (in cm-l) = absorption
formula t (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number t (polar solvent) (symbol) ref(s)
a
RbR
H5C6 C6H5
-7510 =
12410 (o-CsH4Clz) -
19650 (HzO)
n-n*
(with ICT)
186
(186)
1%
46
H5C6
5
ficz @e
n - n*
(with ICT)
187
(187)
H3C
47
-6490 = n - n' solvents:
4' e l
a stilbazolium dye
16130 (CHC13) -
22620 (HzO)
(for 48)
50, 100, 130,
188-200
(50)
polymers:
201
48 ( R ~ = R ~ = H )
49 ( R1 = H , R2 = CMe3 )
50 ( R1 = Rz = CMe3 )
-6090 =
16080 (CHC13) -
n - n* 202
22170 (HzO)
a stilbazolium dye
51
R -6390 = JL - n* 203
bR
14660 (CHCl3) -
21050 (HzO/CH30H)
R
52
-5960 = CT, 3, 44, 51, 170,

23270 (CsHsN) - intermolecular 194,204-210
29230 (CH30H) (2scale) (51)
53
-5690 =
15600 (H3CCOCH3) -
n - n* 211
(211)
21190 (HzO)
a stilbazolium dye
54
Table 1 (Continued)
Ai, (in cm-l) = absorption
formula i, (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number i, (polar solvent) (symbol) ref(s)
(b) Negatively Solvatochromic Compounds (Con!inued)
-5350 = n-Jt 195b, 212
18120 (ClCHzCHZC1) -
23470 (HzO)
a stilbazolium dye
55
-4370 =
19550 (ClCHZCHzCl) -
n - n* 174,213
(213)
23920 (CF3CH20H)
(for 56)
I
R
56 ( R z O C H , )
57 ( R = CH3 )
-3880 = MLCT 125,214
17120 (CsHi4) - (EKscale) (214)
21000 (HCONH2)
M~~(CO)~(diimine)
50
-3680 = MLCT 125,215-219
17425 (i-CsHls) -
21105 (CH30H)
( ~ scale)b ~ ~ ~ (216)
-3380 = MLCT 103,107, 116, 125,

16000 (H3CCOCH3) - 153, 154, 156, 173,
19380 (HzO) 215a, 220-224
(103, 1 5 6 , 2 2 1 ~ )
co -3000 = MLCT 125,225

OC!,,.I ,,,IC0 12360 (CHC13) - [EcT(z)scale1 (225)
oc ,
Y h C0 15360 (glyme)
(for 61)
NC
(q2-TCNE)M(CO),
61 ( M = W )
62 ( M = C r )
-2650 =
27930 (cc4)-
n -z'
(E:' scale)
226
(226)
30580 (H2O)
n
63
n - zcI
(E: scale)
227,228
(228)
64
Table 1 (Continued)
AV (in cm-') = absorption
formula Q (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number V (polar solvent) (symbol) ref(s)
-2010 =
16580 (toluene) -
n n*-
201b, 229-237
(232)
18590 (CzHaOH)
(for 65a)
I
CH3
65a Lax= 538 nm (EtOH)
CH3
65b ).mal = 330 nm (EtOH)
-2010 =
17040 -
n - n* 238
(238)
19050 (HzO)
(for 67)
- 1865 =
35870 (CCl4) -
n -
n*
(@ scale)
239
(239b)
37735 (CF3CHzOH)
(for acetone)
R', R2 = alkyl
68
- 1480 =
17790 (CsHs) -
n - n'
(enzychromism)
159b, 240,241
(241)
19270 (Hz0)
-1180 =
17420 (CsHdCH30H) -
n - n'
18600 (H2O)
(c) Some Solvatofluorchromic Compoundsc

$10200 =
24600 (CsH14) -
n' - n
(with ICT)
30,250
(30)
O N d C N 14400 (CH3CN)
a ,, fluoroprobe " dye
71
+7900 =
24400 (CsH14) -
n* -
(Sscale)
n 251,252
(251a)
H 2 N e \ - C H . 16500 (H2O)
0
72
Solvatochromic Dyes Chemical Reviews, 1994,Vol. 94,No. 8 2331
Table 1 (Continued)
Aij (in cm-') = absorption
formula ij (nonpolar solvent) - typeb
formula number i j (polar solvent) (symbol) refis)
(c) Some Solvatofluorchromic CompoundsC(Continued)
+3980 =
20370 (toluene) -
n* n -
(with ICT)
119,253
(119b)
16390 (HzO)
(for 5)
5 ( R' = C H j ; R2 = C ~ H )S
6 ( R' = CHzC02Na ; R2 = CeH, )
t-3770 =
21980 (C-CtjHlz) -
n* n -
(with ICT)
254
18210 (HzO)
0
a Coumarin laser dye

73
+3650 =
21190 (C-CtjHlz) -
n* n -
(with ICT)
255
(255)
17540 (CH3CN)
(for 76)
74 ( X = C H : D P B )
75 ( X = N : O P P )
NCKCN
ca. +3000 =
-
ca. 20000 (c-C~HIZ)
n' -n
(with ICT)
256
(256)
ca. 17000 (CH&N)
+800 =
23530 (CbHiz) -
n* n -
(with ICT)
257
(257)
22730 (HzO)
solvent-dependent
ratios of emission
n* n -
(Py scale)
258-260
(259)
intensities of selected
vibronic fluorescence
bands of pyrene (Z&)
and other PAH's and
PANH's
78 ( Pyrene = Py )
and other polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) as well as
aromatic nitrogen hydrocarbons
(PANH) such as benzolghilperylene
(BPe), benzo[e]pyrene (BePy),
and coronene (Cor)
a Aij is equal to the difference in wavenumbers of their long-wavelength absorption (or emission) maxima as measured in two
solvents of maximum difference in solvent polarity. Within the three groups, the solvatochromic compounds are roughly ordered
- -
to their decreasing solvatochromic range. CT = charge-transfer absorption. ICT = intramolecular charge-transfer. LMCT (or
n d) = ligand-to-metalcharge-transfer absorption. MLCT (or d n')= metal-to-ligandcharge-transfer absorption. Compounds
with solvent-dependent position of the emission band in their fluorescence spectrum; Aij corresponds t o the difference in
wavenumbers of the emission bands as measured in two solvents of maximum difference in solvent polarity.
~ ~~
Abboud, and Taft (KAT),139a the nl,, scale of Buncel Most of these scales are based on the spectral data
et l ~ ~P , scale (from
the E N i scale of F r e ~ e r ,the of a single standard probe (or reporter) molecule.
spectral polarity index) of Middleton et al.,248the They are, therefore, of somewhat limited value in the
E ~ ( 3 0scale
) of Dimroth and R e i ~ h a r d t , l ~the ~ * EK correlation analysis of other solvent-dependentpro-
scale of Walther,214the ELLCT scale of Lees et a1.,216 cesses because they respond to a combination of
the E c T ( ~scale
) of Kaim et al.,225the E:' scale of nonspecific and specific solute/solvent interactions,
Walter et a1.,226 the EB scale of Wrona et a1.,228the which are typical for the chemical structure of the
scale of Dubois et al.,239bthe S scale of Zelinskii et probe molecule, i.e. its ability to register dispersion,
and the Py (or pyrene) scale of Dong and dipole/dipole, hydrogen-bond, and other possible in-
Winnik,259further developed by Acree et a1.260 termolecular interactions. In applying these param-
eters, it is tacitly assumed that the probe/solvent aliphatic solvents, n*correlates approximately lin-
interactions in the reference system used to develop early with the permanent dipole moment of the
a particular solvent scale are similar to those in that solvent molecules. n* values have been used in
system whose solvent dependence is under study. single-parameter correlations, but more often in
One cannot expect that a single parameter is uni- multiparameter correlations of solvent effects (cf.
versally useful for all kinds of solvent-sensitive section V.C). Compilations of n*values can be found
processes. On the other hand, correlation analysis ~ ~a Jcritical
in r e f e r e n c e ~ . ~For ~ ~ ~ discussion and for
with solvent parameters based on a single probe possible improvements of the solvatochromicn*scale,
molecule, the probeholvent interactions of which are see the reviews of Buncel et al.4%and Laurence47j,272,273
well understood and clearly defined (as in some cases (and the references cited therein).
given in Table l),can lead to valuable and significant The appropriateness of choosing seven nitroaro-
conclusions about the solvent-dependent process matics as primary solvatochromicprobe molecules for
under study. One should remember that the main the establishment of a solvent scale has been
purpose of solvent polarity scales is, after all, the questioned.47h~47J~272,273 A new procedure for defining
systematic correlation and analysis of chemical and n*values for new solvents, and refining old values,
physicochemical properties in solution. using only 4-methoxynitrobenzene (16)as primary
Although formally single-probe solvent parameters, and 4-(dimethy1amino)nitrobenzeneas secondary sol-
three of the parameters mentioned in Table 1 are vatochromic indicator, has been recently recom-
based on more than a single reference compound: the mended by Laurence et a1.47j,272,273 and Abboud et
4 scale of Dubois et al.,239bthe n* scale of Kamlet, al.273 These new n* values of solvents S are now
Abboud, and Taft,139aand the niz0scale of Buncel et simply obtained by applying eq 1,
al.147aThese parameters are derived by means of
averaging processes, using several, chemically closely
related solvatochromic probe molecules.
The 4 scale is based on the position of the solvent-
-
sensitive n n*transition of a selection of saturated
aliphatic ketones 68,measured in n-hexane as refer- where F represents the frequencies of the maximum
ence of the solvatochromic absorption band of 16 in
various solvents S and in the reference solvents
-
The n*scale is based on solvent-induced shifts of
the longest wavelength n n*absorption band of
seven nitroaromatic indicators: 4-ethylnitrobenzene
cyclohexane (n*= 0.00) and dimethyl sulfoxide (n*
1.00). A collection of such newly defined, revised n*
=
(15), 4-methoxynitrobenzene (16),44diethylamino)- values for 229 solvents has been given very re-
nitrobenzene (17),3-(diethylamino)nitrobenzene(181, ~ e n t l y .These
~ ~ ~ new n*values are directly experi-
2-(methylamino)-5-methylnitrobenzene (19), 4-meth- mentally available and they are no longer averaged
oxy-/3-nitrostyrene(20),and 44dimethylamino)ben- quantities. It has been stated that it is better to
zophenone (21). This electronic transition is con- study one good model (i.e. one solvatochromic probe
nected with an intramolecular charge transfer from molecule) with precision than to take the average of
the electron-donor part (OMe, NR2, alkyl) to the results obtained from several poorer
acceptor part (NOz, COC&) through the aromatic Nevertheless, attempts have been made to use the
system. Hence, the first excited state is more dipolar same approach introduced by Kamlet, Abboud, and
than the ground state, with the observed positive Taft,139with however, a different set of primary
solvatochromism as consequence. The solvent-in- solvatochromic indicators. By means of the six novel,
duced band shifts of these seven nitroaromatics have positively solvatochromic azomerocyanine dyes 22-
been employed in the initial construction of the n* 27 as primary indicators (cf. Table 11, a new n:zo
scale, which was then expanded and refined by scale of solvent polarity has been recently introduced
multiple least-squares correlations with additional by Buncel et a1.47hJ47a This new scale, known for 29
solvatochromicindicators. The optimized average n* solvents, has been formulated by optimizing UV/vis
values were normalized to give n* = 0.00 for cyclo- spectral data of the six dyes 22-27, with the same
hexane and n* = 1.00 for dimethyl sulfoxide. The normalization condition as used by Kamlet, Abboud,
choice of more than just one indicator, whose solva- and Taft, i.e. n:zo= 0.00 for cyclohexane and n;,,=
tochromic shifts have been averaged, was aimed at 1.00 for dimethyl sulfoxide. The suitability of the
preventing the inclusion of specific probe/solvent azomerocyanines 22-27 as primary indicator solutes
effects (e.g. hydrogen bonding) and spectral anoma- has been mainly attributed to the fact that the
lies (e.g. change of band shape or vibrational fine positions of their absorption bands are in the region
structure). The n*values measure dispersive, induc- 440-590 nm, which is far away from the cutoff points
tive, and electrostatic probeholvent interactions and of most solvents-in contrast to the nitroaromatics
correspond to a blend of polarizability and dipolarity 15-21,whose absorption bands are in the U V region
of the solvent. For correlation of solvent-dependent and can overlap with the light absorption of the
properties with a polarizability/dipolarity blend dif- solvents used. As in the case of the nitroaromatic
fering from that of the reference compounds, a solutes 15-21, the azomerocyanines are practically
variable empirical polarizability parameter 6 must not sensitive to type-B hydrogen bonding (i.e. H
be added to n*.139cThis parameter 6 is 0.00 for bonding arising from HBD solute to HBA solvent).
nonhalogenated aliphatic solvents, 0.50 for polyha- They are, however, influenced by type-A hydrogen
logenated aliphatic solvents, and 1.00 for aromatic bonding (i.e. H bonding arising from HBD solvent to
solvents. For nonaromatic and nonpolyhalogenated HBA solute). A comparison of the n*scale of Kamlet,
Abboud, and Taft with the n:zo scale of Buncel spectroscopically derived solvent polarity scale?
shows that n* and ni,, values are not equal, but (a)First of all, the solvatochromiccompound should
satisfactorily linearly correlated with each be easily available, either by a simple synthesis or
The response of azomerocyanines to the polarizabil- commercially.
ity/dipolarity blend of the solvents is quite similar (b) It should be a crystalline compound of definite
to that found for the nitroaromatic indicator dyes. chemical structure, easy to handle, stable on storage,
In correlation analyses of other solvent-dependent and particularly stable in solution.
processes, it is found that the nLoscale works better (c) It should possess sufficient solubility in all
than the n* scale if one considers groups of com- solvents, that is from the least polar (e.g. perfluoro-
pounds which are structurally more related to the hydrocarbons) to the most polar solvents (e.g. water,
azomerocyanines (e.g. dyes 2, 8, 12, 13, and 361, aqueous electrolyte solutions), in order to get a
whereas the n* scale correlates well with solvent solvent scale which includes all different types of
effects dealing with nitroaromatic c o m p o ~ n d s . ~ ~ ~solvents.
J~~
Experimental data providing the basis for various (d) No chemical reaction should occur with the
spectroscopically derived solvent polarity scales (from solvent, particularly not with basic or acidic solvents.
Whishear-IR, NMR, and ESR measurements), have That is, the chemical nature of the solvent-influenced
been recently combined by Drago to give a so-called chromophore should remain unchanged on changing
universal scale of solvent polarity S’.274Over 300 the solvent.
spectral shifts for 30 probe molecules and 31 solvents (e) The longest wavelength W/vis/near-IR absorp-
have been used to produce this S’ scale, which is, tion band should be shifted bathochromically or
however, restricted to only nonspecific soluteholvent hypsochromically with increasing solvent polarity to
interactions. An analogous procedure has been used as large an extent as possible. That is, the light
by B r o w n ~ t e i n by
:~~combination
~ of many different absorption of solvatochromic probe molecules should
spectroscopic and reactivity data, an S scale of exhibit maximal sensitivity to changes in the sur-
general solvent polarity was developed. Both scales rounding medium. This behavior is normally found
represent statistical averages derived from a great (i) for meropolymethine dyes with a large decrease
variety of different solvent-dependent processes, and or increase of the permanent ground-state dipole on
it is claimed that they are of a more general validity excitation by light, i.e. with a large intramolecular
than single-probe-based parameters.274 Because of charge transfer, and (ii) for ground-state ion pairs
omitting all systems capable of specific solutdsolvent with annihilation of the opposite charges on excita-
interactions (H bonding, EPD/EPA interactions), the tion by intermolecular charge transfer.
S’ scale of Drago is believed to represent a “unified (0 The molar decadic extinction coefficient of the
scale of nonspecific solvating ability”.274However, solvatochromic absorption band should be sufficiently
this very recently introduced S’ scale has still to large, and should not be altered too much by different
stand its acid test. solvents, in order to allow spectral measurements in
For most chemists, who have to deal with solvent highly dilute solutions without solute/solute interac-
effects, the voluminous supply of solvatochromic tions. That is, spectral measurements must be
indicators and corresponding solvent polarity scales carried out under conditions without any association
(as shown in Table 1) may be rather confusing at first or aggregation of the probe molecules. The law of
sight-and he may leave this business to the special- Lambert and Beer should be fulfilled in all solvents
ized physical chemist. But, the introduction of simple in order t o make sure that solvent-induced band
single-parameter-based solvent scales is aimed at shifts are not due to association phenomena.
helping the working chemist in his daily laboratory (g) The solvatochromic absorption band should be
work to understand qualitatively and to correlate preferably located within the visible (or near-infra-
quantitatively the particular solvent effect under red) region of the electromagnetic spectrum, in order
study.l-15 It should be mentioned that many of the to allow an estimate of solvent polarities visually by
empirical parameters of solvent polarity, derived eye, and to avoid an overlap of the absorption bands
from similar probe molecules, are linearly correlated of probe and solvent molecules.
to each other.47 This considerably reduces the dif- (h) Finally, the chemical structure of the indicator
ficulties in making the right choice. Normally, one compound should be of the kind that all important
would select that solvent scale, whose underlying nonspecific and specific probe/solvent interactions
reference process is related to the solvent-dependent should be possible. That is, dipole/dipole, dipole/
process under study, and which includes the largest induced dipole, dispersion, hydrogen bonding, EPD/
variety of solvents. Surprisingly enough, many of the EPA interactions, etc. should be registered by the
published solvent scales include, mainly for experi- probe molecule in order to reproduce the overall
mental reasons, only a limited number of solvents solvation capability of the solvent, called “solvent
which are of interest as reaction media. Today, there polarity”. On the other hand, the chemical structure
are about 300 common solvents available and used, of the probe molecule can be constructed in such a
to say nothing of the infinite number of solvent way that it is able t o interact with the solvent
mixtures. A useful solvent scale should at least molecules only in a nonspecific or specific manner.
include representative examples of all different sol- In order to unravel the various solute/solvent inter-
vent classes, which is not always the case. actions, it would be ideal to have to hand probe
Which requirements should be met by a positively molecules which interact with solvents by only one
or negatively solvatochromic compound for it to be interaction mechanism. In this case, the diversity
useful for the establishment of a UV/vis/near-IR of solute/solvent interactions could be described by
means of multiparameter equations with one solvent the betaine dye 36 had, by chance, the formula
parameter for each interaction mechanism (see sec- number 30. Therefore, the number (30) was added
tion V.C for such attempts). in order to avoid confusion with ET,often used in
Indeed, some of the indicator molecules of Table 1 photochemistry as abbreviation for triplet energy.
are specifically designed for the predominant regis- In addition, so-called normalized Ef;!value have
tration of only one (or two) solute/solventinteractions. been introduced.160cThey are defined according to
For example, the probe molecules of the n*scale (15- eq 3 as dimensionless figures, using water and tet-
21),139nzzo scale (22-27),147 and P, scale (28)24s
register preferably polarizability/dipolarity interac- ET(solvent)- ET(TMS) -
tions with the surrounding solvent molecules. Cu- E' = E,(water) - ET(TMS)
(acac)(tmen)C104(34)103J52J56 is above all sensitive
to solvent Lewis basicity (EPD solvents), whereas Fe- E,(solvent) - 30.7
(phen)z(CN)z(61)103J56,221 measures preferably solvent 32.4
(3)
Lewis acidity (HBD solvents). (q2-TCNE)M(C0)5(61
and 62 with M = W, Cr)225is especially designed to ramethylsilane (TMS)as extreme polar and nonpolar
measure the solvent n- and n-donor capability toward reference solvents, respectively. Hence, the Ef;!
planar n-acceptor systems. scale ranges from 0.000 for TMS, the least polar
A critical evaluation of the various solvent polarity solvent, to 1.000 for water, the most polar solvent.
scales, given in Table 1,with respect to points a-h Prerequisite to the measurement of the polarity of
given above, leads to the conclusion that only very nonpolar solvents was the successful synthesis of a
few of the respective indicator dyes meet the above- probe with appropriate solubility, i.e. the lipophilic
mentioned requirements and are, therefore, of actual penta-tert-butyl-substitutedbetaine dye 37, which is,
practical value. In most cases in Table 1, the in contrast to 36, sufficiently soluble for solvatochro-
relevant solvent parameters are available only for a mic measurements in nonpolar solvents such as
rather limited number of solvents, mainly because aliphatic hydrocarbons and TMS.lGocThe excellent
of solubility or stability problems. Among the solvent linear correlation between the ETvalues of 36 and
scales fulfilling with their probe molecules more or 37 for solvents, in which both dyes are soluble, allows
less the above-mentioned conditions are the XR and the calculation of E~(30) values according to eq 4 for
XB scale of Brooker et al. (dyes 2 and 38),the n*scale
of Kamlet, Abboud, and Taft (compounds 15-21) and ET(30)(kcal mol-') =
the improved n*scale of Laurence and Abboud et al. {[28591/A',, (nm)] - 1.808}/0.9424 (4)
(compound 161, as well as the nz,,scale of Buncel et
al. (dyes 22-27), the E~(30)scale of Dimroth and nonpolar solvents, in which the primary indicator dye
Reichardt (dyes 36 and 37), the ELMCT scale of Lees 36 is not soluble enough. In eq 4,A'" corresponds
et al. (compound 591, and the Py scale of Dong, to the wavelength of the absorption maximum of the
Winnik, and Acree (compound 78 and others). It is secondary indicator dye 37.l6OCHigh E~(30) or high
difficult to draw a distinct boundary between useful Ef;!values correspond to high solvent polarity.
and not so useful solvent polarity scales because some E~(30) values (in kcal mol-l or k J mol-l) as well as
of the more recently introduced scales are certainly the dimensionless Ef;! values can be equally used.
likely to be improved by further measurements in The use of directly determined Ed301 values in
more solvents. correlations with other energy-based solvent-depend-
As a typical example for a W/vis/near-IR spectro- ent processes has the advantage of giving immediate
scopically derived empirical scale of solvent polarity, insight in the magnitude of the solvent effects
which includes up to now about 360 solvents, the observed. For the use in multiparameter correlation
E~(30) scale will be outlined in the following chapter. equations, the normalized Ef;! values seem to be
B. The h(30)and e Scale of Solvent Polarity more suitable.
Both betaine dyes 36 and 37 are rather easy to
synthesize;158a~160c~161~166,167
betaine dye 36 is com-
E ~ ( 3 0values
) are based on the negatively solvato-
chromic pyridinium N-phenolate betaine dye 36 (cf. mercially available.276The main step in the synthe-
Table 1) as probe molecule, and they are simply sis of pyridinium N-phenolates, such as 36 and 37,
defined, in analogy to Kosower's 2 values,51as the is the condensation reaction between 2,4,6-triaryl-
molar electronic transition energies (ET)of dissolved substituted pyrylium salts with suitably 2,6-disub-
36, measured in kilocalories per mole (kcallmol) at stituted 4-aminophenols, leading to N-(4-hydroxy-
room temperature (25 "C) and normal pressure (1 pheny1)pyridinium salts, which are eventually depro-
bar),158aaccording to eq 2. emaxis the frequency and tonated to give the corresponding betaine dyes.
Recently, an entirely new synthesis of pyridinium
N-phenolates, without aryl substituents on the py-
ET(30)(kcal mol-') ridinium ring, has been described? thermolysis of
= hcem&VA= (2.8591 x 10-3)Cm, (cm-l) quinone diazides such as 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-diazo-2,5-
cyclohexadien-l-one in a pyridine/cyclohexane solu-
= 28591/Am,, (nm) (2) tion affords, via an intermediate carbene, the corre-
sponding 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(l-pyridinio)phenolate,
Am= the wavelength of the maximum of the longest which exhibits a pronounced negative solvatochromism
wavelength, intramolecular charge-transfer n-n* analogous to dyes 36 and 37.277Both dyes, 36 and
absorption band of dye 36. In the first publication,158a 37, are crystalline, stable compounds, stable also in
solution, with one exception: in stronger acidic in 1,4-dioxane: p, = 14.8 f 1.2 D74aJ59a and p, = 6.2
solvents (e.g. acetic acid), both betaine dyes 36 and f 0.3 D.74a That is, the electronic excitation is
37 are protonated at the oxygen atom of the pheno- connected with a reduction in dipole moment of ca.
late part, and the solvatochromic charge-transfer 9 D, in agreement with a considerable charge transfer
absorption band disappears (reversibly). Addition of from the phenolate to the pyridinium part of the
traces of an acid to solutions of 36 or 37 immediately zwitterionic betaine molecule. The position of the
changes the color to pale yellow, the color of the intramolecular CT absorption band of 36 depends on
protonated forms. The border between acidic and the electron affinity of the acceptor part (pyridinium
less acidic solvents, for which Ed301 values are moiety) and the ionization energy of the donor part
available, is determined by the acidity constant of the (phenolate moiety) of the betaine molecule. There-
corresponding acid of 36: the PKa of protonated 36 fore, introduction of electron-withdrawing substitu-
is 8.65 f 0 . 0 P 2 or 8.63 f 0.03278in water. The ents in the acceptor part increases its electron
excellent linear correlation between E ~ ( 3 0and ) Ko- affinity, leading to a bathochromic shift of the CT
sower's 2 values, which are available for acidic absorption band of 36, as experimentally found.63Ion
solvents (cf. compound 53 in Table l),allows the pairing between the phenolate part of 36 and the
calculation of E ~ ( 3 0values
) for such The cations of added electrolytes, as found in nondisso-
dichloro-substituted betaine dye 40 is less basic than ciating solvents, increases the ionization energy of
36 (pK, = 4.78 for the corresponding acid of 40) and the donor part, leading to a hypsochromic shift of the
is a suitable additional indicator molecule for more CT band of 36.160f Ion pairing with cations of added
acidic solvents.182 ionophores is particularly pronounced with the crown
The primary indicator dye 36 is sufficiently soluble ether-substituted betaine dyes 42-44 (cf. Table l),
in most solvents. It is not soluble in perfluorohydro- which exhibit a cation-selective ha10chromism.l~~
carbons and only sparingly soluble in water (solubil- Replacement of the phenolate oxygen atom in 36 by
ity of 36 in water ca. 2 x m ~ l / L ~ In
~ ~order
) . to sulfur gives the thiobetaine dye 41, which is ac-
obtain probe molecules soluble in perfluorohydrocar- companied by a bathochromic shift of the CT band
bons, the syntheses of perfluor- and trifluormethyl- due to the reduced ionization energy of Ar-S- as
substituted as well as hepta-tert-butyl- and (1- compared to Ar-O-.183 Altogether, all experimental
adamanty1)-substituted derivatives of 36 have been evidence is in good agreement with an extensive
carried However, these variants of 36 were intramolecular charge transfer upon excitation of the
also not soluble in perfluorohydrocarbons. The solu- primary indicator dye 36, the main reason for the
bility in water and aqueous electrolyte solutions was outstanding negative solvatochromism of 36 and its
improved by introduction of hydrophilic substituents derivatives 37 and 39-47 (cf. Table 1).
in 36 to give the more water-soluble betaine dyes
4 P 5and 46.186Again, the linear correlation between The solvent-mediated stabilization of the highly
the ET values of 45 and 46 with that of 36 allows the dipolar, zwitterionic ground state of 36, relative to
determination of E ~ ( 3 0values
) for aqueous electrolyte its less dipolar excited state, results from the follow-
solutions.186 ing properties of the betaine molecule: (a)It exhibits
a large permanent dipole moment, suitable for the
The primary indicator betaine dye 36 exhibits an registration of dipole/dipole and dipole/induced dipole
unusual high solvatochromic band shift: its nega- interactions. (b) It possesses a large polarizable
tively solvatochromic, intramolecular CT absorption
n-electron system (with 42 n electrons), suitable for
band is hypsochromically shifted by 9730 cm-l (357
nm) on going from diphenyl ether (Amm = 810 nm) to the registration of dispersion interactions, which
water (,Imm = 453 nm). Solutions of 36 are red in should be somewhat larger with the excited state
methanol, violet in ethanol, blue in isoamyl alcohol, than with the ground state, because excited states
green in acetone, and yellowish-green in ethyl ac- are always more polarizable than the corresponding
etate, thus covering the whole visible region and ground states. And (c) with the phenolate oxygen
allowing even a visual estimate of the solvent polar- atom, it has a highly basic EPD center, suitable for
ity. For color photographs of a corresponding test interactions with Bransted acids (through H bonding)
tube experiment see refs 44 and 106b. The complete and Lewis acids (through EPD/EPA bonding). The
W/vis spectrum of 36, measured in 1,4-dioxane, positive charge of the pyridinium moiety of 36 is
acetonitrile, and ethanol and its protonated form can delocalized and sterically shielded, which minimizes
be found in ref 280. It should be noted that the IR,281a the interaction of 36 with EPD solvents. Therefore,
lH NMR,165a,281b,282 and 13C NMR spectra165aof 36 the CT absorption of 36 depends also strongly on
(and some of its derivatives) have also been measured specific interactions with electrophilic solvents (i.e.
and analyzed. HBD and EPA solvents), and only to a much lesser
The outstanding negative solvatochromism of be- extent on specific interactions with nucleophilic
taine dye 36 stems from the unequal, differential solvents (i.e. EPD solvents).
solvation of its highly dipolar equilibrium ground Altogether, the betaine probe molecule (as well as
state and its less dipolar first Franck-Condon ex- the other probes of Table 1)measures solute/solvent
cited state with increasing solvent polarity. For a interactions on a molecular microscopic level, con-
close derivative of 36, the 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(2,4,6- sidering solvents as a discontinuum of individual
triphenyl-l-pyridinio)phenolate, which is soluble solvent molecules with their own solventlsolvent
enough in 1,4-dioxane for dipole determinations, the interactions-in strong contrast to physical param-
permanent dipole moments of the ground state (M,) eters such as dielectric constant or refractive index
and excited state molecule (Me) have been determined which are macroscopic solvent parameters.
In addition, it should be mentioned that the betainegroup of the phenolate part of 36.165b9cAnother
dye 36 (and its derivatives) does not only exhibit an interesting result of these simulations is the finding
extraordinary solvatochromism,but that it also shows that about 40 solvent molecules are necessary to give
the phenomena of thermochromism, piezochromism, a fully completed capsule around the betaine mol-
genuine halochromism and, in case of chirally
ecule 36.165b
modified betaine dyes, presumably chirosoluato- Quantum chemical calculations with dye 36 have
chromism. These particular, additional properties of been used to test theoretical models for the calcula-
pyridinium N-phenolate betaine dyes have been tion of the solvent influence on W/vis spectra,94band
reviewed recently.106bLately, the betaine dye 36 has to classify its n system (with intramolecular charge
been proposed as sensitive material in chemical transfer on excitation) in relation to that of poly-
sensors for solvent vapor detection.283 methine dyes (with charge r e ~ o n a n c e ) . These ~~~,~~~
By taking into account the aforementioned require- calculations, which have been carried out with the
ments a-h, which should be met by a suitable basic pyridinium N-phenolate molecule without any
solvatochromic probe molecule, one can fairly say aryl substituents, are in agreement with the observed
that the betaine dye 36 (and its derivatives) is intramolecular charge-transfer upon excitation by
certainly a good first choice as an empirical indicatorlight.77b,94b,285
in order to establish a one-parameter solvent scale. With betaine dye 36, dynamic solvent effects on
Indeed, since its first introduction in 1963,158athe electron transfer (et) reactions in the inverted regime
Ed301 scale has found wide applications in various have been studied using ultrafast s p e c t r o s ~ o p y . ~ ~ ~
fields of solvent effects, not only for empirical mea- That is, the rate of et reactions can be strongly
surements of the polarity of all kinds of liquid media influenced by the dynamics of the corresponding
(solvents, binary solvent mixtures, electrolyte solu- solvent motion. Inverted regime means measure-
tions, microheterogeneous solutions, supercritical ment of nonradiative charge separation of 36 in going
fluid solvents), but also for the characterization of the
from the less dipolar excited state to the highly
polarity of p ~ l y m e r s l ~ and
~-l~of~chromatographic dipolar ground state, i.e. measurement of the rate of
~~~~~~~~~~80,161,177-180,112,113 ground-state recovery of a laser-pumped dye solu-
The unusual spectroscopic behavior of pyridinium t i~n.'~~
N-phenolates has led to various additional investiga- Pyridinium N-phenolate betaine dyes such as 36
tions of the standard betaine dye 36 and its deriva- and in particular 47 (cf. Table 1)have been investi-
tives. gated for application in nonlinear optics such as
An X-ray analysis of a 4-bromo-substituted deriva- second-harmonic generation (SHG), i.e. frequency
tive of 36,284recrystallized from ethanol, shows that doubling of laser r a d i a t i ~ n It. ~was
~ ~stated
~ ~ ~that
~~
all C-C and C-N bonds are of usual length, how- structural features that give rise to strong solvato-
ever, the C - 0 bond of the phenolate part is, with chromism should also give rise to large second-order
129 pm, rather short. The interplanar angle between molecular polarizabilities (P).187b
the pyridinium and phenolate moiety is 65"; the Zwitterions such as 36, particularly 2,g-di-tert-
interplanar angles between the five aryl rings and butyl-4-(2,4,6-triphenyl-l-pyridinio)phenolate, can be
the corresponding two inner rings range from 18" to reduced to the corresponding radical anion using
70". That is, the betaine molecule 36 is far from alkali metals, and oxidized t o the radical cation by
being planar. A hydrogen bond (0-H-0 = 271 pm) Ag(CF3C02) or electr~chemically.~~~ The ESW
connects an ethanol molecule to the negatively charged ENDOR spectra of solutions in THF indicate pre-
phenolate oxygen atom.284 dominant spin population either in the pyridinium
This hydrogen bonding does not only occur in the ring (radical anion), or in the phenolate ring (radical
crystal lattice; it has also been observed in solution cation). Both redox reactions are reversible and can
by spectrophotometrical measurements of dilute so- be used, at least in principle, to construct a molecular
lutions of 36 in acetonitrile in the presence of battery with pyridinium N-phenolate betaine dyes.287
increasing amounts of HBD solvents such as alcohols, M e r this short digression into some notable chemi-
phenols, and water.172 Association constants for 1:l cal and physical properties of pyridinium N-pheno-
hydrogen-bonded complexes range from KAB= 2 M-I late betaine dyes, which are related to their negative
for water to KAB= 6 x lo3 M-l for 3-nitrophen01.l~~ solvatochromism, some further remarks on the
Band-shape analysis of the CT absorption band of E ~ ( 3 0scale
) of solvent polarity shall be finally made.
2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(2,4,6-triphenyl-l-pyridinio)pheno- In Table 2, E ~ ( 3 0values) (cf. eq 2) and the cor-
late in HBD solvents has provided further evidence responding dimensionless normalized E: values (cf.
for such hydrogen bonding.168 Changes in the shape eq 3) for about 360 solvents are compiled, based on
of the vis spectrum of this betaine dye upon going solvatochromic measurements from various labora-
from dipolar non-HBD solvents to alcohol solvents tories with the primary and secondary indicator dyes
have been interpreted as evidence for coupling of 36 and 37, respectively.
high-frequency nuclear modes, due to reorganization Some of the Ed301 values given in Table 2 deviate
of the C-N and C-0 framework upon excitation, somewhat from earlier published values. This is due
with 0-H stretching and bending modes of the to recently improved methods for purification and
solvent.168 Computer simulation studies (with a drying of the solvents under consideration. Because
molecular modeling program) of the solvation of of the extreme sensitivity of the indicator dye 36 to
betaine dye 36 in pure and mixed solvent systems changes in solvent polarity, traces of polar impurities
have shown that the preferred docking site for HBD in less polar solvents can lead to incorrect Ed301
solvents (e.g. water, methanol) is with the C-0- values, caused by preferential solvation of the betaine
) Eq 2 ) and Normalized E: Values (Cf. Eq 31, Both

Table 2. Empirical Parameters of Solvent Polarity E ~ ( 3 0(Cf.
Derived from the Long Wavelength VidNear-IR Absorption Band of the Negatively Solvatochromic Pyridinium
N-Phenolate Betaine Dyes 36 and 37, for 362 Solvents (Measured at 25 "C and 1 bar)
E~(30p'~ E~(30)"p~
no. solvent (kcal mol-') E:c no. solvent (kcal mol-') E: c
0 gas phase (27.1)df (-0.111) 1 tetramethylsilane, TMS (30.7Yfg 0.000
Alkanes, Alkenes, Cycloalkanes, and Cycloalkenes
2 2-methylbutane (30.9P (0.006) 10 n-decane (31.0P (0.009)
3 n-pentane (31.0P (0.009) 11 n-dodecane (31.lIeg (0.012)
4 n-hexane (31.0P (0.009) 12 cyclohexane (30.9P (0.006)
5 1-hexene (32.4P (0.052) 13 cyclohexene (32.2F" (0.046)
6 1-hexyne (34.3YJ" (0.111) 14 cis-decahydronaphthalene (31.2)eg (0.015)
7 n-heptane (31.lP (0.012) 15 1,2,3,44etrahydronaphthalene 33.5h 0.086
8 n-octane (31.W (0.012) 16 vinylbenzene, styrene 34Ah 0.127
9 n-nonane (31.0P (0.009)
Haloalkanes and Haloalkenes
17 dichloromethane 40.78 0.309 36 1,l-dichloroethene 37.W 0.194
18 dibromomethane 39.4i 0.269 37 (E)-1,2-dichloroethene (34.2Fk (0.108)
19 diiodomethane 36.5' 0.179 38 (2)-1,2-dichloroethene (41.gypk (0.346)
20 trichloromethane, chloroform 39.1faj 0.259 39 trichloroethene 35.9fJzk 0.160
21 deuteriochloroform 39.w 0.256 40 tetrachloroethene (32.1),," (0.043)
22 tribromomethane, bromoform 37.7f 0.216 41 1-chloropropane 37.4fJ 0.207
23 tetrachloromethane 32.48 0.052 42 l-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropane 40.7h 0.309
24 trichlorofluoromethane (20 "C) (33.3Fk (0.080) 43 1,3-dichloropropane 40.2h 0.293
25 bromotrichloromethane (34.8Y.k 0.126 44 2,2-dichloropropane 37.9k 0.222
26 bromoethane 37.6fJ 0.213 45 1,2-dichlorohexafluoropropane (33.6)esk (0.089)
27 1,l-dichloroethane 39.4fJ 0.269 46 1,2-dibromopropane 39.1' 0.259
28 1,2-dichloroethane 41.3k 0.327 47 1,2,34richloropropane 40.4k 0.299
29 1,2-dibromoethane 38.3' 0.235 48 hexachloropropene (32.8P,k (0.065)
30 l,l,l-trichloroethane 36.2fj* 0.170 49 1,4-dichlorobutane 3929 0.272
31 1,1,2-trichloroethane 40.3k 0.296 50 1,2-dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane (33.3Fk (0.080)
32 1,l,l-trichlorotrifluoroethane (33.8Y* (0.096) 51 hexachloro-1,3-butadiene (32.2)e,k (0.046)
33 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane (33.2Fh (0.077) 52 hexachlorocyclopentadiene (32.8Y*k (0.065)
34 1,1,2,24etrachloroethane 39.4k 0.269 53 chlorocyclohexane 36.2h 0.170
35 pentachloroethane 36.4k 0.176 54 1,lO-dichlorodecane (36.6Y.k (0.182)
Alkylarenes
55 benzene 34.3," 0.111 60 1,2,3,4-tetramethylbenzene (33.0)eJ' (0.071)
56 methylbenzene, toluene 33.9,n 0.099 61 ethinylbenzene, phenylacetylene 37.288" 0.201
57 (trifluoromethy1)benzene (38.5P (0.241) 62 cyclohexylbenzene 34.Y 0.108
58 1,4-dimethylbenzene,p-xylene 33.18J' 0.074 63 1-methylnaphthalene (35*3)e,n (0.142)
59 1,3,54rimethylbenzene (32.9P (0.068)
Haloarenes
64 fluorobenzene 37.0" 0.194 73 1,3-dichlorobenzene 36.7"s" 0.185
65 1,2-difluorobenzene 39.3" 0.265 74 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 36.2" 0.170
66 1,3-difluorobenzene 37.3" 0.204 75 bromobenzene 36.6" 0.182
67 1,4-difluorobenzene 36.4" 0.176 76 l,2-dibromobenzene 37.6" 0.213
68 1,3,5-trifluorobenzene (33.2P' (0.077) 77 1,3-dibromobenzene 36.5" 0.179
69 pentafluorobenzene (38.4)eJ' (0.238) 78 2,5-dibromo-l-methylbenzene (34.7P (0.123)
70 hexafluorobenzene 34.2" 0.108 79 iodobenzene 36.2" 0.170
71 chlorobenzene 36.8" 0.188 80 1-chloronaphthalene 37.W 0.194
72 1.2-dichlorobenzene 38.0" 0.225 81 1-iodonaphthalene 36.9" 0.191
F'yridines and Other Heteroarenes
82 azine, pyridine 40.5gJ' 0.302 89 2-fluoropyridine 42.48," 0.361
83 2-methylpyridine, 2-picoline 38.3fJ 0.235 90 2-chloropyridine 41.9 0.346
84 4-methylpyridine, 4-picoline 39.5" 0.272 91 3-bromopyridine 39.78," 0.278
85 3,4-dimethylpyridine 38.9," 0.253 92 2,6-difluoropyridine 43.3" 0.389
86 2,6-dimethylpyridine 36.9" 0.191 93 pentafluoropyridine 36.3" 0.173
87 2,6-di-tert-butylpyridine (34.0F" (0.102) 94 2-cyanopyridine(30 "C) 44.2" 0.417
88 2,4,6-trimethylpyridine 36.4" 0.176 95 benzo[blpyridine,quinoline 39.4fJ 0.269
Aliphatic and CycloaliphaticMonoalcohols
96 methanol 55.48 0.762 110 2,2,2-trichloroethanol 54.1" 0.722
97 benzyl alcohol 50.4" 0.608 111 1-propanol 50.7fJ 0.617
98 ethanol 51.W 0.654 112 2,2,3,3-tetrafluoro-l-propanol 59.4fJ 0.886
99 ethanovwater (80:20 cl/l) 53.7fJ 0.710 113 3-phenyl-1-propanol 48.5" 0.549
100 (f)-1-phenylethanol 46.7" 0.494 114 2-propen-1-01, allyl alcohol 51.9 0.654
101 2-phenylethanol 49.5" 0.580 115 2-propyn-1-01, propargyl alcohol 55.7" 0.772
102 2-methoxyethanol 52.W 0.657 116 2-propanol 48.48 0.546
103 2-ethoxyethanol 51.0fJ" 0.627 117 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol 65.3 1.068
104 2-(n-butoxy)ethanol 50.W 0.596 118 (f)-l-methoxy-2-propanol 48.6" 0.552
105 2-mercaptoethanol 53.6h 0.707 119 (f)-l-amino-2-propanol 50.1h 0.599
106 2-aminoethanol 51.W 0.651 120 1-butanol 49.7fj 0.586
107 2-cyanoethanol 59.69 0.892 121 (&)-2-amino-l-butanol 50.Y 0.602
108 2-chloroethanol 55.19 0.753 122 (f)-a-butanol 47.1fJ 0.506
109 2,2,24rifluoroethanol 59.88 0.898 123 2-methyl-1-propanol,iso-butyl alcohol 48.6" 0.552
2338 Chemical Reviews, 1994,Vol. 94,No. 8 Reichardt
Table 2 (Continued)
El-(30)asb ET(30)a,b
no. solvent (kcalmol-I) E:c no. solvent (kcal mol-') E:
Aliphatic and Cycloaliphatic Monoalcohols (Continued)
124 2-methyl-2-propano1,tert-butyl 43.s- 0.389 136 1-octanol 48.lf"l0 0.537
alcohol (30 ") 137 1-nonanol 47.8" 0.528
125 1-pentanol, n-amyl alcohol 49. If30 0.586 138 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanol 37.94 0.222
126 (f)-2-pentanol, sec-amyl alcohol 46.5fJ 0.488 139 1-decanol 47.7"z" 0.525
127 3-pentanol 45.7fJ,4 0.463 140 1-undecanol 47.6" 0.522
128 (&)-2-methyl-l-butanol 48.0h 0.534 141 1-dodecanol 47.5m.o 0.519
129 3-methyl-1-butanol, iso-amyl alcohol 49.0' 0.565 142 cyclopentanol 47.0" 0.503
130 2-methyl-2-butano1,tert-pentyl alcohol 41.Om,q 0.318 143 cyclohexanol 47.w 0.509
131 (f)-3-methyl-2-butanol 45.7h 0.463 144 2-(hydroxymethyl)furan, (50.3p (0.605)
132 1-hexanol 48.W 0.559 furfuryl alcohol
133 1-heptanol 48.50 0.549 145 2-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran, 5 0 3 0.605
134 3-ethyl-3-pentanol 38-59 0.241 tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol
135 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanol 40.14 0.290
Aliphatic Polyalcohols
146 l,e-ethanediol, glycol 56.3fJ.l 0.790 154 1,5-pentanediol 51.gh9' 0.654
147 (f)-l,2-propanediol 54.18J 0.722 155 diethylene glycol 53.8fJ4 0.713
148 1,3-propanediol 54.gtz1 0.747 156 triethylene glycol 52.VJ+ 0.682
149 1,2,3-propanetriol,glycerol 57.0" 0.812 157 tetraethylene glycol 522" 0.664
150 (f)-1,2-butanediol 52.6h,L 0.676 158 bis(2-hydroxyethyl)sulfane, 54.5h 0.735
151 (&)-1,3-butanediol 52.8"s' 0.682 2,2'-thiodiethanol
152 l,4-butanediol 53.5h31 0.704 159 tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine, 55.4" 0.762
153 2,3-butanediol (mixture of meso 51.8h3' 0.651 triethanolamine
and rac form)
Aromatic Alcohols (Phenols)
160 hydroxybenzene, phenol 53.4" 0.701 180 2,3,64rimethylphenol 42.9" 0.376
161 2-methylphenol, o-cresol 51.9" 0.654 181 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol 41.9" 0.346
162 3-methylphenol, m-cresol 52.4" 0.670 182 4-fluorophenol 55.5" 0.765
163 4-methylphenol, p-cresol 53.3" 0.697 183 2-chlorophenol 54.7" 0.741
164 2-ethylphenol 50.2" 0.602 184 4-chlorophenol 54.4" 0.731
165 3-ethylphenol 51.6" 0.645 185 4-bromophenol 52.2" 0.664
166 4-ethylphenol 50.2" 0.602 186 2,6-dichlorophenol 46.3" 0.481
167 2-isopropylphenol 50.4" 0.608 187 4-chloro-3-methylphenol 51.0" 0.626
168 2-tert-butylphenol 49.2" 0.571 188 4-methoxyphenol 45.4" 0.454
169 4-tert-butylphenol 50.4" 0.608 189 2,6-dimethoxyphenol 41.8" 0.343
170 2,3-dimethylphenol, 2,3-xylenol 45.1" 0.444 190 3,5-dimethoxyphenol 50.P 0.620
171 2,4-dimethylphenol, 2,4-xylenol 50.3" 0.605 191 3-acetoxyphenol 53.2" 0.694
172 3,4-dimethylphenol, 3,4-xylenol 47.2" 0.509 192 2-(methoxycarbonyl)phenol, 45.4" 0.454
173 3,5-dimethylphenol, 3,B-xylenol 47.5" 0.518 methyl salicylate
174 5-isopropyl-2-methylpheno1, carvacrol 48.7" 0.556 193 2-(phenoxycarbonyl)phenol, 41.9" 0.346
175 2-isopropyl-5-methylpheno1, thymol 48.4" 0.546 phenyl salicylate
176 2-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol 46.8" 0.497 194 2-aminophenol 47.2" 0.509
177 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol 46.2" 0.478 195 3-aminophenol 47.1" 0.506
178 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol 41.8" 0.343 196 2-nitrophenol 44.4" 0.423
179 2,3,5-trimethylphenol 45.8" 0.466 197 4-cyanophenol 52.2" 0.664
Aliphatic, Cycloaliphatic, and Aromatic Ethers, Thioethers, and Acetals
198 diethyl ether 34.5J 0.117 214 oxole, furan (36.0)'a" 0.164
199 bis(2-chloroethyl) ether 41.6k 0.336 215 oxolane, tetrahydrofuran 37.4-fJ 0.207
200 ethyl vinyl ether 36.2f 0.170 216 (f)-tetrahydro-2-methylfuran 36.5fJ 0.179
201 di-n-propyl ether 34.0" 0.102 217 tetrahydro-2,5-dimethylfuran 35.1h 0.136
202 diisopropyl ether (34.lF" (0.105) (mixture of cisltrans isomers)
203 di-n-butyl ether (33.OPJ (0.071) 218 thiole, thiophene 35.4" 0.145
204 tert-butyl methyl ether 34.7" 0.124 219 thiolane, tetrahydrothiophene 36.7h 0.185
205 tert-amyl methyl ether, (34.4Fh (0.114) 220 1,3-dioxolane 43.lf 0.383
2-methoxy-2-methylbutane 22 1 2-methoxy-1,3-dioxolane 44.5h 0.426
206 dimethoxymethane 35.V 0.157 222 oxane, tetrahydropyran 362 0.170
207 diethoxymethane 33.9" 0.099 223 (f)-tetrahydro-3-methylpyran 35.5h 0.148
208 l,2-dimethoxyethane 38.2fJ 0.231 224 5-acetyl-5-methyl-l,3-dioxane 41.5fJ 0.333
209 diethylene glycol dimethyl ether, 38.@J 0.244 225 1,4-dioxane 36.WgJ 0.164
diglyme 226 methoxybenzene, anisole 37.k." 0.198
210 diethylene glycol diethyl ether 37.9J 0.210 227 (methylthio)benzene,thioanisole 37.0" 0.194
211 triethylene glycol dimethyl ether, 38.W 0.253 228 ethoxybenzene, phenetole 36.6" 0.182
triglyme 229 1,2-dimethoxybenzene, veratrole 38.4f 0.238
212 (f)-methyloxirane, propylene oxide 39.8f 0.281 230 dibenzyl ether 36.3" 0.173
213 (+)-2-(chloromethyl)oxirane, 44.9 0.426 231 diphenyl ether (30 "C) 35.3fJ 0.142
epichlorohydrin
Aliphatic, Cycloaliphatic, and Aromatic Ketones
232 propanone, acetone 42.2fj 0.355 237 3-methyl-2-butanone,isopropyl 40.9 0.315
233 l , l , 1-trichloroacetone 45.9k 0.469 methyl ketone
234 2-butanone 41.3fJ 0.327 238 2-hexanone 40.1" 0.290
235 2-pentanone 41.lX 0.321 239 4-methyl-2-pentanone, isobutyl 39.4fJ 0.269
236 3-pentanone 39.3fJ 0.265 methyl ketone
Table 2 (Continued)
~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ ~ _ _
E~(30)"s~ E~(30)~s~
no. solvent (kcalmol-I) E;c no. solvent (kcal mol-l) E:
AliDhatic. CvcloaliDhatic. and Aromatic Ketones (Continued)
240 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanone, 39.i)q '0.256' 244 2,6-dimethyl-4-heptanone, 38.CfJ 0.225
tert-butyl methyl ketone diisobutyl ketone
241 4-heptanone 38.9 0.253 245 cyclopentanone 39.4" 0.269
242 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanone, 38.7fs0 0.247 246 cyclohexanone 39.8" 0.281
diisopropyl ketone 247 phenylethanone, acetophenone 40.6" 0.306
243 5-nonanone, di-n-butyl ketone 3 7.5" 0.210 248 2,4-pentanedione, acetylacetone 499 0.571
Carboxylic Acids and Anhydrides
249 formic acid (54.3y.' (0.728) 251 propionic acid (50.5y.' (0.611)
250 acetic acid (51.7y.' (0.648) 252 acetic anhydride (43.9y.'+ (0.407)
Aliphatic, Cycloaliphatic, and Aromatic Esters
253 methyl formate 41.9" 0.346 266 dimethyl carbonate 38.2" 0.232
254 ethyl formate 40.9 0.315 267 diethyl carbonate 36.7" 0.185
255 methyl acetate 38.9" 0.253 268 1,3-dioxolan-2-one, 48.g 0.552
256 methyl trichloroacetate 39.6k 0.275 ethylene carbonate (40 "C)
257 ethyl acetate 38.1fJ 0.228 269 4-methyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one, 46.0" 0.472
258 ethyl chloroacetate 39.4h 0.269 propylene carbonate
259 ethyl trichloroacetate 38.7k 0.247 270 glycerol triacetate, triacetin 40.4" 0.299
260 vinyl acetate 38.U 0.225 271 ethyl benzoate 38.1f 0.228
261 n-propyl acetate 37.5f 0.210 272 dimethyl phthalate 40.7f 0.309
262 n-butyl acetate 38.5h 0.241 273 di-n-butyl phthalate 39.5h 0.272
263 methyl acrylate 38.8h 0.250 274 ethyl acetoacetate 49.41 0.577
264 methyl methacrylate 37.9 0.222 275 (@(-)-ethyl lactate 51.1" 0.630
265 4-butyrolactone 44.9 0.420
Amides , Thioamides, and Cyanamides
276 formamide 55.8" 0.775 288 hexahydro-l-methylazepin-2-one, 41.6h 0.336
277 N-methylformamide 54.lfj 0.722 N-methyl-+caprolactam
278 N,N-dimethylformamide, DMF 43.2fj 0.386 289 N,N-dimethylcyanamide 43.8h 0.404
279 N,N-dimethylthioformamide 44.0h 0.410 290 N,N-diethylcyanamide 43.3h 0.389
280 N-methylformanilide 40.8" 0.312 291 N,N-diisopropylcyanamide 42.0" 0.349
281 N-methylacetamide (30 "C) 52.Uj 0.657 292 1-pyrrolidinecarbonitrile , 42.6h 0.367
282 N,N-dimethylacetamide 42.$" 0.377 N-cyanopyrrolidine
283 NJV-diethylacetamide 41.4h 0.330 293 1-piperidinecarbonitrile, 42.1h 0.352
284 1-methylpyrrolidin-2-one 42.s" 0.355 N-cyanopiperidine
285 1-methylpyrrolidin-2-thione 42.8h>m 0.373 294 4-morpholinecarbonitrile, 42.8h 0.373
286 1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-one 41.6" 0.336 N-cyanomorpholine
287 1-cyclohexylpyrrolidin-2-one 40.4" 0.299
Tetra-N-alkyl-SubstitutedUreas
295 1,1,3,3-tetramethylurea 40.9 0.315 298 hexahydro- 1,3-dimethyl-2- 42.1f 0.352
296 1,1,3,34etramethylguanidine 39.3fJ 0.265 oxopyrimidine, dimethyl
297 1,3-dimethylimidazolidin-2-one, 42.5f 0.364 propylene urea (DMPU)
dimethylethyleneurea (DMEU)
Aliphatic and Aromatic Nitriles
299 ethanenitrile, acetonitrile 45.68 0.460 304 n-butanenitrile, butyronitrile 42.5" 0.364
300 trichloroacetonitrile 40.0k 0.287 305 (cyanomethyl)benzene, 42.7fJJ' 0.370
301 propanenitrile, propionitrile 43.6rJ 0.398 phenylacetonitrile
302 3-methoxypropanenitrile 44.4h 0.423 306 cyanobenzene, benzonitrile 41.5" 0.333
303 acrylonitrile 46.7f 0.494
Nitroalkanes and Nitroarenes
307 nitromethane 46.9; 0.481 309 nitrocyclohexane 39.6" 0.275
308 nitroethane 43.6rJ 0.398 310 nitrobenzene 41.2" 0.324
Aliphatic, Cycloaliphatic, and Aromatic Amines
311 2-methyl-2-aminopropane, (36.5Ff (0.179) 317 hexahydropyridine, 35.5fJ 0.148
tert-butylamine piperidine
312 1,a-diaminoethane 42.W 0.349 318 tetrahydro-l,4-oxazine, 41.U; 0.318
313 diethylamine 35.41; 0.145 morpholine
314 triethylamine ( 3 2 . W (0.043) 319 aminobenzene, aniline 44.3fJ 0.420
315 tris(n-buty1)amine ( 3 2 . W (0.043) 320 N-methylaniline 42.W 0.364
316 azolidine, pyrrolidine 39.1h 0.259 321 N,N-dimethylaniline 36.5" 0.179
Phosphorus Compounds (Phosphates)
322 trimethyl phosphate 43.W 0.398 327 hexamethylphosphorothioic acid 39.5h 0.272
323 triethyl phosphate 41.7y 0.324 triamide (HMPTS) (30 "C)
324 tri-n-propyl phosphate 40.P 0.302 328 methylphosphonic acid 42.9 0.358
325 tri-n-butyl phosphate 38.9 0.253 biddimethylamidel
326 hexamethylphosphoric acid 40.9; 0.315
triamide (HMPT)
Sulfur Compounds (Sulfoxides, Sulfones, Sulfamides)
329 carbon disulfide 32.88 0.065 331 methyl (methy1thio)methyl sulfoxide 44.0" 0.410
330 dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) 45.1fJg 0.444 332 tetrahydrothiophene 1,l-dioxide, sulfolane 44.UJ 0.410
Table 2 (Continued)
E~(30)",~ ET(30)"sb
no. solvent (kcal mol-') EYC no. solvent (kcal mol-l) Ef;!
Sulfur ComDounds (Sulfoxides. Sulfones. Sulfamides) (Continued)
333 (&)-tetrahydro-3-methylthiophene 43.0" 0.380 334 NflJ7',"-tetraethylsulfamide 41.0h 0.318
1,l-dioxide, 3-methylsulfolane
Selected Liquid Organic
- Salts"
335 lithium acetate (3l%)/sodium 64.7s i.049 344 n-butylammonium thiocyanate 61.46 0.948
acetate (25%)/potassium acetate (room temperature)
(44%) eutectic mixture 345 sec-butylammonium thiocyanate 61.6d 0.954
(50-120 "C) (room temperature)
336 dimethylammonium Nfl-dimethyl- 57.2y 0.818 346 tri-n-butylammonium nitrate 56.76 0.803
carbamate, dimcarb (room temperature)
337 dimethylammonium chloride (130 "C) 60.38 0.914 347 tetra-n-butylammonium bromide 43.38 0.389
338 ethylammonium chloride (120-150 "C) 623' 0.975 (105-130 "C)
339 ethylammonium nitrate 61.6dbf 0.954 348 tetra-n-hexylammonium benzoate 43.9fJtP 0.407
(room temperature) (room temperature)
340 n-propylammonium nitrate 60.6* 0.923 349 tetra-n-butylphosphonium chloride 43.08 0.380
(room temperature) (125-135 "C)
341 di-n-propylammonium thiocyanate 63.36 1.006 350 tetra-n-butylphosphonium bromide 43.58 0.395
(room temperature) (110-130 "C)
342 tetra-n-propylammonium 2-(cyclohexyl- 50.g6 0.623 351 tri-n-butyl-n-dodecylphosphonium 42.e 0.367
amin0)ethanesulfonate chloride (90-130 "C)
(room temperature) 352 tri-n-butyl-n-dodecylphosphonium 44.58 0.426
343 tetra-n-propylammonium 2-hydroxy-4- 45.56 0.457 bromide (100-130 "C)
morpholinepropanesulfonate 353 tri-n-butyl-n-dodecylphosphonium 42.38 0.358
(room temperature) iodide (50-75 "C)
Miscellaneous Solvents
354 carbon dioxide (in its liquid 358 3-methyl-1,2,3-oxazolium- 49.2" 0.571
and supercritical state): 5-olate, 3-methylsydnone
at 24 "C and 69 bar (34.5YJ (0.117) (40 "C)
at 40,60, and 80 "C and at (31.1- (0.012- 359 3-n-propyl-1,2,3-oxadiazolium- 50.1" 0.599
densities of 0.1-0.9 g/cm3 31.8)q 0.034) 5-olate, 3-n-propylsydnone
355 tert-butylhydroperoxide 49.78 0.586 360 (&)-(2S,3S)-bis(dimethylamino)- 36.g 0.182
356 isopropylnitrate 43.1f 0.383 2,3-dimethoxybutane (DDB)
357 3-methyloxazolidin-2-one 4 4 . 9 " ~ ~ 0.438
Water and Heavy Water
361 deuterium oxide (99.75 cg/g) 62.g 0.991 362 water 63.1fJ 1.000
a E ~ ( 3 0[kcal
) mol-'] = 28591/L,, (36)[nm]; cf. eq 2. In the first publication,168athe betaine dye 36 had by chance the formula
number 30. Therefore, the number 30 was added in order to avoid confusion with ETused in photochemistry as the abbreviation
for triplet energy. Ef;!= [E~(30)(solvent) - 30.7Y32.4; cf. eq 3. Because of the low volatility of betaine dye 36, its gas-phase
E ~ ( 3 0value
) is not directly measured but calculated; see text and refs 94b, 160c, and 288. e The E ~ ( 3 0values
) in parentheses are
secondary values, determined by means of the more lipophilic penta-tert-butyl-substitutedbetaine dye 37, and calculated according
to E ~ ( 3 0[kcal
) mol-l] = [28591/L,, (37)(nm) - 1.808Y0.9424 (cf. eq 41, which is derived from the correlation equation =
0.9424&(30) + 1.808 (n = 16; r = 0.9990; s = 0.17); see r e f g of this table. f Reichardt, C.; Harbusch-Gornert, E. Liebigs Ann.
Chem. 1983, 721-743. g Laurence, C.; Nicolet, P.; Reichardt, C. Bull. SOC.Chim. Fr. 1987, 125-130. Reichardt, C.; Eschner,
M.; Schafer, G. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1990,57-61. ' Bekiirek, V.; JuEina, J. Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 1982,47,1060-1068.
j Dimroth, K.; Reichardt, C.; Siepmann, T.; Bohlmann, F. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1963,661,l-37. Dimroth, K.; Reichardt, C. Liebigs
Ann. Chem. 1969,727,93-105. Reichardt, C. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1971,752,64-67. Laurence, C.; Nicolet, P.; Lucon, M.; Dalati,
'
T.; Reichardt, C. J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 2 1989,873-876. Balakrishnan, S.; Easteal, A. J.Aust. J . Chem. 1981,34,933-
941. Reichardt, C.; Eschner, M.; Schafer, G., Unpublished results. Some of the newly measured ET(30) values deviate somewhat
from earlier published values. This is due to better methods of purification of the solvents under consideration. " Laurence, C.;
Nicolet, P.; Lucon, M.; Reichardt, C. Bull. SOC. Chim. Fr. 1987, 1001-1005. Aslam, M. H.; Collier, G.; Shorter, J. J. Chem. SOC.,
Perkin Trans. 2 1981,1572-1576. p Jeblick, W.; Schank, K. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1977,1096-1108. 4 Elias, H.; Dreher, M.; Neitzel,
S.; Volz, H. 2. Naturforsch., Part B 1982, 37, 684-687. These ET(30) values in parentheses are secondary values, calculated
from Kosower's 2 values by means of the correlation equation E ~ ( 3 0= ) 0.7522 - 7.87 (n = 15; r = 0.998), established by T. R.
Grifiths and D. C. Pugh ( J . Solution Chem. 1976, 8, 247-258 and Coord. Chem. Rev. 1979, 29, 129-211) with 15 carefully
selected solvents. They can be used in correlations but they are still subject to revision. Kosower, E. M.; Dodiuk, H. J. Am.
Chem. SOC.1976, 98, 924-929. Kosower, E. M.; Dodiuk, H.; Tanizawa, K.; Ottolenghi, M.; Orbach, N. J . Am. Chem. SOC.1975,
97,2167-2178. Spange, S.; Keutel, D. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1992,423-428. " Spange, S.; Lauterbach, M.; Gyra, A.-K.; Reichardt,
C. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1991,323-329. The ET(30) values of these phenols have been determined by means of a special technique
using solutions of the phenols in 1,2-dichloroethane as inert solvent. IliC, Z.; MaksimoviC, Z.; Reichardt, C. Glasnik Chem. Drudtua
Beograd [Bull. SOC.Chim. Beograd] 1984,49, 17-23. Burden, A. G.; Chapman, N. B.; Duggua, H. F.; Shorter, J. J. Chem. SOC.,
Perkin Trans. 2 1978, 296-303. Y MaksimoviC, Z.; Reichardt, C.; SpiriC, A. 2. Anal. Chem. 1974,270, 100-104. Beaumont, T.
G.; Davis, K. M. C. J. Chem. SOC.,Part B 1968, 1010-1014. a Mayrhofer, W.; Gritzner, G. J. Chem. SOC., Faraday Trans. 1990,
86, 823-828. Harrod, W. B.; Pienta, N. J. J. Phys. Org. Chem. 1990,3,534-544. Y Schroth, W.; Schadler, H.-D.; Andersch, J.
2. Chem. 1989,29,56-57; 129-135. Schroth, W.; Andersch, J.; Schadler, H.-D.; Spitzner, R. Chemiker-Ztg. 1989,113,261-271.
Poole, S. K.; Shetty, P. H.; Poole, C. F. Anal. Chim.Acta 1989,218, 241-264. Herf'ort, I.-M.; Schneider, H. Liebigs Ann. Chem.
1991,27-31. 5 Hyatt, J. A. J. Org. Chem. 1984,49,5097-5101. q Ikushima, Y.; Saito, N.; Arai, M.; Arai, K. Bull. Chem. SOC.Jpn.
1991,64,2224-2229. Ikushima, Y.; Saito, N.; Arai, M. J.Phys. Chem. 1992,96,2293-2297. Langhals, H.; Fritz, E.; Mergelsberg,
I. Chem. Ber. 1980, 113, 3662-3665. ' Goncalves, R. M. C.; SimBes, A. M. N.; Albuquerque, L. M. P. C.; Roses, M.; RBfols, C.;
Bosch, E. J. Chem. Res. (S) 1993,214-215; J.Chem. Res. (MI 1993,1380-1388. xET(30)values for six molten tetraalkylammonium
salts have been recently determined indirectly by means of the solvatofluorochromic dye coumarine 153 (Eastman-Kodak): Bart,
E.: Meltsin. A.: HUDDert. D. J. Phvs. Chem. 1994, 98. 3295-3299.
molecule with the more polar component of the

solvent mixture.
The Ed301 scale ranges from 63.1 kcallmol for
water, as the most polar solvent, to 30.7 kcal/mol for
tetramethylsilane (TMS), as the least polar solvent.
That is, a solvent change from water to TMS reduces H,C - ICH21,- OH
2 1
the electronic excitation energy of the dissolved
indicator dye 36 by 32.4 kcaVmol. In order to avoid
:
- 55
s -
n: 1 - 1 1
the non-SI unit kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol) and - -

1
-
the conversion of the E ~ ( 3 0values
) into kilojoules per
mole (kJ/mol), in 1983 the normalized E: scale was
-
m
0
L .-
50
- b
.. -
introduced and defined according to eq 3.l6OC The
dimensionless E: scale ranges now from 1.000 for
. * e
*.....
water to 0.000 for TMS. Normalized E: values are , , , , , , , , I
somewhat easier to handle, particularly in multipa-

rameter equations (cf. section V.C). For example, an
E: value of 0.503 for cyclopentanol means that this
solvent exhibits about 50.3% of the solvent polarity
of water, as empirically measured by means of the
standard dye 36. For the definition of the E: scale,
it would have been better to use the gas phase as (no. 124) reveals the importance of specific hydrogen-
the second standard state. However, because of the bond interactions between dye 36 and HBD solvents,
low volatility of betaine dye 36, its gas-phase UV/vis which are disturbed by steric hindrance of solvation
absorption spectrum could not be measured directly. in case of the tertiary alcohol: whereas the E ~ ( 3 0 )
Nevertheless, Table 2 contains a gas-phase E ~ ( 3 0 ) value decreases by only 5.7 kcaVmol in going from
value of 27.1 kcallmol (E: = -0.1111, which is methanol to 1-butanol, its decrease amounts to 12.1
calculated from linear correlations between measured kcallmol in going from methanol to tert-butyl alcohol.
and calculated Am= values of 36. These correlation An analogous decrease of the E ~ ( 3 0 value
) can be
equations are established either by means of a found in going from phenol (no. 160) to 2-tert-
statistical mechanical line-shape theory [calculated butylphenol [no. 168; A&(30) only 4.2 kcallmoll, and
E ~ ( 3 0value
) = 27.1 kcal/m011,~~~ or by means of a to 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol [no. 178; A&(30) as large
solvation theory derived from a generalized Born as 11.6 kcaVmol1, respectively.
model [calculated E ~ ( 3 0value
) = 27.01 f 1.41 kcall The relation between E ~ ( 3 0values
) and the chain
These calculated gas-phase E ~ ( 3 0values
) are length of a homologous series of solvents is illustrated
in remarkable agreement with another gas-phase by the points given in Figure 1 for water and 12
E ~ ( 3 0value
) (27.4 kcaVmol), derived from an empiri- 1-alkanols (no. 96, 98, 111, 120, 125, 132, 133, 136,
cal linear correlation between E ~ ( 3 0and
) AGO values 137, 139, 140, and 141 in Table 2). With increasing
of the solvent-dependent equilibrium between con- chain length of the alcohols, a nonlinear decrease of
figurational isomers of 1,2-dibromo-tert-butylcyclo- Ed301 is observed, which asymptotically reaches a
hexane.160c,289 The calculated gas-phase E ~ ( 3 0value
) limiting value of about 47 kcallmol. Obviously, the
of 27.1 kcallmol, as included in Table 2, corresponds polarity of a homologous series of solvents can be
to a wavelength of 1055 nm. That is, in the gas- described in terms of group increments, which are,
phase the standard betaine dye 36 should have its however, not simply additive, but behave in a loga-
long-wavelength absorption maximum in the near- rithmic fashion. It has been shown by L a n g h a l ~ ~ ~ O
infrared region. that, with respect to their E ~ ( 3 0values,
) this series
Table 2 includes about 20 different chemical classes of homologous 1-alkanols behaves in the same way
of solvents (e.g. alkanes, haloalkanes, arenes, etc.) as a binary mixture of an 1-alkanol with a hydrocar-
and allows systematic studies of relationships be- bon. Increasing the alcohol chain length decreases
tween E ~ ( 3 0values
) and the chemical constitution the molar concentration of OH groups in the same
of the solvents. According to their ET values, the way as dilution of an 1-alkanol with a hydrocarbon
organic solvents given in Table 2 can be roughly such as n - h e ~ a n e . ~ ~ ~
divided into three large groups: (a) HBD (or “protic”) E ~ ( 3 0values
) have been determined not only for
pure solvents, but also for numerous binary solvent/
solvents [E~(30) ca. 47-63 kcal/mol; E: ca. 0.5-1.01,
(b) dipolar non-HBD (or “aprotic”) solvents [E~(30) solvent mixtures (Table 3), for many aqueous and
nonaqueous electrolyte solutions (Table 4), and for
ca. 40-47 kcaymol; E: ca. 0.3-0.51, and (c) apolar so-called microheterogeneous media such as aqueous
non-HBD solvents [ E ~ ( 3 0ca. > 30-40 kcal/mol; E: and nonaqueous solutions of surfactants, micelles,
ca. 0.0-0.31. This classification corresponds quali- vesicles, and phospholipid bilayers (Table 5). Be-
tatively to the famous classification of organic sol- cause of the diversity of the results obtained, in
vents given by Parker in 1962.1a*291 Tables 3-5 only the systems studied by various
Whereas in non-HBD solvents specific solute 36/ research groups are compiled, together with the
solvent interactions are negligible, they are of im- relevant references in chronological order. This
portance in HBD solvents. For example, a compari- allows the reader to choose quickly the system of
son of the Ed301 values of methanol (solvent no. 96 interest from the most recent and, because of im-
in Table 2>,1-butanol (no. 120) and tert-butyl alcohol proved techniques of measurement, more reliable
Table 3. Compilation of References (inChronological Order) with E~(30) Values for Binary SolventISolvent
Mixtures
no. references investigated binary mixtures
1 Dimroth, K.; Reichardt, C. 2.Anal. Chem. 1966, mixtures of water with MeOH, EtOH, 2-PrOH,
215,344-350. Reichardt, C. Molecular CHsCOCHs. Dvridine, 2-methvl~vridine.
Interactions; Ratajczak, H., Orville-Thomas, W., 2,6-dimethylp~dine;1,4-dioxaie, and piperidine
Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: Chichester, 1982;
Vol. 3, pp 241-282
2 MaksimoviC, Z. B.; Reichardt, C.; SpiriC, A. 2. DMSO/CHCl3; DMSO/CCl4; CH&OCH3/CHC13;
Anal. Chem. 1974,270,100-104 CH3COCH3/CC14;CHCl3/CC14;
(MeOhPO with CHxC0CH.s. CHCL. CCL.
and (iIBuO)3PO; (EtO)3PO%th ciic13 and
CC4; (n-PrO)jPO with CHCl3 and CC1,; (n-BuO)sPO
with CHCl3 and CCl4
3 Krygowski, T. M.; Reichardt, C.; Wrona, P. K.; mixtures of methanol with H20, HCONH2, propylene
Wyszomirska, C.; Zielkowska, U. J. carbonate, CH3N02, CHsCN, DMSO, DMF,
Chem. Res. (S) 1983,116-117 CH3COCH3, EtOAc, CHC13, THF, 1,4-dioxane,
EtzO, and C6H6
4 Krygowski, T. M.; Wrona, P. K.; Zielkowska, U.; mixtures of water with MeOH, EtOH, 1-PrOH,
Reichardt, C. Tetrahedron 1985,41,4519-4527 2-PrOH, CHsCN, DMSO, DMF, CH3COCH3,
THF, and 1,4-dioxane
5 Koehler, W.; Froelich, P.; Radeglia, R. 2.Phys. mixtures of water with CH3COCH3, THF,
Chem. (Leipzig) 1969,242,220-224 and 1,4-dioxane
6 Tamura, K.; Ogo, Y.; Imoto, T. Bull. Chem. Soc. nitrobenzenehenzene
Jpn. 1973,46,2988-2992
7 Jouanne, J. v.; Palmer, D. A.; Kelm, H. Bull. Chem. HzO/l,4-dioxane, MeOWCHzClz
SOC. Jpn. 1978,51,463-465
8 Elias, H.; Gumbel, G.; Neitzel, S.;Volz, H. 2.Anal. mixtures of MeOH with 2-BuOH, t-PeOH, CH&N,
Chem. 1981,306,240-244 pyridine, and toluene; EtOWCF3CHzOH
9 Balakrishnan, S.; Easteal, A. J . Aust. J. Chem. EtOWCH3COCH3, EtOWCHCl3, C H ~ C O C H ~ / C H ~ C ~ Z ,
1981,34,933-941 CH3COCH3/CHC13, Br(CHz)sBr/Br(CHz)zBr
10 Balakrishnan, S.; Easteal, A. J. Aust. J. Chem. HzO/CH3CN
1981,34,943-947
11 Kosower, E. M.; Kanety, H.; Dodiuk, H.; Striker, MeOW1,4-dioxane
G.; Jovin, T.; Boni, H.; Huppert, D. J. Phys.
Chem. 1983,87,2479-2484
12 Koppel, I. A.; Koppel, J. B. Org. React. (USSR) mixtures of CH3CN and DMSO with HzO, MeOH,
(Engl. Transl.) 1983,20,523-546 EtOH. 2-PrOH. and t-BuOH
13 Koppel, I. A.; Koppel, J. B. Org. React. (USSR) MeOm'tOH, EtOWt-BuOH, DMSO/CH3CN,
(Engl. Transl.) 1983,20,547-560 pyridinehenzene
14 Nagy, P.; Herzfeld, R. Acta Phys. Chim. Szeged EtOWCH3COCH3, EtOHfbenzene, EtOWcyclohexane
1985,31,735-742; 1987,33,53-67
15 Hicks, J.;Vandersall, M.; Babarogic, Z.; Eisenthal, CsH&N/n-octane, CsHI&N/n-tetradecane
K. B. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1985,116,18-24
16 Bekhrek, V.; NevgEnB, T. Collect. Czech. Chem. CH&OCH&yclohexane
Commun. 1985,50,1928-1934
17 NevgEnP, T.; Bekarek, V. Collect. Czech. Chem. nitrobenzene/cyclohexane
Commun. 1986,51,1942-1947
18 NevEna, T.; Vymgtalova, J.;Bekarek, V. Collect. CHaCNhenzene
Czech. Chem. Commun. 1986,51,2071-2076
19 Mollin, J.; Navratilova, J.;Bekarek, V. 2.Chem. HzOEIOCH~CH~OH, HzO/DMSO
1986,26,295
20 Engberts, J. B. F. N.; Haak, J. R. Recl. Trav. Chim. mixtures of water with n-butoxyethanol, t-BuOH,
Pays-Bas 1986,105,307-311 CH3CN, DMSO, and 1,4-dioxane
21 Mooijman, F. R.; Engberts, J. B. F. N. J. Org. H~O/N-cyclohexylpylidin-2-one
Chem. 1989,54,3993-3995
22 Johnson, B. P.; Khaledi, M. G.; Dorsey, J. G. J . H20/MeOH, H20/CH&N
Chromatogr. 1987,384, 221-230. Dorsey, J. G.;
Johnson, B. P. Chimica oggi (Milano) 1986,11,
23-27
23 Dawber, J. G.; Ward, J.;Williams, R. A. J. Chem. mixtures of water with MeOH, EtOH, 1-PrOH,
SOC., Faraday Trans. 1 1988,84,713-727. CH3COCH3, and THF; mixtures of CH3COCH3
Dawber, J. G. J . Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. with MeOH, EtOH, 1-PrOH, DMSO, and CHC13;
1990,86,287-291 mixtures of CHC13 with MeOH, 1-PrOH, and
DMSO; MeOWTHF; MeOWCH3CN; 1-BuOWCS2;
HCONHDMSO
24 Stroka, J.; Herfort, I.-M.; Schneider, H. J . Solution HzOINfl-dimethylpropyleneurea (DMPU)
Chem. 1990,19,743-753
25 Zalewski, R. I.; Adamczewska, I.; Reichardt, C. J . mixtures of water with trimethyl phosphate, triethyl
Chem. Res. (S) 1990,280-281; J. Chem. Res. phosphate, and 1,4-dioxane; EtOWtri-n-butyl
(M)1990,2157-2176 phosphate; EtOWCHC13; CH&OCH&HCl3
(at 30-80 "C)
26 Herfort, LM.; Schneider, H. Liebigs Ann. Chem. mixtures of ethylammonium nitrate (EAN) with H20, MeOH,
1991,27-31 t-BuOH, and l,2-dimethoxyethane; mixtures of DMSO
with H20, EAN, tetraethylammonium nitrate, ethyl-
ammonium chloride, and tetraethylammonium chloride
27 Albuquerque, L. M. P.; Ventura, M. C. M.; Moita, mixtures of HzO with ethane-1,2-diol, propane-1,2-diol,
M. L. C. J . J . Chem. Res., Synop. 1992,3,92-93 and propane- 1,3-diol
Table 3 (Continued)
no. references investigated binary mixtures
28 Dutkiewicz, E.; Jakubowska, A,; Dutkiewicz, M. phenylisothiocyanatehenzene,cyclohexylisothiocyanatel
Spectrochim. Acta, Part A 1992,48, 1409-1414 cyclohexane, nitrobenzenehenzene, nitrocyclohexanel
cyclohexane
29 Ransdell, R. A.; Wamser, C. C. J.Phys. Chem. mixtures of water with DMSO
1992,96,10572-10575
30 Langhals, H. Angew. Chem. 1982,94,739-749; parameters EDand c” from the empirical two-parameter
Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 1982,21, 724.
Langhals, H. Similarity Models in Organic
equation E ~ ( 3 0= + +
) EDln(c&* 1) E&30),
describing the polarity of altogether 67 binary
Chemistry, Biochemistry and Related Fields; solvent mixtures. E ~ ( 3 0and
) Ek(30) =
Zalewski, R. I., Krygowski, T. M., Shorter, J., empirical solvent polarity parameter of the
Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1991; Chapter 6, binary solvent mixture and of its pure, less polar
pp 283-342 component, respectively; cp = molar concentration
of the pure, more polar component of the binary
solvent mixture; EDand c* = adjustable parameters
specific for the binary solvent mixture under consideration
31 Langhals, H. Tetrahedron Lett. 1986,27, 339-342. parameters EDand c* of the equation as given before at
Langhals, H. 2.Phys. Chem. (Leipzig) 1987, no. 30 of this table for binary solvent mixtures with
268,91-96 limited mutual miscibility
32 Langhals, H. Anal. Lett. 1990,23,2243-2258. parameters EDand c* of the equation as given before at
Langhals, H. GIT Fachz. Lab. 1991,35,766-771 no. 30 of this table for binary mixtures of water with
[cf. also Aldrichim. Acta 1991,3,24; 81; and organic solvents, useful for the determination of the
GIT Fachz. Lab. 1992,36,761] water content of waterlsolvent mixtures
33 Sakong, Y.; Yoo, S.-K.; Lee, I. Bull. Korean Chem. mixtures of methanol with various organic solvents
SOC.1992,13, 636-642; Chem.Abstr. 1993,118,
168632m
34 Bosch, E.; RosBs, M. J. Chem. SOC., Faraday Trans. preferential solvation coefficients f#j from the
1992,88,3541-3546. ROS~S, M.; Bosch, E. Anal. empirical one-parameter preferential solvation equation
Chim. Acta 1993,274,147-162 E: = EF1 + [[xz[Cfi/fi!(E:Z - E$l)lHl + xz[(fi/fi)- 1111
describing the polanty of altogether 52 binary solvent
mixtures. E:, E&, and E: - normalized empirical solvent
polarity parameter of the % i a r y solvent mixture and of its
two components, solvent 1and solvent 2, respectively;
x~ = mole fraction of the more polar solvent 2; fdf~=
proportionality coefficient depending on the tendency
of the solvatochromic standard betaine dye to be solvated
by the pure solvent 2 in reference t o solvent 1cfi >> f1:
strong preferential solvation of the solute by the more
polar solvent 2; fz = f1: equal solvation of the solute
by both solvents 1and 2)
35 RosBs, M.; Rafols, C.; Bosch, E. Abstracts 23rd Int. improvement of the preferential solvation equation
Conference on Solution Chemistry, Leicester, for the calculation of E! for binary solvent mixtures
England, August 1993 as given before at no. 34 of this table. The
new equation is based on the simplifying hypothesis
that the two solvents mixed, SI and SZ, form as a
“third solvent” a 1:l solvenffsolvent interaction
complex SI-2. The improved E: equation applies
successfully to 65 different binary solvenffsolvent
mixtures
36 Skwierczynski, R. D.; Connors, K. A. J. Chem. SOC., mixtures of water with MeOH, EtOH, 1-PrOH, 2-PrOH,
Perkin Trans. 2 1994,467-472 HOCH~CHZOH, DMSO, CHsCOCH3, CH&N, DMF.
A one- and a two-parameter equation for the dependence
Of &(SO) on x2, the mole fraction of the organic cosolvent,
is given for altogether 17 binary solvent mixtures
37 RosBs, M.; Ortega, J.; Bosch, E. J. Solution Chem. alcohol/alcohol mixtures such as MeOWEtOH, MeOW
1996,24, in press HOCHzCHzOH, MeO€UHOCH&HzOMe, EtOW
HOCHzCHzOH, EtO€UHOCH2CHZOMe,
and HOCHzCHzOWMeOCHzCHzOMe
38 Kipkemboi, P. K.; Easteal, A. J. Aust. J. Chem. mixtures of water with t-BuOH and Me3C-NHz
1994.47.1771-1781
39 Drago, R. S . ; Hirsch, M. S.; Ferris, D. C.; Chronister, mixtures of 1,2-dichlorobenzene with MeOH. EtOH.
C. W. J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 2 1994,219-230 1-BuOH, t-BuOH, 1-octanol, and CHzClz
sources. Unfortunately, the results of the various component is, for example, obtained for some alcohol/
research groups are often not directly comparable water (cf. nos. 1, 3, 4, 23, and 36 in Table 3) and
because of the use of different ranges and different alcohoValcoho1mixtures (nos. 13 and 37). Addition
measures of concentration of one of the two compo- of a small amount of a polar solvent t o solutions of
nents of the binary systems compiled in Tables 3-5. dye 36 in nonpolar solvents often causes a dispro-
The Ed301 values of binary solvent mixtures (Table portionately large hypsochromic band shift because
3) are related to their composition, given in volume of preferential or selective solvation of the dipolar dye
or mole fraction, not in a simple manner: most molecule by the more polar component of the binary
binaries behave as more or less nonideal solvent solvent m i x t ~ r e . Typical
~ ~ ~ * examples
~~~ of solvent
mixtures. A monotonous, but not always linear, mixtures with preferential solvation are 1,4-dioxane/
change in E ~ ( 3 0with
) mole fraction of one solvent water (nos. 1, 3, 4, 20, and 25) and pyridine/water
2344 Chemical Reviews, 1994,Vol. 94,No. 8 Reichardt
Table 4. Compilation of References (in Chronological Order) with E ~ ( 3 0Values

) for Aqueous and Nonaqueous
Solutions of Electrolytes (Salts, Ionophores) and Nonelectrolytes (Ionogens) ~~
no. references investigated salt solutions

1 Koppel, I. A.; Koppel, J. B. Org. React. (USSR) (n-BuJV)Br in HzO; LiC1, NaC1, NaC104,
(Engl. Transl.) 1984,21,98-123 KBr. (Me4N)Cl.and (n-BuaN)Br in
H2OhfeOH '
2 Koppel, I. A.; Koppel, J. B.; Pihl, V. 0. Org. React. (USSR) NaC1, NaC104, KBr, (Me4N)Cl,(MeJW104,
(Engl. Transl.) 1984,21,144-159 (Eta)C104, (n-BuJV)Br, and
(n-BuN)C104in MeOH and DMSO;
(n-BuN)Br and (n-B~@)C104 in benzene
3 Hollmann, G.; Vogtle, F. Chem. Ber. 1984,117,1355-1363 excess LiI, NaI, KI, Mg(C104)2, Ca(SCN12,
(cf. also, Bock, H.; Herrmann, H.-F. Helv. Chim. Acta and BaI2 in acetonitrile
i989,72, ii7i-1'185)
4 Braun, R.; Sauer, J. Chem. Ber. 1986,119,1269-1274 LiC104 in MeOCHZCHzOMe, THF, and
Et20 (indirect determination)
5 Pocker, Y.; Ciula, J. C. J . Am. Chem. SOC. 1989,111, LiC104 in THF and Et20
4728-4735
6 Harrod, W. B.; Pienta, J. J . Phys. Org. Chem. 1990,3, (n-BaP)Br and (n-Bu3P-Cl~H26)Br in water
534-544
7 Herfort, I.-M.; Schneider, H. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1991, (Et4N)N03 ( E M ) in HzO, MeOH, t-BuOH,
27-31 DMSO, and MeOCH2CH20Me; (EtNHS)Cl,
(EtD)N03, and (Et4N)Cl in DMSO
8 Reichardt, C.; Schafer, G.; Milart, P. Collect. Czech. Chem. LiC1, LiBr, LiI, LiC104, NaI, KF, KC1, KI, CsI,
Commun. 1990,55,97-118 and Mg(C10& in water [c(salt) = 1.0 mol/Ll
9 Thompson, P. A.; Simon, J. D. J . Chem. Phys. 1992,97, LiC104, NaC104, NaI, Mg(C104)2, and
4792-4799 (n-BuN)C104in acetonitrile [c(salt) =
1.0 mol/L]
10 Reichardt, C.; Asharin-Fard, S.; Schafer, G. Chem. Ber. LiI, NaI, KI, RbI, CsI, Mg(C104)2, CaI2,
1993,126,143-147 SrI2, BaI2, and (n-B&N)I in acetonitrile
11 Desimoni, G.; Faita, G.; Gatti Comini, S.; Righetti, P. P.; LiC104 in methanol
Tacconi, G. Tetrahedron 1993,49,2093-2100
12 Rezende, M. C.; Zanette, D.; Zucco, C. Tetrahedron Lett. parameters A and c*from the empirical
1984,25,3423-3424. Rezende, M. C.; Dal Sasso, L. I. two-parameter equation E ~ ( 3 0= )
Rev. Roum. Chim. 1986,31,323-326. Rezende, M. C.
Tetrahedron 1988,443513-3522. Lopes de Oliviera,
+ +
A In(c/c* 1) E&30),describing
the polarity of a t least
C. C.; Rezende, M. C. J . Braz. Chem. SOC. 1991,2,21-24. 20 saltlsolvent combinations; E ~ ( 3 0and
)
Gageiro, V.; Aillon, M.; Rezende, M. C. J . Chem. Soc., Ek(30) = empirical solvent polarity
Faraday Trans. 1992,88,201-204 parameters of the salt solution and
the pure solvent, respectively; c = molar
salt concentration; A and c* = adjustable
parameters specific for the salt solution
under consideration
13 Spange, S.; Keutel, D. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1993,981-985 urea and NJV'-dimethylurea in water;
carbohydrates (glucose, mannose,
fructose, saccharose) in water and DMSO
14 Lavallee, R. J.; Zimmt, M. B. J . Phys. Chem. 1994,98, (n-Bufi)PFs and (n-Bu3MeN)PFs in CHzClz
4254-4260
15 Binder, D. A.; Kreevoy, M. M. J . Phys. Chem. 1994,98, LiI in acetonitrile
10008- 10016
mixtures (no. 1). In these cases, E ~ ( 3 0values

) do not, mutual self-interaction of the two solvent com-
in fact, measure the polarity of the bulk solvent ponent~.~~~~,~
mixture, but rather the polarity of the solute-sur- Whereas the preferential solvation of ions has been
rounding local solvation shell. Obviously, preferen- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ solvation of
studied e x t e n ~ i v e l y ,preferential
tial solvation is induced by the probe molecule and dipolar solute molecules is less well i n v e ~ t i g a t e d . ~ ~ ~ - ~
depends on its chemical structure. This implies that Of particular interest are those binary solvent mix-
solvent polarity parameters obtained in mixtures tures which exhibit a maximum in the graph describ-
with a given probe may not be generally valid for the ing the dependence of E ~ ( 3 0on ) the composition of
solvation of other probes or solutes dissolved in such
solvent mixtures. Whereas in neat solvents all the binary solvent mixture. This means that such
solutes have the same chemical environment and the binary solvent mixtures behave as a more polar
derived solvent parameters are generally valid, this medium than either of their two components. Typical
is not necessarily so for solvent mixtures. A recent examples are trialkyl phosphates/chloroform (no. 2)
careful analysis of the use of chemical probes for the and DMSO/alcohol mixtures (no. 12). This polarity
characterization of nonaqueous and aqueous binary increase in binary HBA solvent/HBD solvent mix-
solvent mixtures by Marcus has s ~ o w that ~ ~ ~ ~ has
tures ~ , been
~ explained by synergistic effects at-
several chemically dissimilar probes produce conver- tributable to specific intermolecular solventholvent
gent values of the respective solvent parameters (at hydrogen-bond interactions (e.g. P=O-HCClS,
a given composition). That is, preferential solvation S=O-HOR, etc.), which create a new solvent system
need not preclude the practical use of chemical probes more polar than the two pure component^.^^^^^^ The
in solvent mixtures, particularly for those cases in complex behavior and the E ~ ( 3 0and ) E: values of
which probes interact with the components of the binary solvent mixtures can be described quantita-
binary mixed solvent less strongly as compared to the tively by means of various equations, based on
Table 5. Compilation of References (in Chronological Order) with Applications of Solvatochromic Pyridinium
N-Phenolate Betaine Dyes (e.g. 36) for the Characterization of Microheterogeneous Media Such as Solutions of
Surfactants, Micelles, Vesicles, etc. ~~
no. references investigated microheterogeneous media

1 Zachariasse, K. A.; Van Phuc, N.; Kozankiewicz, B. aqueous micellar solutions and some oil-in-water
J . Phys. Chem. 1981,85,2676-2683 microemulsions of anionic surfactants (sodium
decyl, dodecyl, tetradecyl, and hexadecyl sulfate;
sodium dodecanoate), cationic surfactants
(benzylhexadecyldimethylammonium halides;
dodecyl-, tetradecyl-, and hexadecyltrimethylammonium
halides), nonionic surfactants (Triton X-100, Brij 35,
C12EOa) as well as multibilayers and sonicated vesicles
of dimyristoyl- and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine
2 Plieninger, P.; Baumgartel, H. Ber. Bunsen-Ges. Phys. aqueous micellar solutions of decyl-, dodecyl-, tetradecyl-,
Chem. 1982,86,161-167; Liebigs Ann. Chem. hexadecyl-, and octadecyltrimethylammonium
1983,860-875 bromide; sodium dodecyl sulfate; (dodecyl-
dimethy1ammonium)propane sulfate
3 Drummond, C. J.; Grieser, F.; Healy, T. W. Faraday aqueous solutions of self-assembled surfactants such
Discuss. Chem. SOC.1986,81,95-106; Chem. Abstr. as dodecyl- and hexadecyltrimethylammonium
1987,106,126332k halides, dodecyl benzenesulfonate, hexadecyl-
pyridinium bromide, sodium dodecyl sulfate,
dodecylethyl(or buty1)dimethylammonium bromide,
n-dodecyl octaoxyethylene glycol monoether (ClzEs),
dihexadecyl phosphate, L-a-dimyristoyl- and
L-a-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine
4 Drummond, C. J.; Grieser, F.; Healy, T. W. Chem. aqueous micellar solutions of dodecyltrimethylammonium
Phys. Lett. 1987,140,493-498 +
bromide and chloride electrolytes
5 Kibblewhite, J.; Drummond, C. J.; Grieser, F.; Healy, micellar solutions of cationic surfactants such as
T. W. J . Phys. Chem. 1987,91,4658-4660 dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride and
bromide in 1-pentanol
6 Warr, G. G.; Evans, D. F. Langmuir 1988,4,217-224 aqueous micellar solutions of ionic surfactants (dodecyl-,
tetradecyl-, and hexadecyltrimethylammonium
halides; sodium dodecyl sulfate) and nonionic
surfactants [octa(ethylene glycol) mono-n-decyl
ether; n-dodecyl b-D-maltoside]
7 Lay, M. B.; Drummond, C. J.;Thistlethwaite, P. J.; water-in-oil microemulsions such as sodium
Grieser, F. J . Colloid Znterface Sci. 1989,128, bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT)/hexane/
602-604 water and didodecyldimethylammonium bromide/
tetradecane (or hexane)/water
8 Koppel, I. A.; Koppel, J. B. Org. React. (Tartu) 1989, aqueous and some nonaqueous solutions of nonionic
26,78-91; Chem. Abstr. 1990,113,230702m surfactants (Triton X-100, Tween-80) and of
anionic surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate)
9 Kessler, M. A.; Wolfbeis, 0. S. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1989, aqueous micellar solution of hexadecyltrimethyl-
50,51-56 ammonium bromide
10 Zaslavsky, B. Yu.; Miheeva, L. M.; Masimov, E. A.; aqueous solutions of Dextran-70, poly(ethy1ene glyco1)s
Djaforov, S. F.; Reichardt, C. J . Chem. SOC.,Faraday (PEG 200-20000), and Ficoll-400
Trans. 1990,86,519-524
11 Handa, T.; Nakagaki, M.; Miyajima, K. J . Colloid aqueous solutions of micelles (e.g. sodium tetradecyl
Znterface Sci. 1990,137,253-262 sulfate) and liposomes
12 Varadaraj, R.; Bock, J.; Valint, P.; Brons, N. Langmuir aqueous micellar solutions of ethoxylates, sodium
1990,6,1376-1378 ethoxy sulfates, and sodium sulfates derived
from linear and branched hydrocarbon alcohols
13 Varadaraj, R.; Bock, J.; Brons, N.; Pace, S. J . Phys. aqueous solutions of hydrophobically associating
Chem. 1993,97,12991-12994 water-soluble copolymers of acrylamide and
N-alkylacrylamide, forming hydrophobic
microdomains by alkyl-chain aggregation;
aqueous solutions of anionic and nonionic surfactants
(sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium dodecyl pentaethoxy
sulfate, dodecyl pentaethoxylate)
14 Saitoh, I.; Tani, H.; Kamidate, T.; Watanabe, H.; micellar solution (reversed micelles) of N-octanoyl-
Haraguchi, K.; Abe, S. Anal. Sei. 1993,9,345-349 N-phenylhydroxyamine in tetrachloromethane
15 Hobson, R. A.; Grieser, F.; Healy, T. W. J . Phys. aqueous micellar solutions of two mixed surfactants:
Chem. 1994,98,274-278 n-dodecyl octaoxyethylene glycol monoether
(C12E8Ysodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and
C12E8/n-dodecyltrimethylammoniumchloride (DTAC)
different models for binary solvent mixtures, which pound on increasing electrolyte concentration, pro-
are also mentioned in Table 3 (nos. 30-32 and 34- vided this band shift is not caused by a change in
37). the chemical structure of the chromophore.185This
The change in E ~ ( 3 0values
) after addition of an definition of a genuine halochromism is in contrast
electrolyte (salt or ionophore)to solutions of the probe to the trivial halochromism first described by Baeyer
dye 36 (cf. Table 4) results from a phenomenon called et al.,301studying the salt formation during the
genuine h a Z o c h r o m i ~ m . ~ ~The
~ J term
~ ~ - ~negative
~~ reaction of colorless triphenylcarbinol with sulfuric
(positive) halochromism was suggested for a hypso- acid, which leads to a yellow triphenylcarbenium salt.
chromic (bathochromic) shift of the W/vis/near-IR During this reaction, however, the chemical structure
absorption band of a dissolved light-absorbing com- of the chromophore is completely changed, whereas
the chromophore of a genuine halochromic compound tween solvatochromicprobe and solvent molecules is
holds its chemical structure on the addition of an the same as in the interaction between the solute and
electrolyte. In principle, all solvatochromic com- solvent of interest in the particular solvent-dependent
pounds should be also halochromic because addition process under investigation. The successful applica-
of an electrolyte to solutions of solvatochromic com- tion of the E ~ ( 3 0values
) in correlation analysis of a
pounds changes the ionic strength and, hence, the great variety of solvent-dependent processes demon-
solvation capability of the surrounding medium. strates that this is often the case. However, accord-
More detailed, recent studies on the halochromism ing to the chemical structure of the solvatochromic
of solvatochromic compounds revealed that depend- probe molecule 36, this dye is not capable of interact-
ing on the chemical structure of the indicator mol- ing specifically and significantly with EPD solvents.
ecule, their halochromism is mainly determined That is, the Lewis basicity of solvents is not regis-
either by the cations or by the anions of the salt tered by this probe, whereas the solvent Lewis acidity
added, leading to so-called cationic or anionic halo- is. In order to overcome this drawback, the two-
c h r o m i ~ m .The
~ ~ negatively
~~ solvatochromic dyes parameter eq 5 has been introduced,312which in-
36,160f42-44,1a4 and 48156b exhibit a typical cation- cludes, as second empirical parameter, the donor
determined genuine halochromism, whereas the posi- number (DN) of Gutmann et a1.9*4ns313,314 as measure
tively solvatochromic dye 34156shows a characteristic of the Lewis basicity of solvents:
anion-determined halochromism (cf. Table 1). Elec-
trolyte solutions are important reaction media.302 +
XYZ = (XYZ), aE,(30) + PDN (5)
Therefore, the empirical determination of their sol-
vation capability by means of solvatochromic and The donor number is obtained by measuring the heat
halochromic indicator molecules gains in importance. of reaction of the solvent with the strong Lewis acid
The determination of E ~ ( 3 0values
) of the solvent/ SbC15 when these reactants are dissolved in 1,2-
salt systems given in Table 4 are first attempts in dichloroethane. XYZ and (XYZ)o are the values of
this direction. It should be added that the determi- the solvent-dependent physicochemical property of
nation of E ~ ( 3 0values
) for pure, liquid salts is also the solute under investigation (e.g. log K, log k, ho,
possible (cf. solvents nos. 335-353 in Table 2). etc.) in a given solvent and in the gas phase (or in
Finally, indicator dyes such as 36 have also been an inert solvent), respectively. a and ,8 are the
used for the empirical determination of the polarity regression coefficients describing the relative sensi-
of microheterogeneous media (Table 5 ) . For the use tivity of the solute property XYZ to electrophilic
of other probe dyes for this purpose, see for example (Lewis acidic) and nucleophilic (Lewis basic) solvent
refs 136c, 150, 227, and 303-308. Amphiphilic properties, respectively. By means of eq 5 , a multi-
molecules such as surfactants can self-associate to a tude of E ~ ( 3 0correlations,
) e.g. such as with 23Na+
variety of structured assemblies in aqueous solution, NMR chemical shifts (p = 85-100%) and enthalpies
e.g. micelles (inverted micelles in nonpolar solvents), of ion solvation (,8 = 11-72%), have been significantly
vesicles, and bi1aye1-s.~~ A normal micelle consists improved.312 According to eq 5 , good correlations
of three different parts: the nonpolar interior, the between XYZ and E ~ ( 3 0alone
) can only be expected
hydrocarbon core, and the hydrophilic charged head- if ,!?* 0. That is, the solvent Lewis basicity should
groups located at the micellelwater interface. The not be important to the solute/solvent interactions
micropolarity of these different micellar regions can in these cases.
be probed by means of reporter dye molecules such The success of eq 5 in improvingEd301 correlations
as 36 (Table 5 ) and others, which are incorporated is in agreement with an interesting finding made by
into the micellar system. For example, the spectro- Swain et a1.315,316 A statistical evaluation of 1080
scopic probe molecule 36, invariably solubilized in the data sets for 61 solvents and 77 solvent-sensitive
micelle/water interface, senses changes in micropo- reactions and physicochemical properties taken from
larity caused by salt addition, variation of surfactant the literature revealed that most solvent effects can
chain length and concentration, counterion, and be rationalized in terms of only two complementary
temperature-and is therefore a useful rod for the solvent property scales, i.e. Aj, meaning the solvent’s
study of the interface polarity of micellar and other anion-solvating tendency or acity, and Bj, meaning
systems. It has been demonstrated278that E ~ ( 3 0 ) the solvent’s cation solvating tendency or basity, both
values can provide a quantitative measure of the combined in eq 6:315,316
surface potential of cationic micelles. The microhet-
erogeneous systems studied so far with the solvato- XYZ = (XYZ), + upj + biBj (6)
chromic dye 36 are collected in Table 5.
Solvatochromic probe molecules such as 36161J77d Aj and Bj characterize the solventj, whereas XYZ and
and others80~309-311 have also been used for the (XYZ),, as well as a, and bi, depend only on the
characterization of the surface polarity of solids, solvent-sensitive property z under study. The terms
which are used as adsorbents in chromatography. acity and baszty were chosen because, although they
are obviously kinds of acidity and basicity, they are
C. Multiparameter Approaches neat (bulk) solvent properties involved in solute
solvation. The acidity and basicity of solvents pertain
In applying the aforementioned, spectroscopically to the complete transfer of a proton from solvent to
derived empirical parameters to the correlation analy- solute (acidity) or vice versa (basicity), forming a new
sis of solvent effects, it is tacitly assumed that the charged chemical species. Such a process is beyond
contribution of the various, nonspecific and specific, the normal meaning of solvation: a loose adduct
intermolecular forces to the overall interaction be- formation between solute and solvent molecules (e.g.
via H bonding or dipole/dipole interactions), without independent coefficients characteristic of the process
changing the chemical integrity of the solute. The under study and indicative of its susceptibility to the
+
sum (Aj Bj) is considered as a new measure of solvent properties n*,a, ,f3, and 6 ~ ~ .
solvent polarity in terms of the overall solvation of a The solvatochromic parameter n* measures the
solvent.315 For the solvent-dependent light absorp- exoergic effects of solute/solvent, dipole/dipole, and
tion on which the E ~ ( 3 0values
) are based, ai = 30.36 dipole/induced dipole interactions. That is, it mea-
and bi = 4.45 (ai/bi = 6.8), thus demonstrating that sures the ability of a solvent to stabilize a neighboring
the E ~ ( 3 0values
) are mainly related to the solvent charge or dipole by virtue of nonspecific dielectric
acity, and not the solvent basity. interactions. Therefore, n*values represent a blend
Analogous considerations can be made for other of dipolarity and polarizability of the solvent. For
empirical solvent polarity parameters derived from selected solvents, i.e. nonpolychlorinated aliphatic
solvatochromic dyes as given in Table 1. A great solvents, with a single dominant bond dipole moment,
variety of multiparameter treatments of solvent n*values are very nearly proportional to the solvent’s
effects have been developed, using not only W/vis/ molecular permanent dipole moment. The x* scale
near-IR spectroscopically derived empirical param- is so named because it is derived from solvent effects
eters, but also parameters based on equilibrium and on the n-n*absorptions of the seven nitroaromatics
kinetic measurements as well as on other spectro- 15-21 (Table 1) used as primary probe molecules.
scopic methods (e.g. from IR, NMR, and ESR mea- The n*scale ranges from n* = 0.00 for cyclohexane
surements). Multiparameter treatments of solvent to n* = 1.00 for dimethyl sulfoxide. In correlating
effects have been reviewed.1,47e-f,h-k.52,313~,317,318Mul- solvent effects where the blend of dipolarity and
tiparameter equations of this kind are still manifes- polarizability interactions is significantly different
tations of linear free-energy r e l a t i o n s h i p ~ . ~ >
A~ ~ - ~from
~ the model process (i.e. n-n* absorption of
statistical analysis of the problem how many signifi- nitroaromatics), a variable empirical polarizability
cant solvent parameters are necessary for a complete parameter must be added to the first term of eq 8.139c
quantitative description of solvent effects by means For aromatic solvents, 6 = 1.00, for polychlorinated
of multiparameter equations has been recently given (polyhalogenated?) aliphatic solvents, 6 = 0.50, and
by Palm et a1.345In the following, only multiparam- for all other aliphatic solvents, 6 = 0.00. This
eter treatments based on solvatochromic probe mol- modification term is a less desirable, but necessary
ecules will be mentioned. feature of the parameter n*.n*values are measured
The reason for the introduction of multiparameter directly and are the mean results for the seven
equations is the observation that soluteholvent in- indicator solutes 15-21, which are supposed to be
teractions, responsible for the solvent influence on insensitive to specific HBD and HBA interactions
equilibria, rates, and absorptions, are caused by a with solvents.
multitude of nonspecific (ioddipole, dipole/dipole,
dipole/induced dipole, instantaneous dipolehnduced The n* scale has been recently improved by means
dipole) and specific (H bonding, EPD/EPA interac- of a new thermosolvatochromic comparison meth-
tion) intermolecular forces between solute and sol- od47j,272,273 and by using another set of primary
vent molecules. Is it then possible to develop indi- solvatochromic indicator dyes (i.e. dyes 22-27 in
vidual empirical parameters for each of these distinct Table 1).47hJ47 For a further discussion of the n*
interaction mechanisms and combine them into a values, their shortcomings and improvements, see
multiparameter master equation such as eq 7: section V.A of this review, particularly eq
1.47h,47j,272,2738318 According to eq 1, n*values can be
XYZ = (xYz>oClA bB+ + + cc + ... (7) simply determined by means of only one primary
indicator, i.e. 4-metho~ynitrobenzene.~~j,~~~,~~~ For
where the regression coefficients describe the sensi- solvents which are not transparent in the absorption
tivity of solute property XYZ to the different solute/ range of 4-methoxynitrobenzene, a secondary indica-
solvent interaction mechanisms and help to unravel tor, 4-(dimethylamino)nitrobenzene,can be used.
the observed overall solvent effect into its various Further procedures for the calculation of n*values
contributions? This appealing concept depends on have been recently collected by Marcus.318
the possibility of finding solvatochromic (or other) The solvatochromic parameter a in eq 8 is a
probe molecules which interact with solvents by only quantitative, empirical measure of the ability of a
one of the existing intermolecular soluteholvent bulk solvent to act as a hydrogen-bond donor (HBD)
interaction mechanisms-and this is not so easy t o toward a s o 1 ~ t e . ~The ~ ~solvatochromic
J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~com-
~
achieve! parison method for the determination of a values
One of the most ambitious, and very successful, consists of the comparison of solvent-induced shifts
quantitative treatments of solvent effects by means of the longest wavelength n-n* absorption band of
of a multiparameter equation such as eq 7 is that two similar (ideally homomorphic) probe molecules,
introduced by Kamlet and Taft in 1976319and called one of which cannot act as hydrogen-bond acceptor
linear solvation energy relationship (LSER).47e,53J39 toward HBD solvents [(e.g. 4-methoxynitrobenzene
Using three W/vis spectroscopically derived solva- (1611, whereas the other can (e.g. the betaine dye
tochromic parameters, n*, a, and p, eq 8 was estab- 36): Ar-0- in 36 is a better hydrogen-bond acceptor
than Ar-OCH3 in 16. According to the similarity (or
+ + + + +
XYZ = (XYZ), s(n* dd) aa bp mdH2 homomorphism) of the two probe molecules, a plot
(8) of the absorption wavenumbers of 36 against those
of 16 gives, for non-HBD solvents, a straight refer-
lished, where (XYZ)o, s, a , b, and m are solvent- +
ence line of the type iX36) = aQ(16) b. HBD
solvents fall off (in this case above) the line because The p scale was fixed by setting /3 = 0.0 for
of stronger hydrogen bonding of HBD solvents to the cyclohexane and p = 1.0 for hexamethylphosphoric
betaine 36 than to 4-methoxynitrobenzene (16). This triamide (HMF'T). p values are zero for non-HBA and
supplementary enhanced band shift, induced in be- non-EPD solvents such as aliphatic hydrocarbons;
taine 36 relative to 16, is denoted AAF(36-16) and however, for aromatic hydrocarbons, /3 0.1. For
can be calculated from the deviation of HBD solvents aliphatic ethers, p RZ 0.3-0.5 (p = 0.47 for diethyl
from the reference line via equation AAF(36-16) = ether) and for aliphatic alcohols, ,6 x 0.7-0.9 (p =
+
[aF(16) b] - F(36) for each HBD solvent. By the 0.66 for methanol). For aliphatic amines, ,B x 0.5-
same solvatochromic comparison method, various 0.7 (p = 0.71 for triethylamine), reaching a maximum
other pairs of probe molecules have been investigated with /3 = 1.43 for 1,2-diamin0ethane.~l~Further
and, eventually, a values were arrived at by a process procedures for their determination and a compilation
of successive approximations and statistical calcu- of ,8 values have been recently given by Marcus.318
lations.47e147jJ39f a values are zero for non-HBD In addition to the solvatochromic parameters n*,
solvents such as aliphatic and aromatic hydrocar- a, and p, which represent the exoergic solute/solvent
bons. For aliphatic alcohols, a 0.5-1.0 (a = 0.98 interactions, eq 8 includes a fourth so-called cavity
for methanol), and for fluoro-substituted aliphatic term, B H ~which
, represents a physical solvent quan-
alcohols and phenols, a > 1.0, reaching a maximum tity called cohesive pressure (or cohesive energy
with a = 1.96 for hexafluoroisopropyl alcohol.318 density).322This quantity is related to Hildebrand's
Further procedures for their determination and a solubility parameter, BH, which is given by BH = (AH"
collection of a values have been recently given by - RT/Vm)1/2, where AH" is the molar standard en-
M a r ~ ~ s . ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ thalpy of vaporization of the solvent to a gas of zero
The solvatochromic parameter p in eq 8 is a pressure, and V m is the molar volume of the sol-
quantitative, empirical measure of the ability of a vent.323 The squared solubility parameter corre-
bulk solvent to act as a hydrogen-bond acceptor sponds to the endoergic process of separating the
(HBA) or electron-pair donor (EPD) toward a solute, solvent molecules to provide a suitably sized enclo-
forming a solute-to-solvent hydrogen bond or a sure for the solute and measures the work required
solvent-to-solute coordinative bond, respective- to produce a cavity of unit volume in the solvent. This
1y.47eJ39,319The solvatochromic comparison method term is related to the tightness or structuredness of
used to determine ,f3 values consists (analogous to the solvents as caused by intermolecular solventholvent
determination of a values) of the comparison of interactions. The resulting association of solvent
solvent-inducedshifts of the longest wavelength n-n* molecules in the liquid state depends on their chemi-
absorption band of two homomorphic probe mol- cal structure and can be quantified by means of their
ecules, one of which cannot act as hydrogen-bond cohesive p r e ~ s u r e It
. ~has
~ ~been
~ ~ shown that this
donor toward solvents [e.g. 4-(diethylamino)nitroben- cavity term is only poorly correlated with the other
zene (17);cf. Table 11, whereas the other can (e.g. three parameters of eq 8, which is an important
4-aminonitrobenzene, ANB): Ar-NH2 in ANB is a precondition for its inclusion into eq
better hydrogen-bond donor than Ar--N(C2H& in 17. Most of the reported linear solvation energy rela-
The term homomorphic molecules was first intro- tionships are simpler than that indicated by eq 8. For
duced by Brown et al.321Molecules having the same, example, if the solvent-induced change of the XYZ
or closely similar, molecular size and geometry are property does not involve the creation of a cavity or
called homomorphs; these should have similar physi- a change in cavity volumes between different states
cal properties (e.g. UV/vis spectra). According to the (initial and transition state; ground and excited
homomorphism of the two probe molecules, a plot of state), the term ~ B drops H ~out. This is notably the
the absorption wavenumbers of ANB against those case for UV/vis/near-IR absorptions because elec-
of 17 gives, for non-HBA solvents, a straight refer- tronic transitions are hardly accompanied by a
ence line of the type f(ANB) = aF(17) b. HBA + change in molar volume of the absorbing ground-
solvents fall below this line because of stronger state molecule on excitation. Thus, for the correla-
hydrogen bonding between HBA solvents and ANB, tion of solvent effects on spectra, eq 8 can be
as compared to HBA solvents and 17. This supple- correspondingly simplified. If only non-HBD solvents
mentary, enhanced band shift, denoted AAF(ANB- are considered, the a term in eq 8 drops out.
171, can be calculated from the deviation of HBA Conversely, if the solutes are not hydrogen-bond
solvents from the reference line via equation AAF- donors or Lewis acids, the ,4 term drops out of eq 8.
+
(ANB-17) = [aF(17) b ] - F(ANB) for each HBA In this way, depending on the chemical structure of
solutes and solvents, the four-parameter eq 8 can be
solvent. The same method has been used for other
pairs of homomorphic molecules (e.g. 4-nitrophenoll reduced to a three-, two-, and even one-parameter
4-nitroanisole). Eventually, p values were again equation, sometimes leaving n*as the only remaining
arrived at by a process of successive approximations parameter.
and statistical calculations.47e~47JJ39fThe ,4 scale was Equation 8 applies to the influence of different
later improved by Laurence et al. by determining solvents on the properties XYZ of a single solute (e.g.
more precise reference lines and replacing 44diethyl- absorption spectra, reaction rates, equilibrium con-
aminohitrobenzene ( 17) by 4-(dimethylamino)ni- stants, etc.). Conversely, eq 8 can also be used to
trobenzene as secondary probe because of an ir- correlate the properties XYZ of a set of different
regular correspondence between the vibrational struc- solutes in a single solvent (e.g. solubilities, partition
ture in the absorption bands of ANB and 17.47JJ40a coefficients, etc.), provided eq 8 is changed into eq
9, where all of the explanatory parameters (ni,az, eq 11,where S’ represents and empirical parameter
XYZ = (XYZ), + + aa2 + bP2 + mVd100

S R ~ (9)
XYZ = (XYZ)() pS’ + (11)
measuring only the nonspecific solvating ability of
Pz, VZ)are now denoted with a subscript 2 to indicate solvents.332 Using a least squares minimization
that they represent now solute parameters, not program, the measured physicochemical properties
solvent parameters.324 In eq 9 , n i denotes the dipo- XYZ of systems that cannot undergo specific interac-
larity/polarizability of the species acting as an infi- tions with donor (EPD) solvents, have been fitted to
nitely dilute solute. a2 and P 2 represent the hydrogen- eq 11. A total of 366 relevant literature values were
bond acidity and hydrogen-bond basicity, respectively, selected; 34 solvents and 82 probes were utilized
of the same species, acting again as an infinitely (among them probes 2,17,36,53, and 63). In order
dilute solute. VZ is the solute molar volume and is to get a solution for the p , S’, and (XY2)ovalues from
divided by 100 so that the cavity term covers roughly 366 simultaneous equations, the S’value for dimethyl
the same numerical range as the ni, a2, and PZ sulfoxide has been fixed (S’= 3.00) to anchor the
parameters, which simplifies the evaluation of the scale. The selected solvent-dependent reference pro-
contributions of the various terms in eq 9.324 cesses include not only electronic transitions of
The methodology of linear solvation energy rela- negatively and positively solvatochromic probe mol-
tionships by means of eqs 8 and 9 has been used to ecules, but also I9F and 15NNMR chemical shifts as
unravel, identify, and evaluate the individual solute/ well as ESR hyperfine coupling constants.332 S’
solvent interactions that determine the solvent effects values are known for 46 solvents and range from 1.11
of numerous examples.325 In three series entitled for cyclohexane to 3.07 for nitromethane. The S’
Linear Solvation Energy relationship^,^^^ Solubility scale is considered as a generalized, single-parameter
Properties i n Polymers and Biological Media,327and scale of nonspecific solvent polarity, which excludes
Solute-Solvent Interactions i n Chemistry and Biol- specific solute/solvent interactions. In particular
~ g ythe , usefulness
~ ~ ~ of this solvatochromically de- were excluded (a) concentrated probe solutions, in
rived concept has been impressively demonstrated. order to avoid solute/solute interactions (as in n-
Further developments of this methodology, particu- hydrocarbons which favor solute aggregation), (b)
larly with respect to its application in chromatogra- specific EPDiEPA interactions (e.g. between n solutes
phy, have been reviewed by Abraham,329Carr,80and and R solvents as well as between EPD donors and
Poole et al.330 The use of computer-calculated quan- haloalkanes), and (c) dipolar solvents that exist as
tum chemical properties as surrogates for the experi- rotamers with variable solvating abilities (e.g. 1,2-
mentally determined solvatochromic parameters, as dichloro- and 1,2-dimethoxyethane). The fact that
described above, has been recently reviewed by the same S’ values can be used for correlating
Cramer et al.331 The empirical solvatochromic pa- physicochemical properties of different probe mol-
rameters n*, a, p, etc. can be replaced by theoretically ecules with a wide variety of solute shapes and sizes
derived descriptors to give a so-called Theoretical has led to the proposal of a so-called dynamic cavity
Linear Solvation Energy Relationship (TLSER),which According t o this, solvent molecules rear-
may be used in a predictive fashion like other LFE range to form cavities to accommodate the solute
relationship^.^^^ molecules, thus maximizing the nonspecific solute/
With eq 10, another multiparameter equation for solvent interactions. The cavity size varies with the
the correlation of solvent effects on physicochemical dimension of the solute molecule and with the
properties X Y Z has been recently proposed by Dra- strength of the nonspecific solute/solventinteractions,
g ~ .Equation ~ ~ 10~ includes,
* ~ with ~ ~the E i E B and with strong interactions leading to short solute/
solvent distances. In this way, solvent dipole reori-
XYZ = (XYZ), E& + + c;c, + ps’ (10) entation and induced solvent dipoles make up the
effective internal relative permittivity of the cavity,
which differs from the relative permittivity of the
ClC, terms, the well-known E/C equation of Dra- pure bulk solvent. For this reason, molecular mi-
g~~~~that describes the specific EPDEPA interac- croscopically derived empirical solvatochromic pa-
tions between a Lewis acid A and a Lewis base B. rameters usually differ from macroscopically mea-
The acid A and the base B are both characterized by sured physical parameters of the pure solvents such
two empirical parameters E and C, and it is assumed as dipole moment, relative permittivity, or refractive
that the standard enthalpy of a 1:l Lewis acidhase index. When solventholvent and/or solute/solute
interaction can be divided into two terms E i E B and interactions are of comparable strength to solute/
CiC,, which are said to correspond to tendencies of solvent interactions, aggregation of the solute occurs.
electrostatic and covalent contributions in the acid When they are much larger, insolubility of the solute
base interaction, respectively.334The EIC equation, results.332
initially derived for all kinds of Lewis acidhase
interactions, is also applicable to corresponding spe- VI. interrelation between Empirical Solvent
cific solute/solvent interactions. The asterisks in eq Polarity Parameters
10 indicate that the acceptor parameters are for a
physicochemical property, while the E B and CB As already mentioned in section V.A, for a number
parameters are from the enthalpy scale. of reasons only a few of the solvatochromic dyes
If one considers only nonspecific solute/solvent compiled in Table 1meet the requirements for a good
interactions, the E/C terms in eq 10 drop out to give indicator molecule, probing empirically the polarity
I ' I I I
' /* I
1
i
Figure 3. Linear correlation between the E~(30) values

LO
ET,301/kca,.mo~-o~-
Figure 2. Linear correlation between the E~(30)
60
values
of betaine dye 36 (cf. Table 2) and the Gibbs energies of
activation of the solvolysis of 2-chloro-2-methylpropanein
30 solvents of different polarity, taken from the compilation
of betaine dye 36 (cf. Table 2) and the 2 values of probe of Abraham et al. (ref 336); dAG* = AG*(solvent)- AG*-
(cf. Table l),measured in 56 solvents of different
535132073210 (DMF as reference solvent). Correlation equation: dAG*
polarity at 25 "C. Correlation equation: 2 = 13.49 + = 20.12 - 0.442&(30) (pairs of values n = 30; correlation
coefficient r = -0.981; standard deviation of the estimate
1.26&(30) (pairs of values n = 56; correlation coefficient r
= 0.980; standard deviation of the estimate u = 1.72). For u = 0.73).
the sake of clarity only ten points are assigned to the
corresponding solvent. chromic intermolecular CT band of 53 with the
absorption band of its pyridinium moiety in polar
of solvents. The number of solvent polarity scales solvents such as water, 2 values are directly measur-
can be further reduced by the finding that some of able only for solvents ranging in polarity from pyri-
these scales are interrelated with each other because dine (2= 64.0 kcavmol) to ethanovwater 70:30(2=
of the similarity of the chemical structure of the 86.4 k c a l / m ~ l ) . ~However,
l ! ~ ~ ~ Kosower's salt 53 is
corresponding probe molecules and the pertinent less expensive and more easily prepared than the
solvent-dependent light absorption. In spite of the betaine dye 36 and is certainly another good choice
large energy differences connected with a solvent for many solvent polarity studies.
change from a polar to a nonpolar solvent for various Due to the equivalence of the solvent-dependent
absorbing probe molecules, one often obtains the intramolecular CT absorptions of the betaine dyes 36
same or a similar polarity sequence for the solvents and 37 as well as 39-47, their ET values are all
under study. This led Berson et al. to observe that linearly correlated with each other. The penta-tert-
"...in this respect, a set of solvents behaves like an butyl-substituted betaine dye 37, which is more
elephant, which can lift a log or a peanut with equal soluble in nonpolar solvents, has been used as a
dexterity".335 secondary standard dye for the determination of
A typical example is the linear correlation between E ~ ( 3 0values
) for such solvents (cf. footnote e in Table
the E ~ ( 3 0values
) of betaine dye 36 and the 2 values 21.l6OC
of the pyridinium iodide 53,as shown in Figure 2. Another example, using this time a kinetically
Obviously, in response to a solvent change, the derived empirical solvent polarity parameter which
intramolecular and intermolecular CT absorptions of shows the linear correlation between E ~ ( 3 0values )
36 and 53,respectively, behave quite similarly. That and the Gibbs energy of activation of the solvolysis
is, the 2 and Ed301 scale are interchangeable. The of 2-chloro-2-methylpropane, is given in Figure 3.336
excellent 2 / E ~ ( 3 0correlation
) for a selected set of 15 It is well known from the work of Winstein et al.49
solvents common t o both scales has been used to that this S Nreaction
~ has been used to introduce the
calculate E ~ ( 3 0values
) for acidic solvents (e.g. car- so-called Y scale of solvent ionizing power, which was
boxylic acids) for which E ~ ( 3 0values
) are not directly indeed the first empirical solvent scale.' A review
available (cf. footnote r of Table 2).207 It should be of various YX scales of solvent ionizing power has
mentioned that the slope of the correlation line given been recently given by Bentley et al.47g The aston-
in Figure 2 is, with 1.26, considerably larger than ishingly good linear correlation between the W/vis
unity, indicating that in principle ion pair 53 is a spectroscopically measured E ~ ( 3 0values ) and the
stronger negatively solvatochromic probe than the kinetically derived Gibbs energies of activation shows
betaine dye 36. Because of insufficient solubility of that the proportions of the individual, specific and
the salt 53 in nonpolar solvents such as hydrocarbons nonspecific, soluteholvent interactions are very simi-
and because of some overlap between the solvato- lar for both solvent-dependent processes. Therefore,
Y and E ~ ( 3 0values
) are interchangeable, at least for recently, eq 15 has been recalculated for a majority
the pure solvents of Figure 3. y I E ~ ( 3 0plots ) for of n = 166 (!) solvents to give eq 16,318
binary solvent mixtures show some curvature be-
cause of different preferential solvation of both probe +
ET(30)= 31.2 11.5n* 15.2a + (16)
whereas corresponding Y/Z plots give
linear relationships in several solvent mixture^.^^^^^^ with r = 0.979 and dET(3O)l = 2.1 kcallmol.
Extensive compilations of possible and reasonable According to eqs 15 and 16, the mutual interaction
binary linear correlations between various single- between solvatochromic probe (36)and solvent mol-
parameter scales of solvent polarity, mainly based ecules is mainly determined by a blend of nonspecific
on UV/vis/near-IR measurements, have been recently dipole/dipole, dipolehnduced dipole, instantaneous
given by Buncel et al.47hand Marcus.318 Further dipolehnduced dipole (i.e. dipolarity/polarizability)
examples of more or less good mutual linear correla- interactions (as measured by n*), and specific solute/
tions (with r > 0.8) between single parameters are HBD solvent (Le. type-A hydrogen bonding3lg)inter-
the pairs E~(30)/a,ANIa, Z/a, acity/a, ET(~O)/AN, actions (as measured by a). The ratios of the
E~(30)/acity, Z/AN, acity/AN, DN//?,and b a ~ i t y l n * , ~ l ~regression coefficients of a and n* in eqs 15 and 16
where AN and DN are Gutmann's solvent acceptor are c h * = 1.29 and 1.32, respectively. Hence, the
and donor numbers (cf. eq 51, respectively,313and sensitivity of E ~ ( 3 0to ) a is slightly larger than to n*.
acity and basity are as defined in eq 6.315 A com- In HBD solvents, E ~ ( 3 0values ) measure, therefore,
parison of x* (cf. entries 15-21 in Table 1) and mainly the HBD acidity and Lewis acidity of the
solvents. In non-HBD solvents with a = 0, the
JC:,,values (cf. entries 22-27 in Table 1) with 20 E ~ ( 3 0values
) are mainly determined by the nonspe-
other solvent polarity scales has been made by Buncel cific dipolarity/polarizability interactions.
et al.47hFurther binary correlations can be found in The observation (a) that E ~ ( 3 0 )values remain
refs 47a,e,i,k, 53b, and 64a. almost constant (31.0 f 0.2 kcallmol) for tetrameth-
Of particular interest are correlations between ylsilane and 10 alkanes (cf. entries 1-14 in Table 21,
single parameters of solvent polarity and constituents in spite of the fact that the refractive index n ranges
of multiparameter equations such as eq 8, which from 1.35 for 2-methylbutane to 1.48 for cis-decalin,
should provide insight into the detailed interaction and (b) that E ~ ( 3 0values
) are not correlated with the
mechanisms between the solvatochromic indicator
solute and the solvents. Application of eq 8 to the
polarizability function f(n) = (n2- 1)/(2n2 1)for +
aromatic, polychloro-substituted and various other
correlation of E ~ ( 3 0values
) leads to eq 12, where the shows that there exists a compensation
mdH2 term has been dropped for the reasons already of solvent-induced hypsochromic band shifts caused
mentioned (no volume change during electronic tran- by induction forces and bathochromic band shifts
sitions). caused by dispersion forces.162 Dispersion forces
alone would always lead to bathochromic band shifts
because molecules in the electronic excited state
possess higher polarizabilities than that in the
For a set of n = 100 various solvents, for which ground state. Therefore, for all negatively solvato-
, a, and /? are available, eq 13 has been
E ~ ( 3 0 )z*, chromic dyes in Table 2, this bathochromic band shift
caused by dispersion interactions is overcompensated
ET(30) = by the hypsochromic band shifts stemming from all
+
30.2 1 2 . 9 9 ( ~- + +
* 0.216) 14.45a 2.13/3 (13) other solute/solvent interactions.
As for the Ed301 values given in eqs 13, 15, and
recently calculated by Marcus,320with a multiple 16, for the Z values of K o ~ o w e r analogous
,~~ multi-
correlation coefficient as high as r = 0.987 and a parameter equations such as eq 17 have been re-
standard deviation of dE~(3O)l = 1.25 kcallmol. By cently established by Marcus for n = 55 solvents with
using the normalized, dimensionless E: values in- r = 0.971 and dZ1 = 2.9
stead of E ~ ( 3 0values
) (in kcaymol), eq 13 changes
into eq 14, with the same statistical parameters as + +
2 = 55.9 10.2n* 20.6a (17)
for eq 13, except for a[&] = 0.039.320 In eq 17, the ratio dn*is, with 2.02, much larger
than that in eqs 15 and 16. This clearly shows that
E: = -0.015 + 0 . 4 0 1 ( ~-
* 0.2116) + the solvation of the ion pair 53 (particularly of its
+
0.446a 0.066/? (14) iodide ion) by HBD solvents is much stronger than
the hydrogen bond-mediated solvation of the pheno-
Although statistically significant, the regression coef- late moiety in the betaine dye 36,thus leading to the
ficients of the terms dd and b/? in eqs 13 and 14 are greater solvatochromic sensitivity of 53 as compared
comparatively small and the two terms can be to 36,at least for HBD solvents (cf. Figure 2).
disregarded without worsening the correlation too Further correlations of single parameters of solvent
much. Obviously, the solute/solvent interactions polarity within the framework of multiparameter
between betaine dye 36 and HBA or EPD solvents equations (particularly with eq 8) and their inter-
play only a minor role. Therefore, eq 13 can be pretation and application can be found in refs 47e,h-
simplified to the two-parameter eq 15, where n = 100, j , 52,53b, 318,320, and 326-328. Sometimes, such
multiparameter correlations have even been used to
+
ET(30)= 30.2 12.35n* 15.90a + (15) recalculate single parameters of solvent polar it^.^^^^^^^
A multivariate statistical factorial analysis of a data
r = 0.967, and dET(30)I = 1.95 kcaVm01.~~~ Very matrix of four physicochemical solvent properties for
22 solvents [i.e. dipole moment, molar refraction, increase in precision or exactness has only a prag-
Kirkwood function Rer) = (er - 1)/(2cr l), and + matic value as a means to some definite end...”343,344
Hildebrand’s solubility parameter] gave four inde-
pendent, orthogonal factors FL, the linear combination VI/, Summary and Conclusions
of which, according to XYZ = (XYZ)O alFl b2F2 + +
+ ..., was able to reproduce the data set.337 An In order to understand solvent effects on chemical
reactions and physical absorptions in a more quan-
analysis of various solvent polarity parameters by
means of these mathematically derived four factors titative way, a multitude of empirical solvent polarity
has been given by Chastrette et Solvatochromic scales, derived from various physicochemical pro-
parameters have also been used for the classification cesses, have been proposed during the last few
of organic solvents by means of multivariate statisti- d e c a d e s . l ~Of
~ ~these solvent scales, the most com-
cal prehensive and the easiest t o determine are those
based on the solvatochromic method. In Table 1, a
The relative proportion of the various contributions compilation of positively and negatively solvatochro-
to the overall soluteholvent interaction, as described mic as well as some selected solvatofluorchromic
by eqs 13-17, is quite often found in other solvent- compounds has been given, which are suitable as
dependent processes. This explains the unexpected indicator molecules for the empirical determination
success in applying single solvent polarity param- of solvent polarity within the framework of linear
eters, such as Z and Ed30), in correlating solvent free-energy relationships. Some of these have been
effects. A correlation of solvent effects with a single used to introduce comprehensive solvent scales, oth-
parameter of solvent polarity gives usually a first ers are possible and promising candidates for this
insight into the solute/solvent interactions of the purpose. It was not possible to include in Table 1
process under study, and allows often at least a all solvatochromic compounds described in the lit-
semiquantitative calculation of solvent-dependent erature. The preconditions for being a good solva-
rate or equilibrium constants, spectral absorptions, tochromic probe molecule, defined above, should be
etc. For a more detailed analysis of solvent effects taken into account for the development of further WI
under study, however, it is sometimes better to apply vishear-IR spectroscopically derived empirical pa-
a multiparameter equation, where the number of rameters of solvent polarity.
parameters which should be taken into account Among the single-parameter approaches, the
depend on the complexity of the respective solute/ Ed301 scale as one of the more comprehensive solvent
solvent, solventholvent, and soluteholute interac- scales (cf. Tables 2-5) has been exemplarily dis-
tions. cussed at some length. The popular solvatochromic
The solvatochromic and other multiparameter ap- comparison method, introduced by Kamlet and Taft
proaches in correlating solvent effects have, however, and further developed by Abboud, Abraham, Carr,
some serious short-comings. First, the separation of and Laurence, has been used to demonstrate the
solvent effects into various additive contributions advantages of a multiparameter treatment of solvent
according to eq 7 is somewhat arbitrary, since dif- effects. This was followed by a comparison of some
ferent solute/solvent interaction mechanisms can of the solvatochromicsolvent scales, which shows that
cooperate in a nonindependent way. For example, many of the empirical parameters are linearly related
the n*parameter in eq 8 is still a mixed parameter, to each other, thus demonstrating the similarity of
responsible for dipolarity and polarizability solute/ the intermolecular solutdsolvent interactions in many
solvent interactions, it being not possible to devise cases.
independent descriptors for these solvent properties Taking into account the wide variation in chemical
separately. structure of the probe molecules used for construction
Second, the proper choice of the best-suited param- of a solvent scale, the question arises which of them
eter for each kind of supplementary soluteholvent are the most representative compounds in modeling
interactions is critical, and not yet finally solved. Up soluteholvent interactions, leading to a more or less
t o now, the most successful multiparameter treat- universal solvent polarity scale. Because solute/
ment of solvent effects is certainly the sohatochromic solvent interactions do not depend on the solvent
comparison method according to eq 8, as introduced structure alone, but always also on the chemical
by Kamlet and Taft in 1976.47e,53J39,319p326-328 structure of the probe solute, the establishment of a
universal, generally valid solvent polarity scale seems
Third, to establish a multiparameter equation, so to be ~ n a t t a i n a b l e . ~ ~ ~ J ~ ~
many experimental data points are usually necessary From a more puristic physical-organic chemist’s
in order to calculate all regression coefficients in a point of view, the application of empirical parameters
statistically sound way, that there is often no room of solvent polarity has certainly its inherent weak-
left for the desirable predictions of solvent effects by nesses and limitations. In using such parameters,
extrapolation or interpolation. one should always be aware of the fact that one
If one weighs one thing against the other, one simply compares the solvent effect under study with
should be aware of the helpful remark made by the another solvent-dependent model process. So, the
Austrian philosopher Karl Popper in his autobiogra- solvent effect under study can be understood quali-
phy:343“It is always undesirable to make an effort to tatively and quantitatively in that way and to that
increase precision for its own sake...since this usually extent as the solvent influence on the model process
leads to loss of clarity ... One should never t r y to be is known. However, this kind of procedure is very
more precise than the situation demands ... Every common in chemistry. For example, the well-known
increase in clarity is of intellectual value in itself; an Hammett equation for the calculation of substituent
effects on reaction rates, equilibria, and absorptions, Perspectives in Coordination Chemistry; VCH Publishers: Wein-
heim, 1992;p 345-380.
introduced by Hammett in 1937,58 uses the ionization (8) Kakabadse, J., Ed. Solvent Problems in Industrv: ” . Elsevier
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of substituted benzoic acids. Although introduced 57 Effects in Organic Chemistry-Recent Developments. Can. J .
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Khimicheskim Protsessom (Solvents as an Agent for Controlling
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Pressure; Ellis HorwoodPrentice Hall: London, 1992. (b) Blokz-
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Chem. Rev.

1594, 94, 231S2358 2319

Solvatochromic Dyes as Solvent Polarity Indicators

ity.1343347On the basis of the assumption that par-

IV. Solvatochromism differential solvation of these two states is respon-

+2400 = n-n* 47e, 47j, 53,

R $2320 = n-z* 47h, 94b, 130,

+SO0 = d-d 103, 105, 107,

CH9-O-y +1440 = Jz-n* 157

-8780 = n-zk 183

-8120 = n-z* 184

-6490 = n - n' solvents:

-5960 = CT, 3, 44, 51, 170,

-3380 = MLCT 103,107, 116, 125,

co -3000 = MLCT 125,225

(c) Some Solvatofluorchromic Compoundsc

a ,, fluoroprobe " dye

a Coumarin laser dye

) Eq 2 ) and Normalized E: Values (Cf. Eq 31, Both

molecule with the more polar component of the

the non-SI unit kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol) and - -

somewhat easier to handle, particularly in multipa-

Table 4. Compilation of References (in Chronological Order) with E ~ ( 3 0Values

no. references investigated salt solutions

mixtures (no. 1). In these cases, E ~ ( 3 0values

no. references investigated microheterogeneous media

XYZ = (XYZ), + + aa2 + bP2 + mVd100

Figure 3. Linear correlation between the E~(30) values

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