Refresh ENM1600

ENM1600
Engineering mathematics
Engineering mathematics refreshment

Published by
University of Southern Queensland
Toowoomba Queensland 4350
Australia
http://www.usq.edu.au
© University of Southern Queensland, 2013.1.
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Table of contents
Page
Pre-test 1
Introduction 1
How to do the written pre-test 1
Questions 3
Module 1 – Fundamentals of arithmetic 7

Objectives 7
1.1 Review of the real number system 7
1.2 Order of operations 8
1.3 Numerical fractions 14
1.3.1 Addition and subtraction of fractions 14
1.3.2 Multiplication of fractions 21
1.3.3 Division of fractions 25
1.4 Indices 29
Powers using calculator 29
Multiplication 30
Division 30
Power of a power 30
Power of a product 30
Fractional index 31
Zero index 32
Negative index 32
1.5 Scientific notation 36
1.6 Metric units 40
Module 1: Self assessment 42

Questions 1.1 42
Questions 1.2 43
Module 2 – Basic algebra 44

Objectives 44
2.1 Variables and expressions 44
2.2 Algebraic expressions 49
2.2.1 Addition and subtraction of like terms 49
2.2.2 Expansion and the Distributive Law 53
2.2.3 Factorisation 59
2.3 Algebraic fractions 63
2.3.1 Cancellation in fractions 63
2.3.2 Addition and subtraction of fractions 65
2.4 Solving equations and inequations 67
2.4.1 Linear equations 67
2.4.2 Rearranging formulae 76
2.4.3 Quadratic equations 85
2.4.4 Polynomial equations 94
2.4.5 Inequalities 99
Questions 2.1 104
Questions 2.2 105
Module 3 – Functions and relations 106

Objectives 106
3.1 What is a function? 106
3.1.1 Algebra of functions 108
3.2 Graphs of functions and relations 113
3.2.1 Cartesian coordinate system 113
3.2.2 The linear function 114
3.2.3 The quadratic function 125
3.2.4 Cubic functions 135
3.2.5 The circle 139
3.2.6 Rational functions 146
3.2.7 Other functions 154
3.3 Intersections of functions 161
3.3.1 Intersection of linear functions 161
3.3.2 Intersection of functions other than straight lines or planes 168

Questions 3.1 174
Questions 3.2 175
Module 4 – Logarithms and related functions 176

Objectives 176
4.1 Logarithms 176
4.2 Equations involving logarithms 184
4.3 Exponential functions 189
4.4 Logarithmic functions 196
4.5 Further applications of logarithms and exponentials 203

Questions 4.1 212
Questions 4.2 213
Module 5 – Trigonometry 214

Objectives 214
5.1 Trigonometric relationships 215
5.2 Trigonometric identities 225
5.3 Triangle solution 228
5.4 Compound angles 236
5.5 Radian measure 241
Length of arc of a circle 242
Area of a sector of a circle 243
5.6 Graphs involving trigonometric functions 245

Questions 5.1 253
Questions 5.2 254
ENM1600 – Engineering mathematics 1
Pre-test
Introduction
The pre-test includes questions from mathematics topics which are essential for your future
progression in algebra and calculus.
How to do the written pre-test

The pre-test questions are included in this package of materials. Make sure when you do the
questions you write out all your working. You should use a non-programmable calculator
only for the calculations.
Note
Have you ever looked at a question and said, ‘Yes I can do that’ but when it
comes down to it have trouble getting a correct answer? We have found that this
often occurs and that students can fail as a consequence. We urge you not to just
look at a question and think you can do it but to attempt and try to complete
each question on the pre-test. You must to do this in order to get an accurate
diagnosis of which areas you need to refresh.
© University of Southern Queensland

2 ENM1600 – Engineering mathematics

Questions
Question 1
a. Place these numbers in order from the smallest to the largest
1
3, −2, 1.5, − 2 , 5, − 2
4
b. Give three values of p which satisfy the inequality
p ≥ –5
c. Complete 24 ÷ ☐ = –6
d. Evaluate –3(2 – 8)
e. Estimate 56 + 23 × 9246 ÷ 125 by using appropriate rounding
3
   12   
2
f. Evaluate  20 − 3  3 +    
   4   
Question 2
5
a. Express as a fraction equivalent with a denominator of 24
6
1
b. Express as a decimal
8
c. Find 8% of 330 mL
d. Simplify the ratio 24:14
1 1
e. Evaluate 2 × 4 and express your answer as a fraction
2 3
1 5 3 5 4
f. Evaluate ÷ + − × and express your answer as a fraction
4 6 4 2 3
Question 3
2
a. Evaluate 27 3
b. Simplify (–2)5 × (–2)–8
c. Evaluate (2.3 × 102 – 4.4×103)2
1
−
2 4 2
d. Express 16( a b ) as a simple fraction involving no negative powers
b− 3
e. Express 0.000 002 6 km in mm

Question 4
a. Factorize 6x2 + x – 12
b. Expand (x + 1)(–2x + 1)(x – 3)
1 4
c. Write this expression as a single fraction with no common factors −
x− 3 x− 2
d. Make t the subject of the equation y = (8t + 3)3 + 4
e. Solve the quadratic equation for x, 3x2 + 4x – 8 = 0
f. Solve the cubic equation for x, x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 = 0
g. Solve for x, ∣3x + 3∣< 6
h. By completing the square, find the values of a and b where x2 + 3x + 1 = (x + a)2 – b2
i. Solve the following set of simultaneous equations
x+y+z=0
x – 3y + 2z = 1
2x – 2y + z = –1
Question 5
a. If f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 1 calculate
i. f(–1)
ii. f(x + h)
iii. f(g(x))
iv. What are the domain and range of g(x)
b. Write an equation for a straight line with slope of –4 and y-intercept of –3
c. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (–3,1) and (–1, –2)
d. Write an equation for the straight line below.
x
e. Sketch the graph of y = − + 2
2

f.
i. Draw the graph of y = x2 + 7x + 6
ii. Use the graph you have drawn to predict the y value when x = –2.5
g. What is the turning point of the function drawn in question 5 f. i.
h. Determine the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y2 – 2x + 3y = 25
1
i. Sketch the graph of y =
x− 2
j. Indicate by a labelled sketch how you would graphically approximate the solution to the
equation x 2 − 1 = x
Question 6
a. Sketch a graph of y = ex and y = logex
b. Make x the subject of the equation y = 3ex + 2

c. Evaluate using the logarithmic rules (do not use your calculator) log24 – log22 + log21
Question 7
a. Convert 329° to radians
b. Find all the angles between 0 and 2π radians that satisfy the equation sin A = 0.4
c. In the triangle below find x
d. On the same set of axes sketch and label the graphs of

y = sin x and y = cos x for –2π ≤ x ≤ 2π
e. Complete the following statements
i. ☐ + cos2θ = 1
ii. 1 + ☐ = sec2θ
iii. sin2θ = ☐
f. A surveyor attempting to find the height of a vertical cliff makes the following
observations:
The angle of elevation from the ground to the top of the cliff is 30° at a certain distance
away from the bottom of the cliff. But, the angle of elevation is 45° when 20m closer to
the cliff.
What is the height of the cliff?


Module 1 – Fundamentals of arithmetic
Objectives
In this module you are required to be able to:
● apply the order of operations (by hand and with calculator) to calculations with all real
numbers, including fractions
● demonstrate an understanding of index laws and apply these to simplifying problems
involving: algebraic symbols, decimal numbers and numbers in scientific notation
● demonstrate an understanding of and apply scientific notation
● demonstrate an understanding of metric prefixes and convert between different metric
units.
1.1 Review of the real number system

Throughout your studies you will be in contact with numbers of many types. Initially you
will meet numbers from the real number system. These numbers form the basis of the
mathematics that you will encounter in the following materials, although they are by no
means the only types of numbers that exist.
To get an overall picture of which numbers are real numbers examine the following diagram:
As you can see, the set of real numbers contains many subsets of other numbers. These
can all be represented on the real number line.
Note the numbers π and e are special types of irrational numbers. You have probably
heard of π and the number e is used in exponential expressions and is approximated by
2.71828. You will come across this in more detail in module 4.

Example
Identify the following types of real numbers and place them on the real number
line:
1.2 Order of operations

To perform operations on these numbers mathematicians have established an accepted
method for performing a series of calculations on groups of numbers. This is termed the
order convention and specifies the order in which operations are to be performed.
It can be stated as:
Working from left to right evaluate:
Step 1 any expression in brackets

Step 2 any multiplications and divisions
Step 3 any additions and subtractions.
Note that it is extremely important that you can understand and use this order convention, for
not only will it give you correct answers when doing arithmetic but it is the foundation upon
which all further mathematics, in particular algebra, is based.
When undertaking any calculation it is always important to have an estimate of the answer as
a check of your calculations. This is especially important when completing calculations using
a calculator.

Examples
Example
Evaluate 3 + 2 × 7 (without using a calculator)
3+2×7 perform multiplication
= 3 + 14 perform addition
= 17
Example
Evaluate 25 – (4 + 3 × 2) × 2 (without using a calculator)
= 25 – (4 + 6) × 2 perform multiplication inside brackets
= 25 – 10 × 2 perform addition inside brackets
= 25 – 20 perform multiplication
=5 perform subtraction
Example
Evaluate 221 – 3 × (3 + 12 ÷ (3 + 1) – 1)
= 221 – 3 × (3 + 12 ÷ 4 – 1) perform addition inside innermost brackets
= 221 – 3 × (3 + 3 – 1) perform division inside brackets
= 221 – 3 × 5 perform addition and subtraction inside brackets
= 221 – 15 perform multiplication
= 206 perform subtraction
Example
Evaluate 1051 – 6 × (25 (3 + 10) ÷ 271 – 4)
On calculator (Casio scientific):
= 1067.8044
Exact answer is 1067.8044.
Estimation:
≈ 1000 – 6 × (30 (3 + 10) ÷ 300 – 4 ) Estimation used to check the
accuracy of the calculated answer
≈ 1000 – 6 × (30 × 10 ÷ 300 – 4)
≈ 1000 – 6 × (1 – 4)
≈ 1000 – 6 × –3
≈ 1000 + 18
≈ 1018
Yes, 1067.8044 is a reasonable answer.

Exercise 1.1
Evaluate the following without a calculator.
Estimate the final results before commencing.
a. 765 ÷ 15 + 822
b. 89 + 21 – 48 × 23
c. 591 × 376 + 523
d. 895 (622 + 479)
e. 4763 + 395 ÷ 5 × 16
f. 52.1 – 3 ÷ 4.8 × [4.1 – (2.1 + 7.6 ÷ 2)] + 4
g. 4.8 ÷ –4 – [3 (10 – 10 ÷ –2)]
Solutions
Verify solutions with your calculator.
a. 765 ÷ 15 + 822
= 51 + 822
= 873
Step 1 Step 2
estimate: 765 ≈ 800 estimate: 51 ≈ 50
15 ≈ 20 822 ≈ 800
800 ÷ 20 = 40 50 + 800 = 850
calculate: calculate:
51 51
15)765 +822
75 873
15
15
0
check: yes, 51 is a reasonable answer check: yes, 873 is a reasonable answer

b. 89 + 21 – 48 × 23
= 89 + 21 – 1104
= 110 – 1104
= –994
Step 1 Step 2
23 ≈ 20 21 ≈ 20
50 × 20 = 1000 90 +20 = 110
48 89
23 + 21
144 110
960
1104
Step 3
estimate: 110 ≈ 100
1104 ≈ 1000
100 – 1000 = –900
calculate:
1104
– 110
994
∴ 110 – 1104 = –994
check: yes, –994 is a reasonable answer
c. 591 × 376 + 523

= 222 216 + 523
= 222 739
Step 1 Step 2
estimate: 591 ≈ 600 estimate: 222 216 ≈ 200 000
376 ≈ 400 523 ≈ 500
600 × 400 = 240 000 200 000 + 500 = 200 500
591 222216
× 376 + 523
3546 222739
41370
177300
222216
check: yes, 222 216 is a reasonable answer check: yes, 222 739 is a reasonable answer

d. 895 (622 + 479)

= 895 × 1101
= 985 395
Step 1 Step 2
479 ≈ 500 1101 ≈ 1000
600 + 500 = 1100 900 × 1000 = 900 000
622 895
+ 479 × 1101
1101 895
0000
89500
895000
985395
check: yes, 1101 is a reasonable answer check: yes, 985 395 is a reasonable answer
e. 4763 + 395 ÷ 5 × 16
= 4763 + 79 × 16
= 4763 + 1264
= 6027
Step 1 Step 2
400 ÷ 5 = 80 16 ≈ 20
80 × 20 = 1600
79 79
5)395 × 16
35 474
45 790
45 1264
0
Step 3
estimate: 4763 ≈ 5000
1264 ≈ 1000
5000 – 1000 = 6000
calculate: 4763
+ 1264
6027
check: yes, 6027 is a reasonable answer

f. 52.1 – 3 ÷ 4.8 × [4.1 – (2.1 × 7.6 ÷ 2)] + 4
= 58.525
estimate:
50 – 3 ÷ 5 × [4 – (2 × 8 ÷ 2)] + 4
≈ 50 – 3 ÷ 5[4 – 8] + 4
≈ 50 – 3 ÷ 5[–4] + 4
3 3
≈ 50 – × –4 + 4; × –4 ≈ 2
5 5
≈ 50 + 2 + 4
≈ 56
check: yes, 58.525 is a reasonable answer
g. 4.8 ÷ –4 – [3 (10 – 10 ÷ –2)]
= – 46.2
estimate:
5 ÷ –4 – [3 (10 – 10 ÷ –2)]
≈ 5 ÷ – 4 – [3 × 15]
5
≈ – 45
−4
≈ –1–45
≈ –46
check: yes, –46.2 is a reasonable answer

1.3 Numerical fractions

There are many real life situations where whole numbers alone are not sufficient. Fractions
of whole numbers are represented as
Fractions can be written in a number of forms.
3
Consider , the numerator is less than the denominator. This is called a proper fraction.
4
12
Consider , the numerator is greater than the denominator. This is called an improper
7
fraction.
2
Consider 4 , the whole number appears with a proper fraction. This is called a mixed
5
number.
For calculations to be performed with fractions it is preferred that fractions be written in

either proper or improper form.
Note that although fractional calculations may be performed on a calculator it is

important that you are able to do these calculations from first principles. The
operations will be used later in algebra and calculus.
1.3.1 Addition and subtraction of fractions

3 4 7
Consider + =
10 10 10
These two fractions can be easily added because they are the same type of fraction (tenths),
i.e. they have the same denominator.
1 2
Consider +
4 3
These two fractions cannot be easily added because they are different types of fractions
(quarters and thirds).
To convert them to the same type of fraction, they have to be written as equivalent fractions
with the same denominator.

1 3 3 1 3
× = ( and are equivalent fractions)
4 3 12 4 12
2 4 8
× =
3 4 12
Note: 12 is called the lowest common denominator for these two fractions.
To calculate
1 2
+
4 3
1 3  2 4
=  × + × 
4 3  3 4
3 8
= +
12 12
11
=
12
2 3
Consider 3 + 2 , in this calculation the fractions should first be converted to improper
5 8
fractions then continue as before.
2 3
3 + 2
5 8
17 19
= +
5 8
 17 8   19 5 
=  × + × 
 5 8  8 5
136 95
= +
40 40
231
=
40
31
= 5
40
Example
1 7 The lowest common denominator is 18.
Simplify −
6 9
1 7  1× 3   7 × 2  1 3 7 2
− =  −  Multiply by and by to make
6 9  6× 3   9× 2  6 3 9 2
suitable equivalent fractions. Subtract as
3 − 14
= before.
18
− 11
=
18

Exercise 1.2
Evaluate:
3 1 2 3
a. + b. −
7 2 3 4
2 3 13 2
c. + d. −
7 14 15 5
5 3 −5 9
e. + f. +
6 4 6 10
5 7 3 1
g. − h. −
30 10 20 4
3 57 5 5 1
i. + j. − +
25 100 9 6 2
Solutions
a. 3 1 b. 2 3
+ −
7 2 3 4
3 × 2 1× 7 2 × 4 3× 3
= + = −
7× 2 2× 7 3× 4 4 × 3
6+ 7 8− 9
= =
14 12
13 −1
= =
14 12
c. 2 3 d. 13 2
+ −
7 14 15 5
2× 2 3 13 2 × 3
= + = −
7 × 2 14 15 5 × 3
4+ 3 13 − 6
= =
14 15
7 7
= =
14 15
1
=
2

e. 5 3 f. − 5 9
+ +
6 4 6 10
5× 2 3× 3 − 5× 5 9× 3
= + = +
6× 2 4× 3 6 × 5 10 × 3
10 + 9 − 25 + 27
= =
12 30
19 2
1
= =
12 30 15
7
=1 1
12 =
15
g. 5 7
− h. 3 1
30 10 −
20 4
5 7× 3
= − 3 1× 5
30 10 × 3 = −
20 4 × 5
5 − 21
= 3− 5
30 =
30
−8
− 16 −1
= −2
30 15 =
20 10
−8
= −1
15 =
10
i. 2 57
+ j. 5 5 1
25 100 − +
9 6 2
3× 4 57
= + 5 × 2 5 × 3 1× 9
25 × 4 100 = − +
9× 2 6× 3 2× 9
12 + 57
= 10 − 15 + 9
100 =
18
69
= 4
2
100 =
18 9
2
=
9

Examples
Example
Evaluate 1 5
−5 + 3
4 6
1 5 convert to improper fractions
−5 + 3
4 6
− 21 23
= +
4 6
− 21 × 3 23 × 2
= +
4× 3 6× 2
− 63 + 46 add as before
12
− 17
=
12
5 convert to a mixed number
= −1
12
Example
Evaluate 2 1
5 −3
3 2
2 1 convert to improper fractions
5 −3
3 2
17 7
= −
3 2
17 × 2 7 × 3 subtract as before
= −
3× 2 2 × 3
34 − 21
=
6
13
=
6
1 convert to a mixed number
= 2
6

Exercise 1.3
Evaluate:
1 1 b.
a. 3 + 2 3 5
4 2 4 − 2
8 6
2 3
c. 3 + 1 5 2
3 4 d. 2 − 3
7 7
3 2
e. 5 − 4 1 3
10 5 f. − 2 + 5
2 5
7 1
g. − 3 + 2 1 1
9 6 h. 17 + 25
6 4
1 3
i. 50 − 45 2 1 3
2 4 j. 3 + 2 − 4
5 2 4
Solutions
a. 1 1 b. 3 5
3 + 2 4 − 2
4 2 8 6
13 5 35 17
= + = −
4 2 8 6
13 5 × 2 35 × 3 17 × 4
= + = −
4 2× 2 8× 3 6× 4
13 + 10 105 − 68
= =
4 24
23 37
= =
4 24
3 13
= 5 =1
4 24

c. 2 3 d. 5 2
3 +1 2 −3
3 4 7 7
11 7 19 23
= + = −
3 4 7 7
11 × 4 7 × 3 19 − 23
= + =
3× 4 4 × 3 7
44 + 21 −4
= =
12 7
65
=
12
5
= 5
12
e. 3 2 f. 1 3
5 − 4 −2 + 5
10 5 2 5
53 22 − 5 28
= − = +
10 5 2 5
53 22 × 2 − 5 × 5 28 × 2
= − = +
10 5 × 2 2× 5 5× 2
53 − 44 − 25 + 56
= =
10 10
9 31
= =
10 10
1
= 3
10
g. 7 1 h. 1 1
−3 + 2 17 + 25
9 6 6 4
− 34 13 103 101
= + = +
9 6 6 4
− 34 × 2 13 × 3 103 × 2 101 × 3
= + = +
9× 2 6× 3 6× 2 4× 3
− 68 + 39 206 + 303
= =
18 12
− 29 509
= =
18 12
11 5
= −1 = 42
18 12

i. 1 3 j. 2 1 3
50 − 45 3 + 2 − 4
2 4 5 2 4
101 183 17 5 19
= − = + −
2 4 5 2 4
101 × 2 183 17 × 4 5 × 10 19 × 5
= − = + −
2× 2 4 5 × 4 2 × 10 4 × 5
19 68 + 50 − 95
= =
4 20
3 23
= 4 =
4 20
3
=1
20
1.3.2 Multiplication of fractions

Examples
Example
Evaluate 3 5
×
4 8
3 5
×
4 8
3× 5 multiply numerators
= multiply denominators
4× 8
15
=
32
Example
Evaluate 7 16
×
8 21
7 16
×
8 21
1 2 cancel common factors
7 16
= × (divide 16 and 8 by 8 and 7 and 21 by 7)
1 8 21 3
1× 2
= multiply numerators
1× 3 multiply denominators
2
=
3

Example
Evaluate 1 1
−3 × −7
3 2
1 1
−3 × −7
3 2
− 10 − 15 convert to improper fractions
= ×
3 2
−5 −5 cancel common factors
10 × − 15
= (divide –10 and 2 by 2 and –15 and 3 by 3)
1 3× 2 1
− 5× − 5
= multiply together
1× 1
25
=
1
write as a whole number
= 25
Exercise 1.4
Evaluate:
5 3 6 18
a. × b. ×
9 20 9 36
3 7 4 10
c. × d. − ×
8 9 9 15
7 51 1 4
e. − ×− f. 2 ×
10 60 2 15
3 2 3 4
g. 5 ×3 h. − 7 × 4
10 4 5 19
3 1 1 1
i. − 3 × − 7 j. − 1 × 1
4 20 2 9

Solutions
a. 5 3 b. 6 18
× ×
9 20 9 36
1 1 1 2
5 3 6 18
= × = ×
3 9 20 4 1 9 36 6
1× 1 1× 2
= =
3× 4 1× 6
1 1
= =
12 3
c. 3 7 d. 4 10
× − ×
8 9 9 15
1 2
3 7 4 10
= × = − ×
8 93 9 15 3
1× 7 − 4× 2
= =
8× 3 9× 3
7 −8
= =
24 27
e. 7 51 f. 1 4
− ×− 2 ×
10 60 2 15
− 17 5 4
− 7 − 51 = ×
= × 2 15
10 60 20
1 2
− 7 × − 17 5× 4
= =
10 × 20 1 2 × 15 3
119 1× 2
= =
200 1× 3
2
=
3
g. 3 2 h. 3 4
5 ×3 −7 × 4
10 4 5 19
53 14 − 38 80
= × = ×
10 4 5 19
7 −2 16
53 × 14 − 38 × 80
= =
5 10 × 4 1 5 × 19 1
371 − 2 × 16
= =
20 1× 1
11 − 32
= 18 =
20 1
= − 32

i. 3 1 j. 1 1
−3 × −7 −1 ×1
4 20 2 9
− 15 − 141 − 3 10
= × = ×
4 20 2 9
−3 −1 5
− 15 × − 141 − 3 × 10
= =
4 × 20 4 1 2× 9 3
− 3 × − 141 − 1× 5
= =
4× 4 1× 3
423 5
= = −
16 3
7 2
= 26 = −1
16 3

1.3.3 Division of fractions

Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.
2 3
The reciprocal of is .
3 2
1 4
The reciprocal of is (or 4).
4 1
Examples
Example
3 2
Evaluate ÷
4 3
3 2
÷
4 3
3 3 2
= × multiply by the reciprocal of
3
instead of dividing by it
4 2
3× 3
=
4× 2
9 as per multiplication
=
8
1
=1
8
Example
− 15 − 25
Evaluate ÷
9 27
− 15 − 25
÷
9 27
− 15 − 27 multiply by the reciprocal of −
25
= × 17
9 25
−3 −3
− 15 × − 27
=
1 9 × 25 5
− 3× − 3
=
1× 5
9 as per multiplication
=
5
4
= 1
5

Example
3 1
Evaluate 5 ÷ 2
4 2
3 1
5 ÷2
4 2
23 5
= ÷
4 2
23 2 5
= × multiply by the reciprocal of
2
4 5
1
23 × 2
=
2 4× 5
23 × 1 as per multiplication
=
2× 5
23
=
10
3
= 2
10
Exercise 1.5
Evaluate:
3 9 25 15
a. ÷ b. ÷
4 20 27 18
1 3 − 21 35
c. ÷ d. ÷
2 4 25 30
3 1 2 7
e. 2 ÷ 3 f. 4 ÷ 2
5 2 5 10
9 4 1 3
g. − 3 ÷1 h. 5 ÷ 3
15 5 2 4
5 1 1 3
i. 7 ÷ − 3 j. − 2 ÷ − 4
8 2 4 5

Solutions
a. 3 9 b. 25 15
÷ ÷
4 20 27 18
3 20 25 18
= × = ×
4 9 27 15
1 5 5 2
3 × 20 25 × 18
= =
1 4× 9 3 3 27 × 15 3
1× 5 5× 2
= =
1× 3 3× 3
5 10
= =
3 9
2 1
=1 =1
3 9
c. 1 3 d. − 21 35
÷ ÷
2 4 25 30
1 4 − 21 30
= × = ×
2 3 25 35
2 −3 6
1× 4 − 21 × 30
= =
1 2× 3 25 × 35 1
1× 2 − 3× 6
= =
1× 3 25 × 1
2 − 18
= =
3 25
e. 3 1 f. 2 7
2 ÷3 4 ÷2
5 2 5 10
13 7 22 27
= ÷ = ÷
5 2 5 10
13 2 22 10
= × = ×
5 7 5 27
13 × 2 22 × 10
2
= =
5× 7
1 5 × 27
26
= 22 × 2
35 =
1 × 27
44
=
27
17
=1
27

g. 9 4 h. 1 3
−3 ÷1 5 ÷3
15 5 2 4
− 54 9 11 15
= ÷ = ÷
15 5 2 4
− 54 5 11 4
= × = ×
15 9 2 15
−2 1 2
− 54 × 5 11 × 4
= =
1 15 × 9 1 1 2 × 15
− 2× 1 11 × 2
= =
1× 1 1 × 15
= −2 22
=
15
7
=1
15
i. 5 1 j. 1 3
7 ÷ −3 −2 ÷ −4
8 2 4 5
61 − 7 − 9 − 23
= ÷ = ÷
8 2 4 5
61 − 2 −9 −5
= × = ×
8 7 4 23
61 × − 2
−1 − 9× − 5
= =
4 × 23
4 8× 7
45
61 × − 1 =
= 92
4× 7
− 61
=
28
5
= −2
28

1.4 Indices
In order to be able to manipulate formulae and algebraic expressions, it is necessary to have a
sound knowledge of powers (or indices) of numbers and how they may be combined. There
is a set of laws controlling index operations which may be applied under almost any
circumstances involving positive or negative numbers, whole numbers or fractions.
Powers using calculator

If m is a positive integer, then
am = a × a × a … to m factors
In this form a is called the base and m the power (index or exponent).
Most scientific calculators have a ‘Yx’ or ‘Xy’ key for raising a number to a power. Learn
how to use this key.
Example
Use your calculator to evaluate
a. 54
b. 2.733
c. 06
d. (– 4)3
Solutions
a. 625
b. 20.346417
c. 0. Note that zero raised to any power is zero with the exception of 00 which
cannot be determined.
d. Most calculators will not accept negative base numbers. You must calculate
43 and determine the sign yourself. The answer is – 64.

Multiplication
am × an = (a × a × … to m factors) × (a × a × … to n factors)
=a × a × … to (m + n) factors = am+n
Thus the × sign between am and an indicates that the indices are to be added,
e.g. 23 × 24 = 27. Note that this rule does not apply to numbers with different bases
e.g. 23 × 32 cannot be combined.
Division
a m a × a × ... to m factors
am ÷ an = =
a n a × a × ... to n factors
= a × a … to ( m – n ) factors
= a m− n
Thus the ÷ sign between am and an indicates that the indices are to be subtracted
39
e.g. 4 = 35
3
Power of a power
(a )
m n
= a m × a m ... to n factors
= a(
m + m + ... to n terms )
= a mn
Thus to raise a number with a power to another power, multiply the powers together
e.g. (33)2 = 36
Power of a product
( ab ) m = ( ab ) × ( ab ) × . .. to m factors
= ( a × a × … to m factors ) × ( b × b × … to m factors )
= a m × bm
A product raised to a power is the product of each term raised to that power
e.g. (3 × 2)2 = 32 × 22 = 62 = 36.

Fractional index
1
Consider the symbol 92 . It cannot be interpreted in the form 92 = 9 × 9.
If we use the multiplication law, we get
1 1 1 1
+
92 × 92 = 92 2 = 91 = 9
2
 1
∴  92  = 9
 
 
1
But 32 = 9 therefore 9 2 = 3 = 9
1
Consider a3
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ +
a3 × a3 × a3 = a3 3 3 = a
3
 1
∴  a3  = a
 
 
1
3
∴ a3 = a (cube root of a)
4
 3
Similarly,  a 4  = a3
 
 
3
4
a4 = a 3 (fourth root of a 3 )
m
n
In general, an = am
3
For example, 92 = 93 = 92 × 9 = 9 9 = 9 × 3 = 27
3 3
or, 9 2 = ( ) 32 2 = 33

Zero index
Consider the symbol 40 which cannot be interpreted in the form
4m = 4 × 4 × …to m factors.
However,
40 × 43 = 40 + 3 = 43
Dividing by 43 gives
40 = 1
In general, a0 = 1
Thus, any number (except zero) raised to the power zero is 1. (00 is indeterminate).
Note that a0 is not the same as a, which is really a1.
Negative index
Consider 3–2 which cannot be interpreted in the form
32 = 3 × 3
3–2 × 32 = 3–2+ 2 = 30 = 1
Dividing by 32 gives
1
3–2 = 2
3
1
In general, a – m = m
a
Thus, a negative index indicates that the number is the reciprocal of the number with a
positive index
e.g. 3− 2 = 1 = 1
32 9
Note also that only the number is inverted and not its index.
1
− 1 −1 1
e.g. 3 2 is not 2
or 2 but 1
3 3
32

Examples
Examples
Use index laws to simplify
2 3
a. 83 × 92
8a − 2
b.
a3
c. 3–2.5 × 33.5
1
d. ( 2 −4 2
x y )
1
( )
−
e. 8 a 3b6 3
b− 5
Solutions
2 3
a. (2 ) × (3 )
3 3 2 2
= 22 × 33 = 4 × 27 = 108
8a − 2 8 8
b. 3
= 2 3 = 5 = 8a − 5
a a ⋅a a
c. 3–2.5+3.5 = 31 = 3
1 1
d. ( ) ×( )
x 2 2
y −4 2
= x1 × y − 2 = x1 ×
1
y 2
= 2
y
x
1 1
( ) ( )
− −
e. 8 a3 3 ⋅ b6 3
1 − 2+ 5 8 3 8b3
= 8a − 1 ⋅ b − 2 ⋅ b5 = 8 × ×b = ×b =
b− 5 a a a

Examples
Simplify
(m )
7 2
5− 4 × 5 2
3
× n− 2
a. b.
1
mn − 3
125 3
1 2 −3
d. 27 3 − 
c. ( − 8) 3 + 4
16 1

 3
e. a4.2 – a3.1 + a0.9 f. x2 + x4
Solutions
5− 4 × 53.5 5− 0.5 1
a. 1
= 1 = 5− 0.5− 1 = 5− 1.5 or
5 5 5 5
(m ) × (n )2 = m
2
3 −2
b.
6
n− 4 6− 1 − 4+ 3 5 −1 5 1 m5
× = m × n = m × n = m × =
mn − 3 m1 n− 3 n n
1 1
c. ( ) ( )
− 23 3 + 24 4 = − 21 + 21 = 0
(3 ) − (3 )
−3
d. 3 3 −1
= 32 − 33 = 9 − 27 = − 18
e. No simplification possible
f. (
x2 1 + x2 = ) x2 1 + x2 = x 1 + x2

Exercise 1.6
Reduce the following expressions to simplified forms without using your
calculator.
(4 )
1 3 3 5 3
2
× 92
a. 16 2 × 3 2 b. 9 2 × 4 2 c. 4
23 × 2− 1 32 × 23
642 × 27 3
7 3 × 54 63 × 22 5 3
d. e. f. 1212 × 49 2
352 32 × 23
11 × 7 2
3
8a 2b3 16a 2b 3
27 a 4b 2
g. h. i.
( ab ) 4 3
81a 3b 4
a 3b 2
(a b )
3
3 −3 1 3 4
j. k. ( − 27 ) 3 + 4
81 l.
1212 − 64 3
ab − 2
Solutions
3
a. b. 12 c. 1
32
d. 175 e. 12 f. 847
8 4 1
g. h. i. 1 4
a 2b a 2b 3a 6 b 3
a8
j. k. 0 l. 1075
b7

1.5 Scientific notation

Consider the following measurements:
Breaking stress of steel = 430 000 000 Pascals
Wavelength of red light = 0.000 000 644 metres
Mass of virus = 0.000 000 000 000 000 0003 kilograms
These very large and very small numbers involving long strings of zeros are too difficult to
handle as they stand, particularly using calculators. Such numbers are written using the
‘scientific notation’ which involves moving the decimal place to a convenient point (usually
to get a number between 1 and 10) and writing the number of places moved as a power of 10.
For instance, the breaking stress of steel becomes 4.3 × 108 Pa since the decimal point was
moved 8 places to the left. Similarly, the other two measurements become 6.44 × 10–7m and
3 × 10–19 kg. The negative index indicates that the decimal was moved to the right, i.e.
the number is less than 1.
An easy way to convert numbers is to remember that as the number gets smaller the index
gets larger, and vice versa. Beware of negative indices, e.g. 10–7 is larger than 10–19.
When calculating with scientific numbers, you must use the index laws to find the powers
of 10.
Examples
Examples
Convert the following to the scientific notation.
a. 1072000
b. 0.00371
c. 2421.372
Solutions
a. 1.072 × 106
b. 3.71 × 10–3
c. 2.421372 × 103

Examples
Change the decimal point to make the number fall in the range 1 to 10.
a. 741.3 × 107
b. 0.034 × 10–2
c. 1820 × 10–5
Solutions
a. 7.413 × 109
b. 3.4 × 10–4
c. 1.820 × 10–2
Examples
Simplify the following, using the scientific notation throughout.
a. 4.37 × 10105 + 2.41 × 10104

b. (2.5 × 10–3) × (4.4 × 1014)
7.8 × 104
c.
2 × 10− 3
d. 1.6 × 10− 5
Solutions
a. Recall that numbers with different indices cannot be added or subtracted.
One must be converted to the same index as the other.
∴ 4.37 × 10105 + 2.41 × 10104 = 4.37 × 10105 + 0.241 × 10105
= (4.37 + 0.241) × 10105
= 4.611 × 10105
b. (2.5 × 4.4) × (10–3 × 1014) = 11 × 10–3+14
= 11 × 1011
= 1.1 × 1012
c. 7.8 × 104 7.8 Note that the index of –3 refers only to 10 and not to 2.
−3
= × 104 × 103 –3
Thus when 10 is brought to the top to become 10 , the
3
2 × 10 2 number 2 remains underneath.
= 3.9 × 104+ 3
= 3.9 × 107

d.
1.6 × 10− 5 = 1.6 × 10− 5 = 1.2649 × 10− 2.5
Although this is correct it is not a scientific number since the index should
indicate the number of places the decimal point was moved. The index must
be a whole number. Thus we must change the problem first, e.g.
1.6 × 10− 5 = 16 × 10− 6 = 16 × 10− 6 = 4 × 10− 3

or
1.6 × 10− 5 = 0.16 × 10− 4 = 0.16 × 10− 4 = 0.4 × 10− 2
= 4 × 10− 3

Exercise 1.7
1. Convert the following numbers to scientific notation.
a. 221.6 × 106 b. 0.0421 × 10–5 c. 3124.8 × 10–4

d. 16.185 × 104 e. 11.214 × 10–2 f. 1121.4
g. 3124.8 × 104 h. 0.0016185 i. 0.00045 × 106

j. 0.00045 × 10–6
2. Simplify the following using scientific notation throughout.

a. 5.684 × 103 + 0.218 × 102
b. 1.68 × 103 + 0.64 × 102
c. 25.7824 × 1060 + 327.987 × 1059 – 3204.68 × 1058
d. 1.44 × 10− 4
e. 3
2.7 × 107
f. 1.68 × 105 + 0.42 × 106 + 4.12 × 104
Solutions
1. a. 2.216 × 108 b. 4.21 × 10–7 c. 3.1248 × 10–1
d. 1.6185 × 105 e. 1.1214 × 10–1 f. 1.1214 × 10–3
g. 3.1248 × 107 h. 1.6185 × 10–3 i. 4.5 × 102
j. 4.5 × 10–10
2. a. 5.7058 × 103 b. 1.744 × 103 c. 2.65343 × 1061

d. 1.2 × 10–2 e. 3 × 102 f. 1 × 103

1.6 Metric units

The metric system uses a number of units for length, mass, time, etc. to which are attached
various prefixes to indicate the size of the unit. The most common units are:
Measurement Unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass gram g
Volume litre L
Time second s
Force Newton N
Power Watt W
Pressure Pascal Pa
The system of prefixes is based on powers of 103. Any prefix may be attached to any unit.
Prefix Factor Symbol

Giga 109 G
Mega 106 M
Kilo 103 k
base unit 100 = 1
Milli 10–3 m
Micro 10–6 μ
Nano 10–9 n
Pico 10–12 p
*Centi 10–2 c
* Centi is not properly part of the system as it is not a power of 103. However, it is
commonly used and must be included.
Numbers should always be expressed in the range from 1 to 999. This is achieved by
selecting the appropriate prefix, e.g. 2487mL becomes 2.487L and 0.047Mg becomes 47kg.
When changing prefixes, you should remember that if you make the number smaller, the
prefix becomes larger and vice versa. Since the prefixes are based on powers of 103, the
decimal point moves in steps of three places.

Examples
Express the following in the appropriate prefix and unit using the proper
symbols.
a. 0.0124 kilograms
b. 472 × 104 millimetres
c. 2472 kilopascals + 1.34 megapascals
d. 12000 × 120 microseconds
e. 1784 centimetres
Solutions
a. 0.0124 kg = 0.0124 × 103g = 12.4 g
b. 472 × 104 mm = 4720000mm = 4720000 × 10–3m
= 4720m = 4720 × 10–3km = 4.72km
c. 2472 kPa + 1.34 MPa = 2.472 MPa + 1.34 MPa = 3.812 MPa
d. 12000 × 120 μs = 1440000 μs = 1440 ms = 1.44 s
e. 1784 cm = 17.84 m (Note for ‘centi’ the decimal moves only 2 places)
Note again that when adjusting the decimal point in the scientific notation, if the
number is made larger, then the index becomes smaller and vice versa. Take
care with negative indices e.g. 10–4 is smaller than 10–3.
Exercise 1.8
Express the following in the appropriate prefix and unit using the correct
symbols.
a. 240800g b. 16800m c. 1910L d. 0.678kg

e. 0.068m f. 0.62L g. 16425mg h. 15 × 103mm
i. 26 × 106mL j. 0.000625μg k. 0.006nm l. 0.0249kL
Solutions
a. 240.8kg b. 16.8km c. 1.91kL d. 678g
e. 68mm f. 620mL g. 16.425g h. 15m
i. 26kL j. 625pg k. 6pm l. 24.9L

Module 1: Self assessment
Questions 1.1
1. Evaluate 23.1 – 2.1 ÷ (6.7 – 3 × 4.1)
1 1
2. Evaluate 7 − 8
8 9
3 1
3. Evaluate 4 × 1
5 5
4. Evaluate 4–3
4
5. Evaluate 27 3
1
6. Express
( 25a 4b 2 ) 2
as a single fraction involving no negative powers
−2
b
7. Express 543.28 in scientific notation
8. Express the sum of 3 000 000 mg and 167 kg in Mg
9. Evaluate (2.3 × 102 – 4.1 × 10–1)2

Questions 1.2
1. Evaluate 4.1 + 3.2 × (–3.76 – 0.01 ÷ 4)
1 2
2. Evaluate 2 − 6
7 5
1 1
3. Evaluate − 2 × 4
3 7
1
4. Evaluate 216 3
3
5. Evaluate 36 2
1
6. Express
( 9a 4b 2 ) 2
as a single fraction involving no negative powers
−4
b
7. Express 0.000 077 1 in scientific notation
8. Evaluate (–3.2 × 10–1 + 2.1 × 102)3
9. Express the sum of 34.5 kL and 490 000 mL in litres

Module 2 – Basic algebra
Objectives
● apply order of operations to algebraic calculations

● factorise and expand algebraic expressions
● convert algebraic fractions to a single term
● manipulate algebraic equations and inequations in order to change the subject of the
equation
● solve linear, quadratic and cubic equations
● express inequations in interval notation.
2.1 Variables and expressions

A variable is a term that is used to indicate that that symbol may take various values.
Usually a letter of the alphabet is used to represent a variable. Sometimes we call these
letters pronumerals because they act as a numeral. An expression is just a group of variables
connected by arithmetic operations.
To the trained eye, variables and expressions exist in and can be used to help solve many of
the problems with which a professional may be confronted. The skill of the person with
mathematics training is that they can reduce such problems, in areas about which they may
know nothing, into a generalised expression they can work with. Also, variables and
operators allow us to make long word statements into brief mathematical expressions.
Example
A car’s cooling system contains 10 litres of a mixture of water and antifreeze
which is 25% antifreeze. How much of this mixture must be drained out and
replaced with pure antifreeze so that the resulting 10 litres will be 40%
antifreeze?
This can be summarised by the equation

When rewriting written expressions as mathematical expressions:
1. Carefully define any unknowns, stating units if they occur.

2. Translate the information in the problem into expressions using as few of
the defined unknowns as possible.
Once the above is completed then the mathematical expressions could be
used to solve the problems.
Consider the following simple situations.
a. I was born three years before my sister; so I am always three years older
than her. Knowing my age, I can calculate my sister’s age by subtracting
3 from my age.
My age My sister’s age

20 17
12 9
43 40
If we let m represent my age, then

Sister’s age = m – 3
b. Ben is five times older than John; so if John is 10, Ben will be 50; if
John is 3, Ben will be 15.
If Ben is 30, then John will be one-fifth of the age, so John will be 6.
1
If we let Ben’s age be x then John’s age will be x.
5
1
John’s age = x.
5
c. A certain bank is offering, at present, an effective interest rate of 15%
for fixed term deposits of 1 year for deposits over $1 000. The interest is
calculated by finding 15% of the amount in the deposit.
The equation could be Interest = 0.15 × A, where A represents the
amount deposited. This formula could also be written as
Interest = 0.15A.
Since it doesn’t matter which letters are chosen for variables in a
formula (provided that it is understood what the letters mean), this
formula could also be written as:
Interest = 0.15 x where x represents the amount deposited.
It is most important that the meaning of variables is understood.
Now look at some examples where we find these equations:

Examples
Example
I am one third of my brother’s age. Together our ages are 40. How old am I?
If I am x years old, then my brother is 3x years old. Together our ages are 40
so x + 3x = 40
Example
I invest some money in a bank offering 8.5% interest p.a. (per annum). Write a
formula for finding the amount in the bank after one year.
If I invest $2 500, how much money would I have after one year?
Let x be the amount invested
Amount = x + 8.5% of x
Amount = x + 0.085 × x
Exercise 2.1
Consider the following word problems. Develop an equation for each question.
1. The sum of three consecutive positive integers is 15. Write an equation to
find the integers. (Hint: Let the smallest integer be x, then the next integer is
x + 1 and the largest integer is x + 2).
2. A piece of wire 63 cm long is to be cut into two pieces. One piece is to be

15 cm shorter than the other piece. Write an equation to find the length of
the two pieces. (Hint: Let x be the length of the longer piece, then x – 15
will be the length of the shorter piece).
3. The length of a rectangle is 5 cm more than its width. If its perimeter is

44 cm write an equation to find the length and width of the rectangle.
4. The length of the base of a triangle is half the perpendicular height of the
triangle. If the area of the triangle is 20.25 m2, write an equation to find its
base length and perpendicular height. (Hint: Let h be the perpendicular
h
height, then the base length will be ).
2

5. An electricity board offers a choice between two tariffs.
Tariff 1: a fixed charge of $11 per quarter plus a charge of 2.5 cents per unit
consumed.
Tariff 2: a fixed charge of $16 per quarter plus a charge of 2 cents per unit
consumed.
Write an equation to find how many units need to be consumed in a quarter
for the overall cost under both tariffs to be the same? (Hint: Let n be the
number of units that need to be consumed for overall costs to be equal. Find
the cost under Tariff 1 for n units and the cost under Tariff 2 for n units and
equate the costs).
Solutions
1. Let the smallest integer be x, then the next integer is x + 1 and the last
integer is x + 2.
Their sum is 15 means
x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 15
x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 15
x + x + x + 1 + 2 = 15
x + x+ x + 1 + 2 = 15 Adding x’s is the same as adding numbers
3x + 3 = 15
2. Let x be the length in cm of the longer piece of wire, then the shorter piece
will be (x – 15) cm in length.
Joined together the two pieces make 63 cm. That is:
x + x – 15 = 63
2x –15 = 63
3. Let the width of the rectangle be W cm, then the length will be (W + 5) cm.
The perimeter of a rectangle = 2(length + width).
So for this case 44 = 2((W + 5) + W)

h
4. Let h be the perpendicular height of the triangle, then the base length is
2
1
The area of a triangle = (base length × perpendicular height)
2
So for this case
1 h 
20.25 =  × h
2 2 
1 h2
20.25 = ×
2 2
5. Let n be the number of units consumed that makes the total cost for each
tariff equal.
Tariff 1
Total cost = Fixed cost + 2.5 cents per unit consumed
Total cost = 11 + 0.025n (changing 2.5 cents into 0.025 dollars) (in dollars)
Tariff 2
Total cost = Fixed cost + 2 cents per unit consumed
Total cost = 16 + 0.02n (in dollars)
If the total costs are to be equal,
11 + 0.025n = 16 + 0.02n

2.2 Algebraic expressions

Once mathematical expressions are developed then we need the skills to be able to
manipulate these expressions or solve equations. The principles of order of operations which
were developed in section 1.2 are used for such manipulations.
The symbols +, –, ×, ÷ have exactly the same meaning in algebra as in arithmetic. Also
the Order of Operations and the power rules we met earlier in arithmetic are the same in
algebra.
2.2.1 Addition and subtraction of like terms

Like terms are those terms which contain the same power of the same variable.
6a and 2a are like terms because they have the same power of a (the power of a is 1).
The coefficients do not influence whether terms are said to be like or not. 5x3 and –7x3
are also like because each has the same power of x, that is, x3.
Terms which are not like are called unlike. For example:
6x4 and 3y4 are unlike because they contain different variables (even though the same
index is involved in both).
2x2 and 6x are unlike because they contain different powers (even though the variable is
the same).
–3a and –3z are unlike because they have different variables (remember, the coefficient
has nothing to do with determining whether terms are like or unlike).

Example
Sort the following expressions into groups of like terms.
For example, with 7x2, 5x, 3x2, 6x we would group 7x2 and 3x2 together and 5x
and 6x together.
With the following expressions 3x, 5a, 7a2, 6x2, 7x, 9a, 17x, 5x2, 6a2, 8x, 9x2,
12a, –4x, –11x2, –3a, –2x, 2a2 we would group them as:
3x, 7x, 17x, 8x, –4x, –2x
5a, 9a, 12a, –3a
7a2, 6a2, 2a2
6x2, 5x2, 9x2, –11x2
We can now use the idea of like terms to simplify expressions.

Consider the expression x + x
Firstly determine if they are like terms. Yes, they are! (Because they are the
same power of the same variable – both are x which means x1.)
Now look at the coefficients. If there is no constant in front of the variable, then
the coefficient is inferred to be 1.
If we have one x and add another x to it, we will have two x’s.
Algebraically, x + x = 2x
Now look at the following examples
Examples
Example
Simplify 3x + 2x
3x + 2x Like terms? Yes – same power of the same variable
= (3 + 2)x
= 5x Simplify
Example
Simplify 5x3 + 6x3
5x3 + 6x3 Like terms? Yes – same power of the same variable
= (5 + 6)x3
= 11x3 Simplify

Example
Simplify 6x + 5x2 –2x – 4x2
6x + 5x2 –2x – 4x2 Like terms? Yes – 2 pairs
= (5x2 – 4x2) + (6x – 2x) Group like terms together. Begin with the
highest powers and work down to the lowest
= (5 – 4)x2 + (6 – 2)x
= x2 + 4x Simplify
Example
Simplify –3x + 4y + xy + 8x – y
–3x + 4y + xy + 8x – y Like terms? Yes – 2 pairs and 1 other term
= (8x – 3x) + (4y – y) + xy Group like terms together.
= (8 – 3)x + (4 – 1)y + xy
= 5x + 3y + xy Simplify
Example
1 1
Simplify −7 −7
3x 2 + 5x + 2x − 9x 2 − 3x − 7 − 5 x − 7
1 1
Like terms? Yes – 2 groups
3x 2 + 5 x − 7 + 2 x − 7 − 9 x 2 − 3x − 7 − 5 x − 7
 1 1

2
 (
=  3x − 9 x 2  + 5x − 7 + 2 x − 7 − 3x − 7 − 5 x − 7 )
 
1
= ( 3 − 9 ) x 2 + ( 5 + 2 − 3 − 5) x − 7
1
Simplify
= − 6x 2 − x− 7
Remember
1. You can only add or subtract like terms.
2. If a term is just x, x2, etc., then the coefficient is one.
3. Take care when regrouping terms with negatives.

Exercise 2.2
a. 5x + 2x b. –6x2 – 5x2
1 1 1
c. 6.2a3 + 3.7a3 d.
7 a 2 + 3a 2 − 9a 2
e. –5x4 – 3x4 – 2.5x4 f. 5x + 2y–5 + 3x + 7y–5
1 1
− −
g. 4x–2 + 2x + 6x–2 + 7x h.
7n 2 − 3n 2 + 2.6n 2 − 5.7 n 2
3 −3 1 3 1 −3 3 3
i. 8x3 + 7x2 + 3x3 – 9x2 + 2 j. n + n − n + n
4 2 2 8
Solutions
a. 5x + 2x b. –6x2 –5x2
= (5 + 2)x = (–6 – 5)x2

= 7x
= –11x2
c. 6.2a3 + 3.7a3 d. 1 1 1
7a 2 + 3a 2 − 9a 2
= (6.2 + 3.7)a3 1
= ( 7 + 3 − 9) a 2
= 9.9a3 1
= a2
e. –5x4 –3x4 –2.5x4 f. 5x + 2y–5 + 3x + 7y–5
= (–5 –3 – 2.5)x4 = (5x + 3x) + (2y–5 + 7y–5)
= –10.5x4 = (5 + 3)x + (2 + 7)y–5
= 8x + 9y–5
g. 4x–2 + 2x + 6x–2 + 7x h. −
1
−
1
7n 2 − 3n 2 + 2.6n 2 − 5.7 n 2
= (4x–2 + 6x–2) + (2x + 7x)  1

− 
1
( )
−
2 2
= 7 n + 2.6n +  − 3n − 5.7 n 2 
2
 
= (4 + 6)x–2 + (2 + 7)x  
1
−
–2
= 10x + 9x = ( 7 + 2.6 ) n + ( − 3 − 5.7 ) n
2 2
1
−
2
= 9.6n − 8.7 n 2

i. 8x3 + 7x2 + 3x3 –9x2 + 2 j. 3 − 3 1 3 1 − 3 3 3

n + n − n + n
4 2 2 8
= (8 + 3)x3 + (7 –9)x2 + 2 1 3  3 1 
=  n 3 + n3  +  n − 3 − n − 3 
2 8  4 2 
= 11x3 –2x2 + 2
 1 3  3 1
=  +  n3 +  −  n − 3
 2 8  4 2
 4+ 3 3  3− 2 −3
=  n +  n
 8   4 
7 1
= n3 + n − 3
8 4
2.2.2 Expansion and the Distributive Law

The Distributive Law can be written as:
a(b + c) = ab + ac
In algebra, we often need to ‘expand’ an expression, that is, to change it from a product to a
sum. We apply the Distributive Law here in the same way it was applied earlier in the
arithmetic.
Reminder: 5(3 + 1)
=5×3+5×1
= 15 + 5
= 20
The following examples illustrate the use of the Distributive Law in algebra.

Examples
Example
Expand 5(x + 1)
5(x + 1) 5 is distributed to both terms inside the brackets
=5×x+5×1
= 5x + 5
Example
Expand 5(x3 + 3x2 + 2)
5(x3 + 3x2 + 2) 5 is distributed to all terms inside the brackets
= 5 × x3 + 5 × 3x2 + 5 × 2
= 5x3 + 15x2 + 10
Example
Expand 2x(x2 + 5x + 6)
2x(x2 + 5x + 6) 2x is distributed to all terms inside the brackets
= 2x × x2 + 2x × 5x + 2x × 6
= 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x
Exercise 2.3
a. 3(x + 1) b. 4(x + 2)
c. 5(x – 3) d. 9(4 – 3n)
e. 6(3 + 4a) f. 2x(3x – 5)
g. 7x(6x3 – 5x) h. 7x2(2x3 – 5a2)
i. –2x3(3y3 – 2x4) j. –3x2(4x2 + 5x – 2)
Solutions
a. 3(x + 1) b. 4(x + 2)
=3×x+3×1 =4×x+4×2
= 3x + 3 = 4x + 8

c. 5(x – 3) d. 9(4 – 3n)
=5×x–5×3 = 9 × 4 – 9 × 3n
= 5x – 15 = 36 – 27n
e. 6(3 + 4a) f. 2x(3x – 5)
= 6 × 3 + 6 × 4a = 2x × 3x – 2x × 5
= 18 + 24a = 6x2 – 10x
g. 7x(6x3 – 5x) h. 7x2(2x3 – 5a2)
= 7x × 6x3 – 7x × 5x = 7x2 × 2x3 – 7x2 × 5a2

(Note – alphabetical order in second term)
= 42x4 – 35x2
= 14x5 – 35a2x2
i. –2x3(3y3 – 2x4)
3
distribute the –2x to both terms
= –2x3 × 3y3 + 2x3 × 2x4 3 4
note that –2x by –2x gives a positive result
= –6x3y3 + 4x7
rearrange so that highest power is first
= 4x7 – 6x3y3
j. –3x2(4x2 + 5x – 2)
2
= –3x2 × 4x2 – 3x2 × 5x + 3x × 22 distribute the –3x to each term
2
= –12x4 – 15x3 + 6x2 note that –3x by –2 gives a positive result
Another type of expression that you may need to expand is
(x + 3) (x + 2)
We do this by applying the same idea as before, that is everything inside the brackets is
multiplied by what is outside. For example:
(x + 3) (x + 2)
= x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2) multiply the second bracket by everything in the first
=x×x+x×2+3×x+3×2 expand
= x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + (2 + 3)x + 6 group like terms
= x2 + 5x + 6

Here are another two examples:
Examples
Example
Expand (3x2 + 2x) (4x3 + 3x)
(3x2 + 2x) (4x3 + 3x)
= 3x2(4x3 + 3x) + 2x(4x3 +3x) multiply the second bracket by
everything in the first
= 3x2 × 4x3 + 3x2 × 3x + 2x × 4x3 + 2x × 3x expand
= 12x5 + 9x3 + 8x4 + 6x2
Example
Expand (2x – 3) (4x3 – 7x2)
(2x – 3) (4x3 – 7x2)
= (2x + –3) (4x3 – 7x2) rewrite –3 as ‘+ –3’
= 2x(4x3 – 7x2) + –3(4x3 – 7x2) multiply the second bracket by

everything in the first
= 2 × 4x3 – 2x × 7x2 – 3 × 4x3 + 3 × 7x2 expand
= 8x4 – 14x3 – 12x3 + 21x2 group like terms
= 8x4 + (–14 – 12)x3 + 21x2

= 8x4 – 26x3 + 21x2
Exercise 2.4
a. (x + 1) (x + 2)
b. (x + 3) (x + 4)
c. (2x + 1) (3x + 4)
d. (5x2 + 3) (4x3 – 5)
e. (5 – 2x2) (6x3 – 7)
Solutions
a. (x + 1) (x + 2)
= x(x + 2) + 1(x + 2)
=x×x+x×2+x+2
= x2 + (2 + 1)x + 2
= x2 + 3x + 2

b. (x + 3) (x + 4)
= x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
=x×x+x×4+3×x+3×4
= x2 + (4 + 3)x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12
c. (2x + 1) ( 3x + 4)
= 2x(3x + 4) + 1(3x + 4)
= 2x × 3x + 2x × 4 + 3x + 4
= 6x2 + 8x + 3x + 4
= 6x2 + (8 + 3)x + 4
= 6x2 + 11x + 4
d. (5x2 + 3) (4x3 – 5)
= 5x2(4x3 – 5) + 3(4x3 – 5)
= 5x2 × 4x3 – 5x2 × 5 + 3 × 4x3 – 3 × 5
= 20x5 – 25x2 + 12x3 – 15 rearrange into descending order of powers
= 20x5 + 12x3 – 25x2 – 15
e. (5 – 2x2) (6x3 – 7)
= (5 + –2x2) (6x3 – 7)
= 5(6x3 – 7) + –2x2(6x3 – 7)
= 5 × 6x3 – 5 × 7 – 2x2 × 6x3 + 2x2 × 7
= 30x3 – 35 – 12x5 + 14x2
= –12x5 + 30x3 + 14x2 – 35 rearrange into descending order of powers
Three factors may be expanded by expanding the last two of them and multiplying the result
by the first. This may be extended to more than three factors if necessary.

Example
(2 + x) (3 – 2x) (1 + 2x) = (2 + x) (3(1 + 2x) – 2x(1 + 2x))
= (2 + x) (3 + 6x – 2x – 4x2)
= (2 + x) (3 + 4x – 4x2)
= 2(3 + 4x – 4x2) + x(3 + 4x – 4x2)
= 6 + 8x – 8x2 + 3x + 4x2 – 4x3
= 6 + 11x – 4x2 – 4x3
Exercise 2.5
Expand the following
a. (x + 2) (x + 1) b. (x – 2) (x + 1)
c. (x – 2) (x – 1) d. (2x + 3) (x + 4)
e. (3x – 1) (2x + 4) f. (2x – 5) (3x – 2)
g. (x – 1) (x + 1) (x + 2) h. (2x – 1) (3x + 2) (4x + 1)
i. (x2 – 3) (x + 2) j. (x + y) (x – y)
k. (x + y) (x + y) l. (x2 + y2) (x – y) (2x + y)
Solutions
a. x2 + 3x + 2 b. x2 – x – 2
c. x2 – 3x + 2 d. 2x2 + 11x + 12
e. 6x2 + 10x – 4 f. 6x2 – 19x + 10
g. x3 + 2x2 – x – 2 h. 24x3 + 10x2 – 7x – 2
i. x3 + 2x2 – 3x – 6 j. x2 – y2
k. x2 + 2xy + y2 l. 2x4 – x3y + x2y2 – xy3 – y4

2.2.3 Factorisation
The reverse process to expanding is called factorisation. In this case we are given an
expression which is a sum of terms and we convert it to a product of two or more terms.
Expressions may be factorised by removing factors common to two or more terms and then
by grouping and if necessary regrouping.
Examples
Example
3x + 2x2 = 3(x) + 2x(x) where x is the common factor
= x(3 + 2x)
2 3
px + qx = p(x2) + qx(x2)
= x2 (p + qx) 2
where x is the common factor
al + lb + am + mb = l(a + b) + am + mb where l is the common factor

where m is the common factor of
= l(a + b) + m(a + b) second two terms
= (a + b) (l + m) where (a + b) is the common factor
(a + b)2 – a – b = (a + b)2 – (a + b) where –1 is the common factor
= (a + b)(a + b – 1) where (a + b) is the common factor
If the expression is one of the form ax2 + bx + c then the above strategies are extended.
For example, when we expanded
(x + 2) (x + 3)
= x(x + 3) + 2(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x + 2x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
This means that x2 + 5x + 6 is factorised to give (x + 2) (x + 3), or x2 + 5x + 6 has two

factors, (x + 2) and (x + 3).
If we reverse through the process of expanding we do the following.
x2 + 5x + 6
= x2 + 3x + 2x + 6 partition 5x into the sum of 3x + 2x
= x (x + 3) + 2 (x + 3) take out common factors of x from the first two terms and 2 from the last
two terms
= (x + 3) (x + 2) take out a common factor of (x + 3)

To summarise expressions of the type x2 + bx + c can be factorised by using the result
(x + e) (x + f) = x2 + (e + f) x + ef
Thus b is the sum of two numbers and c is the product.
Thus to factorise x2 + 7x + 6, we need two numbers whose
sum = 7
product = 6
We select the appropriate numbers by guessing and checking. Solution is 6 and 1, giving
factors (x + 6) and (x + 1).
For x2 – 7x + 6, we need two numbers: sum = –7, product = 6
Solution is –6 and –1, giving factors (x – 6) and (x – 1).
For x2 + 2x – 3 we need two numbers: sum = 2, product = –3
Solution is 3, –1, giving factors (x + 3) and (x – 1)
Expressions of the type ax2 + bx + c can be factorised in the form (dx + e) (fx + g). The
constant a is the product df and c is the product eg. There are usually several possible
numbers for d, f, e and g. Trial and error of the various combinations to obtain the one giving
b is the only method.
For instance consider 6x2 + 5x – 6. The term 6x2 may be given by 3x and 2x or by 6x and x.
The last term – 6, may be given by 6 and – 1, – 6 and 1, 3 and – 2 or – 3 and 2. The correct
combination is (3x – 2) (2x + 3).
Alternatively, we can make the coefficient of x2 a one. This is achieved by factoring out 6
and then using the method described previously.
6x2 + 5x – 6
 5 
= 6  x2 + x − 1
 6 
 2 3
= 6  x −  x+ 
 3 2
 2  3
= 2 × 3  x−  x+ 
 3  2
= ( 3 x − 2 ) ( 2 x + 3)

Examples
Factorise:
a. 2ab – 10a + 3b – 15
b. y2 – 5y – 36
c. 6x2 + 17x – 3
Solutions
a. 2ab – 10a + 3b – 15 = 2a(b – 5) + 3(b – 5) = (b – 5) (2a + 3)
b. We need two numbers whose product is – 36 (so they will be of different
sign) and whose sum is – 5 (so the negative number will have the larger
magnitude). The numbers are – 9 and 4. Thus
y2 – 5y – 36 = (y – 9) (y + 4)
c. We need two numbers whose product is 6, i.e. 6 and 1 or 3 and 2. We need
two other numbers whose product is – 3, i.e. 3 and – 1 or – 3 and 1. The
correct combination of these to give 6x2 + 17x – 3 is (6x – 1) (x + 3).
There are a number of standard factors that occur so often that they should be memorised.
These are:
x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2
x2 – 2xy + y2 = (x – y)2
x2 – y2 = (x – y) (x + y)
Note: x2 + y2 cannot be factorised and x 2 + y 2 is not x + y.

Exercise 2.6
Factorise:
a. x2 – x – 6 b. x2 + 5x + 6 c. x2 – 5x + 6
d. x2 + x – 6 e. 2x2 – 3x – 14 f. 6x2 – 8x – 8
g. a2b + ab2 – abc h. x2 – 13x – 48 i. 4x2 – 8x + 3
j. 8x2 + 22x – 6 k. 4 – 9x2 l. 15x2 – 11x + 2
Solutions
a. (x – 3) (x + 2) b. (x + 3) (x + 2) c. (x – 3) (x – 2)
d. (x + 3) (x – 2) e. (2x – 7) (x + 2) f. 2(x – 2) (3x + 2)
g. ab(a + b – c) h. (x – 16) (x + 3) i. (2x – 3) (2x – 1)
j. 2(4x – 1) (x + 3) k. (2 – 3x) (2 + 3x) l. (5x – 2) (3x – 1)

2.3 Algebraic fractions

In section 1.3.1 we looked at ways to calculate with numerical fractions. In this section we
will use the same methods to perform operations with algebraic fractions.
2.3.1 Cancellation in fractions

6 2 6 2× 3
In arithmetic and are equivalent fractions because can be written as and 3
9 3 9 3× 3
which occurs in the numerator and denominator can be cancelled. This can be summarised
by the expression.
am a
=
bm b
The same rules apply in algebra.
Consider 2p 2
a. = p is cancelled because it occurs top and bottom
rp r
x ( x + 1) x
b. = (x + 1) is cancelled
y ( x + 1) y
( x + y) ( a + b) = ( a + b)
c. (x + y) is cancelled
z ( x + y) z
am
Important: Notice that in the fraction , the numerator and the denominator are both
bm
products.
There is no cancellation rule for sums
a+ m
i.e. in , m cannot be cancelled.
b+ m

Exercise 2.7
x 6x x 2x
a. , b. ,
2 12 2 4x
x + 1 2 ( x + 1) x+ 1 x
,
c. , d.
x − 2 2 ( x − 2) y+ 1 y
2( x − 3y )
( x − 5) ( x 2 + 2 y ) x − 5 f. ,2
e. , x − 3y
( x 2 + 2 y ) ( x + 5) x + 5
Solutions
x 6x 6x 6x
a. = = equivalent to
2 6 × 2 12 12
x 2x 2x 2x
b. = = is not equivalent to
2 2× 2 4 4x
x + 1 2 ( x + 1)
c. = equivalent
x − 2 2 ( x − 2)
x+ 1 x
d. cannot cancel 1 because of sum not product, not equivalent to
y+ 1 y
( x − 5) ( x 2 + 2 y ) x− 5
e. = ( )
cancel x 2 + 2 y , equivalent
( x 2 + 2 y ) ( x + 5) x+ 5
2( x − 3y) 2( x − 3y) 2
f. = = = 2, cancel ( x − 3 y ) equivalent
x − 3y 1× ( x − 3 y ) 1

2.3.2 Addition and subtraction of fractions

Using rules developed for numerical fractions in section 1.3.1 we can develop the following
patterns for addition and subtraction of fractions.
Examples
Examples
a. x m x+ m
+ = because denominators are the same
y y y
b. x y xk + yz find the lowest common denominator because denominators
+ = are different
z k zk
c. 2 z 2y z
+ = +
x xy xy xy
find the lowest common denominator
2y + z
=
xy
Example
x 5
Simplify +
x− 3 x+ 2
x 5 x ( x + 2 ) + 5 ( x − 3) x 2 + 2 x + 5 x − 15 x 2 + 7 x − 15
+ = = 2 =
x− 3 x+ 2 ( x − 3) ( x + 2 ) x + 2 x − 3x − 6 x2 − x − 6
Example
x+ 2 x− 2
Simplify −
x− 2 x+ 2
x + 2 x − 2 ( x + 2) − ( x − 2)
− =
2 2
=
( ) (
x2 + 4 x + 4 − x2 − 4 x + 4 )
x− 2 x+ 2 ( x − 2) ( x + 2) x ( x + 2) − 2 ( x + 2)
x2 + 4 x + 4 − x2 + 4 x − 4 8x
= 2
= 2
x + 2x − 2x − 4 x − 4

Exercise 2.8
Simplify the following expressions:
x+ 1 x− 1 x − 3 2x − 1 3x − 1 2 x + 1
a. + b. − c. −
x− 2 x+ 2 x− 1 x+ 2 x+ 2 x− 3
x x− 1 4 x− 2 2x − 3 x − 1
d. + e. + f. −
2 x + 1 3x − 1 x− 1 x+ 3 x+ 2 x− 3
Solutions
2 x2 + 4 − x2 + 2 x − 7 x 2 − 15 x + 1
a. b. c.
x2 − 4 x2 + x − 2 x2 − x − 6
5x2 − 2 x − 1 x 2 + x + 14 3x 2 − 8 x + 7
d. e. f.
6 x2 + x − 1 x2 + 2 x − 3 x2 − x − 6

2.4 Solving equations and inequations

So far we have looked only at algebraic expressions but in section 2.1 we generated
expressions that were actually equations. An equation is a representation of two expressions
which are equal. Equations can come in a range of forms depending on the expressions
involved, the simplest is the linear equation.
2.4.1 Linear equations

Linear equations are equations which contain variables of a power of 1 only, i.e. variables
would be x, y or z, not xy, x2 or z3.
x+y=5 is a linear equation
3x – 4y = –1 is a linear equation
x2 + 2 = 5 is not a linear equation
xy + z = 7 is not a linear equation
(See section 3.2.1 for more information on linear functions)
One of the main aims of constructing equations is to find the value of a variable that will
solve the equation.
Consider the equation x + 5 = 27. With some thought you can probably say that in this case,
x must have been 22. Other equations may be more difficult to solve.
We are now going to develop a set of procedures to use to solve any type of linear equation.
The key point to remember when solving equations is to isolate the variable. To do this:
1. Remove all constants.

2. Make the coefficient in front of the variable one.
Use the opposite operation to achieve cancelling. A reminder:
Operation Opposite
+ –
– +
× ÷
÷ ×
It is essential to maintain the balance of the equation throughout. Therefore, whatever you
do to one side you must do to the other.

Let’s use these ideas to solve x + 5 = 27.
x + 5 = 27
Cancel the 5 on the LHS (left hand side) by subtracting 5.
x + 5 – 5 = 27 – 5 Whatever you do to the LHS do to the RHS (right hand side)
x = 22
When there is more than one operation involved, e.g. 2x + 3 = 5, they are cancelled out in the
reverse of Order of Operations, that is:
1. + and –
2. × and ÷
3. brackets
Below are some samples to illustrate the techniques involved in solving different types of
linear equations. They provide models for setting out all of the basic types you will
encounter in this course. It is not intended that they be learnt as rules – use them as a
reference until you no longer need them. (Note that we check our answer at the end by
substituting it for the variable in the original equation.)

Number Type Example Steps involved

x + 9 = 12 By subtracting 9 from the LHS we cancel the given 9.
1 x+a=b x + 9 − 9 = 12 − 9 To keep the balance do the same to the RHS.
x= 3 Check: LHS = 3 + 9 = 12 = RHS
x− 2= −7 Add 2 to the LHS to cancel the given 2.

2 x–a=b x− 2+ 2= −7+ 2 Add 2 to the RHS to keep the balance.
x= −5 Check: LHS = –5 – 2 = – 7 = RHS
3x = 29 Cancel the 3 on the LHS by dividing by 3.
3x 29 Do the same to the RHS.

=
3 3 Coefficient of x is now 1.
3 ax = b
2 Express answer as either a mixed number or a decimal.
x= 9
3 2 29
Check: LHS = 3 × 9 = 3× = 29 = RHS
x ≈ 9.67 3 3
x
= −4 Multiply the LHS by 5 to cancel the given 5.
5
x Maintain the balance by multiplying the RHS by 5.
4 = b x
a × 5 = − 4× 5 − 20
5 Check: LHS = = − 4 = RHS
5
x = − 20
3 + x = 8.5
Subtract 3 from both sides.
5 a+x=b 3 + x − 3 = 8.5 − 3
Check: LHS = 3 + 5.5 = 8.5 = RHS
x = 5.5
7− x= 2
Coefficient of x is –1.
7− x− 7= 2− 7
Multiply LHS by –1 to give a coefficient of 1.
6 a–x=b − x= −5
Do the same for the RHS.
− x× − 1= − 5× − 1
Check: LHS = 7 – 5 = 2 = RHS
x= 5
3x + 8 = 14
3x + 8 − 8 = 14 − 8
Cancel out addition first.
3x = 6
7 ax + b = c Then cancel multiplication.
3x 6
= Check: LHS = 3 × 2 + 8 = 6 + 8 = 14 = RHS
3 3
x= 2
3 + 7x = 17
3 + 7x − 3 = 17 − 3
7x = 14 Cancel addition.
8 b + ax = c 7x 14 Cancel multiplication.
=
7 7 Check: LHS = 3 + 7 × 2 = 3 + 14 = 17 = RHS
x= 2
Number Type Example Steps involved

18 − 5 x = 17
18 − 5 x − 18 = 17 − 18
Cancel 18 on LHS.
− 5x = −1
Cancel –5 on LHS.
9 b – ax = c − 5x −1
= 1
−5 −5 Check: LHS = 18 − 5 × = 18 − 1 = 17 = RHS
5
1
x=
5
2 x + 8 + 3x = 3
2 x + 3x + 8 = 3
( 2 + 3) x + 8 = 3
Group like terms.
5x + 8 = 3 Cancel 8 on LHS
10 ax + b + cx = d 5x + 8 − 8 = 3− 8 Cancel 5 on LHS
5x = −5 Check: LHS = 2 × –1 + 8 + 3 × –1 = –2 + 8 – 3 = 3 = RHS
5x −5
=
5 5
x= −1
3 ( x + 1) = 12
3 ( x + 1) 12 Leave brackets.
= Cancel 3 on LHS
11 a(x + b) = c 3 3
x + 1= 4 Now cancel 1 on LHS
x + 1− 1 = 4 − 1 Check: LHS = 3(3 + 1) = 3 × 4 = 12 = RHS
x= 3
3x + 2 = 5 x + 4
3x + 2 − 5 x = 5 x + 4 − 5 x
3x − 5 x + 2 = 4 Group like terms on LHS
( 3 − 5) x + 2= 4 Cancel 2 on LHS
− 2x + 2 = 4 Cancel –2 on LHS
12 ax + b = cx + d
− 2x + 2 − 2 = 4− 2 Check: LHS = 3(–1) + 2 = –1
− 2x = 2 RHS = 5(–1) + 4 = –1
LHS = RHS
− 2x 2
=
x −2
x= −1
Exercise 2.9
Solve: Verify your answer each time by substituting it into the original equation.
3 3
a. x + 3 = 9 k. ( x + 3) =
4 8
b. x – 2 = 5 l. 2.5x + 3.5 = 7
 4
c. 5x = 15 m. 4  3x −  = 3
 9
x
d. = 6 n. 2x + 3 + 5x = 17
2
3x 2 x 5
e. –3 + x = 7 o. − + =
4 3 2 6
4x x
f. 2.4 – x = 3.6 p. = 7+
3 6
4x 2
g. 2x + 1 = –8 q. + =1
5 3
x
h. − 2= 7 r. 5x + 3 – 2x = 21
5
i. 5 + 2x = 1 s. 2x + 1 = 3x – 5
j. 10 – 3x = 1 t. 0.5x – 4.1 = 3.9 – 0.7x
Solutions
a. x+ 3= 9
x + 3− 3= 9− 3 Isolate x by taking 3 from LHS. Also take 3 from the RHS.
x= 6
Check: LHS = 6 + 3 = 9 = RHS
b. x− 2= 5
x− 2+ 2= 5+ 2 Isolate x by adding 2 to LHS. Do the same to RHS.
x= 7
Check: LHS = 7 – 2 = 5 = RHS
c. 5x = 15
5x 15 Isolate x by dividing LHS by 5.
=
5 5
x= 3 Do the same to RHS.
Check: LHS = 5 × 3 = 15 = RHS

d. x
= 6
2 Isolate x by multiplying LHS by 2.
x
× 2 = 6× 2 Do the same to RHS.
2
x = 12
12
Check: LHS = = 6 = RHS
2

e. − 3+ x = 7
− 3+ x + 3= 7 + 3 Isolate x by adding 3 to LHS. Do the same to RHS
x = 10
Check: LHS = –3 + 10 = 7 = RHS
f. 2.4 − x = 3.6
2.4 − x − 2.4 = 3.6 − 2.4 Isolate x by taking 2.4 from LHS. Do the same to RHS.
− x= 1.2 Multiply both sides by –1 to make coefficient of the x a one.
x= − 1.2 Check: LHS= 2.4 – (–1.2) = 2.4 + 1.2 = 3.6 = RHS
g. 2x + 1 = −8
2x + 1 − 1 =− 8− 1 Isolate x by taking 1 from LHS. Do the same to RHS.
2x = −9
Divide LHS by 2 to make coefficient of x a one. Do the same
2x −9 to RHS.
=
2 2
1 Check: LHS =
x= −4  1 −9
2 2×  − 4  + 1= 2× + 1 = − 9 + 1 = − 8 = RHS
 2 2
h. x
− 2= 7
5
x
− 2+ 2= 7+ 2 Isolate x by adding 2 to LHS. Do the same to RHS
5
x Multiply LHS by 5. Do the same to RHS
= 9
5
45
x Check: LHS = − 2 = 9 − 2 = 7 = RHS
× 5= 9× 5 5
5
x= 45
i. 5 + 2x = 1 Take 5 from LHS to isolate the x.
5 + 2x − 5 = 1− 5 Do the same to RHS.

2x = −4
Divide LHS by 2 to make coefficient of x a one. Do the same
2x −4 to RHS.
=
2 2
x= −2 Check: LHS = 5 + 2 × –2 = 5 – 4 = 1 = RHS
j. 10 − 3x = 1 Take 10 from LHS to isolate the x.
10 − 3 x − 10 = 1 − 10 Do the same to RHS.

− 3x = −9
Divide LHS by –3 to make coefficient of x a one. Do the
− 3x −9 same to RHS.
=
−3 −3
x= 3 Check: LHS = 10 – 3 × 3 = 10 – 9 = 1 = RHS

k. 3 3
( x + 3) =
4 8
3 4 3 4
× ( x + 3) = × Remove factor outside bracket on LHS by multiplying by its
4 3 8 3 reciprocal. Do the same to RHS. Simplify RHS by cancelling
1 common factors.
x+ 3=
2
Take 3 from LHS. Do same to RHS.
1
x + 3− 3= − 3
2 Find a common denominator on RHS.
1− 6
x= Express answer as a mixed number.
2
−5 3 1  3 1 3
x= Check: LHS =  − 2 + 3  = × = = RHS
2 4 2  4 2 8
1
x= −2
2
l. 2.5 x + 3.5 = 7
2.5 x + 3.5 − 3.5 = 7 − 3.5
subtract 3.5 from LHS. Do same to RHS.
2.5 x = 3.5
divide LHS by 2.5. Do same to RHS.
2.5 x 3.5
=
2.5 2.5 Check: LHS = 2.5 × 1.4 + 3.5 = 3.5 + 3.5 = 7 = RHS
x= 1.4
m.  4
4  3x − = 3
 9
4 4 3
 3x − = divide LHS by 4. Do same to RHS.
4 9 4
4 3
3x − =
9 4
4
4 4 3 4 add to LHS. Do same to RHS.
3x − + = + 9
9 9 4 9
27 + 16 find a common denominator on RHS.
3x =
36
43
3x =
36
3x 43 1
= × divide LHS by 3. Do same to RHS.
3 36 3
43 Check:
x=  43 4   129 4   129 − 48 
108 LHS = 4  3 × − = 4 −  = 4 
 108 9   108 9   108 
 81  3
= 4  = 4× = 3 = RHS
 108  4

n. 2 x + 3 + 5 x = 17
2 x + 5 x + 3 = 17
( 2 + 5) x + 3 = 17 group like terms
7x + 3 = 17
7x + 3 − 3 = 17 − 3
7x = 14
7x 14
=
7 7
Check: LHS = 2 × 2 + 3 + 5 × 2 = 4 + 3 + 10 = 17 = RHS
x= 2
o. 3x 2 x 5
− + =
4 3 2 6
3x x 2 5
+ − = group like terms
4 2 3 6
3x + 2 x 2 5
− = find a common denominator on LHS
4 3 6
5x 2 5
− =
4 3 6
5x 2 2 5 2
− + = +
4 3 3 6 3
5x 5+ 4
= find a common denominator on RHS
4 6
5x 9
=
4 6
5x 3
=
4 2
5x 4 3 4
× = ×
4 5 2 5
6
x= Check: 3 6 2 1 6 9 2 6
LHS = × − + × = − +
5 4 5 3 2 5 10 3 10
1 27 − 20 + 18 25 5
x= 1 =
30
= = = RHS
30 6
5

p. 4x x
= 7+
3 6
4x x x x group like terms
− = 7+ −
3 6 6 6
8x − x
= 7
6
7x
= 7
6
7x 6
× = 7× 6
6 1
7x = 42
7x 42 Check: 4× 6
= LHS = = 8
3
7 7
6
x= 6 RHS = 7 + =7 + 1 = 8 = LHS
6
q. 4x 2
+ = 1
5 3
4x 2 2 2
+ − = 1−
5 3 3 3
4x 3− 2
=
5 3
4x 1
=
5 3
4x 5 1 5
× = ×
5 4 3 4
4 5 2 1 2
5 Check: LHS = × + = + = 1 =RHS
x= 5 12 3 3 3
12
r. 5x + 3 − 2 x = 21
5x − 2x + 3 = 21
3x + 3 = 21
3x + 3 − 3 = 21 − 3
3x = 18
3x 18
=
3 3
x= 6 Check: LHS = 5 × 6 + 3 – 2 × 6 = 30 + 3 – 12 = 21 = RHS

s. 2x + 1 = 3x − 5
2 x + 1 − 3x = 3x − 5 − 3 x
2 x − 3x + 1 = −5
− x + 1= −5
− x + 1− 1 = − 5− 1
Check: LHS = 2 × 6 + 1 = 12 + 1 = 13
−x= −6 RHS = 3 × 6 – 5 = 18 – 5 = 13 = LHS
x= 6
t. 0.5 x − 4.1 = 3.9 − 0.7 x

0.5 x − 4.1 + 0.7 x = 3.9 − 0.7 x + 0.7 x
0.5 x + 0.7 x − 4.1 = 3.9
1.2 x − 4.1 = 3.9
1.2 x − 4.1 + 4.1 = 3.9 + 4.1
1.2 x = 8
1.2 x 8
=
1.2 1.2 Check:
x ≈ 6.67 LHS = 0.5 × 6.67 – 4.1 = 3.335 – 4.1 = –0.765
RHS = 3.9 – 0.7 × 6.67 = 3.9 – 4.669 = –0.769
2
or x = 6
3
2.4.2 Rearranging formulae

A formula is a rule connecting different variables. For example, the area of a rectangle is
found by multiplying its length by its width, that is,
A = lw
This is a formula, where A, l and w are variables.
The subject of the formula is the variable on its own, usually on the left hand side,
e.g. A is the subject of the formula above.
Sometimes we know the value of the subject but not that of one of the other variables. In
such cases, we need to rearrange the formula so that the unknown variable becomes the
‘subject of the formula’. This is why this is an important algebraic skill to master.
There are a number of operations which can be used to rearrange formulae. These include:
● adding or subtracting terms from both sides

● multiplying or dividing throughout
● changing the sign throughout
● raising both sides to the same power (e.g. squaring or taking the square root)
● taking reciprocals of both sides.

Here is an example of a situation where rearranging of the formula is needed.
To calculate speed (s) we divide distance (d) by time (t).
d
This is shown by the formula: s =
t
Now suppose you wish to estimate the length of time it will take you to travel 100 km at an
average speed of 90 km per hour. (Note: km per hour is usually written as km h–1). Time is
not the subject of the formula. You need to transpose (rearrange) to make it so:
d
s=
t
dt
ts =
t
ts = d
ts d
=
s s
d
t=
s
It is now in the form we need. Let’s substitute to find the time it would take:
d
t=
s
100 km substitute d = 100 and s = 90
t=
90 km h − 1
100 h recall what negative powers mean
t=
90
1 Make sure the units cancel to give the appropriate unit for the answer.
=1 h
9

Examples
Example
Make n the subject of this formula
T = 5(n + 40)
T = 5( n + 40)
T 5(n + 40) note that the 5 is moved first
=
5 5
T
= n + 40
5
T
− 40 = n + 40 − 40
5
T
− 40 = n
5
T
n = − 40 put the subject on LHS
5
Example
T = (3n + 1) 2
± T = 3n + 1 take the square root of both sides
± T − 1 = 3n both the positive and negative root must be given

± T−1
= n
3
± T −1
n=
3

Example
y= 4n 2 + 3
y 2 = 4n 2 + 3 square both sides
y 2 − 3 = 4n 2
y2 − 3
= n2
4
y2 − 3
± = n take the square root of both sides
4
y2 − 3
n= ±
4
simplify by finding 4
± y2 − 3
n=
2
Example
Make p the subject of this formula
f + p
k=
f − p
f + p
∴ k2 = square both sides
f − p
multiply by (f – p)
∴ k 2 ( f − p) = f + p
∴ k2 f − k2 p = f + p
∴ − p + k2 f − k2 p = f subtract p from both sides
∴ − p − k2 p = f − k2 f 2
subtract k f from both sides
2 2
∴ p+ k p= − f + k f
( )
change sign throughout
∴ p 1+ k2 = − f + k2 f
− f + k2 f
∴ p= 2
1+ k2 divide by (1 + k )

Example
If an object is placed at a distance u from a spherical mirror of radius r, its
1 1 2
image appears at a distance from the mirror. It can be shown that: + = .
v u r
Make r the subject of the formula.
1 1 2
+ =
v u r
u+ v 2
∴ =
vu r
vu r
∴ = reciprocal of both sides
u+ v 2
2vu multiply by 2
∴ r=
u+ v
Example
L
The oscillating time, t, of a pendulum of length L is given by: t = 2π , where
g
g is the acceleration due to gravity. Find an expression for L.
L
t = 2π
g
t L divided by 2π
=
2π g
2
 t  L
∴   = square both sides
 2π  g
t2 L
∴ 2
=
4π g
t2g
∴ L= multiply by g
4π 2

Exercise 2.10
Make b the subject of the formula
a. x = 5b b. a = 6 + b
5
c. k = b d. c = 3(5b + 1)
e. m = 6b2 – 2 f. d = (3b + 2)2
g. A =
bh
h. A =
( a + b) h
2 2
1
i. x = 3b − j. y = 3.1b + 2.4
9
7 + 2b 2
k. K = b2 + 4 l. m =
2
b2 + 2 b3
m. m = n. r = +3
5 5
2
 6b 2 + 2 
o. y =  
 7 

Solutions
a. x= 5b b. a = 6+ b
x 5b a− 6= 6+ b− 6
=
5 5 a− 6= b
x b= a− 6
= b
5
x
b=
5

c.
k=
5 d. c = 3 ( 5b + 1)
b c 3 ( 5b + 1)
5 =
kb = ×b 3 3
b c
kb = 5 = 5b + 1
3
kb 5 c
= − 1= 5b + 1 − 1
k k 3
5 c
b= − 1= 5b
k 3
c
−1
3 5b
=
5 5
c
−1
3 = b
5
c
−1
b= 3
5
e. m = 6b 2 − 2 f. d = ( 3b + 2 )
2
m + 2 = 6b 2 − 2 + 2 ± d = 3b + 2
m + 2 = 6b 2 ± d − 2 = 3b + 2 − 2
2
m + 2 6b ± d − 2 = 3b
=
6 6 ± d − 2 3b
m+ 2 =
± = b 3 3
6 ± d− 2
m+ 2 = b
b= ± 3
6 ± d− 2
b=
3
g. bh
A=
h.
A=
( a + b) h
2 2
2 A bh 2
= × 2 A ( a + b) h 2
h 2 h = ×
h 2 h
2A 2A
= b = a+ b
h h
2A 2A
b= − a= b
h h
2A
b= − a
h

i. 1 j. y= 3.1b + 2.4
x = 3b −
9 y − 2.4 = 3.1b + 2.4 − 2.4
1 1 1 y − 2.4 = 3.1b
x + = 3b − +
9 9 9 y − 2.4
1 = b
x + = 3b 3.1
9 y − 2.4
1 b=
x+ 3.1
9 = 3b
3 3
1
x+
b= 9 = x+ 1
2 3 27
k. l. 7 + 2b 2
K= b2 + 4 m=
2
K 2 = b2 + 4
K 2 − 4 = b2 + 4 − 4 2m =
( 7 + 2b ) × 2 2
2
K 2 − 4 = b2
2m = 7 + 2b 2
± K2 − 4 = b
2m − 7 = 7 + 2b 2 − 7
2
b= ± K − 4 2m − 7 = 2b 2
2m − 7 2b 2
=
2 2
2m − 7
= b2
2
2m − 7
± = b
2
2m − 7
b= ±
2

m. n. b3
b2 + 2 r= + 3
m=
5 5
b2 + 2 5 b3
5m = × r − 3= + 3− 3
5 1 5
b3
5m = b2 + 2 r − 3=
5
( 5m ) 2 = b2 + 2 b3 5
2 2 5 ( r − 3) = ×
25m = b + 2 5 1
25m 2 − 2 = b 2 + 2 − 2 5r − 5 × 3 = b3
25m 2 − 2 = b 2 5r − 15 = b3
1 1
± 25m 2 − 2 = b ( 5r − 15) 3 = b3( ) 3
2
b = ± 25m − 2 1
( 5r − 15) 3 = b
1
b = ( 5r − 15 ) 3
3
or b = 5r − 15
o. 2
 6b 2 + 2 
y =  
 7 
6b 2 + 2
y=
7
7 y=
( 6b 2
+ 2 )×7
7
2
7 y = 6b + 2
7 y − 2 = 6b 2 + 2 − 2
7 y − 2 = 6b 2
7 y − 2 6b 2
=
6 6
7 y− 2
= b2
6
1
7y2 − 2
± = b
6
1
7y2 − 2
b= ±
6

Exercise 2.11
Transform the following equations to make the stated variable the subject.
a. s = rt ; r b. c = 2πr ; r c. e = mc2 ; m
Gm1m2 1 1 1
d. e = mc2 ; c e. F = ;G f. = + ;f
d f a b
1 1 T
g. P = Nmv 2 ; v h. V = ;T i. 3x – 4y – 12 = 0 ; y
3 2rL π d
2x − 3
j. y= ;x
3x − 5
Solutions
s c e
a. r = b. r = c. m =
t 2π c2
e Fd ab
d. c = m e. G = f. f =
m m1m2 a+ b
3P 3 x − 12
g. v = ± h. T = 4πr2 L2 V2d i. y =
Nm 4
5y − 3
j. x =
3y − 2
2.4.3 Quadratic equations

A quadratic equation is an equation which contains only one variable but that variable must
only be raised to powers that are positive whole numbers with a maximum value of 2.
For example: x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 is a quadratic equation

2x2 = 4 is a quadratic equation
1
x2 + =1 is not a quadratic equation
x
x3 + 2x2 + 1 = 0 is not a quadratic equation
Quadratic functions can be represented graphically by a curve called a parabola. (See section
3.2.2)
Many problems that arise can be reduced to a quadratic equation.

For example:
You have 60 m of fencing which you want to use to enclose a rectangular garden. Find an
equation which will give you the area of the garden in terms of its length.
First draw the diagram and let L be the

length of the garden.
If you have 60 m of fencing (and you will

use it all) then the total amount used for the
length is 2L and the total amount used for
the width is 60 – 2L, so the width of the
enclosed area must be 30 – L.
(To check, add the lengths of all the sides, this should be 60 m).
We know that area equals the product of length and width, so if area is A, then
A = L(30 – L)
A = 30L – L2
(a quadratic formula).
If we knew the area we wanted, possibly A = 100 m2, then 100 = 30L – L2 would be a
quadratic equation.
There are two techniques available to solve quadratic equations:
i. factorisation (see section 2.2.3)

ii. quadratic formula

i. Factorisation
Factorisation works on the principle that if the product of two expressions is zero then one or
both of those expressions must be zero.
i.e. if
(x – a)(x – b) = 0
then
x – a = 0 or x – b = 0
and
x = a, x = b
Using techniques of factorisation in section 2.2.3 we know that

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3) (x + 2)
If
x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
then
(x + 3) (x + 2) = 0
x + 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
x = –3 or x = –2
(Check answer by substituting back into original equation).
Exercise 2.12
Solve the quadratic equations:
a. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 b. x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 c. x2 – x – 2 = 0
d. 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 0 e. x2 – 4 = 0
Solutions
a. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 b. x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 c. x2 – x – 2 = 0
(x + 1)(x + 2) = 0 (x – 3)(x – 2) = 0 (x – 2)(x + 1) = 0
∴ x = –1 or x = – 2 ∴ x = 3 or x = 2 ∴ x = 2 or x = –1
d. 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 0 e. x2 – 4 = 0
6x2 + 4x + 3x + 2 = 0 (x +2)(x – 2) = 0
2x(3x + 2) + (3x + 2) = 0 ∴ x = –2 or x = 2
(3x + 2) + (2x + 1) = 0
3x + 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0
∴ x = − 2 or x = − 1
3 2

ii. Quadratic formula

If the quadratic ax2 + bx + c = 0 cannot be factorised (or if you cannot readily determine its
factors), the solutions are given by the formula:
−b± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
The + sign on the square root gives one solution and the – sign on the square root gives the
other.
This formula can be derived as follows:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
b c
x2 + x+ = 0 divide both sides by a
a a
b c c
x2 + x= − subtract from both sides
a a a
b c
x2 + 2 x= − rewrite the coefficient of x
2a a
2 2 2
b  b  c  b  add 
b 
x2 + 2 x+   = − +    to both sides to complete the square on LHS
2a  2a  a  2a   2a 
2
 b  c b2
 x +  = − + rewrite LHS
 2a  a 4a 2
(Completing the square technique is detailed in section 3.2.5)
2
 b  − 4ac + b 2 b 2 − 4ac
 x+  = = put terms on RHS on common denominator
 2a  4a 2 4a 2
b b 2 − 4ac ± b 2 − 4ac
x+ = ± = take square root of each side
2a 4a 2 2a
b b 2 − 4ac b
x= − ± subtract
2a
from both sides
2a 2a
Combining fractions on RHS yields
−b± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
This formula may be used to obtain the solutions of any quadratic equation.

Exercise 2.13
Solve:
a. 3x2 – 15x + 17 = 9 b. 3 = x + 4x2
Solutions
a. 3x2 – 15x + 17 – 9 = 0
∴ 3x2 – 15x + 8 = 0
Comparing with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0

we note that a = 3, b = – 15, c = 8
− ( − 15 ) ± ( − 15) 2 − 4 × 3× 8 15 ±225 − 96
∴ x= =
2× 3 6
15 ± 129
=
6
15 + 129 15 − 129
i.e. x = or x =
6 6
∴ x ≈ 4.39 or x ≈ 0.61
Check that each value of x satisfies the original equation
b. 4x2 + x – 3 = 0
Comparing with the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0

we note that a = 4, b = 1, c = –3
− 1 ± 1 − 4 × 4 × ( − 3) − 1± 49 − 1± 7
∴ x= = =
8 8 8
6 −8
= or = 0.75 or − 1
8 8
Check that each value of x satisfies the original equation

Types of solutions of quadratic equations

a. Two different solutions
The general equation of a parabola is a quadratic equation of the form
y = ax2 + bx + c (see section 3.2.3)
The solution of the equation when y = 0 (i.e. when we are considering the quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0) are the points where the curve cuts the x–axis. If there are two different
solutions, the graph must be one of the two types below.
In equations of this type, the term b2 – 4ac in the quadratic formula is always positive.
b. One solution
Graphs of this type must cut the x–axis at two equal points, i.e. the curve just touches the
axis without crossing it.
In equations of this type, the term b2 – 4ac in the quadratic formula is zero.

c. No solution
If the graph is entirely above or entirely below the x–axis, then it does not touch (or cross)
the x–axis at all.
These graphs lead to a negative value of b2 – 4ac in the quadratic formula. Since we cannot
find the square root of a negative number, the equation has no real solution.
Note that the type of solution can be found by considering only the sign of b2 – 4ac. No
other calculation is required. Thus, if b2 – 4ac is
a. positive, two different solutions exist, i.e. there are 2 distinct values of x which satisfy
the equation.
b. zero, one solution exists, i.e. there is only 1 value of x which satisfies the equation.
c. negative, no solution exists, i.e. there is no real value of x which satisfies the equation.
Examples
Example
Find the number of solutions of the quadratics:
a. 3x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 b. x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 c. 2x2 – 4x + 3 = 0
Solutions
a. b2 – 4ac = 16 – 4 × 3 × 1 = 4. Thus, there are 2 solutions.
b. b2 – 4ac = 36 – 4 × 9 = 0. Thus, there is 1 solution.

2
c. b – 4ac = 16 – 4 × 2 × 3 = – 8. Thus, there is no real solution.

Example
A piece of sheet metal consists of a rectangle of length 2.43 metres and width
2r metres with a semi-circle of radius r metres on one end. If the total area is to
be 15 m2, find the value of r.
Solutions
The first task with problems like this is to develop an equation. Always draw a
diagram if possible.
Area of rectangle = 4.86r

π r2
Area of semicircle =
2
π r2
∴ + 4.86r = 15
2
1 2
i.e. π r + 4.86r − 15 = 0
2
1
This is a quadratic with a = π , b = 4.86 and c = – 15.
2
1
− 4.86 ± 4.862 − 4 × π × ( − 15 )
∴ r= 2
1
2× π
2
− 4.86 ± 23.6169 + 30π − 4.86 ± 117.87
= =
π 3.142
− 4.86 ± 10.86
=
3.142
= 1.908 or − 5.003
A negative value for the radius is impossible hence r = 1.908 m.

Exercise 2.14
Solve the following quadratic equations where possible.
a. x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 b. 3x2 – 2x + 4 = 0
c. x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 d. 2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0
e. y2 – 5y – 36 = 0 f. 6t2 + 17t = 3
g. x2 – 8x + 9 = 0 h. 2x2 + 2x – 30 = 0
i. x2 – 1.7x + 0.3 = 0 j. x2 + 3.1x = 1.8
k. 4x = x2 – 45 l. m2 = 14m – 49
Solutions
a. x = 2 or 3 b. No real solution
5 ± 17 d. x = 1.71 or 0.29
c. x = = 4.56 or 0.44
2
1
f. t = –3 or
e. y = – 4 or 9 6
g. x = 1.35 or 6.65 h. x = – 4.41 or 3.41
i. x = 0.2 or 1.5 j. x = – 3.6 or 0.5
k. x = – 5 or 9 l. m = 7

2.4.4 Polynomial equations

So far we have solved linear and quadratic equations. These are both examples of polynomial
equations.
y=2 constant equation
y = mx + c linear equation
y = ax2 + bx + c the quadratic equation
This pattern can be extended to
y = ax3 + bx3 + cx + d cubic equation etc.
The characteristic that makes these equations polynomial equations is that all the powers of
x are positive whole numbers or zero. The degree of a polynomial equation is the value of
its highest power.
Although not all polynomial equations will have a solution (or root) that is a real number,
many of them can be solved by using the principles of factorisation. For example, if a cubic
polynomial can be written as a product of three simple factors, then we could find its
solution, i.e.
x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 3) = 0
so
x = –1, x = 2 or x = 3 are solutions to this polynomial equation.
The difficulty lies in finding what the factors are. Two techniques are employed:
● inspection or trial and error

● division of polynomials
Inspection (or trial and error) is the best technique in the first instance, all solutions could be
determined by guessing and checking.
For example, consider x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 = 0
x = –1 is a solution to the equation, i.e.
(–1)3 – 4(–1)2 + (–1) + 6 = 0
so we know that (x + 1) must be a factor. Similarly, x = 2 and x = 3 would also satisfy the
equation. We have just tried some possibilities to see if they work (usually we would try
factors of the constant, 6, in the first instance).
An alternative method is to try inspection and division of polynomials.

Examples
Solve x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 = 0
Find one solution by guessing and checking.
Try x = –1, (–1)3 – 4(–1)2 + (–1) + 6 = 0.

So x = –1 is a solution and x + 1 must be a factor.
To find other factors divide x + 1 into x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 (for example, if we knew

8 was a factor of 24, we would find the other factors by dividing 24 by 8).
Using the technique of long division
x2 − 5x + 6
x + 1 x3 − 4 x 2 + x + 6 ← Divide x 3 by x to get x 2
x3 + x 2 ← Multiply x + 1 by x 2
− 5x2 + x + 6 ← Subtract x 3 + x 2 from entire polynomial, term by term
2
Divide − 5 x by x to get − 5 x
− 5x2 − 5x ← Multiply x + 1 by − 5 x
6x + 6 ← Subtract − 5 x 2 − 5 x from remaining polynomial
6x + 6 ← Divide 6x by x to get 6
Multiply x + 1 by 6
0 Subtract 6 x + 6 from remaining polynomial
Thus
x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 = (x + 1)(x2 – 5x + 6) Factorise using standard techniques

= (x + 1)(x – 3)(x – 2)
So solutions to the polynomial equation are
x = –1, x = 3, or x = 2
Check answer by substituting back into the original equation.

Example
Solve x3 + 2x2 – x – 2 = 0
Try solutions x = ±1 and x = ±2
x = –1, (–1)3 + 2(–1)2 – (–1) – 2 = 0

So x = –1 is a solution and x + 1 is a factor.
To find other factors use long division:
x2 + x − 2
x + 1 x3 + 2 x 2 − x − 2
x3 + x 2
x2 − x − 2
x2 − x
− 2x − 2
− 2x − 2
0
Thus (x + 1) (x2 + x – 2) are factors.

Factorising the quadratic:
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x – 1) = 0
Solutions are x = –1, x = –2 or x = 1
Check solutions by substituting all solutions back into the original polynomial
equation.

Example
Solve 2x3 – 3x2 – 29x – 30 = 0
Try ±2, ±1, ±5, ±6
If x = –2, 2(–2)3 – 3(–2)2 – 29(–2) – 30 = 0

So x = –2 is a solution and x + 2 is a factor.
To find the other factors use long division:
2 x 2 − 7 x − 15
x + 2 2 x3 − 3 x 2 − 29 x − 30
2 x3 + 4 x 2
− 7 x 2 − 29 x − 30
− 7 x 2 − 14 x
− 15 x − 30
− 15 x − 30
0
Thus (x + 2) (2x2 – 7x – 15) are factors.

Factorising the quadratic we get
(x + 2)(2x + 3)(x – 5) = 0
3
So solutions are x = –2, x = − , or x = 5
2
Check solutions by substituting back into the original polynomial equation.

Exercise 2.15
Solve the following polynomial equations for x.
a. x3 – 19x + 30 = 0
b. 6x3 – 5x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
c. x3 + 2x2 – x – 2 = 0
d. 5x3 + 12x2 – 36x – 16 = 0
Solutions
a. x = 2, x = 3 or x = –5
1 1
b. x = 1, x = 3 or x = − 2
c. x = 1, x = –1 or x = –2
2
d. x = 2, x = − 5 or x = –4

2.4.5 Inequalities
Real numbers are made up of rational numbers (integers and fractions) and irrational
numbers (those numbers which can be represented by a decimal which does not terminate or
repeat), e.g.
2, e, π
These can be displayed on a line called the real number line as follows:
An inequality (sometimes called an inequation) is a relationship which holds between two

numbers (or algebraic expressions) which are not equal.
If a and b are any two real numbers and are represented by points on the number line directed
to the right, then a > b if and only if the graph of a lies to the right of the graph of b (and
a < b if and only if the graph of a lies to the left of the graph of b).
For example, we know that the number 3 is less than the number 5 and we can write this as
the inequality 3 < 5 where ‘<’ is the symbol for ‘less than’. We could also write this
inequality as 5 > 3 where ‘>’ is the symbol for ‘greater than’.
Note that inequalities are usually read from left to right so 2 > 1 is read as ‘ two is greater
than one’ and 4 < 6 is read as ‘ four is less than six’ . The inequality x > 2 is read as ‘x is
(any real number) greater than two’ . Alternatively we could use interval notation and write
that the range of x is (2,∞). Some valid values of x are 2.1, 3, 125, 5 etc. The inequality
y < 10 is read as ‘y is (any real number) less than 10’ or the range of y is (–∞, 10). Some
valid values of y are 9.9, 8, 7.64, 2, –127.65 etc.
If we wished to allow y to take on the value of 10 as well as any real number below 10, we
can write y ≤ 10 where ‘≤’ is the symbol ‘ less than or equal to’ or the range of y is (–∞,10] .
Note a square bracket is used to indicate that the end point of the interval is also a valid value
of y. Infinity end points always have round brackets (because infinity is not a number).
Similarly we can write x ≥ 2 meaning x is greater than or equal to 2 or the range of x is [2,∞).
The range of values that x can take can be further restricted by using two inequality symbols.
e.g. 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 is read as ‘x is greater than or equal to one but less than or equal to three’ or
x = [1, 3].

Other possibilities are:
1<x≤3 x is greater than 1 but less than or equal to 3 or x = (1, 3]
1<x<3 x is greater than 1 but less than 3 or x = (1, 3)
1≤x<3 x is greater than or equal to one but less than 3 or x = [1, 3)
Note that inequalities like 1 > x > 3 do not make sense since they imply that 1 is greater than
3 which of course is not the case. Do not use inequalities like 2 > x < 4. Use two separate
inequalities x < 2, x < 4, and if x is to satisfy both of these, then x must be less than two, i.e.
the second inequality is superfluous and all we need is the inequality x < 2 or x = (–∞, 2).
Examples
Express the following inequalities in interval notation.
a. x > –4 b. x ≤ 32 c. –10 < x ≤ –2.1
d. x ≥ 4 e. 4 ≤ x ≤ 8
Solutions
a. (–4,+∞) b. (–∞, 32] c. (–10, –2.1]
d. [4, +∞) e. [4, 8]
So far we have discussed inequalities only with a single term in the unknown x.
Inequalities involving expressions of an unknown play a significant role in many areas of

mathematics, science and engineering and it is important that you are able to understand and
manipulate them.
Consider the inequality 3x2 – 2x ≤ 4x2 – 3x + 2.
We can use the same rules for manipulating inequalities as those used for transposing
equations except that if the inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number, the
direction of the inequality is reversed.
To illustrate the importance of this change in the direction of the inequality, consider the
inequality 3 > 2.
If both sides are multiplied by –1 and the direction of the inequality is not reversed, we have
–3 > –2 which of course is wrong. The correct answer is –3 < –2.

To simplify the above inequality we have
3x2 –2x ≤ 4x2 –3x + 2

∴ 3x2 – 4x2 – 2x ≤ –3x + 2 2
Subtracting 4x from both sides
∴
–x2 – 2x ≤ – 3x + 2
∴ –x2 – 2x + 3x ≤ 2 Adding 3x to both sides
∴ –x2 + x ≤ 2
or x2 – x ≥ –2 Multiplying both sides by –1 and changing the direction of
the inequality
Examples
Simplify the following inequalities
a. 4x – 8 < 9 b. 2x + 4 > 7x – 9 c. 2x + 2 ≤ 4x – 3
d. 2x2 + 4x ≥ 3x2 – 4x + 9 e. |x| < 8 f. |3x + 2| < 8
g. |x – 2| ≥ – 6 h. |x + 3| ≥ 5
Solutions
a. 4x – 8< 9 ∴ 4x < 17
17  17 
∴ x< ∴ x=  −∞ , 
4  4
b. 2x + 4 > 7x – 9 ∴ 2x – 7x > – 9 – 4 ∴ –5x > –13

13
∴ x= < Dividing by –5 changes the direction of the inequality
5
 13 
or x =  − ∞ , 
 5
c. 2x + 2 ≤ 4x – 3 ∴ 2x – 4x ≤ –3 –2 ∴ –2x ≤ –5
5
∴ x= ≥ Dividing by –2 changes the direction of the inequality
2
5 
or x =  , + ∞ 
2 
d. 2x2 + 4x ≥ 3x2 – 4x + 9 ∴ 2x2 – 3x2 + 4x + 4x ≥ 9 ∴ –x2 + 8x ≥ 9

e. Recall that the symbol |x| means the absolute value of x, or the magnitude
of x.
 x, x ≥ 0
i.e. x = 
 − x, x < 0.
For example
| –3 | = –(–3) = 3, | 5 | = 5.
Hence, for | x | < 8 , there are two cases to consider:
case 1. x≥0
We then have | x | = x and so x < 8 .
Putting this together gives 0 ≤ x < 8 .
case 2. x<0
We then have | x | = –x and so –x < 8 , or x > –8 . Putting this together gives
–8 < x < 0 .
Now we combine case 1 and case 2 to get –8 < x < 8 .
Note that in general if | x | < a where a is positive, then –a < x < a. This is a
most useful thing to remember.
f. | 3x + 2 | < 8
Since | x | < a means that – a < x < a, then we have –8 < 3x + 2 < 8 , and so
subtracting 2 right through gives –10 < 3x < 6 .
− 10
Divide by 3 to get < x < 2.
3
g. | x – 2 | ≥ – 6
Any value of x satisfies this inequality, since the absolute value is always
positive, and so is greater than or equal to –6. Hence the answer is all x.
h. | x + 3 | ≥ 5
Now either | x + 3 | = x + 3 if x ≥ –3 or | x + 3 | = – (x + 3) if x < –3 (see
definition of absolute value in (e) above).
Hence
Either x+3≥5 or – (x + 3) ≥ 5,
x≥2 or x + 3 ≤ –5, Multiply by –1 changes the inequality
x≥2 or x ≤ –8.
Hence either x is less than or equal to –8 or x is greater than or equal to 2

(obviously it cannot satisfy both inequalities at the same time).

Exercise 2.16
a. Express the following in interval notation
i. x < 3 ii. x ≥ –3
iii –7 < x ≤ –2 iv. –8.24 ≤ x ≤ 10
b. Express the following as inequalities
i. x = [100,101] ii. x = (–∞, 4) iii. x = [–4, +∞)
c. Simplify the following inequalities
i. 10x + 2 ≤ 18x – 4 ii. 3x3 – 2x2 > –3x2 + x – 4
iii |2x – 2| > 6 iv. |2x – 2| < 6
Solution
a.
i. (–∞, 3) ii. [–3, +∞)
iii (–7, –2] iv. [–8.24, 10]
b.
i. 100 ≤ x ≤ 101 ii. x<4 iii. x ≥ –4
c.
i. x≥¾ ii. 3x3 + x2 – x > –4
iii x > 4 or x < –2 iv. –2 < x < 4

Questions 2.1
1. Simplify 12 + 2x2 + 4x–1 + 2 – 6x–1 + x2
2. Expand (2x + 1) (x – 3)(x + 2)
3. Factorise 2x2 + 3x – 2
1 t
4. Make t the subject of the formula L = +1
2π r 4
5. Solve for x: 3x2 – 2x – 2 = 0
6. Solve for x: x3 – 2x2 – x + 2 = 0
7. Solve for x: |3x –1| < 6
x+ 1 x− 1
8. Write as a single fraction with the lowest possible denominator. −
x+ 2 x− 3
1 4
9. Solve for x: 2 x + = − x− 1
3 3

Questions 2.2
b 2b 2 3 2 5 2
1. Simplify + a2 − + a + b
3 7 2 2
2. Expand –(x – 3)(2x + 1)(x – 3)
3. Factorise 6x2 + x – 1
1 1 1
4. Make y the subject of the formula = +
x a y
5. Solve for x: –3x2 + 3x + 1 = 0

6. Solve for x: x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
7. Solve for x: –|x + 2| < –2
8. Write as a single fraction with the lowest possible common denominator:
( x + 1) x
− −
2x − 1 x − 1
1 x 1
9. Solve for x: − − = 2x −
2 2 3

Module 3 – Functions and relations
Objectives
● demonstrate understanding of the nature of functions

● apply functional notation
● recognise equations and graphs of straight lines, parabolas, cubics, hyperbolas and circles
● solve the intersection of functions algebraically and graphically
● sketch graphs of straight lines, parabolas, cubics, hyperbolas and circles.
3.1 What is a function?

In the previous sections we were concerned with variables . . . . variables in expressions and
variables in equations. However, the study of mathematics is concerned with the way in
which different variables are related to each other. This relationship can be described both
algebraically and graphically.
For example, consider what happens to a length of wire when weights are added to it. You
might expect (especially if you are familiar with Hooke’s Law) that the heavier the weight,
the more the wire stretches. In fact we get the following results:
Weight, w. (newtons) Length, l. (metres)

20 2.00042
40 2.00086
60 2.00182
80 2.00176
100 2.00219
Notice that at any given weight we only have one length. We call weight the independent
variable and length the dependent variable, and say that length is dependent on weight or
length is a function of weight.
We could think of any function as a set of such ordered pairs in which each first member has
exactly one second member.
A special notation has been developed to use with functions. For example
We say: length is a function of weight
We write: l = f(w)

We may in fact take this one step further and generate from the data a formula to represent
the data. In the stretching wire case this would be
l = 0.000023w + 2
or alternatively using function notation
l = f(w) = 0.000023w + 2
Alternatively we could use the data to draw a graph of the relationship.
Graph showing length against weight for a steel wire
This of course is a straight line or linear function. We will discuss the characteristics of
linear functions later in this material.
For functions in general we need to know some specific characteristics and language.
A function is a set of ordered pairs in which for each first member there is exactly one
second member. Functions can be represented by equations relating the two variables.
The domain of a function is the set of first members of the ordered pairs (often denoted
by x).
The range of a function is the set of second members of the ordered pairs (often denoted
by y).
A relation is any set of ordered pairs, so that functions are a subset of relations.

It is easy to determine whether a relation is a function or not by looking at its graph. If a

vertical line can cut the graph in exactly one place everywhere in the graph then the relation
is a function.
We will examine specific functions and relations with their associated domains and ranges
later in this section.
To investigate the concept of the function further you might want to view the video ‘The
F Files’ located in USQ library.
3.1.1 Algebra of functions

The most commonly used notation of a function is of the form f (x) (read ‘f of x’). However,
we are free to use any letters to denote a function . . . . others that are often used are g and h.
How do we do calculations with functions?
Examples
Example
If f(x) = x2 – 1, find f(2), f(–3), f(h).
This question means that we have to calculate the value of the function f(x) at,
x = 2, x = –3 and x = h.
i. To evaluate f(2) if f(x) = x2 – 1 then

f(2) = 22 – 1 Substitute x = 2 for every x
f(2) = 3
So f(2) =3, or when x = 2, f (x) = 3.
ii. If f(x) = x2 – 1 Substitute x = –3 for every x
f(–3) = (–3)2 – 1
f(–3) = 8
iii. If f(x) = x2 – 1 Substitute x = h for every x
f(h) = h2 – 1

Example
Calculate the value of the function f(x) = x2 – 4x + 5 when x = x + h
(i.e. evaluate f(x + h)).
f(x) = x2 – 4x + 5 Substitute x = x + h for every x
f(x + h) = (x + h)2 – 4(x + h) + 5

f(x + h) = x2 + 2xh + h2 – 4x – 4h + 5
f(x + h) = x2 + (2h – 4)x + h2 – 4h + 5
Example
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 2x2 – 3x, calculate f(g(x)).
f(g(x)) = 2g(x) + 1 Substitute g(x) for every x
= 2(2x2 – 3x) + 1
= 4x2 – 6x + 1

Exercise 3.1
a. If f(x) = 3x – 1, calculate
i. f (0)
ii. f (–1)
 1
iii. f  
 2
iv. f (a)
b. If f(x) = 2x2 – 3x + 1, calculate
i. f (–1)
ii. f (a + 1)
iii. f (–a)
 1
iv. f  
 x
1
c. If f ( x ) = x + 1 and g ( x ) = x 2 + x − 1 , calculate
2
i. f(g(x))
ii. g(f(x))
d. If f(x) = 2x2 – x + 1, calculate
i. f (h)
ii. f (x + h)
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
iii. (Note this relationship is important in later calculus work)
h

Solutions
a. If f(x) = 3x – 1
i. f (0) = 3 × 0 – 1 = –1
ii. f (–1) = 3 × –1 – 1 = – 4
 1 1 3 1
iii. f   = 3 × − 1 = − 1 =
 2 2 2 2
iv. f (a) = 3a – 1
b. If f(x) = 2x2 – 3x + 1, calculate
i. f (–1)= 2(–1)2 – 3 × –1 + 1 = 2 + 3 + 1 = 6
ii. f (a + 1) = 2(a + 1)2 – 3(a + 1) + 1
= 2(a2 + 2a + 1) – 3a – 3 + 1
= 2a2 + 4a + 2 – 3a – 3 + 1
= 2a2 + a
iii. f (–a) = 2(–a)2 – 3(–a) + 1
= 2a2 + 3a + 1
iv.  1  1
2
 1
f   = 2   − 3  + 1
 x  x  x
2 3
= 2− +1
x x
2 − 3x + x 2
=
x2
x 2 − 3x + 2
=
x2
1
c. If f ( x ) = x + 1 and g ( x ) = x 2 + x − 1 , calculate
2
i. 1
f ( g ( x) ) = g ( x) + 1
2
=
2
(
1 2
)
x + x− 1 + 1
1 2 1 1
= x + x− + 1
2 2 2
1 2 1 1
= x + x+
2 2 2
=
2
(
1 2
)
x + x+ 1

( ( ))
ii. g f x =
( f ( x) ) ( f ( x) )
2
+ – 1
2
1  1 
=  x + 1 +  x + 1 − 1
2  2 
1 1
= x2 + x + 1 + x + 1 − 1
4 2
1 2 3
= x + x+ 1
4 2
d. If f(x) = 2x2 – x + 1, calculate
i. f (h) = 2h2 – h + 1
ii. f (x + h) = 2(x + h)2 – (x + h) + 1
= 2(x2 + 2xh + h2) – x – h + 1
= 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 – x – h + 1
= 2x2 + (4h – 1)x + 2h2 – h + 1
iii.
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
=
(
2 x 2 + 4 xh + 2h 2 − x − h + 1 − 2 x 2 − x + 1 )
h h
2 x + 4 xh + 2h − x − h + 1 − 2 x 2 + x − 1
2 2
=
h
4 xh + 2h 2 − h
=
h
h ( 4 x + 2h − 1)
=
h
= 4 x + 2h − 1

3.2 Graphs of functions and relations

To graph functions and relations we need to understand the system which makes that
possible.
3.2.1 Cartesian coordinate system

There are many instances where it is necessary to refer to a point in a plane and to be able to
distinguish that point from other points in the plane.
A system invented by the French mathematician and philosopher, René Descartes (1596–
1650) makes this possible. This system is called the Cartesian Coordinate system. When
applied to a plane, the plane may be called the Cartesian plane or the xy-plane.
To construct a Cartesian coordinate system in a plane, two mutually perpendicular lines are
drawn intersecting at a point called the origin (the zero point). Units of length, usually but
not necessarily the same, are marked off on each of these perpendicular lines as in the figure
below.
The perpendicular lines are coordinate lines or axes. The vertical coordinate line is the y-axis
and the horizontal coordinate line is the x–axis.
Any point P in the plane now has two numbers associated with it. Its x-coordinate (say x1)
and its y-coordinate (say y1) are written as an ordered pair, (x1,y1) and called the coordinates
of P.
To determine this ordered pair for a particular point P, drop a perpendicular from P to the x-
axis and from P to the y-axis. The point of intersection of these perpendiculars and the x-axis
and y-axis are respectively the x-coordinate and y-coordinate of the point P. In the figure
below coordinates of P are (2,3). Alternatively we say P is the point (2,3).

The figure below gives the coordinates of various points in the xy-plane. Note that the
general point in the Cartesian plane has coordinates (x,y) and the origin 0 is (0,0).
Many different functions and relations can be represented pictorially using this system. The
following include the most commonly occurring functions and relations.
3.2.2 The linear function

In a previous section we examined how the length of a piece of wire varied when different
weights were added to it. This relationship was a function of the form
l = f(w) = 0.000023w + 2
because for every weight there was a unique value for the length.
When this function was graphed on a coordinate system it was clear it was a straight line
with a positive slope. In fact the line has a slope of 0.000023 and cuts the vertical axis at 2.
The form presented above is typical of a linear or straight line function.

In general straight line functions can be represented in a number of forms.
Typically, the equation of a straight line can be expressed as
y = mx + c
Here c and m are constants.
c is the intercept on the y-axis, i.e. the value of y when x = 0.
m is the slope or gradient of the line, i.e. the change in y for a unit change in x.
y = mx + c is the slope-intercept form of the equation of a straight line.
The slope and intercept of a straight line
All points (x,y) which satisfy the equation of the line lie on the line.
To draw a straight line find any two points that lie on the line and join them with a straight
line.
Lines with the same slope are parallel lines. Lines with a point in common are called
concurrent or intersecting lines. Lines that are both parallel and concurrent are coincident,
i.e. their graphs lie on top of each other. There are infinite numbers of solutions to the system
representing the equations of coincident lines as there are an infinite number of points
common to the lines.

Note: Parallel lines never intersect so they do not have a point in common. Hence there is no
solution to the system of equations representing the lines.
Note: Intersecting lines have only one point in common. Hence there is a unique solution to
the system of equations representing the lines.

Exercise 3.2
Find the slopes and intercepts of the lines below and sketch their graphs.
a. y = 3x + 2 b. y = 3 – x
c. x = 10 – 2y d. 3x – 4y – 5 = 0
Solutions
a. y = 3x + 2
y intercept is 2, slope is 3.
The easiest points to find to sketch the graph of a straight line are the points
where the graph cuts the axes. We know the y intercept is 2.
∴ One point is (0,2).
The point where the graph cuts the x-axis is where y = 0.
When y = 0, from y = 2 + 3x we have 0 = 2 + 3x.
2  2 
∴x= − is the x-intercept and  − , 0  is another point on the graph.
3  3 
Note: We could have used any value of x say x = 1 and found the corresponding
y value (i.e. y = 2 + 3 × 1 = 5) → (1,5) is another point on the graph.

b. y = 3 – x
y intercept is 3, slope is –1.
y intercept is 3. ∴ (0,3) is on the line and when y = 0, 0 = 3 – x
∴ x = 3 is the x-intercept and (3,0) is on the line
c. x = 10 – 2y
1
Rearranging gives y = − x + 5 in slope-intercept form.
2
1
y intercept is 5, slope is −
2
Two points on the line are (0,5) and (10,0).

d. 3x – 4y = 5
3 5
Rearranging gives y = − x− in slope-intercept form
4 4
−5 3
y intercept is , slope is .
4 4
 − 5 5 
Two points on the line are  0,  and  , 0 
 4  3 
Slope-point equation
If the slope, m, of a line and one point, say (x1,y1), on the line are known, then the equation
of the line may be found as follows:
If (x2,y2) is any other point on the line then the change in y for moving from (x1,y1) to
(x2,y2) is y2 – y1 and the corresponding change in x is x2 – x1.
y2 − y1 rise
∴ The change in y for a unit change in x is m = i.e. m =
x2 − x1 run
y − y1
But (x2,y2) is any other point on the line so it may be replaced by (x,y) to obtain m =
x − x1

so y – y1 = m(x – x1), therefore
y = y1 + m ( x − x1 )
which is the slope-point form of the equation of a straight line.
Exercise 3.3
Find the equations of the straight lines
a. passing through (1,–1) with slope 1

1
b. passing through (2,0) with slope −
2
c. passing through (–3,1) with slope 2
Solutions
a. Here x1 = 1, y1 = –1, m = 1 so the required equation is
y = –1 + 1 (x – 1)
∴ y = –2 + x
1
b. Here x1 = 2, y1= 0, m = − and the required equation is
2
1
y = 0− ( x − 2)
2
1
∴ y = 1− x
2
c. Here x1= –3, y1 = 1, m = 2 and the required equation is
y = 1 + 2(x – (– 3))
∴ y = 7 + 2x
Note: You should always check your answer by substituting x1 for x in the equation e.g. in
c. put x = x1 = –3 and we have y = 7 + 2 (–3) = 1 = y1 so we have the right equation.

Applications of linear functions

Examples
If you descend into the ocean, pressure increases linearly. At the surface the
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure (100 kilopascals (kPa)), while at a
depth of 10 m (approx) the pressure is twice atmospheric pressure.
i. Write an expression for pressure as a function of depth
ii. What is the pressure at 8000 m depth?
iii. Graph the equation for the domain 0 ≤ d ≤ 8000
Solutions
i. Let pressure in kPa be P, and depth in metres be d. We know from the
question that at
d = 0, P = 100 and d = 10, P = 200
If we have the general equation for a straight line y = mx + c, then for
pressure and depth we have the equation
P = md + c
where m and c are unknown.
When d = 0, P = 100, substituting into the equation:
100 = m × 0 + c
c = 100
So P = md + 100
When d = 10, P = 200, substituting into the equation:
200 = m × 10 + 100
m = 10
So the equation relating pressure and depth is
P = 10d + 100
ii. Using this equation P = 10d + 100

When d = 8000, P = 10 × 8000 + 100
= 80100
Pressure at 8000 m is 80100 kPa
iii.

Exercise 3.4
a. The number of chirps made by a cricket changes with temperature and is
thought to be best represented by a linear function. If a biologist observed
that at 10°C the cricket made 40 chirps a minute while at 15°C they chirped
at twice that rate.
i. Write an expression for the relationship between temperature and chirp
rate
ii. Graph the equation of the function
b. When a mercury thermometer is compared (calibrated) with an electrical

resistance thermometer we find that the relationship between the two
measurements is a linear function. Temperatures recorded from each
thermometer are:
Electrical °C 10 15 20 25 30
Mercury °C 11.20 15.95 20.70 25.45 30.20
Determine a linear equation that would represent this relationship.

c. The police radar detector reads 60 km h–1 when your speedometer reads
55 km h–1 and 123 km h–1 when your speedometer reads 110 km h–1.
i. Write a linear equation that would model this relationship.
ii. What speed should you travel at so that you are not caught for speeding
in the 110 km h–1 zone?
Solutions
a. i If the relationship is a linear function it should be of the form y = mx + c.
Let temperature in °C be T, and rate of chirps in chirps per minute be R.
Then R = mT + c
When T = 10, R = 40 gives 40 = m × 10 + c ←➀
When T = 15, R = 80 gives 80 = m × 15 + c ←➁
You need to solve these two equations simultaneously to get a value for m
and c (see section 3.3 for method on how to solve simultaneous equations)
To solve for m subtract equation 1 from 2:
40 = 5m
m=8
Substitute into 1:
40 = 10 × 8 + c
c = –40
Equation is R = 8T – 40

ii. Graph of this equation:
Graph of chirps per minute (R) at different temperatures (T ºC)
b. If this is a linear function it will be of the form y = mx + c. We could

substitute the data into this equation and solve for m and c as in the previous
question. Alternatively we could use the two point formula to find m
(gradient). Let electric temperature be E and mercury temperature be M.
Then the linear relationship is
M = mE + c
y2 − y1 15.95 − 11.20
Gradient, m = =
x2 − x1 15 − 10
= 0.95
(Check this for other points).
The equation is then M = 0.95E + c.
Substitute in another point E = 25 and M = 25.45 (say).
25.45 = 0.95 × 25 + c
c = 1.7
The equation is then M = 0.95E + 1.7.
(Note a technique called Linear Regression can also be used. It is particularly

useful for more variable data).

c. i If the relationship between radar speed and your speed is linear then it will
be of the form y = mx + c. In this case let radar speed be R in km h–1 and
your speed be S in km h–1. The linear relationship must be
R = mS + c
If we consider R = 60 and S = 55, and R = 123 and S = 110 to be two sets of

coordinates (55,60) and (110,123), we can use the two point form of the
gradient to find m.
123 − 60
Gradient, m = = 1.15 (correct to two decimal places)
110 − 55
So R = 1.15S + c
When S = 55 and R = 60
60 = 1.15 × 55 + c
c = –3.25
So R = 1.15S – 3.25.
ii. When radar speed R = 110
110 = 1.15S – 3.25
S = 98.48 ≈ 98 to the nearest kilometre
Your speed should be 98 km h–1.

3.2.3 The quadratic function

Consider a cable of a suspension bridge. It is suspended between 2 pylons 15 m above the
roadway and 120 m apart.
If we measure the distance of the cable from the centre of the road when the cable is a certain
height above the road we get
Distance from centre (x m) –60 –30 –15 0 15 30 60

Height above road (f(x) m) 15 4 1 0 1 4 15
When this is graphed we get
This function can be approximately modelled by a quadratic function

3 2
f ( x) = x
722
This type of function is called a parabola.
The general form of a quadratic or parabolic function is

y = ax2 + bx + c
where y is a function of x, and a, b, and c are constants.

The parabola can take two forms.
(Note that when a = 0 we have a straight line, not a parabola).
These functions are characterised by their typical shape and the presence of a line (or axis) of
symmetry which divides the parabola into two equal halves.
In order to sketch a parabola you need to know
i. where it cuts the y-axis

ii. where it cuts the x-axis (if at all)
iii. the coordinates of the turning point.
Examples
Sketch the following parabolas:
a. y = 2x2
b. y = x2 + 5x + 6
c. y = 2x2 – 4x + 5
d. y = 1 – 4x – 4x2

Solutions
a. y = 2x2
a > 0, realise this parabola is ∪-shaped.
To determine where curve cuts y-axis put x = 0
When x = 0, y = 2 × 02 = 0
y-intercept: y = 0
To determine where curve cuts x-axis put y = 0
When y = 0, y = 2x2
2x2 = 0
x=0
x-intercept: x = 0
To determine coordinates at turning point:
The x-coordinate of the turning point lies on the axis of symmetry. For the
general parabolic equation, y = ax2 + bx + c, the axis of symmetry is
given by
b
x= − (calculus can also be used to determine this point).
2a
So for turning point, x = 0, y = 0.
Complete sketch by plotting some extra points at (say) x = –2, x = –1, x = 1
and x = 2. (select values around the turning point)
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y 8 2 0 2 8

b. y = x2 + 5x + 6
a > 0, so realise this parabola is ∪-shaped.
y-intercept: x = 0, y = 6 ⇒ (0,6)
x-intercept: y = 0, x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 See sections 2.2.3 and 2.4.3 on
factorising quadratic equations
(x + 3) (x + 2) = 0
x = –3, x = –2
⇒ (–3,0), (–2,0)
−b 5 5
Turning point: x = = − = −
2a 2× 1 2
2
 5  5
y =  −  + 5×  −  + 6
 2  2
1
= −
4
 5 1
⇒  − ,− 
 2 4
Some extra points:
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
y 6 2 0 0 2 6
Choose values around the turning point

Connect points to produce a smooth curve.

c. y = 2x2 – 4x + 5
a > 0, so realise this parabola is ∪-shaped.
y-intercept: x = 0, y = 5 ⇒ (0,5)
x-intercept: y = 0, 2x2 – 4x + 5 = 0
Use quadratic formula to solve (see section 2.4.3)
b2 – 4ac = (–4)2 – 4 × 2 × 5
= –24
This parabola does not cut x-axis.
b 4
Turning point: x = − = =1
2a 2 × 2
y = 2 ( 1) − 4 × 1 + 5
2
= 2− 4+ 5
= 3
⇒ ( 1, 3)
Some extra points:
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y 21 11 5 3 5 11

d. y = 1 – 4x – 4x2
a < 0, so realise this parabola has ∩-shape.
y intercept: x = 0, y = 1 ⇒ (0,1)
x intercept: y = 0, 1 – 4x – 4x2 = 0
− (− 1 + 4 x + 4 x 2 ) = 0
4 x2 + 4 x − 1 = 0
−b± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−4± 42 − 4 × 4 × ( − 1)
=
2× 4
− 4 ± 16 + 16
=
8
−4± 4 2
=
8
1 1
= − ± 2
2 2
b 4 1
Turning point: x = − = = −
2a 2 × − 4 2
2
 1  1
y = 1 − 4 −  − 4 − 
 2  2
= 2
 1 
⇒  − , 2
 2 
Some extra points:
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y –7 1 1 –7 –23

Exercise 3.5
Sketch the following parabolas showing maximum or minimum values.
a. y = x2 + 4
b. y = 2x2 – 3
c. y = 3x2 + 2x + 4
d. y = –2 x2 + 3x + 9
e. y = 3(x + 2)2
f. y = 2x2 – x – 6
Solutions
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.

Applications of quadratic functions

Examples
a. The power, P, (in watts) that can be produced in an electrical circuit is a
function of the current, I, (in amps) given by the equation P = – 24I2 + 240I
i. Draw a graph of this function
ii. What is the maximum power that can be produced by this circuit?
b. A rectangle has a perimeter of 24 cm.
i. Write an expression, expressing the length of the rectangle in terms of
its width.
ii. Write an equation expressing the area of the rectangle in terms of its
width only.
iii. What dimensions of the rectangle give maximum area?
Solutions
a. i.
where P is the power in watts and I is current in amps
ii. P = – 24I2 + 240I
− 240  b 
Maximum power will occur at I = = 5  x= − 
− 2 × 24  2 a
When I = 5, P = –24 × 52 + 240 × 5 = 600
Maximum power is 600 watts.

b. i. Let the length of the rectangle be x cm.

If perimeter, P = 2 × (length + width)
24 = 2x + 2W
2W = 24 – 2x
W = 12 – x
ii. Area, A = width × length

A = (12 – x) × x
A = 12x – x2
b
iii. Maximum area will occur at the turning point, x = −
2a
− 12
x= = 6
− 2× 1
If the length is 6 cm then width is 6 cm (maximum area occurs when
rectangle is a square).
Exercise 3.6
a. We have 20 m of fencing material to fence a paddock. If we use an existing
fence for one side of the paddock, what is the maximum area of the plot?
b. A rock is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 15 ms–1. The
approximate height it will reach in t seconds is given by the equation
h = –5t2 + 20t
i. Draw a graph of this function.
ii. What is the maximum height reached by the rock?
c. What number when added to its own square will give a minimum sum?

Solutions
a. i. Let the length of the paddock be x, and w be width. Fencing required is
20 = x + 2w
20 − x
w=
2
Area, A = width × length

 20 − x 
A=  × x
 2 
 1 
A =  10 − x  x
 2 
1
A = 10 x − x 2
2
b
This curve will be parabolic with a maximum occurring at x = −
2a
− 10
x= = 10
1
− 2×
2
1
Maximum area A = 10 × 10 – × 102 = 50
2
Maximum area is 50 square metres when the length is 10 m and the width is
5 m.
b. i. Graph of h = –5t2 + 20t
where h is the height in metres and t is the time in seconds

ii. Maximum height will occur at x = 2 (along the axis of symmetry)
and will be
h = –5 × 22 + 20 × 2 = 20
Maximum height is 20 m.

c. Let the original number be x and the sum be S.

Then s = x + x2
As this function is a parabola with a minimum, this minimum value will
occur when
b −1 1
x= − = = −
2a 2 × 1 2
1
Thus the number to give a minimum sum will be x = − .
2
1
(The minimum sum is − ).
4
3.2.4 Cubic functions

A cubic function is a function f defined by
y = f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
where a, b, c and d are constants and a ≠ 0.
Cubic functions can take 4 basic forms:
Note if a = 0 the function is parabolic, not cubic.
In order to sketch a cubic function it helps to know
i. Where it cuts the y-axis

ii. Where it cuts the x-axis
iii. Coordinates of the turning points (this is best done using calculus and is not a part of this
refreshment. See curve sketching in Engineering mathematics material).

Examples
Sketch the following curves.
a. y = x3 – x
b. y = –x3 + 2x2 + x – 2
Solutions
a. y = x3 – x
a > 0: Realise that this curve is or shaped.
To determine where curve cuts y-axis, put x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 0 ⇒ (0,0)
To determine where curve cuts x-axis, put y = 0.
When y = 0, x3 – x = 0
x(x2 – 1) = 0
x(x + 1) (x – 1) = 0
x = 0, x = 1, x = –1
⇒ (0,0), (1,0), (–1,0)
Some extra points:
3 1 1 3
x –2 − –1 − 0 1 2
2 2 2 2
7 3 3 7
y –7 −1 0 0 − 0 6
8 8 8 8

b. y = –x3 + 2x2 + x – 2
a < 0: Realise that this curve is or shaped.
To determine where curve cuts y-axis, put x = 0.
When x = 0, y = –2 ⇒ (0,–2)
To determine where curve cuts x-axis, put y = 0.
–x3+ 2x2 + x – 2 = 0
x3 – 2x2 – x + 2 = 0
(Use guess and check and division to solve this equation, see section 2.4.4).
x = 1, 1 – 2 – 1 + 2 = 0 x = 1 is a solution
x = 2, 8 – 8 – 2 + 2 = 0 x = 2 is a solution
x = –1, – 1 – 2 + 1 + 2 = 0 x = –1 is a solution
So points of intersection with the x-axis are (1,0), (2,0) and (–1,0).
Some extra points:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
y 40 12 0 –2 0 0

Exercise 3.7
Sketch the following curves.
a. y = x3
b. y = –x3
c. y = x(x – 1)(x + 1)
d. y = –x(x – 1)(x + 1)
e. y = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6
f. y = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3
Solutions
a. b.
c. d.
e. f.

3.2.5 The circle

If we take a piece of string, hold one end and move the other (keeping it tight) in one
direction until you reach the starting point, the free end has drawn a circle.
If the string has a length of r the equation of the circle will be
x2 + y2 = r2 where (0,0) is the centre and r is the radius
In the general case the equation of a circle is
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 where (a,b) is the centre and r is the radius
Notice that a circle is not a function, because for some x values there are two values of y.
Use the vertical line rule to test this.
To draw a circle you could follow one of two strategies.
a. Plot a number of points.

b. Find the centre and radius and plot some points (usually where it cuts the axes).
Let’s investigate the second strategy.
Examples
For the following circles find the centre, radius and x and y intercepts. Use the
above to sketch the relations.
a. (x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
b. x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 4 = 0

Solutions
a. For (x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
Because this equation is in the general form, centre is (–1,2) and radius is
5 units. ( ≈ 2.236).
For x-intercept put y = 0

(x + 1)2 + (0 – 2)2 = 5
x2 + 2x + 1 + 4 = 5
x2 + 2x = 0
x(x + 2) = 0
x = 0, x = –2 are the x-intercepts.
For y-intercepts put x = 0
(0 + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
1 + y2 – 4y + 4 = 5
y2 – 4y + 5 = 5
y2 – 4y = 0
y(y – 4) = 0
y = 0, y = 4 are the y-intercepts.
(x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
b. For x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 4 = 0
Equation is not in general form so use technique of ‘completing the square’

to convert to general form.

Completing the square

The technique of completing the square involves converting an expression like x2 + 4x into
(x + 2)2 – 4.
This technique has a wide range of applications including finding the centre of a circle and
later in integration.
To do the above we have to use our knowledge of special forms (perfect squares).
(x + b)2 = x2 + 2bx + b2
(x – b)2 = x2 – 2bx + b2
Consider x2 + 4x. This is not in the form x2 + 2bx + b2, although the first two terms are very
close to it.
To convert:
x2 + 4x
2
Rewrite expression so that first two terms are same form as x +
= x2 + 2 × 2 × x
2bx and b = 2.
= x2 + 2 × 2 × x + 22 – 22 2 2 2 2
To put in form x + 2bx + b , add 2 then subtract 2 so that
overall value of expression is not changed.
= (x2 + 2 × 2 × x + 22) – 22
= (x + 2)2 – 4 Group first three terms
Rewrite first three terms in perfect square form where a = x and
So x2 + 4x = (x + 2)2 – 4 b = 2 (check by expanding (x + 2) )
2
Let’s use this technique to find the centre and radius of

x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 4 = 0
Consider
x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 4
= x2 – 4x + y2 + 2y + 4 group like terms
= (x2 – 2 × 2x) + y2 + 2y + 4 2
rewrite x terms so in same form as x + 2bx
2
add then subtract 2 to force expression into
= (x2 – 2 × 2x + 22 – 22) + y2 + 2y + 4 2 2
x + 2bx + b form
= (x2 – 2 × 2x + 22) – 22 + y2 + 2y + 4 group first 3 terms
= (x – 2)2 – 22 + y2 + 2y + 4 2
rewrite first 3 terms in (x – b) form
= (x – 2)2 + y2 + 2y add constants
= (x – 2)2 + y2 + 2 × 1 × y 2
rewrite y terms so in same form as x + 2bx
= (x – 2)2 + y2 + 2 × 1 × y + 12 – 12 add then subtract 1

2
= (x – 2)2 + (y2 + 2 × 1 × y + 12) – 12 group terms as shown
= (x – 2)2 + (y + 1)2 – 12 rewrite in form (a + b)

2

So
x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y + 4 = 0
becomes
(x – 2)2 + (y + 1)2 – 12 = 0
(x – 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 12
Centre is (2,–1), radius is 1 unit.
To find x-intercept, put y = 0
(x – 2)2 + 12 = 12
(x – 2)2 = 0
x–2=0
x = 2 is the x-intercept.
To find y-intercept, put x = 0
(–2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 12
4 + y2 + 2y + 1 = 12
y2 + 2y + 4 = 0
No real solution to this equation because b2 – 4ac < 0, so no y-intercepts.

Exercise 3.8
Find the position of the centre and the radius of the circles:
a. (x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5 b. x2 + y2 – 4x + y + 4 = 0
Solutions
a. Centre = (–1,2), radius 5 ≅ 2.236 = units
b. x2 + y2 – 4x + y + 4 = 0
x2 – 4x + y2 + y + 4 = 0
It is necessary to ‘complete the square’ for x2 – 4x and for y2 + y.
 2 2
 ( x – 2 ) 2 – ( –2 ) 2  +   y + 1  –  1   + 4 = 0
    
2 
 
 2  

 2 
 ( x – 2 ) 2 – 4 +   y + 1  – 1  + 4 = 0
    
 2  4 
2
( x – 2 ) 2 +  y +
1 1
 –4 – + 4 = 0
 2 4
2
 1 1
( x − 2)2 +  y +  – = 0
 2 4
2
2  1 1
( x − 2) +  y +  =
 2 4
 1 1 1
∴ Centre =  2, −  . Radius = = units
 2 4 2

Examples
Example
Find the points at which the circle (x – 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = 5 intersects the axes.
Solution
The circle cuts the x-axis when y = 0,
i.e. (x – 2)2 + (–1)2 = 5 i.e. (x – 2)2 + 1 = 5
∴ (x – 2)2 = 4 ∴ x – 2 = ± 2
∴ x = 2 + 2 = 4 or x = 2 – 2 = 0
∴ x-axis is cut at x = 0 and x = 4
The circle cuts the y-axis when x = 0,

i.e. (– 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = 5 i.e. 4 + (y – 1)2 = 5
∴ (y – 1)2 = 1 ∴ y – 1 = ± 1
∴ y = 1 + 1 = 2 or y = 1 – 1 = 0
∴ y-axis is cut at y = 0 and y = 2
Example
Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (0,0) (0,3) (1, 0).
Solution
The general equation to a circle is (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
Given x = 0, y = 0 ∴ (–a)2 + (–b)2 = r2 ∴ a2 + b2 = r2
Given x = 0, y = 3 ∴ (–a)2 + (3 – b)2 = r2
∴ a2 + (3 – b)2 = r2 but r2 = a2 + b2 from above
∴ (3 – b)2 = b2
∴ 9 – 6b + b2 = b2
∴ 9 – 6b = 0
∴ 9 = 6b
9
∴b= = 1.5
6

Given x = 1, y = 0 ∴ (1 – a)2 + (– b)2 = r2 but r2 = a2 + b2 as before

∴ (1 – a)2 + b2 = a2 + b2
∴ (1 – a)2 = a2
∴ 1 – 2a + a2 = a2
∴ 1 – 2a = 0
∴ 1 = 2a
∴ a = 0.5
∴ Centre of circle is (0.5,1.5)
Now r2 = a2 + b2
∴ r2 = 0.52 + 1.52
= 0.25 + 2.25 = 2.5
∴ Equation of circle is (x – 0.5)2 + (y – 1.5)2 = 2.5
Exercise 3.9
For each of the following circles find the (i) position of the centre (ii) length of
the radius, and (iii) points, if any, where it cuts the axes.
a. (x – 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4 b. (x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 = 3

c. x2 – 2x + y2 – 4y = 3 d. x2 + x + y2 – 6y + 0.25 = 0
e. x2 – 4x + y2 – 6y = 12 f. x2 – 2x + y2 – 16y = 0
Solutions
a. i. (3,–2) ii. 4= 2 iii. touches at x = 3
b. i. (–1,2) ii. 3 iii. y = 2 + 2 and y = 2 – 2
c. i. (1,2) ii. 8 iii. x = –1 and x = 3,
y = 2 + 7 and y = 2 – 7
d. i. (– 0.5,3) ii. 3 iii. touches at x = –0.5
y = 3 + 8.75 and y = 3 – 8.75
e. i. (2,3) ii. 5 iii. x = – 2 and x = 6
y = 3 + 21 and y = 3 – 21
f. i. (1,8) ii. 65 iii. x = 0 and x = 2,
y = 0 and y = 16.

3.2.6 Rational functions

A rational function r(x) is a function which can be expressed in the form
f ( x)
r(x) = where g(x) ≠ 0
g ( x)
The graphs of these functions can take a variety of forms.
Characteristically all such graphs possess asymptotes. An asymptote is a straight line which
the curve approaches but never actually reaches.
In this course we will investigate sketching only the first two examples of rational functions
– rectangular hyperbolas. Later in your study of mathematics you will investigate the other
forms of rational functions in more detail.
A hyperbola is an inverse relationship between y and x. It takes the general form:
When x approaches a, y tends to + ∞ or – ∞ depending on whether x approaches a from the

positive or negative side. Under such conditions we say the curve has a vertical asymptote
at x = a. As y approaches b, x tends to + ∞ or –∞ and thus the curve has a horizontal
asymptote at y = b.
There are two branches to the graph of a hyperbola.
The sketch below shows the important features of a graph of a hyperbola.

[An asymptote is a straight line which the curve approaches but never actually reaches.]
Sketching hyperbolas
To sketch a hyperbola given the general form we need to:
i. determine and plot the asymptotes x = a and y = b

 c
ii. determine and plot the points where the curve cuts the y and x-axes, i.e.  0, b −  and
 a
 c 
 a − , 0  respectively
 b 
iii. find a few extra points by substituting some x-values and plot these; and
iv. join all points with a smooth curve, bearing in mind that there are two distinct parts of
the curve and they are mirror images of each other reflected in a line passing through
(a, b) at an angle of either 135° or 45° to the horizontal asymptote.
Exercise 3.10
Sketch the graphs of:
1 1 3
a. y= b. y= −5 c. y= + 2
x x− 2 1− x

Solutions
1 1
a. i. Comparing y = = + 0 with the general equation of a hyperbola we
x x− 0
have a = 0, b = 0 and c = 1.
Thus x = 0 is the vertical asymptote and y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
The point where the asymptotes intersect is (a,b) = (0,0).
c 1
ii. The curve does not cut the x-axis as a − = 0 − which cannot be
b 0
determined.
c 1
The curve does not cut the y-axis as b − = 0 − which also cannot be
a 0
determined.
(This is obviously the case as the axes are the asymptotes.)
iii.
x 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
y= 1
x 2 3 4 5
1
b. i. Comparing y = − 5 with general form we have a = 2, b = –5 and
x− 2
c = 1.
Thus x = 2 is the vertical asymptote and y = –5 is the horizontal asymptote.
The point where the asymptotes intersect is (2,5).

c
ii The curve cuts the x-axis at x = a −
b
1 1  11 
i.e. at x = 2 − = 2 ⇒  , 0  is on the graph.
−5 5  5 
c
The curve cuts the y-axis at y = b −
a
1 1  11 
i.e. at y = − 5 − = − 5 ⇒  0, −  is on the graph.
2 2  2
iii.
x 3 4
1 9
y= −5 –4 −
x− 2 2

3 −3
c. i. Comparing y = + 2= + 2 with general form we have a = 1, b = 2
1− x x− 1
and c = –3.
Thus x = 1 is the vertical asymptote and y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote.
Point of intersection of asymptotes is (1,2).
c −3
ii. When x = 0, y = b − = 2− = 5 ⇒ ( 0, 5 ) is on graph
a 1
3
(or put x = 0 and solve y = + 2)
1− 0
c −3 1 5 
When y = 0, x = a − = 1− = 2 ⇒  , 0  is on graph
b 2 2 2 
3
(or put y = 0 and solve 0 = + 2)
1− x
iii.
x 2 4
3
y= + 2 –1 1
1− x

Exercise 3.11
Sketch the following hyperbolas indicating vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
1 1 2
a. y= +3 b. y = − 2 c. y= +3
x− 2 x+ 3 x− 1
1 1
d. y(x – 2) = 4 e. = x− 3 f. y = 1−
y− 2 x+ 3
Solutions
a. Vertical asymptote at x = 2
Horizontal asymptote at y = 3
When x = 3, y = 4
b.

c.
d.

e.
f.

3.2.7 Other functions

Knowing the basic characteristics of particular functions or relations and how to graph in
general, we can graph many different functions which are combinations of other functions.
In general, if X and Y are two sets of numbers, a function from X into Y is a correspondence
that associates with each element of X a unique element of Y. The set X is called the
domain of the function. For each element x in X, the corresponding y in Y is called the value
of the function at x (or the image of x). The set of all functional values (i.e. y values) is
called the range of the function. We have been representing functions by ordered pairs in
module 3. e.g. if y = 3x + 4 we say that y is a function of x. The ordered pairs, (0,4), (1,7) and
all other points that lie on the line y = 3x + 4 are valid realisations of the function. We could
write this statement as F = {(x,y) | y = 3x + 4} which we read as F is the function that
provides the ordered pairs (x,y) such that y = 3x + 4. In this example the domain of the
function (i.e. possible x values) is (–∞, ∞) and the corresponding y values (or range of the
function) is also (–∞, ∞).
Consider the function given by {(x,y) | y = x + 1 }. The square root sign puts a restriction on
the values of x that can be used, and, consequently, on the values of y. The number under the
square root sign, must never be negative, as the real number system does not allow square
roots of negative numbers. (There is no real number whose square is a negative number.)
Hence, when y = x + 1 , x + 1 must be zero or positive.

i.e. x + 1 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ –1.
Thus, the domain of the function is [–1,∞). The smallest functional value is y = 0 and the
range of the function is [0,∞).
Do not confuse the notation for the intervals of the range and the domain with ordered
pairs.
A function y = f(x) that can be graphed over its domain with one continuous motion of the
pen is an example of a continuous function.
The parabola y = 2x2 is a continuous function.
 1 − x, x < 1
However f ( x ) =  is discontinuous at the point x = 1, because at this point there is
 1, x ≥ 1
a break in the graph.
 1 − x, x < 1
Sketch of f ( x ) = 
 1, x ≥ 1

When drawing a graph of a mathematical equation or function, it is helpful if you have some
idea of its general shape e.g. circle, parabola, etc. However, graphs of completely strange
functions may be drawn by plotting a number of points and connecting them. To do this,
select a number of suitable x-values and evaluate the function at each value. This produces a
set of corresponding y-values. These points are then plotted and connected. The more points
plotted, the greater the accuracy of the curve. Be sure to plot more points in regions of
unusual behaviour. If the domain of x-values is not specified, ensure you examine the
function as x → +∞ and x → –∞.
Note graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions are detailed in module 4.0.
Example
Example
Draw a graph of the function
y = 3 – 1.5x
over the domain x = 0 to x = 3
Solution
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y 2 1.775 1.5 1.163 0.75 0.244 –0.375
Note: The y-values are obtained by substituting the x-values into the function
y = 3 – 1.5x. For example, when x = 0.5, y = 3 – 1.50.5 = 3 – 1.5 = 3 – 1.225
= 1.775.

Example
2 3
Draw a graph of y = +
x− 1 x− 2
Solution
x 0 0.5 1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
y –3.5 –6 ±∞ 6.25 –2 –12.5 ±∞ 7.33 4 2.8 2.17
Note that extra points are required in the region x = 1 to x = 2 since the curve’s
behaviour is unusual here.
Other points of interest are:
2 3 7
i. when y = 0, + = 0 . Solving gives x =
x− 1 x− 2 5
ii. as x → + ∞, y → 0 from above.
iii. as x → –∞, y → 0 from below.

Example
 x if − 1 ≤ x < 1

Graph the function f ( x ) =  2 if x = 1
 x + 2 if x ≥ 1

Solution
The domain of f is all the real numbers x ≥ –1. We use a filled circle ● to
indicate that at x = 1, the value of f is f(1) = 2. We use an open circle ◯ to
illustrate that the function does not assume 3 or 1 at x = 1.
Exercise 3.12
Draw graphs of the following functions over the domains given.
x
a. y =   , x = 0 to 4
1
 2
b. y = 22x, x = –1 to 2
c. y = 0.5 – 0.3x, x = 0 to 4
1
d. y = + x , x = 0 to 4
x− 2
e. y = 3x–1.2 + 1, x = 1 to 3

Solutions
a.
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
y 1 0.707 0.5 0.354 0.25 0.177 0.125 0.089 0.062
b.
x –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
y 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16

c.
x 0 1 2 3 4
y –0.5 0.2 0.41 0.473 0.4919
d.
x 0 1 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3 4
1
y − 0 –0.775 –3.658 6.483 3.581 2.732 2.5
2

e.
x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y 4 2.844 2.306 1.999 1.803

3.3 Intersections of functions

When two or more functions intersect it is important that we are able to find the point or
points of intersection. We can attempt to do two things. Find:
1. an exact solution using algebraic methods

2. an approximate solution using graphical methods.
Note the second alternative is only used when an algebraic solution is not possible or when
an alternative check is required for the algebraic solution.
3.3.1 Intersection of linear functions
Algebraic solution of equations

This topic is also referred to as solution of simultaneous equations.
i. Two equations in two unknowns

If a problem involves two unknown variables x and y, then a solution will exist only if
two separate equations exist involving x and y. A pair of values for x and y which
satisfies both equations at once is called a simultaneous solution of the equations. For
example the simultaneous solution of x + y = 7 and x – y = 3 is x = 5, y = 2.
There are two algebraic methods for solving a set of two equations involving two
variables.
Substitution method
Using one of the equations, we express one variable in terms of the other. This
expression is then substituted into the other equation to form an equation in one variable
only. Find the value of this variable and hence find the value of the other variable. For
example, consider
2x + y = 21 (1)
3x + 4y = 44 (2)
From (1), y = 21 – 2x
Substituting in (2), 3x + 4(21 – 2x) = 44
Solving for x, 3x + 84 – 8x = 44
–5x + 84 = 44
–5x = –40
x=8
Solving for y, ∴ y = 21 – 2x = 21 – 16 = 5
i.e. The solution is x = 8, y = 5.
You should check that this solution satisfies both the original equations.

Elimination method
If necessary, multiply the equations by such numbers so as to make the x-coefficients
equal.
If the x-coefficients have the same sign, subtract the equations. If the signs are opposite,
add the equations. Solve the resulting equation involving y only. Substitute the y-value
into the original equation to find x. For example, consider
2x + y = 21 (1)
3x + 4y = 44 (2)
(1) × 3 → 6x + 3y = 63 (3)
(2) × 2 → 6x + 8y = 88 (4)
(3) – (4) → –5y = 63 – 88 = –25
∴y=5
Sub in (1), 2x + 5 = 21 ∴ 2x = 16 ∴ x = 8
i.e. The solution is x = 8, y = 5.
You should check that this solution satisfies both the original equations.
You could follow this same method and make the y-coefficients equal.
Examples
Solve the following sets of equations using both methods
a. 2x – y = 4 (1) b. 5x + 2y = 3 (1)
x+y=5 (2) 2x + 3y = –1 (2)
Solutions
a. Substitution method
From (2) y=5–x

Sub in (1) ∴ 2x – (5 – x) = 4
2x – 5 + x = 4
3x – 5 = 4 ∴ 3x = 9 ∴ x = 3
∴y=5–3=2
The solution is x = 3, y = 2 which satisfies both the original equations.

a. Elimination method
2x – y = 4 (1)
(2) × 2 → 2x + 2y = 10 (3)
(1) – (3) → ∴ – 3y = – 6 ∴y = 2
Sub in (1) ∴ 2x – 2 = 4 ∴ 2x = 6 ∴ x = 3
The solution is x = 3, y = 2.
b. Substitution method
From (1) 2y = 3 – 5x ∴ y=
( 3 − 5x )
2
3( 3 − 5x ) 9 − 15 x
Sub in (2) 2x + = –1 ∴ 2x + = –1
2 2
∴ 4x + 9 – 15x = –2 ∴ –11x = –9 – 2 = –11 ∴ x = 1
∴ 2y = 3 – 5 = –2 ∴ y = –1
The solution is x = 1, y = –1 which satisfies both the original equations.
b. Elimination method
(1) × 2 → 10x + 4y = 6 (3)

(2) × 5 → 10x + 15y = – 5 (4)
(3) – (4) → –11y = 6 + 5 = 11 ∴ y = –1
Sub in (1) ∴ 5x – 2 = 3 ∴ 5x = 5 ∴ x = 1
The solution is x = 1, y = –1.

ii. Three equations in three unknowns

For a set of 3 simultaneous equations involving 3 variables, the elimination method is the
only practical procedure. Consider the set:
2x – y + z = 3 (1)
x + 3y – 2z = 11 (2)
3x – 2y + 4z = 1 (3)
Use (1) to eliminate x from (2) and (3)
(2) × 2 → 2x + 6y – 4z = 22 (4)
(4) – (1) → 7y – 5z = 19 (5)
(3) × 2 – (1) × 3 → –y + 5z = –7 (6)
(6) × 7 + (5) → 30z = –30 ∴ z = –1
Sub in (5) ∴ 7y + 5 = 19 ∴ 7y = 14 ∴ y = 2
Sub in (1) ∴ 2x – 2 – 1 = 3 ∴ 2x = 6 ∴ x = 3
i.e. The solution is x = 3, y = 2, z = –1.
Check that the solution satisfies each of the original equations.
Examples
Example
Solve the equations
a. x – y + 2z = 0 (1)
x – 2y + 3z = –1 (2)
2x –2y + z = –3 (3)
b. x + y + 2z = 3 (1)
3x – y + z = 1 (2)
2x + 3y – 4z = 8 (3)

Solutions
a.
(2) – (1) → –y+z =–1 (4)
(3) – 2 × (1) → – 3z =–3∴z=1
Sub in (4) –y+1 =–1∴y=2
Sub in (1) x–2+2 =0∴x=0
i.e. The solution is x = 0, y = 2, z = 1.
Check that this solution satisfies each of the original equations.
b.
(2) – 3 × (1) → – 4y – 5z = – 8 (4)
(3) –2 × (1) → y – 8z = 2 (5)
4 × (5) + (4) → – 37z = 0
∴z=0
Sub in (5) y=2
Sub in (1) x+2+0=3
∴x=1
i.e. The solution is x = 1, y = 2, z = 0.
Check that the solution satisfies each of the original equations.

Example
Bottle A holds a 25% alcohol solution and bottle B has a 40% alcohol solution.
How much should we take from each bottle to make 40 mL of 30% solution?
Solution
Let x and y be the number of mL from Bottle A and Bottle B respectively.
x + y = 40 (1)
Amount of alcohol is 0.25x + 0.4y = 40 × 0.3
∴ 25x + 40y = 1200 (2)
We now have two simultaneous equations in x and y to solve.
(2) – 25 × (1) → 40y – 25y = 1200 – 25 × 40
∴ 15y = 200
40
∴y =
3
40
Sub in (1) x+ = 40
3
40 80
∴ x = 40 − =
3 3
2 1
i.e. We need 26 mL from Bottle A and 13 mL from Bottle B to make
3 3
40 mL of 30% alcohol solution.
Exercise 3.13
Solve the following sets of simultaneous equations.
a. 2x + y = 5 b. 3x – y = 12 c. 3x – 4y = 5
x + 2y = 4 x+y=8 5x – 12y = 3
d. x – y + z = 2 e. 3x + 4y – 6z = –13 f. x – 8y + 2z = –1
2x + y – 3z = 5 x–y+z=0 x – 3y + z = 1
x + 2y – 2z = 5 2x – y + 3z = 3 2x – 11y + 3z = 2
Solutions
a. x = 2, y = 1 b. x = 5, y = 3 c. x = 3, y = 1
d. x = 3, y = 2, z = 1 e. x = –1.25, y = 0.875, z = 2.125 f. No solution exists

Graphical solution of equations

Recall that if two lines are parallel to each other, then there is no (x,y) value which will
satisfy the equations of both lines, i.e. the equations are inconsistent.
Furthermore if the two lines are essentially the same line, i.e. coincident, then there is an
infinite number of solutions to the equations of the lines.
We can obtain approximate solutions to linear equations which are not parallel or coincident
using the graphical method briefly given below.
Examples
Solve (if possible) the following systems of equations graphically:
a. 2x + y = 5 b. x + y = 5
y = 7 + 2x x=2–y
Solutions
a. 2x + y = 5 y = 7 + 2x
Rearranging yields:
y = –2x + 5, y = 2x + 7
Approximate solution from graph
is:
x ≈ –0.5
y≈6
Check solution:
 1
2 −  + 6 = 5
 2
 1
7 + 2 −  = 6
 2
b. x + y = 5
x=2–y
Rearranging yields:
y = –x + 5, y = –x + 2
∴ Because the two lines are parallel
to each other, the equations are
inconsistent and there is no solution
to the system.

3.3.2 Intersection of functions other than straight lines or planes

Obviously we would not use the graphical method to obtain approximate solutions to a
system of equations if analytical methods which will yield the exact solution are available.
However in many situations, we are unable to solve an equation or a system of equations by
algebraic means and we have to find an approximate solution by other methods. Often it is
possible to get a rough approximation from carefully drawn graphs.
Consider the equation 2x – 1.5x = 0. There is no algebraic method for solving this equation.
However, the equation can be rearranged as 2x = 1.5x. We can plot two simple functions
y1 = 2x and y2 = 1.5x on the same graph. At the point where these graphs intersect, the y-
values must be the same i.e. y1 = y2. Thus, at this point, we have a solution of 2x = 1.5x.
i.e. we have solved the equation 2x – 1.5x = 0. The accuracy of this solution depends on the
accuracy with which the graphs were plotted.
These curves obviously intersect between x = 0 and x = 1, so we select values of x from

0 to 1 and determine the corresponding values of y1 and y2.
x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

y1 = 2x 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
y2 = 1.5x 1 1.084 1.176 1.275 1.383 1.5
Approximate solution is x ≈ 0.65
Check that this solution satisfies (or nearly satisfies) the original equation.

Examples
Find an approximate solution of the following equations:
a. x2 − 3 − x= 0
1
b. + 2 x2 + 1 = 5
x− 1
Solutions
a. x 2 − 3 = x
2
y1 = x − 3, y2 = x
2
Recognise that y1 = x – 3 is a parabola.
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

2
y1 = x –3 –3 –2.75 –2 –0.75 1 3.25 6
y2 = x 0 0.707 1 1.224 1.414 1.581 1.732
Solution is x ≈ 2.15

b. 1
y1 = , y2 = 5 − 2 x2 + 1
x− 1
1
Recognise that y1 = is a hyperbola.
x− 1
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
1
y1 = –0.2 –0.25 –0.33 –0.5 –1 ±∞ 1 0.5 0.33
x− 1
y2 = 5 − 2 x2 + 1 –0.74 0.64 2 3.27 4 3.27 2 0.64 –0.74
Note: There are three solutions.
Solutions are x ≈ –3.5, 1.3, 3.1
Check that each solution satisfies the original equation.
Exercise 3.14
Use graphical methods to find approximate solutions to the following equations:
a. 0.5x = 0.3x b. x 2 + 3
x= 2
1
c. 3 – x = x1.5 d. 1 + = x2 + 1
x− 2
1
e. x2 – 4x= ln x f. 2e − x − + 4= 0
x+ 3
(Note ln x =loge x – see Module 4 for logarithmic and exponential functions)

Solutions
a. y1 = 0.5x, y2 = 0.3x
x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

y1 = 0.5x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
y2 = 0.3x 1 0.79 0.62 0.49 0.38 0.3
Solution is approximately x = 0.78
b. x 2 = 2 − 3
x , ∴ y1 = x 2 , y2 = 2 − 3
x
x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

y1 0 0.04 0.16 0.36 0.64 1 1.44 1.96
y2 2 1.415 1.263 1.156 1.07 1 0.93 0.88
Solution is exactly x = 1

c. y1 = 3 – x, y2 = x1.5
x 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

y1 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1
y2 1 1.31 1.66 2.02 2.41 2.83
1
d. y1 = 1 + , y2 = x2 + 1
x− 2
x 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
y1 6 3.5 2.67 2.25 2
y2 2.42 2.6 2.79 2.97 3.16

e. y1 = (x – 2)2 – 4, y2 = ln x
x –10 1 2 3 4 5
y1 50 –3 –4 –3 0 5
y2 Und 0 0.69 1.1 1.38 1.61
Approximate solutions x = 0.3 and x = 4.3
1
f. y1 = 2e − x y2 = − 4
x+ 3
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
y1 296.8 109.2 40.2 14.8 5.4 2 0.7 0.3
y2 –4.5 –5 Undef –3 –3.5 –3.7 –3.8 –3.8
Approximate solution x = –2.9

Questions 3.1
1. Explain why x2 + y2 = 1 is not a function
2. If f(x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x − 1 evaluate
i. f(–1)
ii. f(x + h)
iii. f(g(x))
iv. domain of g(x)
3. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (4,3) and (6,7)
4. Sketch the graph of the function y = x2 – 5x + 6
5. Complete the square in x2 + 3x + 1
1
6. Sketch the function y =
x− 2
7. Find the point of intersection of the three equations
3x – y + 2z = 3
x+y+z=3
x–y+z=1
8. Indicate on a labelled sketch how you would graphically solve the equation
3
x− = 4 for x ≤ 3
x− 2
9. Write the equation of the circle with centre (4,2) passing through (–2,–1)

Questions 3.2
1. Which of the following relations are functions? Explain
y = 2x – 1
y2 = x
y = x2
2. If f(x) = 2x2 + x + 1 and g(x) = x2 – 1 evaluate
i. f(–2)
ii. f(x + a)
iii. g(f(x))
3. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (–2,–1) and (4,3)
4. What is the equation of the circle with centre (4,–2,) and passing through (2,2)?
3
5. Sketch the graph of the function y = −1
x+ 1
6. Complete the square in x2 + 4x + 1
7. Find the point of intersection of the three equations
x+y+z=0
x – 3y + 2z = 1
2x – 2y + z = –1
1
8. Indicate on a labelled sketch how you would graphically solve the equation x 2 − 2 x =
x
9. Sketch the curve y = x3 – 2x2 – x + 2

Module 4 – Logarithms and related functions
Objectives
● demonstrate an understanding of the definition of the logarithmic function and the

exponential function
● sketch the exponential and logarithmic functions
● solve real world problems including exponential and logarithmic functions
● apply logarithmic laws to simplify algebraic equations and formulae.
In previous sections we investigated expressions involving powers. In this module we will

investigate this further by looking at an alternative way of representing powers – the
logarithm.
The relationship between the logarithm and powers will be explored further by comparing
the exponential and logarithmic functions. But firstly what is a logarithm?
4.1 Logarithms
Any positive number can be written as a power of 10.
For example, 100 = 102
We call 10 the base and 2 the power, index or logarithm.
Also, 10 000 = 104
0.001 = 10–3
Three can also be written as a power of ten. What power will it be?
3 = 10❏
We know that 100 = 1 and 101 = 10
so the power of 10 that gives 3 will be between 0 and 1.
Depending on your type of calculator you should have a button which allows us to
determine logarithms (or powers) for base 10.
To determine which power of 10 gives 3, we need to find log 3.

On your calculator you should press
The calculator should read 0.4771212...
Hence 100.4771212... = 3.
We can now write this as an equation
log10 3 = 0.4771212...
This would be read as ‘log 3 to the base 10 equals 0.4771212...’
You may also see log10 3 written as log 3. The base 10 is inferred.
In general we can write the logarithmic equation as
y = logax
which is read as ‘y equals the log of x to the base a’ or ‘y equals log x to base a’.
Exercise 4.1
Give all answers to 4 decimal places.
1.
a. log 4
b. log 256
c. log 0.5
2. What is x in each case?

a. 2 = 10x
b. 324 = 10x
c. 0.3 = 10x
Solutions
1.
a. 0.6021
b. 2.4082
c. –0.3010
2.
a. 0.3010
b. 2.5105
c. –0.5229

The laws of logarithms

If y = ax then we can say that logay = x. This is the basic relationship between powers and
logarithms.
Examples
Example
Find log3 9
Let log3 9 = x
then 3x = 9
3x = 32
∴x=2
That is, log3 9 = 2 since 32 = 9.
Example
1
Find log2
4
1
Let log2 =x
4
1
then 2x =
4
1
2x =
22
2x = 2–2
∴ x = –2
1 1
That is, log2 = –2 since 2–2 =
4 4

Exercise 4.2
Find:
a. log2 16 b. log5 125
1
c. log3 d. log4 64
9
e. loge e2 f. log3 3
1
g. log10 h. log3 243
1000
Solutions
a. log2 16 = 4 b. log5 125 = 3
1
c. log3 = log3 3–2 = –2 d. log4 64 = 3
9
1
e. loge e2 = 2 f. log3 1
3 = log3 3 2 =
2
1
g. log10 = log10 10–3 = –3 h. log3 243 = 5
1000
In section 1.4 we looked at a series of rules for combining powers. We will now look at a
similar series of rules for combining logarithms.
Rule 1. Logarithm of a product.

loga (m × n) = loga m – loga n
Example
log10 6 = 0.778
now log10 6 = log10 (2 × 3)
= log10 2 + log10 3
= 0.301 + 0.477
= 0.778
We can use this rule to combine two logarithms that are added together.
Example
log3 2 + log3 x = log3 (2 × x)
= log3 2x

Rule 2. Logarithm of a quotient.

m
loga = loga m – loga n
n
Example
log10 4 = 0.602
8
now log10 4 = log10
2
= log10 8 – log10 2
= 0.903 – 0.301
= 0.602
We can also use this rule to combine two logarithms that are subtracted.
2
log3 2 – log3 x = log3
x
Rule 3. Logarithm of a power.

loga xp = p loga x
Example
log10 9 = 0.954 log10 9 can be written as log10 32
log10 32 = 2 log10 3 = 2 × 0.477 = 0.954
Rule 4. Logarithm of 1 to any base.

loga 1 = 0
The log of 1 always equals zero!
Rule 5. Logarithm of number to the same base.

loga a = 1
Example
log10 10 = 1 since 101 = 10
We can now apply these rules to a variety of situations.

Example
Simplify 3 log 2 + log 125 Recall that, if no base is stated it is understood to be base 10
3 log 2 + log 125 = log 23 + log 125

= log 8 + log 125
= log (8 × 125)
= log 1000
=3
Since 103 = 1000
Example
Simplify log xy3 – log x2y + log x
xy 3
log xy3 – log x2y + log x = log + log x
x2 y
 xy 3 
= log  2 × x 
 x y 
= log y2
Exercise 4.3
1. Find x, given that
a. log4 x = 2
b. logx 49 = 2
c. log5 625 = x
d. logx 343 = 3
2. Simplify
a. log2 16 + log2 8
b. log6 2 + log6 3
c. log3 54 – log3 18
d. log2 18 – 2 log2 3
e. log 25 + log 3 – log 5
1
f. 2 log5 5 – log5 10 + log5
5

3. Simplify
log x3
a.
log x
b. log3 (3x)
log10 36
c.
log10 6
log x
d.
log x
Solutions
1. a log4 x = 2
2
x =4
x = 16
b. logx 49 = 2
2
49 = x
x = 7 (we cannot have a negative base so –7 is ignored)
c. log5 625 =x
625 = 5x
54 = 5x
x =4
d. logx 343 = 3
343 = x3
73 = x3
∴x =7
Another way to do this would be to use the power rules.
logx 343 = 3
343 = x3
1 1
( 343) 3 = 3 3
(x )
7 =x
2. a log2 16 + log2 8 = log2 16 × 8

= log2 128
=7
b. log6 2 + log6 3 = log6 2 × 3
= log6 6
=1

c. 54 54
log3 54 – log3 18 = log3
18 18
= log3 3
=1
d. log2 18 – 2 log2 3 = log 18 – log 32
2 2
= log2 18 – log2 9
18
= log2
9
= log2 2
=1
e. log 25 + log 3 – log 5 = log (25 × 3) – log 5
= log 75 – log 5
75
= log
5
= log 15
f. 1 1
2 log5 5 – log5 10 + log5 = log5 52 – log5 10 + log5
5 5
1
= log5 25 – log5 10 + log5
5
1
= log5 25 × 5
10
1
= log5
2
= log5 2–1
= –log5 2
3. a log x3 = 3log x
log x log x
=3
b. log3 3x = x log3 3
=x×1
=x
c. log10 36 log10 62
=
log10 6 log10 6
2log10 6
=
log10 6
=2

d. log x log x
= 1
log x
log x 2
log x
=
1
log x
2
1
=
1
2
=2
4.2 Equations involving logarithms

In any equation, if the unknown is in the power (exponent) then logarithms can be used to
solve the equation. Practical applications of logarithms will be covered in section 4.5.
Examples
Example
Solve 2x = 120
2x = 120
log 2x = log 120 take the logarithm of both sides
x log 2 = log 120 using the logarithm of a power rule
x log 2 log120
=
log 2 log 2
log120
x =
log 2
2.079
= on your calculator use the log key
0.301
= 6.907

Example
Solve 100 = 50(10)3t
100 = 50 ( 10 )
3t
100
= 103t
50
2 = 103t
log10 2 = log103t
log10 2 = 3t log10
log10 2 = 3t recall log10 10 = 1
log10 2
= t
3
0.3010
t= on your calculator use the log key
3
t = 0.1
Exercise 4.4
Solve the following equations giving answers to 3 decimal places.
a. 9x = 25
b. 7x + 1 = 11
c. 300 = 20 (10)4t
d. 40 = 100 (10)2t
Solutions
a. 9x = 25
log 9x = log 25
x log 9 = log 25
log 25
x =
log 9
1.39794
=
0.95424
= 1.465

b. 7x + 1 = 11
log 7x + 1 = log 11
(x + 1) log 7 = log 11
x log 7 + log 7 = log 11
x log 7 = log 11 – log 7
log11 − log 7
x =
log 7
0.19629
=
0.84510
= 0.232
c. 300 = 20 (10)4t
300
= (10)4t
20
log 15 = 4t log 10
log 15 = 4t
log15
=t
4
t = 0.294
d. 40 = 100 (10)2t
40
= 102t
100
log 0.4 = 2t log 10
log 0.4 = 2t
log 0.4
=t
2
t = –0.199
We can use these same ideas to change the subject of a formula where one of the variables is
a power.

Examples
Example
Make y the subject of x = 5y
From the basic relationship between powers and logarithms log5 x = y or x = 5y.
log x = log 5y take the logarithm of both sides
log x = y log 5
log x
=y
log5
log x
y= =
log5
Example
Make y the subject of x = log y + 1
x = log y + 1
x – 1 = log y
10x – 1 = y
y = 10x –1 recall the basic relationship between
logarithms and powers, if loga x = y then
y
a =x
Exercise 4.5
Use logarithms to make y the subject of the following equations.
a. x = 6y
b. x = (2 + b)y
c. x = (a + 2b)6y – 1
ab 2 y
d. x =
cy
Solutions
a. log x = log 6y
log x = y log 6
log x
= y or y = log6 x
log 6

b. log x = log (2 + b)y

log x = y log (2 + b)
log x
=y
log ( 2 + b )
c. log x = log (a + 2b)6y – 1

log x = (6y – 1) log (a + 2b)
log x
6y – 1 =
log ( a + 2b )
log x
6y = +1
log ( a + 2b )
1 log x 
y =  + 1
6  log ( a + 2b ) 
 ab 2 y 
d. log x = log  y 
 c 
log x = log (ab2y) – log (cy)
log x = log (a) + log (b2y) – log (cy)
log x = log a + 2y log b – y log c
log x – log a = 2y log b – y log c
log x – log a = y (2 log b – log c)
log x − log a
=y
2log b − log c

4.3 Exponential functions

We know now that logarithms and powers are closely related. Lets look at the exponential
function more closely by examining bank interest rates. This is just one example of where
the exponential function occurs in the studies of business, science and engineering.
A certain bank claims to pay 10% p.a. interest on a fixed deposit. This means that for each
year of the investment the value of the deposit grows by the same rate of 10%. Complete the
table below.
Value of investment Calculations

Initial investment $1 000 $1 000
After 1 year $1 000 + 10% of $1 000 = $1 100 = 1 000 + 0.1 × 1 000
= 1 000 (1 + 0.1)
= 1 000 × 1.1
After 2 years $1 100 + 10% of $1 100 = $ ______ = (1 000 × 1.1) + 0.1 × (1 000 × 1.1)
= (1 000 × 1.1) [1 + 0.1]
= 1 000 × 1.1 × 1.1
2
= 1 000 × (1.1)
After 3 years ________ + 10% of _____ = _______ 2
= 1 000 × (1.1) + 0.1 × (1 000 × (1.1) )
2
2
= 1 000 × (1.1) [1 + 0.1]
2
= 1 000 × (1.1) × 1.1
3
= 1 000 × (1.1)
After 4 years ________ + 10% of _____ = _______ 3
= 1 000 × (1.1) + 0.1 × (1 000 × (1.1) )
3
3
= 1 000 × (1.1) [1 + 0.1]
3
= 1 000 × (1.1) × 1.1
4
= 1 000 × (1.1)
You should have found the value of the investment to be $1464.10 after 4 years.
You should have noticed that the value of the investment increased by a factor of 1.1 each
year. The value of the investment after 1 year is 1.1 times that initially invested ($1000).
After 2 years it is 1.12 times that initially invested and after 3 years 1.13 times that initially
invested.
Using this pattern what will be the value of the investment after 10 years?
__________________________________________________________________________
After 10 years of investment the value will be $2 593.74.

That is 1.110 × 1 000.
Write a formula for this pattern.
__________________________________________________________________________
You should have written something like

V = 1 000 × 1.1t

where V equals the value of the investment after t years.
This is an exponential equation as it represents exponential growth.

What is the domain of this exponential function?
Did you say t values greater than or equal to 0, or t ≥ 0, or [0,∞)?
What about the range?
The range would be values of V greater than or equal to 1 000, or
V ≥ 1 000, or [1 000,∞).
If we look more closely at the above example we can derive a formula for interest earned in
this way. That is, where the interest is added to the amount invested (the principal) and the
next interest payment is calculated on this new amount.
We call this compound interest because we are receiving interest on interest.
10
We can write 1.1 as 1 + 0.1 = 1 +
100
t
 10 
V = 1000  1 + 
 100 
If we now write this in general terms

n
 r 
A = P 1+ 
 100 
where A = the amount after n periods

P = the principal invested (initial amount)
r = the interest rate per period of time
n = the number of periods.
For our example the period of time was one year but this could be one month, or every three
months (quarterly) or even every six months.
Examples
Example
If James invested $100 in an account paying 12% per annum paid quarterly:
a. how much is in the account after 5 years?
b. how long should James invest the money to have $800?
Use the compound interest formula
n
 r 
A = P 1+ 
 100 

12%
a. 12% quarterly is = 3% per quarter.
4
5 years is 5 × 4 = 20 quarters
20
 3 
A = 100  1 + 
 100 
= 100 (1.03)20
= 100 × 1.8061112
= $180.61
∴ after 5 years James would have $180.61
b. This time we know A the amount we will have at the end of the time but we
don’t know how many terms there will be.
n
 r 
A = P 1+ 
 100 
n
 3 
800 = 100  1 + 
 100 
800 = 100 ( 1.03)
n
800
= ( 1.03)
n
100
8 = ( 1.03)
n
When the unknown is in the index we will use logarithms to solve the equation.
log 8 = log (1.03)n take the logarithm of both sides
log 8 = n log (1.03) use the laws of logarithms to simplify
log8
n =
log ( 1.03)
0.90309
=
0.01284
n = 70.3
This means that we must leave the $100 invested for approximately 71 quarters
or 17 years and 9 months.

Example
The taxation department allows 30% p.a. for depreciation of computer
equipment.
If Sandra has a computer valued at $4 500, what will be its value after 3 years?
This time instead of the amount increasing each year it is decreasing by the
given rate.
n
That is A = P  1 +
r 

 100 
3
So, A = 4500  1 −
30 

 100 
= 4500 (1 – 0.3)3
= 4500 (0.7)3
= 4500 × 0.343
= 1543.50
Sandra’s computer is worth $1 543.50 after three years.
We have seen so far that exponential functions occur in man made situations but
exponential growth and decay are also a part of nature.
Exponential growth is said to occur when the rate of growth of a population is

proportional to its size.
Example
In a certain bacterial culture the number (N) of bacteria present is given by the
formula
N = 800(2)3t
where t is the time (hours) that the bacterial culture has been growing.
a. Sketch the graph of the function

b. How many bacteria are present at the start?
c. How many bacteria will be present after 4 hours?
d. How long will it take for the number of bacteria to double?

Solutions
a.
t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2
N = 800(2)3t 800 1213 1838 2786 4222 6400 18102 51200
We call this is an exponential growth function.
b. The number of bacteria present at the start is found by substituting t = 0.
So, N = 800(2)3 × 0
= 800 × (2)0
= 800
There are 800 bacteria present at the start.
c. After 4 hours the value of t is 4

So, N = 800(2)3 × 4
= 800(2)12
= 800 × 4 096
= 3 276 800
After 4 hours there are 3 276 800 bacteria present.

d. When the number of bacteria have doubled there will be 2 × 800 = 1600
bacteria present.
So, 1600 = 800 (2)3t

1600
= (2)3t
800
2 = 23t since the bases are the same the powers must be equal
1 = 3t
1
t =
3
It takes ⅓ of 1 hour or 20 minutes for the number of bacteria to double.
Exercise 4.6
1. A single cholera bacterium divides every half hour to produce two complete
bacteria. If we start with a colony of 5000 bacteria, then after t hours we will
have 5000 × 22t bacteria. How long will it take to reach 1 000 000 bacteria?
2. The pressure of the atmosphere (P) decreases with the height (h) above sea
level according to the law
P = Po10–bh where Po is the initial pressure and b is a constant
If the pressure at sea level is 76 cm and at 4 km above sea level the pressure
is 34.15 cm calculate
a. the value of b
b. the pressure at 10 km above sea level.
Solutions
1. 1 000 000 = 5000 × 22t
1000000
= 22t
5000
200 = 22t
log 200
t =
2log 2
2.3010
=
0.6021
≈ 3.82
It takes approximately 3.82 hours to reach 1 000 000 bacteria.

2. a. P = Po10–bh
The pressure at sea level is 76 cm, i.e. Po = 76.
P = 76 × 10–bh
when h = 4 P = 34.15
34.15 = 76 × 10− bh
34.15
= 10− 4b
76
 34.15 
log   = 4b log10
 76 
 34.15 
log  
b=  76  log10 = 1
−4
− 0.3474
=
−4
= 0.087
P = 76 × 10− 0.087 h
b. When h = 10
P = 76 × 10–0.087 × 10
= 76 × 0.1349
= 10.25 cm
At 10 km above sea level the pressure is 10.25 cm.

4.4 Logarithmic functions

The logarithmic curve is closely related to the exponential curve.
Consider y = 2x
Sketch over the domain –2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and use the same scale for both axes.
On the same cartesian plane, let’s draw the line y = x.

x –2 0 2
y=x –2 0 2

Now let us reflect the curve y = 2x, so that the line y = x acts like a mirror. We call this
process finding the inverse of the function.
The inverse of an exponential function is called a logarithmic function. The curve above is
y = log2 x
which is read as ‘y equals the log of x to the base 2’.
Note that the log of a negative number does not exist. As x approaches zero, the curve
approaches negative infinity and does not touch the y-axis.
Also note that the curve flattens out for large values of x – although it never becomes
perfectly level.
Examples
Draw the inverses of the following functions. To do this
● graph the exponential functions for –2 ≤ x ≤ 2
● reflect all points in the line y = x
a. y = 3x
b. y = 4x
c. y = ex

Solutions
a.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = 3x 0.1 0.3 1 3 9
b.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = 4x 0.06 0.25 1 4 16

c.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = ex 0.1 0.4 1 2.7 7.4
Let’s look more closely at the last graph that you drew.
y = loge x
We use this logarithm base e so often that it has a special notation.
y = ln x where ln = log base e
and we call it the natural logarithm.
All the rules for logarithms covered in section 4.1 hold for the natural logarithm.
Your calculator should have a button so you can evaluate expressions
involving logarithms to the base e.

Exercise 4.7
1. Evaluate
a. e7
b. loge 4
c. log10 2
d. ln 24
e. log 56
2. What is x in each case?
a. 4 = ex
b. 10 = ex
c. 32 = 10x
d. e = 10x
Solutions
1.
a. 1 096.6332
b. 1.3863
c. 0.3010
d. 3.1781
e. 1.7482
2.
a. 1.3863
b. 2.3026
c. 1.5051
d. log e = 0.4343
Find e first, then find the log of this value.
We can also use the natural logarithm in a more practical situation.

Example
Radioactive material is known to decay at a rate given by the equation
M = Moe–kt
where M = mass of radioactive material remaining

Mo = initial mass
k = decay constant
t = time (years)
a. If 10 kg reduces to 6 kg in 3 months, find the time for the material to decay

to a mass of 2 kg.
b. If half-life is the time taken for half of the amount of a material to decay,
find the half life of this material.
Solutions
a. If there is 10 kg of material at the start then Mo is equal to 10 kg. Since time
is measured in years 3 months is 0.25 years. This is the time taken for the
material to decay to 6 kg.
6 = 10e–k × 0.25
6
= e–k × 0.25
10
ln (0.6) = lne–0.25k
ln (0.6) = –0.25k × lne recall loge e = 1
ln ( 0.6 )
k =
− 0.25
it is a good idea to keep this value in the
= 2.043302495 memory for later use
Since we now know the decay constant it is possible to find the time taken
for the material to reduce to 2 kg.
2 = 10e–2.043302495 × t
0.2 = e–2.043302495 × t
ln 0.2 = –2.043302495t lne
ln 0.2
t =
− 2.0433025
= 0.788
It takes 0.788 years to reduce to 2 kg.

b. If the original mass was 10 kg the half life is the time taken for the mass to
decay to 5 kg.
5 = 10e–2.043302495 × t
ln 0.5
t =
− 2.0433025
= 0.339
It takes approximately 0.339 years to reduce to half the original mass.

4.5 Further applications of logarithms and exponentials

Exercise 4.8
1.
a. Over a period of time the population of an old mining town was
decreasing at a rate of 7% per year. If the original population was
12 600, what was the population 5 years later?
b. In how many years will $600 amount to $1000 invested at 6% p.a.
compound interest?
c. An author’s library valued at $2 400 depreciated at the rate of 8% p.a.
Find the value of the library after 4 years?
d. $2000 is invested in a term deposit paying 10% p.a. paid quarterly. Find
the:
i. amount after 3 years and
ii. time for the investment to be $5 000.
2.
a. The number of bacteria (B) in a medium with ample food after t minutes
is given by
B = 1000e0.03t
Find the
i. number of bacteria after 7 minutes
ii. time for the number of bacteria to reach 2000
b. In radioactive materials, the rate of decay is given by
M = Moe–kt Where M is the mass in grams

Mo is the initial mass
t is the time in years
k is the decay constant
If it takes 2 years for a piece of Uranium to decrease in mass from 10 g

to 8 g, find the mass after 6 years.
Solutions
5
1. a. P = 12600  1 −
7 

 100 
= 12600 (0.93)5
= 8 765.67
After 5 years the population would be approximately 8 766 people.

b. n
 6 
1000 = 600  1 + 
 100 
1000
= ( 1.06 )
n
600
 10 
log   = n log1.06
 6
 10 
log  
n=  6
log1.06
= 8.766693
After approximately 9 years there will be $1000.
4
c. V = 2400  1 −
8 

 100 
= 2400 (0.92)4
= 1719.3431
The value of the library after 4 years will be approximately $1 719.
10
d. 10% paid quarterly is % each quarter.
4
i. 3 years is 12 quarters
The amount after 3 years is given by
12
 2.5 
A = 2000  1 + 
 100 
= 2000 (1.025)12
= 2689.78
After 3 years the deposit is $2 689.78
ii. 5000 = 2000 (1.025)n

2.5 = (1.025)n
log 2.5 = n log 1.025
log 25
n=
log1.025
= 37.10789
1
After 38 quarters (9 years) the deposit will be $5 000.
2

2. a. i. When
t=7
B = 1 000e0.03 × 7
= 1 000e0.21
= 1 233.678
∴ after 7 minutes there are approximately 1234 bacteria.
ii. When
B = 2 000
2000 = 1 000e0.03t
2 = e0.03t
ln 2 = 0.03t
ln 2
t=
0.03
= 23.1049
After about 24 minutes there are 2000 bacteria.

b. The initial mass was 10 g.
∴ M = 10e–kt
After 2 years the mass is 8 g
8 = 10e–2k
8
= e–2k
10
ln 0.8 = –2k
ln 0.8
k=
−2
= 0.1115718
After 6 years the mass will be
M = 10e–0.1115718 × 6
= 10e–0.6694308
= 5.12
After 6 years the mass of Uranium left is 5.12 grams.
Some important points about ex and ln x

i. x = eln x, x = ln(ex)
ii. ln e = 1 (i.e. logee = 1)
iii. ex can be expressed as the sum of an infinite series

∞
x 2 x3 xn xn
ex = 1 + x + +
2! 3!
+ K+
n!
K= ∑
n = 0 n!
where n! = n(n – 1) (n – 2) ... (3) (2) (1) and 0! = 1! = 1
iv. ex can be expressed as the value of the limit of the function

n
 x
e x = 1 lim  1 + 
n→ ∞  n
v. ex is the only function which remains unaltered when differentiated or integrated

Examples
Example
Radioactive material is known to decay to inert material at a rate given by the
exponential equation:
x = x0e–kt
where x = mass of radioactive material remaining at time t
x0 = initial mass
k = decay constant
t = time (years)
Find the time required for 10 kilograms of radioactive material with a decay
constant of 1.3 to decay to a mass of 6 kilograms.
Solution
x = x0e–kt
x = 10e–1.3t
x
= e–1.3t
10
Taking natural log of each side gives
 x
ln   = ln(e–1.3t) = –1.3t lne = –1.3t { lne = 1}
 10 
 x
ln  
t=
−  
10
1.3
ln 0.6 − 0.5108
When x = 6, t = − = − = 0.393 years
1.3 1.3

Example
The world’s population is known to increase at a rate given by:
P = AeBt
where P = population at time t
t = time (years)
A = population at time zero (in millions)
B = constant
If the population was 2500 million in 1945 and 4000 million in 1970, find B and
estimate the population in 1985 and 2000.
Solutions
Let time be zero in 1945.
A = 2500
Given P = 4000 when t = (1970–1945) = 25
4000 = Ae25B = 2500e25B
4000
e25B = = 1.6
2500
Taking natural log of each side gives
ln (e25B) = ln 1.6
25B ln e = ln 1.6
25B = ln 1.6
ln1.6 0.47
B= = = 0.01880
25 25
P = 2500e0.0188t
In 1985, t = (1985–1945) = 40
When t = 40, P = 2500 e0.0188 × 40 = 2500 e0.752
= 2500 × 2.121 = 5303 million
In 2000, t = (2000–1945) = 55
When t = 55, P = 2500e0.0188 × 55 = 7030 million

Example
Radioactive strontium 90 is used in nuclear reactors and decays according to
A = Pe–0.0248t
where P is the amount present at t = 0 and A is the amount left after t years. Find
the time required for 10 kilograms to decay to 5 kilograms.
Solution
A = 10e–0.0248t
5 = 10e–0.0248t
0.5 = e–0.0248t
ln 0.5 = –0.0248t
ln 0.5
t=
− 0.0248
= 27.95 years
Example
The rate at which a chemical is generated in a reaction is given by
x = 11.6 × 2.71 – 2.4t
where x is the amount of chemical present at time t.
A graph of x against t is very difficult to draw. Use logs to obtain a simpler

graph.
Solution
x = 11.6 × 2.71 – 2.4t
log x = log (11.6 × 2.71 – 2.4t)
= log 11.6 + log 2.71 – 2.4t = log 11.6 + (1 – 2.4t) log 2.7
= 1.064 + 0.4314(1 – 2.4t)
= 1.064 + 0.4314 – 0.4314 × 2.4t
= 1.064 + 0.4314 – 1.0350t
= 1.496 – 1.035t
This function is a straight-line graph of log x against t.

Exercise 4.9
1. The acidity of a solution is measured by the symbol pH, where pH is –log of
the concentration of the hydrogen ion, i.e. pH = – log [H+].
Find:
i. the pH if [H+] is
a. 10–3 b. 1 c. 2 × 10–5
ii. [H+] if the pH is
a. 5 b. 3.4 c. 0.49
2. The average height of females (y) in metres is given approximately in terms

of age (x) by:
y = 0.61 + 0.796 log (x + 1), for x ≤ 20
a. Find the average height of an 8 year old girl.
b. At what age is the average height 1.5 metres?
3. Use logs to transform the equations below into straight lines.

a. y = 1.4x b. y = 6 × 1.2x c. y = 3 × 0.6–2x d. y = 2 × 33 – 2x
Solutions
1.
i. a. 3 b. 0 c. 4.699
ii. a. 10–5 b. 10–3.4 = 3.981 × 10–4 c. 10–0.49 = 0.324
2. a. 1.37 m b. 12.1 years
3.
a. log y = x log 1.4 = 0.146x
b. log y = log 6 + x log 1.2 = 0.778 + 0.0792x
c. log y = 0.477 + 0.444x
d. log y = log 2 + (3 – 2x) log 3 = 1.732 – 0.954x


Questions 4.1
1. Write the expression 28 = 256 in its logarithmic form
2. Use the logarithm rules to express the following as a single logarithm: logab3 – logab
3. Given that s = ln(5t + 3), express t in terms of s
4. Make t the subject of 3s = 5e2t + 1
5. Simplify e2 ln x
6. Sketch the graph of y = ex
7. Population of a town is increasing according to the formula P = Poekt where P is the
population in t years, Po is the initial population and k is the growth constant. If the
population in 1987 was 1000 and in 1992 was 1400, when will the population double?

Questions 4.2
1. Express log2 147 = 7.2 in an exponential form
2. Use the logarithm rules to express the following as a single logarithm:
1 1
log 2 27 + log 2 16 − log 2 8
3 2
3. Simplify ln e5x
1 2 x+ 1
4. Given that y = e , express x in terms of y.
2
1
5. Make t the subject of 2 s = log10 t + 3
2
6. Sketch the graph of y = e–x
7. The temperature T at any time t of a steel ingot cooling from 350°C to 15°C is modelled
by T = 15 + 350e–kt. If after 3 hours the temperature is 150°C, what would the
temperature be after 10 hours?

Module 5 – Trigonometry
Objectives
● evaluate trigonometric ratios for any right-angled triangle

● evaluate trigonometric ratios for positive or negative angles of any size
● evaluate positive or negative inverse trigonometric ratios
● solve problems involving trigonometric ratios and their relationships
● apply the sine rule and cosine rule to find sides and angles for any triangle
● find the area of any triangle
● understand the meaning of radians and convert angles from one system to the other
● find the area of the sector of a circle
● know the general shape of graphs or trigonometric functions
● draw a trigonometric graph by plotting selected points.

5.1 Trigonometric relationships

There are six trig. ratios: sine θ, cosine θ, tangent θ, cosecant θ, secant θ and cotangent θ.
sine θ
tangent θ =
cosine θ
These ratios are abbreviated as: sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, cosec θ, sec θ and cot θ. These symbols
are referred to as ratios since they can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-angled
triangle.
a b a sin θ
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = =
c c b cos θ
1 1 1
and csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
These trig. terms can be evaluated on any scientific calculator. Note that most machines work
in ‘decimal’ degrees rather than degrees, minutes and seconds which must be converted to
decimal fractions of degrees before calculation, e.g.
 12 2 
sin 24° 12′ 2′′ = sin  24 + +  ° = sin 24.200556° = 0.40993
 60 60 × 60 
Your calculator can accept positive or negative angles (a negative angle means that it is
measured clockwise instead of anticlockwise) of any size. However, the trig. ratios of angles
outside the range of 0° to 90° i.e. outside quadrant I, cannot be interpreted by the triangle
diagram above. In fact many of the results are negative. These values may be found by
considering the cases following.

a. 90° to 180°
i.e. angles of quadrant II
Note: the Cartesian co-ordinate system

divides the XY plane into 4 quadrants.
In the second quadrant b is negative and a is positive.
a b a
Thus, sin θ = cos θ = − tan θ =
c c b
Note that in this quadrant,
sinΦ = sin θ
Thus,
sin (180° − θ) = sin θ
b. 180° to 270°
i.e. angles of quadrant III
In the third quadrant, both a and b are negative which means that sin θ and cos θ are both
negative and tan θ is positive. Note that
a
tan Φ = = tan θ
b

Thus,
tan (180° + θ) = tan θ
c. 270° to 360°
i.e. angles of quadrant IV
In this quadrant a is negative and b is positive thus cos θ is positive and sin θ and tan θ are
both negative.
Note that
cos θ = cos Φ
Thus,
cos (360° − θ) = cos θ
These results may be summarised by the diagram below which gives the positive ratios in
each quadrant.
Useful mnemonics to remember which ratios are positive are

All Stations To Central
All Students Take Chemistry

This diagram also illustrates that
sin (− θ) = − sin θ,
cos (− θ) = cos θ, and
tan (− θ) = − tan θ.
Thus there are usually two angles between 0° and 360° which have the same trig ratio
(except for sin θ = ± and cos θ = ± 1). For example, if we wish to find θ such that sin θ = 0.5,
then θ = 30° or 150°, since sin θ = sin (180° − θ).
Given sin θ we can find θ by using the INV key followed by the SIN key on the calculator.
This gives us the SIN−1 key. The result is an angle between − 90° and 90°. From this first
value of θ, we may find the other angle between 0° and 360° which also satisfies the trig
equation.
For example if sin θ = 0.5, the calculator shows that θ = 30°.
The other angle must be found using our knowledge of trig relationships. We know sin θ =
sin (180° − θ).
∴ If θ1 = 30° gives sin θ1 = 0.5, then θ2 = (180° − 30°) also gives sin θ2 = 0.5.
So the two angles which satisfy the trig equation sin θ = 0.5 are 30° and 150°.
Similarly to find two angles between 0° and 360° such that sin θ = − 0.5, we find
sin−1 (−0.5) = − 30° from the calculator
∴ sin (180° − (− 30°)) = 0.5 i.e. the other angle is 210°.
So the two angles which satisfy sin θ = − 0.5 are − 30° and 210°.
To obtain angles between 0° and 360° we note that − 30° is the same as 330°.
∴ The two angles are 210° and 330°.
The angle given by calculators on pressing 0.5 INV SIN is the ‘inverse sin of 0.5’ written as
‘sin−1 0.5’ or ‘arcsin 0.5’.
1
Note that sin–1 0.5 does not mean sin–1 0.5 means the angle whose sin is 0.5
sin 0.5
The other trig ratios also have inverses, i.e. arccos x, arctan x, arcsec x, arccosec x, arcot x
where x is a number, may be defined similarly. These inverse trig ratios have a unique value.
This implies that an equation like sin θ = 0.5 has two solutions for θ in the range 0° to 360°
(namely 30° and 150°) but arcsin 0.5 has only one value, 30°.

In order to find the second angle when solving trig equations, you must know the diagram
showing the positive quadrants and the relationships:
sin (180 − θ) = sin θ
cos (360 − θ) = cos θ
tan (180 + θ) = tan θ
The values of the trigonometric ratios for some angles commonly used are given in the table
below.
Sin θ, cos θ and tan θ for angles 0° to 360° given in the table should be memorised.
θ
0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°
1 2 3
sin θ 0 1 0 −1 0
2 2 2
3 2 1
cos θ 1 0 −1 0 1
2 2 2
1 Not Not
tan θ 0 1 3 0 0
3 defined defined
2 Not Not
sec θ 1 2 2 −1 1
3 defined defined
Not 2 Not Not

csc θ 2 2 1 −1
defined 3 defined defined
Not 1 Not Not

cot θ 3 1 0 0
defined 3 defined defined
Two triangles which are used by many people to help them remember the trig ratios for
angles of 30°, 60° and 45° are given below.
Equilateral triangle Right Angled Isosceles triangle

Exercise 5.1
Evaluate
a. cos 72° 4' b. sec 105.37° c. tan (− 15° 23' 32")

d. arctan 0.3 e. arccos 0.3 f. tan−1 2.7
g. sin−1 (− 0.6) h. cot−1 2
Solutions
Note: There are two systems for measuring angles: radians and degrees. Make
sure that the calculator is switched to degrees.
 4 
a. 72° 4′ =  72 +  ° = 72.0667°
 60 
cos 72.0667° = 0.3079
1 1
b. sec105.37° = = = − 3.7729
cos105.37° − 0.2651
 23 32 
c. 15° 23′ 32′′ =  15 + +  ° = ( 15 + 0.383333 + 0.008889 ) ° = 15.392222°
 60 602 
tan (– 15.392222) = – 0.2753
d. arctan 0.3 = 16.699°
Note that arctan 0.3 is the same as tan−1 0.3
e. arccos 0.3 = 72.54°
f. tan−1 2.7 = 69.68°
1
Note that tan−1 x is not the same as
tan x
g. sin−1 (− 0.6) = − 36.87°
360° may be added to this if a positive answer is preferred, i.e.
360 − 36.87 = 323.13°.
The angle − 36.87° is the same angle as 323.13°.
1 1
h. If cot θ = 2, then = tan θ = = 0.5
cot θ 2
∴ cot−1 2 is the same angle as tan−1 0.5 = 26.57°

Exercise 5.2
Find all angles in a 360° circle which satisfy the trig equations:
a. sin θ = 0.3 b. tan θ = 1.3 c. cos θ = 0.8

d. sin θ = − 0.6 e. tan θ = − 2.7 f. cos θ = − 0.2
Solutions
a. One solution is θ = arcsin 0.3 = 17.46° and the other is (180° − θ) = 180° −
17.46° = 162.54°
[Check on your calculator that sin of both these angles is 0.3]
b. Solutions are θ = arctan 1.3 and (180° + θ)
= 52.43° and (180° + 52.43°)
= 52.43° and 232.43°
[Check on calculator]
c. θ = arccos 0.8 and (360° − θ)
= 36.87° and (360° − 36.87°)
= 36.87° and 323.13°
[Check on calculator]
d. θ = arcsin (− 0.6) and (180° − θ)
= − 36.87° and (180° − (− 36.87°))
= − 36.87° and 216.37°
[Note that − 36.87° may also be written as 360° − 36.87° = 323.13°]
e. θ = arctan (− 2.7) and (180° + θ)
= − 69.68° and (180° − 69.68°)
= − 69.68° and 110.32°
[Note that − 69.68° may also be written as 360° − 69.68° = 290.32°]
f. θ = arccos (− 0.2) and (360° − θ)
= 101.54° and (360° − 101.54)°
= 101.54° and 258.46°

Exercise 5.3
A surveyor on the roof of a building observes that the top of another building
below forms an angle of 10° 32' with the horizontal whereas the base of the
building forms an angle of 31° 17' to the horizontal. If the buildings are
250 metres apart, find the height of the observed building.
Solution
From the triangle ABC,
x
tan 10° 32' =
250
∴ x = 250 tan 10° 32' = 250 tan 10.53333° = 250 × 0.1859 = 46.49 m
From the triangle ABD,
x + h = 250 tan 31° 17'
∴ 46.49 + h = 250 tan 31.283333° = 250 × 0.6076 = 151.90 m
∴ h = 151.90 − 46.49 = 105.41 m

Exercise 5.4
The angle to the top of a tower is 21° above horizontal and from another point
150 m closer it is 43°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution
Let x be the height of the tower and y
be the distance from the second point
to the tower.
From the triangle DBC,
x x x
tan 43° = ∴ y= =
y tan 43° 0.9325
From the triangle ABC

x
tan 21° = ∴ tan 21° ( 150 + y ) = x
150 + y
 x 
i.e. tan 21°  150 + = x
 0.9325 
 x 
∴ 0.3839  150 + = x
 0.9325 
0.3839 x
∴ 0.3839 × 150 + = x
0.9325
∴ 57.585 + 0.4117 x = x
∴ 57.585 = x ( 1 − 0.4117 )
= 0.5883x
57.585
∴ x= = 97.9 m
0.5883
Exercise 5.5
Simplify
sec A
a. cos A. tan A. cosec A. b.
cosec A
Solutions
sin A 1
a. cos A tan A cosec A = cos A =1
cos A sin A
sec A 1 / cos A sin A
b. = = = tan A
cosec A 1 / sin A cos A

Additional exercises
1. Evaluate:
a. sin (−22° 15') b. cos 36.42° c. tan(−120° 36')
d. sin 223.4° e. tan 96.7° f. cos 192° 33'22"
2. Find the following angles:

a. arcsin 0.4 b. cos−1 0.2 c. tan−1 1.9
d. arcsin (− 0.25) e. arccos (− 0.51) f. arctan (− 2.6)
3. Find all angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the following equations:
a. tan θ = 1.3 b. sin θ = 0.63 c. cos θ = 0.13
d. sin θ = − 0.28 e. tan θ = − 1.6 f. cos θ = − 0.84
4. From one point on the ground the angle to the top of a tower is 32° above
the horizontal. From a point 200 m closer, the angle is 64°. Find the height
of the tower.
Solutions
1.
a. − 0.3786 b. 0.8047 c. 1.6909
d. − 0.6871 e. − 8.5126 f. − 0.9761
2.
a. 23.578° b. 78.46° c. 62.24°
d. − 14.48° e. 120.66° f. − 68.96°
3.
a. 52.43° and 232.43° b. 39.05° and 140.95°
c. 82.53° and 277.47° d. 343.74° and 196.26°
e. 302.01° and 122.01° f. 147.14° and 212.86°
4. 179.76 m

5.2 Trigonometric identities

Some important relationships between the trig ratios can be established using Pythagoras’
Theorem.
a b
sin θ = , cos θ =
c c
a 2 b2 a 2 + b2 c 2
∴ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = + = = 2=1
c2 c2 c2 c
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1
Note: sin2 θ means sin θ multiplied by sin θ, i.e. sin2 θ = (sin θ)2. It does not mean sin (θ2).
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 may be rewritten as sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ, or
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
Dividing by cos2 θ gives
sin 2 θ 1
2
+ 1=
cos θ cos 2 θ
∴ tan2 θ + 1= sec2 θ
Dividing by sin2 θ gives
cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ

Exercise 5.6
Simplify
1
a. − tan 2 θ
cos 2 θ
b. (sin x + cos x)2 + (sin x – cos x)2
tan θ
c.
1 + tan 2 θ
Solutions
1 sin 2 θ 1 − sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
a. − = = =1
cos 2 θ cos 2 θ cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
b. sin2x + cos2x + 2sinx cosx + sin2x + cos2x – 2sinx cosx = 2sin2x + 2cos2x
= 2(sin2x + cos2x) = 2 × 1 = 2
tan θ tan θ sin θ cos θ
c. = = = sin θ
2
sec θ sec θ 1 cos θ
Exercise 5.7
Find all angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy
a. 2 cos2 θ – sin θ – 1 = 0
b. sec2 θ = 3 + tan θ
Solutions
a. 2(1 – sin2 θ) – sin θ – 1 = 0
2 – 2 sin2 θ – sin θ – 1 = 0
–2 sin2 θ – sin θ + 1 = 0
2 sin2 θ + sin θ – 1 = 0
(2 sin θ – 1) (sin θ + 1) = 0
1
∴ sin θ = or sin θ = –1
2
1
sin θ = ⇒ θ = sin–1 0.5 ∴ θ = 30° and (180° – θ) = sin–1 0.5
2
∴ 150° = sin–1 0.5
sin θ = –1 ⇒ θ = sin–1 (–1) ∴ θ = –90°
and – 90° is the same as 360° – 90° = 270°
∴ Solutions are θ = 30°, 150° and 270°.

b. sec2 θ = 3 + tan θ
1 + tan2 θ = 3 + tan θ
1 + tan2 θ – 3 – tan θ = 0
tan2 θ – tan θ – 2 = 0
(tan θ – 2) (tan θ + 1) = 0
∴ tan θ = 2 or tan θ = –1
tan θ = 2 ⇒ θ = tan–1 2 ∴ θ = 63.43° and ∴ (180° + θ) = tan–1 2
∴ (180° + 63.43°) = tan–1 2
∴ 243.43° = tan–1 2
from tan θ = – 1 ⇒ θ = arctan (– 1) or (180° + θ)
= – 45° or (180 – 45°)
= – 45° or 135°
and – 45° is the same as 360° – 45° = 315°
∴ Solutions are θ = 63.43°, 135°, 243.43° and 315°
1. If tan A = 2, find cos A using the trig identities.
2. If sin B = 0.4, find cos B and cot B using the trig identities.
1
3. Prove that tan θ + cot θ =
sin θ cos θ
4. Find all angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy
a. cos2 θ + 4 sin2 θ = 2
b. 2 cos2 θ = 3 sin θ
c. 2 sin2 θ – 9 cos θ + 3 = 0
Solutions
1. sec2A = 1 + tan2A = 5
sec A = ± 5
1 1
cos A = = ± = ± 0.4472
sec A 5
2. cos2B = 1 – sin2B = 1 – 0.42 = 0.84

∴ cos B = ± 0.9165
cos B 0.9165
cot B = = ± = ± 2.2913
sin B 0.4

sin θ cos θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ 1

3. tan θ + cot θ = + = =
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
4. a. sin θ = ± 0.5774 ∴ θ = 35.26°, 144.74°, 215.26° or 324.73°
b. sin θ = 0.5 or –2 Now sin θ = –2 is impossible ∴ θ = 30° or 150°
c. cos θ = 0.5 or –5 Now cos θ = –5 is impossible ∴ θ = 60° or 300°
5.3 Triangle solution

One of the most common applications of trigonometry is to the problem of triangle
‘solution’. In this problem, some sides and angles of a triangle (not necessarily right-angled)
are known and we want to find the remaining sides and angles.
In the triangle ACD, CD = b sin A
In the triangle BCD, CD = a sin B
∴ b sin A = a sin B
b a
∴ =
sin B sin A
a c
Similarly, =
sin A sin C
These can be combined in the sine rule
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
where a, b, c are the sides and A, B, C are the opposite angles of any triangle.
To use the sine rule, we need any 2 sides and an opposite angle or any 2 angles and an
opposite side.

Exercise 5.8
Find all angles and sides of the triangles:
a.
b. AC = 11, BC = 9, ∠A = 50°
Solutions
a.
a 12
=
sin 32° sin 50°
12sin 32° 12 × 0.5299
∴ a= = = 8.301
sin 50° 0.7660
c 12
∠ C = 180 − 32 − 50 = 98° , =
sin 98° sin 50°
12sin 98° 12 × 0.9903
c= = = 15.512
sin 50° 0.7660
b.
11 9 sin B sin 50°
= ∴ =
sin B sin 50° 11 9
11sin 50°
∴ sin B =
9
11 × 0.7660
= = 0.9363
9
∴ B = sin–1 0.9363 or (180° – B)
= 69.435° or (180° – 69.435°)
= 69.435° or 110.565°
Note that both angles are possible so the triangle above is only one
representation of the given information.

If B = 69.435°, then
∠ C = 180 − 50 − 69.435 = 60.565°

c 9
=
sin 60.565° sin 50°
9sin 60.565° 9 × 0.8709
∴ c= = = 10.232
sin 50° 0.7660
If B = 110.565°, then
∠ C = 180 − 50 − 110.565 = 19.435°

c 9
=
sin19.435° sin 50°
9sin19.435°
∴ c= = 3.909
sin 50°
Cosine rule
In the triangle BCD, a2 = (b – x)2 + h2
= b2 – 2bx + x2 + h2
= b2 – 2bx + c2 {In triangle ADB, x2 + h2 = c2}
But x = c cos A. Substituting gives the cosine rule
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA
To use the cosine rule, we require any 2 sides and the included angle or all 3 sides.

Exercise 5.9
Find all sides and angles of the triangle
Solution
Note that the only angle given is labelled C in the diagram which does not agree
with the labelling in cosine rule. We may either re-label the diagram to make
this A or adjust the letters in cosine rule to give:
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C = 22 + 32 – 2 × 2 × 3 cos 120°
= 4 + 9 – 12 × (– 0.5)
= 13 + 6 = 19
∴ c = 19 = 4.359
[Note: only the positive square root is feasible for the length of a side of a triangle.]
4.359 3 3sin120° 3 × 0.8660

= ∴ sin B = = = 0.596
sin120° sin B 4.359 4.359
∴ B = sin–1 0.596 or (180° – B) = 36.585° or (180° – 36.585°)
= 36.585° or 143.415°
From the diagram, 143.415° is clearly impossible. Thus B = 36.585°.
A = 180° – 120° – 36.585° = 23.415°.

Exercise 5.10
A weight hangs from the junction of two ropes 4.4 metres and 3.6 metres long
respectively. If the other ends of the ropes are attached to a beam at points 5
metres apart, find the angle between the ropes.
Solution
52 = 4.42 + 3.62 – 2 × 4.4 × 3.6 cos θ

25 = 19.36 + 12.96 – 31.68 cos θ
25 = 32.32 – 31.68 cos θ
25 – 32.32 = –31.68 cos θ
–7.32 = – 31.68 cos θ
7.32
cos θ = = 0.2311
31.68
∴ θ = cos–1 (0.2311) or (360° – θ)
= 76.64° or 283.36°
Obviously, 283.36° is impossible. Thus, the angle is 76.64°.
Triangle area
The area of any triangle ABC, may be found as follows:
1 1
Area = × base × height = b × BD
2 2
BD
But = sin A
c

1
Area = bc sin A
2
Thus, to find the area we require any 2 sides and the included angle.
Exercise 5.11
A geological exploration company takes out a mining lease of the shape below.
Find its area.
Solution
In triangle CDE,
2802 = 4502 + 5002 – 2 × 450 × 500 cos θ1
78400 = 202500 + 250000 – 450000 cos θ1
78400 = 452500 – 450000 cos θ1
78400 – 452500 = – 450000 cos θ1
– 374100 = – 450000 cos θ1
374100
∴ cos θ1 = = 0.8313
450000
∴ θ1 = cos–1 0.8313 or (360° – θ1)
= 33.764° or 326.24°
From the diagram, θ1 must be 33.764°
1
Area of triangle CDE = × 450 × 500 sin 33.764°
2
= 112500 × 0.5558 = 62525 m2
In triangle CAE,
3202 = 2802 + 3002 – 2 × 280 × 300 × cos θ2
102400 = 78400 + 90000 – 168000 cos θ2
– 66000 = – 168000 cos θ2

cos θ2 = 0.3929
θ2 = 66.868° (The other answer of 293.13° is impossible)
1
Area = × 300 × 280 sin 66.868°
2
= 42000 × 0.9196 = 38623 m2
In triangle BCA,
2 2
3202 = 300 + 200 – 2 × 300 × 200 cos θ3
102400 = 90000 + 40000 – 120000 cos θ3
– 27600 = – 120000 cos θ3
cos θ3 = 0.23
θ3 = 76.703°
1
Area = × 300 × 200 sin 76.703° = 29196 m2
2
∴ Total area of lease = 62525 + 38623 + 29196 = 130344 m2
1. Find the remaining angles of the triangle ABC given that:
a. b = 4, c = 2, A = 30° b. b = 5, c = 4, A = 42°
c. a = 4, b = 7, C = 110°
2. Find the remaining side of the triangle ABC given that:

a. c = 56, a = 74, C = 35° 15′ b. b = 15, c = 14, B = 57° 22′
c. b = 6, c = 5, B = 53° 8′
3. Find the angle A in the triangle ABC with the sides:

a. a = 2, b = 4, c = 3 b. a = 9, b = 5, c = 6
4. Find all the remaining angles and sides of the triangle ABC where:
a. a = 2, b = 4, C = 30° b. a = 6, c = 7, B = 75° 31′
5. Find the areas of the triangles in question 1.

6. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD given that:
AB = 12, BC = 10, CD = 14, DA = 8, AC = 16.

Solutions
1.
a. B = 126.21°, C = 23.79° b. B = 85.14°, C = 52.86°
c. A = 24.19°, B = 45.81°
2.
a. b = 96.65 or 24.21 b. a = 16.82
c. a = 7.47
3.
a. A = 28.96° b. 109.47°
4.
a. A = 23.79°, B = 126.21°, c = 2.48
b. A = 46.57°, C = 57.91°, b = 8.00
5. a. 2 b. 6.691 c. 13.16
6. 115.92

5.4 Compound angles

x1
cos A = = x1
1
y1
sin A = = y1
1
x2
cos B = = x2
1
y2
cos B = = y2
1
The coordinates of P are (cos A, sin A) and of Q are (cos B, sin B).
The distance PQ is given by
PQ2 = (cos A – cos B)2 + (sin A – sin B)2
= (cos2 A +cos2 B – 2 cos A cos B) + (sin2 A + sin2 B – 2 sin A sin B)
= 1 – 2 cos A cos B + 1 – 2 sin A sin B
= 2 – 2 cos A cos B – 2 sin A sin B
From the cosine rule in triangle POQ,

PQ2= 12 + 12 – 2 × 1 × 1 cos (A – B) = 2 – 2 cos (A – B)
∴ 2 – 2 cos A cos B – 2sin A sin B = 2 – 2 cos (A – B)
cos(A – B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
If we write (– B) for B we get
cos(A + B) = cosAcosB – sinAsinB
We can derive a similar rule for the sin of a compound angle as follows:
sin (A + B) = cos (90° – (A + B)) = cos ((90° – A) – B)
= cos (90° – A) cos B + sin (90° – A) sin B
Since cos (90° – A) = sin A and sin (90° – A) = cos A, we get
sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB

and similarly
sin(A – B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB
If we put B = A, we obtain the special results for double angles.

sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
sin2A = 2 sinAcosA
cos (A + A) = cos A cos A – sin A sin A
cos2A = cos2A – sin2A
A summary of the results discussed to this point is given below:
A. Definitions and basic identities
y 1
sin θ = =
r cosec θ
x 1
cos θ = =
r sec θ
y 1
tan θ = =
x cot θ
sin ( − θ ) = − sin θ ; cos ( − θ ) = cos θ
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
sec 2 θ = 1 + tan 2 θ
cosec 2 θ = 1 + cot 2 θ
sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ ; cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ {Prove these by substituting for cos2θ}
cos 2 θ = ; sin 2 θ = ;
2 2
sin ( A ± B ) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos ( A ± B ) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
sin ( A − 90° ) = − cos A; cos ( A − 90° ) = sin A
sin ( A + 90° ) = cos A; cos ( A + 90° ) = − sin A

B. Angles and sides of a triangle
Cosine rule: c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos C

a b c
Sine rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C
1 1 1
Area: = bc sin A = ac sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2
Exercise 5.12
Simplify
sin ( A + B )
a.
cos A cos B
1 + cos 2θ
b.
1 − cos 2θ
sin 4θ − cos 2θ
c.
1 − cos 4θ − sin 2θ
Solutions
a.
sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin A cos B cos A sin B
= +
cos A cos B cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin A sin B
= +
cos A cos B
= tan A+ tan B
b.
1 + cos 2θ 1 + cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
=
1 − cos 2θ (
1 − cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
1 − sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ
=
1 − cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ
cos 2 θ + cos 2 θ
=
sin 2 θ + sin 2 θ
2cos 2 θ
=
2sin 2 θ
cos 2 θ
=
sin 2 θ
cos θ
=
sin θ
= cot θ

c.
sin 4θ − cos 2θ 2sin 2θ cos 2θ − cos 2θ
=
(
1 − cos 4θ − sin 2θ 1 − cos 2 2θ − sin 2 2θ − sin 2θ )
cos 2θ ( 2sin 2θ − 1)
=
1 − cos 2 2θ + sin 2 2θ − sin 2θ
cos 2θ ( 2sin 2θ − 1)
=
sin 2 2θ + sin 2 2θ − sin 2θ
cos 2θ ( 2sin 2θ − 1)
=
2sin 2 2θ − sin 2θ
cos 2θ ( 2sin 2θ − 1)
=
sin 2θ ( 2sin 2θ − 1)
cos 2θ
= = cot 2θ
sin 2θ
1. Write the following in terms of sin A, cos A, sin B and cos B.
a. cos (A + 2B) b. sin (2A + B) c. cos (2B – A)
2. Express the following as a single trig ratio.
a. cos 24° sin 35° – sin 24° cos 35°
b. cos245° –sin245°
c. cos 32° cos 58° – sin 32° sin 58°
d. sin 21° cos 46° + cos 21° sin 46°
3. Prove the identities:
sin ( A + B )
a. cot A + cot B =
sin A sin B
sin ( A − B ) tan A − tan B
b. =
cos ( A + B ) 1 − tan A tan B
Solutions
1. a. cos A cos2 B – cos A sin2 B – 2 sin A sin B cos B
b. 2 sin A cos A cos B + cos2A sin B – sin2A sin B
c. 2 sin A sin B cos B + cos A cos2B – cos A sin2B
2.
a. sin (35° – 24°) = sin 11° b. cos (2 × 45°) = cos 90°
c. cos (32° + 58°) = cos 90° d. sin (21° + 46°) = sin 67°

3. a.
cos A cos B cos A sin B+sin A cos B sin ( A + B )
cot A+ cot B = + = =
sin A sin B sin A sin B sin A sin B
b.
sin ( A − B ) sin A cos B − cos A sin B
=
cos ( A + B ) cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B

−
= cos A cos B cos A cos B (Divide each term by cos A cos B)
cos A cos B sin A sin B
−
cos A cos B cos A cos B
tan A − tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B

5.5 Radian measure

Radians and degrees are alternative means of measuring the size of an angle.
Consider a circle of radius r. The angle θ will be one radian if it corresponds to an arc of the
circumference of length r. This means that
1 radian = 57.2058 degrees i.e. (1c ≡ 57.2958°)
Note that a radian is really a ratio of arclength to radius although it corresponds to a measure
of angle. Thus it may be mixed with other measurements in an equation whereas degree
measurements cannot. Often the little c superscript to denote radians is omitted. If an angle
does not have the degree sign you must assume it is in radians.
Radians may be converted to degrees and vice versa by use of the relationship
π radians = 180 degrees
For instance
π π 3.141593
60° = 60 × = = = 1.047198c
180 3 2
It is not necessary to convert radians to degrees before using a calculator since most
machines work directly in either system. Most scientific and engineering problems are
expressed in radians.
Make sure your calculator is in the correct mode. In future work we will be using
radians.
Exercise 5.13
Convert
a. 217° to radians b. 2.64c to degrees.
Solutions
π 180
a. 217 × = 3.787c b. 2.64 × = 151.26°
180 π

Length of arc of a circle

The length of the arc of a circle may be deduced as follows.
Let θ be the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius r by an arc of length l.
l
Then θ = radians (by definition of a radian)
r
∴ l = rθ where θ is measured in radians
Exercise 5.14
A circular arc of radius 7.6 metres has a length 4.2 metres. Find the angle
subtended at the centre.
Solution
4.2 = 7.6 θ
4.2
∴θ= = 0.553c
7.6

Area of a sector of a circle

We can derive a formula for the area of a sector of a circle as follows:
area of sector θ
=
area of circle 2π
θ
∴ area of sector = ⋅ area of circle
2π
θ
= ⋅ π r2
2π
1 2
area of sector = r θ
2
[Note that this formula cannot be used if θ is measured in degrees.]
Exercise 5.15
Find the area of the solid line figure with the dimensions given below:
AC = 3 m, AD = 2.5 m, AB = 2.4 m, CB = 2.4 m
Solution
1.5
In triangle DAC, sin θ = = 0.6 ∴ θ = sin–10.6 = 0.6435c
2.5
∴ ∠ ADC = 2 θ = 1.287c
Outer part of circle from A to C has an angle at the centre of (2π – 1.287)
radians.
1 1 2
Area of sector = r (2π – 1.287)
2 2
2.52
= × (2π – 1.287)
2
= 3.125 × 4.996 = 15.613 m2

1
Area of triangle DAC = × 2.52 sin 1.287c = 3.125 × 0.9600 = 3 m2
2
1.5
In triangle ABC, sin Φ = = 0.625 ∴ Φ = 0.6751c
2.4
1
∴ Area of triangle ABC = × 2.42 × sin (2 × 0.6751c)
2
= 2.88 sin 1.3502c
= 2.810 m2
∴ Total area = 15.613 + 3 + 2.81 = 21.423 m2
1. Express the following angles in radians
a. 360° b. 30° c. 10° d. 137°15'12"
2. Express the following angles in degrees.
πc 5π c
a. b. 1.674c c. d. 6.803c
3 4
3. Find the arclength and area of the sector of the circle with radius and angle
given below:
π
a. r = 4 m, θ = b. r = 5 m, θ = 2.5
3
d. r = 10 m, θ = 45° c. r = 6 m, θ = 130°
Solutions
1.
π π
a. 2π = 6.283c b. = 0.524c c. = 0.1745c d. 2.3955c
6 18
2.
a. 60° b. 95.913° c. 225° d. 389.783°
3.
4π 1 8π
a. Arclength = rθ = = 4.189 m; Area = r2θ = = 8.378 m2
3 2 3
b. Arclength = 12.5 m; Area = 31.25 m2
π
c. 45° ≡ = 0.7854c ∴ Arclength = 7.854 m; Area = 39.27 m2
4
d. 130° ≡ 2.269c ∴ Arclength = 13.614 m; Area = 40.841 m2

5.6 Graphs involving trigonometric functions

In order to use graphical methods to solve equations involving trig. functions, it is necessary
to know the graphs of the basic trig. functions.
Using radian measure and your calculator, verify the following graphs of the trig. Function:
1. y = sin x
2. y = cos x

3. y = tan x
Note that the x-axis is measured in radians. In most graphs involving trig functions, other
functions of x are also involved e.g. x − sin x. In such situations radians must be used since
radians and trig functions are all ratios (i.e. they are numbers) and may be mixed. Degrees
are not ratios and cannot be combined with trig functions.
Exercise 5.16
Sketch the graph of y = sec x
Solution
1
y = sec x =
cos x
∴ Plot the inverse of the values for cos x
π 3π π π π π 3π π
x − − − − 0 →
2 8 4 8 8 4 8 2
cos x 0 0.383 0.707 0.924 1 0.924 0.707 0.383 0 →
sec x = 1/cos x Undef 2.613 1.41 1.08 1 1.08 1.41 2.613 Undef →
5π 3π 7π 9π 5π 11π 3π
→ x π
8 4 8 8 4 8 2
→ cos x –0.383 –0.707 –0.924 –1 –1.08 –0.707 –0.383 0
→ sec x = 1/cos x –2.613 –1.41 –1.08 –1 –0.924 –1.41 –2.613 Undef


Exercise 5.17
Find all solutions of x2 − 1 − sin x = 0
Solution
y1 = x2 − 1, y2 = sin x
The points of intersection of these graphs are the solutions.
Note: i. Radians must be used.
ii. we already know the general shapes of y1 and y2,
(y1 is a parabola and y2 is the sine curve)
π 3π π π π π 3π π
x − − − − 0
2 8 4 8 8 4 8 2
2
y1 = x − 1 1.47 0.39 –0.38 –0.85 –1 –0.85 –0.38 0.39 1.47
y2 = sin x −1 –0.92 –0.71 –0.38 0 0.38 0.71 0.92 1
There are two solutions at approximately x ≈ −0.6 and x ≈ 1.4. Note that
although π/2 and π are marked on the x-axis, π is a very inconvenient constant to
use for a scale, e.g. 10 divisions equal to 3.14159 radians is not easy to work
with. It is better to pick a round number e.g. 10 divisions equals 1 radian.

Exercise 5.18
Use graphical methods to solve the equation x − tan x = 0.
Solution
This can be written as x = tan x.
Let y1 = x and y2 = tan x.
The points of intersection of these graphs are the solutions.
Note: i. Radians must be used.

ii. we already know the general shapes of y1 and y2,
(y1 is a straight line and y2 is the tangent curve).
One solution is obviously x = 0 but other solutions exist at approximately
3π 5π
x=± (i.e. x = ± 4.5), x = ± (i.e. x = ± 7.7), etc.
2 2
More accurate answers can be obtained by using more accurate graphs.

Find all solutions of the following equations:
a. x − sin x = 0
b. x2 − 1 − 2 sin x = 0
c. x2 − 3x + 4 cos x = 0
Solutions
a. x = sin x ∴ y1 = x, y2 = sin x
(Note that radians must be used for all of these exercises since they all involve
mixtures of trig and other functions of x.)
x −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y1 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y2 −0.84 −0.72 −0.56 −0.39 −0.199 0 0.199 0.39 0.56 0.72 0.84
The only solution is x = 0

b. x2 − 1 = 2 sin x ∴ y1 = x2 − 1, y2 = 2 sin x
x −1.2 −0.8 −0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
y1 0.44 −0.36 −0.84 −1 −0.84 −0.36 0.44 1.56 3

y2 −1.86 −1.43 −0.78 0 0.78 1.43 1.86 2.00 1.82
Solutions are roughly x = −0.4 and x = 1.7
c. 4cos x = 3x − x2 ∴ y1 = 4cos x, y2 = 3x − x2
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
y1 4 3.51 2.16 0.28 −1.66 −3.20 −3.96 −3.75 −2.61
y2 0 1.25 2 2.25 2 1.25 0 −1.75 −4
Solutions are roughly x = 1.05 and x = 3.80


Questions 5.1
1. In the triangle shown find secθ.
2. Find all the angles between 0 and 2π radians which satisfy sinθ = 0.4
3. Simplify 1 + cot 2 θ
4. In the triangle given, find θ.
5. Find the area of the triangle in 4.

6. Simplify sin a cos b + cos a sin b
π
7. Convert an angle of radians to degrees.
6
8. If cos θ = 0.3, find cos 2θ
9. Sketch y = tan x for –2π < x < 2π

Questions 5.2
π
1. Convert radians into degrees.
3
2. In the triangle shown, find cosec θ
3. Simplify 1 − cos 2 θ
4. Solve the equation cosθ = 0.4 for –2π < θ < 2π

5. In the triangle given find x.
6. Find the area of the triangle in 5.

7. Prove sinθ secθ cotθ = sin2θ + cos2θ
8. If sinθ = 0.8, find sin2θ
9. Sketch the graph of y = sin2x for –2π < x < 2π

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Engineering mathematics refreshment

© University of Southern Queensland, 2013.1.

Module 1 – Fundamentals of arithmetic 7

Module 1: Self assessment 42

Module 2 – Basic algebra 44

Module 3 – Functions and relations 106

Module 3: Self assessment 174

Module 4 – Logarithms and related functions 176

Module 4: Self assessment 212

Module 5 – Trigonometry 214

Module 5: Self assessment 253

How to do the written pre-test

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b. Make x the subject of the equation y = 3ex + 2

d. On the same set of axes sketch and label the graphs of

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© University of Southern Queensland

Module 1 – Fundamentals of arithmetic

1.1 Review of the real number system

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1.2 Order of operations

It can be stated as:

Working from left to right evaluate:

Step 1 any expression in brackets

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c. 591 × 376 + 523

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d. 895 (622 + 479)

check: yes, 6027 is a reasonable answer

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f. 52.1 – 3 ÷ 4.8 × [4.1 – (2.1 × 7.6 ÷ 2)] + 4

check: yes, 58.525 is a reasonable answer

g. 4.8 ÷ –4 – [3 (10 – 10 ÷ –2)]

check: yes, –46.2 is a reasonable answer

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1.3 Numerical fractions

Fractions can be written in a number of forms.

For calculations to be performed with fractions it is preferred that fractions be written in

Note that although fractional calculations may be performed on a calculator it is

1.3.1 Addition and subtraction of fractions

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© University of Southern Queensland

© University of Southern Queensland

© University of Southern Queensland

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1.3.2 Multiplication of fractions

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1.3.3 Division of fractions