Clinical Forum: Bovine leptospirosis

Sheila Rusbridge BVSc PhD MRCVS

SAC C VETERINARY SERVICES, MILL OF CRAIBSTONE, BUCKSBURN,
ABERDEEN. AB21 9TB

Sheila Rusbridge

George Caldow BVM&S MSc Cert CHP Dip ECBHM MRCVS

SAC C VETERINARY SERVICES, GREYCROOK, ST BOSWELLS,
ROXBURGHSHIRE. TD6 0EQ

George Caldow

Panel members:
David Barrett BSc(Hons) BVSc(Hons) DBR DCHP Dip ECBHM FHEA MRCVS
James Breen BVSc PhD DCHP MRCVS
Richard Laven BVetMed PhD MRCVS
Keith Cutler BSC BVSc DipECBHM MRCVS
Paddy Gordon MA VetMB CertCHP MRCVS

Bovine leptospirosis is a disease of worldwide known as Leptospira borgpetersenii type hardjobovis and
distribution caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira interrogans type hardjoprajitno. The former is
Leptospira. It is a zoonosis and a cause of infectious mainly associated with renal infection, and is of
bovine abortion. The true prevalence of the disease lower virulence than hardjoprajitno, which is
in the UK has been obscured by widespread associated with reproductive wastage. Furthermore
vaccination the more virulent strain appears to be restricted to
the UK and North America, by comparison with
hardjobovis which is found in Europe, Australia and
New Zealand as well as the UK (Ellis et al., 1988).
These organisms are collectively referred to as
Leptospira Hardjo. No survey work has been carried
out in the United Kingdom to establish the relative
prevalence of the two species that cause bovine
leptospirosis.

COURSE OF INFECTION
Leptospira are able to penetrate skin abrasions and the
intact mucosa of the conjunctiva, digestive,
respiratory and reproductive tracts. The resulting
bacteraemia persists until antibodies to L. Hardjo
appear in the blood, and is associated with the signs
of acute clinical disease (‘milk drop syndrome’) or
subclinical infection (unapparent in non-pregnant
non-lactating cattle, poor milk production in
lactating cattle). Circulating antibodies begin to
Fig. 1: A urinating cow. (Image courtesy of Rob appear from about 10 days after infection, and are
Mintern, Kingshay.) followed by renal localisation in the proximal kidney
tubules. Leptospires may also remain in the male and
AETIOLOGY female reproductive tracts and central nervous
The organisms responsible for bovine leptospirosis system (Bolin, 2001). The persistence of the
are spirochaetes and were originally classified as organism appears to be limited to sites at which it is
Leptospira interrogans serogroup sejroe serovar hardjo. protected from the immune system. Renal excretion
With the development of DNA analysis, the begins 2-3 weeks after infection and a variable
organism was further divided into two species period of intermittent, low-intensity leptospiruria

16 CATTLE G PRACTICE UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010

then ensues, frequently lasting for 6-12 months in
cattle but sometimes persisting for life (Bolin, 2001).
L. borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo (genotype hardjobovis)
is excreted at higher levels than L. interrogans serovar
Hardjo (genotype hardjoprajitno) (Ellis et al., 1988).
Excretion of the organism in the milk also occurs in
the acute stage of the infection. Subsequently the
signs of chronic infection (poor fertility, increased
somatic cell counts, abortion, stillbirths, live
premature weak calves), become apparent.
Fig. 2: An aborted fetus.

While milk drop due to leptospirosis was frequently potential will not be achieved. Following exposure
recognised in the 1980s it is now rarely diagnosed. of a naïve herd, in a 6-8 week period 30-50% of the
Cases of milk drop have fallen from 24 in 2001 to 8 herd may be infected. In contrast in the endemic
in 2008 (figures from the Veterinary Investigation state only occasional animals are infected in their first
Diagnosis Analysis database). or second lactation.

TRANSMISSION Abortion, stillbirth, the birth of weak calves or the

Leptospirosis was originally thought to be a winter birth of infected apparently healthy calves, and
disease. However carriers often stop or reduce reduced fertility are all features of the more chronic
excretion when fed grass silage. This has been assumed form of the disease.
to be the consequence of the lower pH of the urine
due to the systemic buffering of the acid ration. Abortion occurs 4-12 weeks after infection, and
Leptospires do not tolerate drying, a pH of <6 or >8 is most cases occur in the second half of pregnancy. It
inhibitory and temperatures of <10°C or >34°C are can occur at any time of the year but there is a
detrimental to survival.Transmission is maximal at grass marked seasonal incidence in late summer. Abortion
with a peak in June to October. Infected urine is the may be followed by retention of the fetal membranes
major vehicle but direct transmission also occurs via the and can lead to infertility. If infection occurs closer
post-abortion discharge, via the infected placenta and to calving, the resulting placentitis may lead to the
by sexual contact (Leptospira can be detected in semen birth of small weakly infected calves. Furthermore
of infected animals and can be transmitted by artificial poor liveweight gains have been reported to be a
insemination).Transmission may occur vertically to the feature of infected calves. Following infection of
fetus in utero (fetuses may be bacteraemic at birth and breeding females, immunity is strong enough to
renal carriers). Leptospire infection may also be present prevent an adverse effect on subsequent pregnancies.
in oocytes recovered from infected donors when
antibiotics have not been used in oocyte collection or The role of L. Hardjo in infertility is open to much
in vitro fertilisation. While the renal carrier state has debate. There are many reports of infection
been identified in sheep this does not appear to occur associated with reduced conception rates and regular
commonly and there is little field evidence to implicate (or irregular) returns to service. Serum progesterone
sheep in the transmission of this disease. The organism appears to be consistently lower in subsequent
has not been identified in wildlife in the UK, and cattle oestrous cycles in infected heifers than in uninfected
are the recognised reservoir of infection. Disease is animals (with the suggestion that infection is
therefore usually introduced into a herd by the associated with an increased incidence of silent
purchase of infected cattle. heats) (Dhaliwal et al., 1997). It has been suggested
that the infection has an effect on embryo-maternal
DISEASE signalling or that the presence of leptospires in the
Considerable financial loss in the cattle industry has uterus stimulates an inflammatory response resulting
been attributed to bovine leptospirosis as a in early embryonic death. Subfertility in beef cattle
consequence of agalactia, abortion, stillbirth, the which have antibodies to L. Hardjo has been
birth of weak calves and reduced fertility. associated with a high incidence of cervicitis and
salpingitis (Murray et al., 1993).
Acute leptospirosis is characterised by a sudden
precipitous drop in milk yield (or cessation in milk Many herds are infected without apparent clinical
production) and occurs soon after (2-7 days) disease. In beef herds with home reared
infection enters a previously unexposed herd. The replacements, transmission of infection may occur in
udder is uniformly soft and all four quarters are groups of animals (non-pregnant heifers running
affected. The milk has the consistency of colostrum with the main herd) in which the signs are not
with a high somatic cell count. Affected animals may significant. However in dairy herds where
be transiently pyrexic. After 5-6 days milk replacement heifers are reared with minimal contact
production will be resumed, but cows affected in late with the adult herd, and in beef herds which
lactation may dry off altogether. If milk drop occurs purchase replacements which have no contact with
before the peak of lactation then the lactation the cows until they enter the breeding herd,

UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010 CATTLE G PRACTICE 17

 infection may occur during early lactation, breeding epidemiological importance is the fact that the
or pregnancy and result in clinical disease. current tests used in GB do not differentiate
Transmission occurs from the adult herd to the between the two genotypes.
uninfected susceptible heifers, resulting in the rapid
spread of infection with or without clinical disease. Confirmation of infection in premature or stillborn
calves is difficult because at necropsy there are
ZOONOSIS IMPLICATIONS usually no useful macroscopic features, and maternal
Leptospirosis is an occupational zoonosis of those seroconversion usually precedes abortion. Serological
who work with cattle. Man is an accidental host: examination of aborted fetuses is unrewarding.
high doses of the organism are necessary for
infection; there is a short excretion period and either Evidence of infection in a herd can be gained by
inefficient or no intraspecies transmission. Infection blood sampling aborted cows. Diagnosis of endemic
in man may result in a flu-like illness with fever, infection depends on serological testing of a
headaches and myalgia. The number of laboratory statistical proportion of the herd (Caldow et al.,
confirmed reports of leptospirosis recorded by the 2001). When a partial (or whole herd) test reveals
Heath Protection Agency in the United Kingdom seropositive animals it is necessary to consider
has increased from 24 in 1996 to 81 in 2007. Of the whether this represents active infection. Sampling of
indigenously acquired cases in 2007, 32 were sentinel groups (age cohorts) can be used to
confirmed as L. Icterohaemorrhagiae with only one determine a strategy for disease control in the herd.
case confirmed as L. Hardjo. In the USA and NZ If titres are confined to older animals and seropositive
vaccination has resulted in a dramatic fall in the animals have mixed freely with the rest of the herd
incidence of human Hardjo infections. In the this indicates the absence of recent infections and the
Netherlands a voluntary health scheme has disease is assumed to be inactive. Reasons for a few
dramatically reduced the incidence of infected herds seropositives include exposure to other non-
and of human cases of leptospirosis. pathogenic leptospires e.g. saxkoebing, infection with
genotype hardjoprajitno which is excreted at lower
levels in the urine and may not spread so rapidly as
hardjobovis, (Ellis et al., 1988) and (if using the ELISA)
the early stage of infection before high IgG titres are
detectable. In the dairy herd measuring antibodies for
L. Hardjo using milk samples taken from the bulk
tank provides a low cost method of assessing the
disease status (Pritchard, 1999).

TREATMENT
Traditionally antibiotic therapy with streptomycin
was used to reduce the human health risk rapidly. It
Fig. 3: Leptospira are flexible, helicoidal,
motile organisms.
markedly reduces the number of organisms an
infected animal is excreting but may not achieve a
DIAGNOSIS microbiological cure (90% effective) as chronic
The Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) used to infections with Leptospira interrogans serovar Hardjo
be the most widely used test, and is still used for may resist this treatment regime (Ellis et al., 1985). It
export purposes and fetal serology.The MAT is a test does not speed the recovery from milk drop and is
that principally measures immunoglobulin M, which usually too late to reduce the number of abortions.
appears in the early stages of the humoral immune
response and declines rapidly. The consequence is CONTROL
low sensitivity for anything but the immediate few Control of bovine leptospirosis is achieved by a
weeks following acute infection. Furthermore the combination of prevention of exposure, vaccination
agglutination is performed using live leptospires and and selective treatment.Where testing of a herd indicates
exposes laboratory workers to the unnecessary risk no evidence of exposure to L. Hardjo, imposition of
of infection. In contrast, the Enzyme Linked adequate biosecurity measures, quarantine and testing
ImmunoSorbent Assays (ELISA) can detect both of incoming stock, combined with regular monitoring
immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin M and of sentinel groups of seronegative animals are
using this test good seroconversion is seen at three recommended to maintain disease free status.
weeks post infection with animals remaining test
positive for several months to years. With several of Where there is evidence of active infection on
the commercially available ELISAs there is a wide clinical grounds or herd screening reveals a high
inconclusive zone and this is accommodated by proportion of seropositives and these are not
testing the animal again at four weeks in order to restricted to older animals, vaccination may be the
determine whether it has increased (seroconversion) best method of control, and may be implemented
or either remained the same or declined (indicating by herd owners aware of their responsibilities
background non-specific reaction). Of under the COSHH regulations. There are two

18 CATTLE G PRACTICE UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010

vaccines against L. Hardjo currently available in ELLIS, W. A., MONTGOMERY, J., CASSELLS, J. A. (1985)
the UK. Leptavoid H ‚ is prepared from Dihydrostreptomycin treatment of bovine carriers of Leptospira
hardjoprajitno and claims cross protection against interrogans serovar hardjo. Research in Veterinary Science 39: 292-295.
hardjobovis. Spirovac‚ is prepared from hardjobovis. ELLIS,W. A.,THIERMANN, A. B., MONTGOMERY, J., HANDSAKER, A.,
The effect of vaccination is to limit replication WINTER, P. J., MARSHALL, R. B. (1988) Restriction endonuclease
of the organism. Vaccination prevents or markedly analysis of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo isolates from cattle.
reduces clinical disease in previously unexposed Research in Veterinary Science 44: 375-379.
animals, and can reduce the amount of leptospires MURRAY, R. D., DHALIWAL, G. S., DOWNHAM, D. Y., ELLIS, W> A.,
passed in urine from infections established prior ORTEGA-PACHECO, A. (1993) Effects of leptospirosis on fertility of
to vaccination. dairy cattle. Cattle Practice 1: 99-105.
PRITCHARD, G. C. (1999) Bulk milk antibody testing for Leptospira
Antibodies induced by vaccination are detected in hardjo infection. Cattle Practice 7: 59-61.
the IgG ELISA and are indistinguishable from
antibodies induced in response to natural Questions for the panel:
infection. Consequently, herds that vaccinate 1. Leptospirosis has been satisfactorily controlled
cannot be sure of their infection status. Vaccinated in the Netherlands by restricting the trade of
cattle that subsequently become infected may not animals from bulk tank positive herds. What is
seroconvert (but may become leptospiruric). the single biggest barrier to achieving control
Alternatively when challenged vaccinated of bovine leptospirosis in the UK?
seronegative animals may seroconvert but such an
event is not indicative of clinical disease. David Barrett replies: It is
Furthermore vaccinated pregnant animals hard to identify one
challenged by a natural route may develop particular barrier to control
Leptospira infection of the fetus. However it may be at a national level. I feel
that by reducing the bacterial replication the size there is a lack of awareness
of the challenge to the fetus is reduced and in this of the importance of
way clinical protection is achieved. Vaccination of leptospirosis in some
infected animals or challenge of vaccinated animals sections of the industry,
may lead to titres which persist for years. perhaps brought about by the somewhat mistaken
belief that we have 100% effective vaccines.
Where screening reveals evidence of exposure to Furthermore within the cattle industry, despite all
L. Hardjo but there is no evidence of a clinical the events of the last decade, there is still a reluctance
problem, herds may wish to consider regular to implement effective biosecurity measures.
monitoring of groups of seronegative animals for
evidence of seroconversion before embarking on a James Breen replies: I
vaccination programme. For herds considering believe the main barrier to
phasing out vaccination, sampling of sentinel groups be the general uncertainty
of non-vaccinated replacements is recommended. about the role that infection
Adequate records of reproductive performance are with leptospirosis plays in
essential to enable retrospective analysis if an infertility herd health. For example,
problem is encountered in subsequent years. there is commonly a lack
of clinical disease in
Accreditation of freedom from L. Hardjo infection is endemically infected herds, and a lack of perceived
a useful tool in safeguarding the health and breeding response in many herds where poor reproductive
performance of cattle, and in preventing the performance leads to vaccination (likely because
infection of people working with cattle. In the UK fertility is such a multifactorial problem). There is no
there are three voluntary accreditation schemes - the doubt that the dealing and movement of cattle
Premium Cattle Health Scheme (PCHS), HI-Health between herds, e.g. dispersal sales, does play a role in
and Herdcare, licensed under the auspices of Cattle transmission of disease and therefore this practice is
Health Certification Standards (CHeCS). also a barrier to control, but other risk factors are
poorly understood.
REFERENCES
BOLIN, C. A. (2001) Clinical signs, diagnosis, and prevention of Keith Cutler replies: The
leptospirosis in cattle. Cattle Practice 9: 267-273. single biggest barrier to
CABELL, E. (2007) Bovine abortion: aetiology and investigations. In achieving control of bovine
Practice 29: 455-463. leptospirosis in the UK is
CALDOW, G., GUNN, G., HUMPHRY, R., CRAWSHAW, M., dependent on the reliance
RUSBRIDGE, S. (2001) Herd health security: the role of laboratory of the cattle industry in this
tests. Cattle Practice 9: 105-110. country on trading and
DHALIWAL, G. S., MURRAY, R. D., DOBSON, H., ELLIS, W. A. (1997) moving stock with, in many
Effect of Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo infection on cases, a lack of knowledge of the health status both
progesterone concentrations in heifers.Veterinary Record 140: 19-20. of the animals being moved and of the herd into

UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010 CATTLE G PRACTICE 19

 which they are being introduced and an omission of been the detection of leptospires in the fetal kidney
basic biosecurity precautions. using immunofluoresence, although this is not
provided by the VLA. In her article on bovine
Paddy Gordon replies: I abortion, Emma Cabell reports the use of a PCR test
would argue that we have with improved sensitivity and specificity - the
good control of disease in authors will know more about this than I do!
this practice, but not
infection status. Farmers are Keith Cutler replies: Fetopathy due to L. Hardjo is
interested in controlling not easy to diagnose and even harder to confirm.
disease - limiting the Maternal seroconversion usually precedes abortion,
financial impact of disease - so paired maternal serology is rarely of use, and the
and vaccination achieves this. An industry led culture of leptospires from fetal tissues or the
initiative is required if we are to control leptospirosis demonstration of fetal seroconversion is usually
- this is a crowded area with BVD and Johne’s unrewarding. The diagnosis is therefore usually made
initiatives currently looking for support. at a herd level based on clinical history (mid to late
term abortions usually occurring during the grazing
Richard Laven replies: As period) and the demonstration of seroconversion
always the lack of ownership amongst animals within the herd.
of disease in UK farms is
the major barrier. UK Paddy Gordon replies: Bulk milk levels combined
farmers tend to be with investigation of abortions are used to establish
individualists and schemes cause. I have assumed leptospirosis on the basis of a
such as the Dutch one are high bulk milk Lepto titre in the absence of other
unlikely to be accepted pathogens. Adoption of vaccination resulted in a
because it puts restrictions on what farmers can do, dramatic drop in the level of abortions - common
and I cannot see the Government making it things are common.
compulsory. For diseases like leptospirosis where
infection is often hidden, the absence of a clear Richard Laven replies: I wish I had a good answer to
incentive to tackle infection rates makes things this one. I suspect in most cases, ‘diagnosis’ is made
worse. However, as in New Zealand, the COSHH on the basis of positive antibody titres in an
angle may be an important way in to disease control individual animal that has aborted with no other
obvious diagnosis. While this may not be
Authors’ reply: It appears to be accepted in the UK diagnostically accurate, it does provide evidence that
that the way to control the disease rests with L. Hardjo has been on the farm and thus provides a
vaccination and this stems from the belief that factors basis to start discussing vaccination. As the article
such as water courses and sheep are crucial risk states I have almost always found fetal necropsy
factors, rendering biosecurity ineffective.The example unrewarding, and farmers reluctant to spend the
of effective control in the Netherlands where many money on large scale blood testing unless there has
dairy farms have a network of ditches separating fields been an abortion storm. Is the money better spent
and while sheep are not so abundant as in the UK on vaccination, which is currently the control
they are nevertheless present on many dairy farms, method of choice?
raises the possibility that we have been looking at the
disease in the wrong way. What is needed in the UK Authors’ reply: Demonstration of leptospires using
is rigorous epidemiological studies to examine this PCR has been in place for several years without
further. Accepting that vaccination is the key saddles increasing the numbers of diagnoses of L. Hardjo
the industry with that cost for ever. abortions. In 2009 VLA examined material from 272
cattle abortions using this PCR and only one was
2. Leptospirosis is considered to be an important positive. http://www.defra.gov.uk/vla/reports/docs/
cause of abortion in cattle. How is fetopathy rep_zoo0409.pdf .
due to L. Hardjo diagnosed?
3. How is the introduction of L. Hardjo into a
David Barrett replies: Occasionally fetal serology naïve dairy or beef herd likely to be manifest?
may be useful, but as the authors of this paper point
out it is not to be relied upon. While not definitive David Barrett replies:This is likely (if management
for a specific abortion the detection of active and environmental conditions are conducive to
infection in the herd, together with a history that disease spread) to result in the classical signs of acute
indicates the dam was likely to have been previously leptospirosis. In dairy herds the first clinical signs
naïve to this infection often gives good seen might be milk drop, followed in both beef and
circumstantial evidence. dairy herds by mid- or late-gestation abortions and
weakly or still born calves. It should be noted however,
James Breen replies: As already stated by the authors that non-lactating or non-pregnant animals will almost
in their article, this is difficult but historically has certainly exhibit no recognisable clinical signs.

20 CATTLE G PRACTICE UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010

James Breen replies: I have seen acute milk drop leptospirosis into a herd. Once introduced, the use of
only once, in a small Somerset dairy herd; but this is natural service is a risk factor for spreading the disease.
classically described in the text books as a
manifestation of clinical disease in an uninfected, Paddy Gordon replies: With every farm within half a
naïve herd. The authors also mention an increased mile of another livestock farm there is plenty of
incidence of abortion and a clustering of fetal losses potential for introduction of disease. This occurs
in beef or dairy herds, and suggest that these should through break-outs and break-ins - a not
always alert the veterinarian to the possibility of uncommon occurrence. The second issue is
leptospirosis in an unvaccinated or known contaminated water - access to watercourses with
uninfected herd. The lack of reported disease infected animals upstream; and intermittent flooding
‘outbreaks’ likely reflects the endemic nature of of pastures (I have monitored a naïve herd that
infection and/or widespread use of a vaccine. seroconverted in these circumstances.)

Keith Cutler replies: The introduction of L. Hardjo Richard Laven replies: I have always been concerned
into a naïve beef suckler herd is likely to result in a about natural water courses, particularly downstream
reduced fertility performance and mid to late term from other farms. Hopefully, environmental
abortions. In a dairy herd, milk drop may also be considerations and preventing stock access to such
noticeable. (This may be noticeable as poor calf water have reduced this risk. Cattle contact is still by
performance in a beef suckler herd.) far the major concern. In NZ, deer are a definitive
host for L. Hardjo, so I suspect they could potentially
Paddy Gordon replies: Milk drop in a dairy herd be in the UK too, but again this is not likely to be
followed by abortions. This is not a scenario we see significant on most farms.
very often.
Authors’ reply: We also believe that as with the
Richard Laven replies: I think in most cases the answer answer to question 1, further epidemiological work
is it is not likely to be seen by the farmer at all. is required. Antibiotics are used in processed semen
as a preservative. The initial spread of the disease in
Authors’ reply: No comment to add. the Netherlands was attributed to contaminated
semen from North America. Effective biosecurity
4. Apart from the introduction of infected cattle and disease control within the bull studs should
how can L. Hardjo be introduced to a herd? ensure that commercially produced semen is not a
vector for L. Hardjo infection.
David Barrett replies: Infected cattle are by far the
most likely route by which L. Hardjo may enter a Richard’s comments on the role of wild ruminants
herd. However, other routes are possible including by in the spread of disease in New Zealand is interesting
other ruminants such as sheep, biological material and in the UK there are many farms where contact
such as semen and embryos (although processing with wild and feral deer occurs. We have no
with antibiotics should prevent this) and knowledge on whether this is a risk in the UK.
transmission via water courses.
5. How should the veterinary surgeon advise on
James Breen replies: I think this is difficult to answer, the zoonotic risk of leptospirosis to: a) their
is not straightforward and I don’t think we know dairy clients and b) their beef cow herds.
enough about this disease; the veterinary literature
is sparse and relatively historic on both the subjects David Barrett replies: To comply with COSHH
of risk factors (for example the work done by regulations the best advice in all herds known to be
Bennett looking at decision support models is actively infected would be to advise vaccination. In the
17 years old) and on what we know about infection past we also advised treatment with streptomycin;
and disease versus likely cost benefit or control. although the use of this or other effective antibiotics is
Basic epidemiological facts about the transmission still possible it is I believe less often implemented at a
of the disease are well known (e.g. sheep are able herd level nowadays. Specific advice to a client should
to carry the infection and watercourses can become be risk based following a herd investigation involving
contaminated) but the practical implications of bulk milk antibody +/- sentinel group serology in the
these facts are much less clear. With many herds dairy herd and a representative group or sentinel group
endemically infected, the use in practice of serological investigation in the beef herd. a) In the
the traditional approach of assessing risk of dairy herd especially those milking in herring-bone
leptospirosis by doubling the estimated risk of disease parlours it is almost impossible to protect staff from
for each risk factor present is difficult to comment on. urine, thus I would advise vaccination and education
of the farm staff to enhance recognition of human
Keith Cutler replies: Although the major risk factor disease should it occur. b) In both beef and dairy
remains the import of infected animals, access to herds precautions should be taken to protect staff
running water and co-grazing cattle with sheep are from potentially infectious abortion material, not
also recognised risk factors for the introduction of just to protect them from L. Hardjo!

UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010 CATTLE G PRACTICE 21

 James Breen replies: Again, this is very difficult and mainly results in renal infection and not reproductive
probably one of the main reasons farmers and disease; whereas in the UK we also have Leptospira
herdspersons elect to vaccinate in the first place as interrogans type hardjoprajitno which is associated with
we cannot quantify what the risks are. I think reproductive failure. However, different management
veterinary surgeons must always point out the and environmental conditions in many countries
potential for zoonotic disease in humans exposed to may also reduce disease transmission when
concentrated infection and there are obvious risks compared with the summer temperate grazing that
associated with handling aborted fetal material and still predominates in the UK. Whilst it is impossible
coming into inadvertent contact with infected cattle to generalise across the whole of mainland Europe
urine. It is worth mentioning that even in known examples of relevant factors might include:
affected herds, the rate of zoonotic disease is not permanent housing systems where grass or maize
known - I’m sure we all know dairy farmers that don’t silage are the predominant feed lowering urine pH,
vaccinate for leptospirosis, have a positive bulk milk zero grazing, tie-stalls where cows have less access to
ELISA and yet have not had the disease themselves. urine and high (>34°C) or low (<10°C)
temperatures depending on time and place.
Keith Cutler replies: The major zoonotic risk of
leptospirosis to dairy farmers is via aerosol spread in James Breen replies: Traditionally, veterinary
the parlour when cows urinate during milking. A surgeons are taught about the importance of
further risk, and the major one to beef suckler infectious diseases and the potential role they have in
farmers, is spread from fetal fluids when calving poor fertility performance in cattle herds rather
infected cows. Reducing the risk of human infection better than they are taught about multifactorial
relies on personal hygiene and the use of appropriate approaches and the important of management and
personal protective clothing and equipment along husbandry. There is no doubt that the availability of
with herd vaccination and possibly strategic highly effective vaccines in the UK, coupled with
antibiotic treatment. the excellent marketing of these products to the
veterinarian mean that leptospirosis is always
Paddy Gordon replies: Farmers are broadly aware of (rightly!) considered, but perhaps as a profession we
the zoonotic risk, and we remind them about the risk, give too little weight to other causes, such as
and to follow HSE guidelines. One approach to reduce negative energy balance, lameness and poor housing.
risk is to vaccinate cattle at an early age. I understand This could be a major reason that leptospirosis is still
that vaccination prior to infection will reduce the seen as an important cause of poor reproductive
number of animals shedding Leptospira via the urine. performance in the UK.

Richard Laven replies: In NZ we have the Leptosure Keith Cutler replies: Bovine leptospirosis is a more
scheme organised by the NZVA which has the important cause of reproductive failure in the UK
tagline ‘more than just vaccination’. This provides a than in mainland Europe because of the
perfect template for looking at the zoonotic risk of predominant strains of the infectious organism
leptospirosis as it is selling services not just vaccines. present. In the UK Leptospira interrogans type
It involves a farm visit to identify the key risks on hardjoprajitno, which is considered to be more
that farm and provides a farm-specific risk virulent and associated with reproductive wastage is
management programme. more prevalent than in mainland Europe where
Leptospira borgpetersenii type hardjobovis predominates.
Leptosure was designed for dairy farms where
contact with cattle, particularly their urine, is much Paddy Gordon replies: The opening paragraph
greater than on beef farms, but even though the risk implies that these are strain differences. Differences
is lower the same process of identifying the key risks in infection prevalence, climate and farming systems
on that farm would still be the way to go. could all have an effect on disease challenge but I
have limited knowledge of this area.
Authors’ reply The big problem for most risk
assessments is that it is seldom possible to quantify the Richard Laven replies: I thought this was George’s
risk. Data on the number of human cases of L. Hardjo job! If I had to make a partially educated guess I
infection occurring each year is useful and is would say that it is down to the UK’s milder, wetter
available on the HPA website (www.hpa.org.uk). climate - Leptospires spread extremely well in NZ
where it is even milder and wetter, but fortunately
6. Explain why bovine leptospirosis is seen as an we don’t have hardjoprajitno, though we do have
important cause of reproductive failure in the occasional reports of deaths due to serovar
UK, but not in mainland European countries. Copenhageni.

David Barrett replies: I believe there may be a Authors’ reply: We believe that there is an absolute
number of reasons for this. The first and most lack of knowledge in this area. The relative
obvious is the fact that in most of Europe the less prevalence of the two species in the UK needs to
virulent Leptospira borgpetersenii type hardjobovis be ascertained.

22 CATTLE G PRACTICE UK Vet - Vol 15 No 4 July 2010