THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHINESE CALLIGRAPHY IN RELATION TO BUDDHISM

AND POLITICS DURING THE EARLY TANG ERA

By

RUTH SHENG

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2011

1
© 2011 Ruth Sheng

2
To my husband and my son

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For nearly all of my life, I have been nourished by the joy of studying and

practicing Chinese calligraphy. My desire to pursue an advanced study of Chinese

calligraphy became a reality the moment the School of Art and Art History at the

University of Florida accepted me into their doctoral program and the Department of

Languages, Literatures, and Cultures offered me a position to teach Chinese calligraphy.

I am grateful to these departments for supporting my endeavor.

The subject of this dissertation, Chinese calligraphy in relation to Buddhism and

politics during the Tang era, was formulated during the semester I took Mario Poceski‘s

class on Chinese Buddhism. I am most grateful to Professor Poceski, who inspired and

encouraged me to take up this challenging and interesting topic.

I would like to express my earnest gratitude to professors Guolong Lai, Cynthia

Chennault, Mario Poceski, and Victoria Rovine, who provided me advice and guidance

throughout my research and writing of this dissertation. They patiently read through my

drafts and offered countless invaluable suggestions that finally shaped my dissertation. I

owe special thanks to Professor Cynthia Chennault. Not only did she teach me how to

translate classical Chinese profoundly, but her extraordinary patience and attention to

my writing and the details of my work vastly improved the quality of this dissertation.

I have benefited in various ways from many professors throughout the course of

this project, especially Robin Poynor, Eric Segal, Melissa Hyde, Richard Wang, and

Mary Watt. I am also grateful to Professors Amy McNair, Bai Qianshen, Dorothy Wong,

Stephen Goldberg, and Peter Sturman, whose recommendations and insights

stimulated my thinking during the process of completing this project.

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 My research is inevitably relied on the resources and staff of many libraries. David

Hickey, Hikaru Nakano, Thomas Caswell, Tisha Mauney, and Janice Kahler, from the

UF library, as well as my friend I-ping Wei, the head of technical service at the Gest

Research Library in Princeton University, helped me gather all the materials needed at

various stages of my research. I would like to thank them for their support.

My sincere gratitude also goes to my friends Bess de Farber and Stephanie Haas,

who supported me in times of frustration as I completed my first draft, and to Lesley

Gamble, who not only read and helped me edit the last version of this dissertation, but

also encouraged me to finish the project in times of exhaustion. Without their help this

dissertation would not have come to fruition, nor would it have been finished on time.

I am deeply indebted to my husband, Peter, and my son, David, whose

encouragement, confidence, and endless love have sustained me throughout this long

and difficult journey. To them, I dedicate this dissertation.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. 8

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 11

2 RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL USES OF CALLIGRAPHY FROM ANTIQUITY

THROUGH THE SIX DYNASTIES ......................................................................... 16

Oracle Bone Inscription and Bronze Inscription ...................................................... 16

Myths about the Invention of Writing ....................................................................... 22
Developments during the Han Dynasty .................................................................. 28
Developments in the Six Dynasties: Daoist and Buddhist Elements in
Calligraphy........................................................................................................... 34

3 TANG COURT SPONSORSHIP ON CALLIGRAPHY............................................. 47

Emperor Taizong‘s Promotion of Wang Xizhi‘s Style .............................................. 48

The Ideological Formation of Tang Court Culture ................................................... 51
Yu Shinan and Chu Suiliang ................................................................................... 59
Tang kai—Standard Script of the Tang Dynasty ..................................................... 67
Reproductions......................................................................................................... 78

4 BUDDHIST STELES IN THE EARLY TANG DYNASTY......................................... 83

Buddhist Adaption of Chinese Steles ...................................................................... 83

Steles of the Da Tang Sanzang Shengjiao Xu and the Da Tang Sanzang
Shengjiao Xu Ji.................................................................................................... 86
Taizong‘s Preface and Gaozong‘s Notes to the Preface .................................. 90
Stele of Ji Wang Xizhi Shengjiao Xu Bing Ji..................................................... 95
Steles of Yanta Shengjiao Xu Bing Ji ............................................................. 103
Steles of Tongzhou Shengjiao Xu and Yanshi Shengjiao Xu ......................... 113
Stele of Tongzhou shengjiao xu ............................................................... 114
Stele of Yanshi shengjiao xu .................................................................... 118

5 BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES AND DUNHUANG MANUSCRIPTS .......................... 122

Historical Development of Buddhist Scriptures ..................................................... 123

Early Development of Translation and the Transcription of Buddhist
Scriptures .................................................................................................... 123

6
 Development during the Sui and Tang Dynasties .......................................... 127
Dunhuang Manuscripts ......................................................................................... 133
Dunhuang—Important Buddhist Site .............................................................. 133
Dunhuang Manuscripts Collections ................................................................ 134
Selected Examples ......................................................................................... 136
Early examples ........................................................................................ 137
Examples from the Sui dynasty................................................................ 139
Examples from the Tang dynasty ............................................................. 141

6 BUDDHIST SUTRA COPYISTS AND SUTRA COPYING STYLE ........................ 158

Sutra Copyists ...................................................................................................... 158

Buddhist Monks as Sutra Copyists ................................................................. 159
Independent Sutra Copyists ........................................................................... 161
Calligraphy training of the jingsheng ........................................................ 161
Collaboration between monasteries and Tang court ................................ 163
Jingsheng Wang Siqian and his copy of the Lotus Sutra ......................... 164
Jingsheng‘s compensation ....................................................................... 167
Court Employed Clerk Calligraphers .............................................................. 168
Government affiliations ............................................................................ 170
Official sanction of copied sutras ............................................................. 172
The Standard Format of Copied Sutras ................................................................ 175
Tang Court‘s Sponsorship of Sutra Production and Distribution ........................... 176
Sutra Copying Style .............................................................................................. 180
General Attribution, Variations, and Special Characteristics .......................... 180
Stylistic Comparison: Copyists in Debt to the Elite Masters ........................... 184
Possible Influence of Copyists on Elite Masters ............................................. 188
Sutra Copying/Reproducing and Merit Making ..................................................... 189
Buddhist Dissemination vs. Daoist Isolation ......................................................... 194

7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 196

APPENDIX

A LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................... 198

B TABLE OF CANONICAL BUDDHIST TEXTS CITED IN THE DISSERTATION ... 202

C ANNOTATED TRANSLATION OF THE PREFACE TO THE HOLY

TEACHINGS OF THE TRIPIṬAKA OF THE GREAT TANG, COMPOSED BY
TANG TAIZONG ................................................................................................... 204

LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 212

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................... 232

7
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

FSYL Fa shu yao lu 法書要錄

JTS Jiu Tang shu 舊唐書

LDSF Lidai shufa lunwen xuan 歷代書法論文選

T Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經

THY Tang hui yao 唐會要

XTS Xin Tang shu 新唐書

8
 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHINESE CALLIGRAPHY IN RELATION TO BUDDHISM

AND POLITICS DURING THE EARLY TANG ERA
By

Ruth Sheng

August 2011

Chair: Guolong Lai

Major: Art History

This dissertation traces Chinese calligraphy‘s relevance to Buddhism and politics,

with a focus on its developments in the early Tang dynasty (618–907). Through an

examination of historical and artistic evidence, this study reveals a dynamic confluence

where the value of calligraphy as an art form, comprised primarily of stele rubbings and

sutra copies, was circulated and validated through Buddhist strategies of propagation

and the Tang court‘s ideological vision for national unification. In the support of

calligraphic practices, the interests of the Tang court and the Buddhist monasteries

often converged to the benefit of both. Meanwhile, in the service of religious and

political ends, calligraphy, as a practical skill and aesthetic form, was transformed and

―democratized,‖ that is, its practice transcended class hierarchies. This understanding

provides new insight into the relationship between art and society at that time, and Tang

achievements in the history of Chinese calligraphy.

This study is divided into five main chapters, with the first chapter functioning as

the introduction and the last chapter as the conclusion. Chapter 2 explores the

development of early writing and how calligraphy emerged from dynamic relations

between religion and politics to become a dominant artistic form in early and medieval

9
China. Chapter 3 examines the effects of early Tang imperial patronage on calligraphy,

emphasizing the intrinsic role that calligraphy played in court politics. Chapter 4 displays

the importance of Tang Buddhist steles. In addition to containing highly valued

inscriptions penned by elite masters, these steles also attest to the felicitous confluence

of Buddhism‘s adaptation to the Chinese cultural milieu and Tang court political and

cultural agendas. Chapter 5 introduces Dunhuang manuscripts, using these Buddhist

scriptures written on silk and paper to reconstruct a dynamic relationship between

celebrated masters and lesser-known copyists based on stylistic connections. These

manuscripts also offer the means to reconcile the value of reproductions relative to

originals in the dissemination of calligraphy. Chapter 6 discusses the motivation and

high productivity of sutra copyists, whose efforts democratized Chinese calligraphy but

have not yet received the full attention they deserve.

10
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

This dissertation examines Chinese calligraphy‘s relevance to Buddhism and

politics, focusing on its developments during the period of the first three Tang emperors

who were the most influential in establishing the court policies of the Tang dynasty

(618–907). At this time calligraphy was utilized by Buddhists as an instrument to

legitimatize and promote their religion, and served the Tang emperors as a symbol of

national unification. As a consequence, calligraphic practice, reproduction, and

dissemination became entwined with Buddhist propagation, as well as Tang cultural

policy.

Tang calligraphy has survived mainly in two forms: inscriptions carved on stones

and writings on paper or silk. As most of their content is related to Buddhism, these

materials help us to better understand the reciprocal relationship between calligraphy

and Buddhism, which, by the seventh century, was the primary religion promoted by the

court throughout the sprawling Chinese empire. In this study, I examine selected

Buddhist steles and Dunhuang manuscripts of early Tang in order to investigate how

particular developments in Tang calligraphy may be linked to dynastic power and the

spread of Buddhism.1

Buddhist steles produced in the Tang dynasty were distinguished not only by

their size and number, but also by the refinement of their calligraphic inscriptions. These

steles emphasized the written word rather than the carved image, which was a

1
Dunhuang 敦煌, a Buddhist community active from about the fourth to fourteenth centuries, was an
oasis in the Gobi Desert along the Silk Road that linked China to Central Asia. Among the 492 caves
dedicated as shrines or otherwise used by the resident Buddhist clergy, Cave 17 proved later to contain a
rich trove of Buddhist manuscripts. The cave was completely closed at some point in the eleventh
century, but discovered sometime between 1899 and 1900. See Chapter 5 for further discussion.

11
prominent feature of Indian Buddhist steles. This fact suggests that by the Tang era

Buddhists fully understood the political and cultural potency associated with this form as

they assimilated into Chinese society.2 These written words were important both in

textual content and artist form. The inscriptions on the Tang Buddhist steles, in addition

to offering texts that served religious functions, featured calligraphies penned by famous

hands, their surfaces functioning as a primary medium for presenting the specific styles

of well-known calligraphers. Rubbings from these surfaces were disseminated and

some used as models for calligraphic practice.3 As the rubbings traveled far from the

original stone, a wide range of critics, scholars, and artists could appreciate the quality

of the calligraphy. In effect, these steles and rubbings expanded the prestige, authority,

and realm of influence of both Chinese calligraphy and Buddhism.

The dominant calligraphy script used on Tang Buddhist steles was the Tang style

of standard script which was developed during the Emperor Taizong‘s reign (626–649)

as he and his court enthusiastically promoted the style of Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (303–361).

This imperially designated kaifa 楷法 (the rule of standard script), later known as Tang

kai 唐楷 (the standard script of the Tang), was the product of combining two aspects of

Wang‘s style, his rhythmic linear regularity and fluent self-expressive brush strokes.

Taizong‘s codification of this type of calligraphic script—precise, formal, yet elegant and

full of rhythm—established the classical tradition of Chinese calligraphy, thus ensuring

the dominance of Wang‘s stylistic lineage. This great cultural accomplishment was the

2
Discussion on this development, see Dorothy Wong, Chinese Steles, 178.
3
Rubbings with inscriptions transcribed by renowned calligraphers were among findings from Dunhuang.
See above, n. 1 for Dunhuang.

12
result of the emperor‘s ability to utilize his personal aesthetic preference for Wang‘s

calligraphic style to manifest his political motivation to unify the empire.

The Tang government participated in sutra reproduction by establishing standards

for the form and quality of calligraphic transcriptions. Since Dunhuang Buddhist

manuscripts are the primary source of handwritten materials to have survived from the

Tang and pre-Tang periods, they are extremely valuable for understanding

contemporary developments in Buddhism and calligraphy. The outpouring of sutra

copies was in part motivated by the desire of Buddhists to garner merit and accumulate

blessings, but the unprecedented quantity and quality of sutra copying produced during

the Tang dynasty was a result of strong imperial policies promoting Buddhism as well as

calligraphy education, a demand to which the monasteries faithfully responded.

Many Tang sutra copyists were trained in monasteries and made extensive use

of the court codified style of standard script, Tang kai, which emphasized formality,

precision, and consistency. These characteristics best accommodated the efficient

production of highly legible texts. Hence the so-called ―sutra copying style‖ has long

been associated with the style of Tang kai. In this study, exemplary Dunhuang

manuscripts are utilized to illustrate how sutra copyists often imitated the elite masters‘

styles of their day. As a consequence, copied sutras contributed not only to the spread

of Buddhist texts but also of elite calligraphy styles. At the same time, increasing

demands for sutra reproduction and dissemination democratized the practice of

calligraphy by encouraging participation from a wider range of copyists and readers. In

this study, I also speculate that the systematic and widespread distribution of copies

13
during the early Tang era could have influenced high Tang elite masters as they

developed their calligraphic styles.

In the West, scholarship on the Tang dynasty abounds, particularly in the fields of

Buddhism and calligraphy, but studies that link them together are scarce. Buddhist

scholars studying the pre-Tang and Tang periods have tended to focus on the

reception, growth, and spread of Buddhism in China. Erik Zurcher examines cultural

and social factors that influenced the growth of Buddhism in early medieval China, while

Stanley Weinstein and Arthur Wright focus on the Tang court‘s involvement. Art

historians in the field of Tang calligraphy, such as Lothar Ledderose, Eugene Wang,

and Stephen Goldberg, address the establishment of the classical tradition of

calligraphy through a lineage of prominent Tang masters. Amy McNair, Dorothy Wong,

and Robert E. Harris, Jr. are among the few scholars who analyze Buddhist calligraphy

in its social and political contexts.

Although many Chinese and Japanese scholars have linked studies of

calligraphy with Buddhism, they are inclined to focus on either steles or manuscripts.

One group whose interest centers upon steles includes modern Chinese scholars Shi

Anchang 施安昌 and Zhu Guantian 朱關田, along with Japanese scholars Nakata Yujiro

中田勇次郎, Sugimura Kunihiko 杉村邦彥, and Shunkei Lijima 飯島春敬. Their studies

offer stylistic analyses of individual Tang masters, as well as examinations of other

related topics, such as the political influences and socioeconomic conditions that

shaped the production and dissemination of calligraphic works. A second group of

scholars, such as Rao Zongyi 饒宗頤, Rong Xinjiang 榮新江, and Mori Kyosui 森鄉水, do

investigate the large number of Dunhuang manuscripts produced by anonymous or

14
lesser-known sutra copyists, but they limit their studies to those manuscripts. It is the

goal of my research to examine and integrate calligraphy scholarship on Buddhist steles

and manuscripts within the context of Tang institutional strategies.

My study is hence organized into the following chapters. Chapter 2 explores the

development of early writing and how calligraphy emerged from dynamic relations

between religion and politics to become a dominant artistic form in early and medieval

China. Chapter 3 examines the effects of early Tang imperial patronage on calligraphy,

emphasizing the role that calligraphy played in court politics. Chapter 4 displays the

importance of Tang Buddhist steles. In addition to containing highly valued inscriptions

penned by noted masters, these steles also attest to the felicitous confluence of

Buddhism‘s adaption to Chinese cultural milieu and the Tang court‘s political and

cultural agendas. Chapter 5 introduces the Dunhuang manuscripts, especially Buddhist

scriptures written on silk and paper, which may be used to reconstruct stylistic

connections between celebrated masters and lesser-known copyists. These

manuscripts also offer a means to understand the value of reproductions relative to

originals in the dissemination of calligraphy works. Chapter 6 discusses the motivations

and high productivity of sutra copyists, whose efforts promoted the popularity of

Chinese calligraphy but who have not yet received the full attention they deserve.

Note to Readers: Chinese names and words are transliterated according to the Pinyin

system, with the exception of those that are better known and often cited by the Wade-

Giles system or other transcription. The translations from Chinese texts are my own,

unless otherwise noted. When the translations of others are used, I have sometimes

modified them to better suit the content of my thesis.

15
 CHAPTER 2
RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL USES OF CALLIGRAPHY FROM ANTIQUITY
THROUGH THE SIX DYNASTIES

Chinese calligraphy is an art form that developed from a system of writing. The

invention of writing in China, as in many ancient civilizations, was attributed to

supernatural powers.1 As the art of writing was perceived to have a divine origin, the

ruling class and intellectuals often used the power of writing to legitimatize and solidify

their social and political status. The belief that divinity could be channeled through a

writer‘s spirit informed the development of Chinese calligraphy or shufa 書法, ―the way

of writing‖ and, as a result, the Chinese came to revere calligraphy as a sublime art.2

This chapter explores calligraphy‘s relevance to the religious and political spheres that

have existed from the origin of writing.

Oracle Bone Inscription and Bronze Inscription

Oracle bone inscriptions, datable to the fourteenth through eleventh centuries BCE

are the earliest extant evidence of Chinese written characters. They consist primarily of

records made during divinations held at the late Shang royal court. The Shang people

believed that their lives were controlled by a supreme divine power known as the

―ancestor on high,‖ or shangdi 上帝, and that the Shang kings were responsible for

discerning his will in all matters concerning the country. The divinatory rituals were

conducted as the means to communicate with the supreme deity and other spirits.

1
For the early writings developed in ancient civilizations, see Stephen D. Houston, ed., The First Writing.
For the Chinese writing system, see William Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of Chinese Writing
System.
2
The evolution of various calligraphy scripts, and the developments from a writing system to an aesthetic
entity, see Qi Gong, Gudai ziti lungao; Ouyang Zhongshi and Wen C. Fong, Chinese Calligraphy, 1–65,
and 415–24; Robert E. Harrist, Jr., and Wen C. Fong, The Embodied Image: Chinese Calligraphy from
the John B. Elliott Collection, 2–84. The formation of a tradition of Chinese calligraphy, see Lothar
Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 7–44.

16
Communication between supernatural entities and mankind was executed by the

diviners, ritual specialists who supposedly possessed special power, as the spirits

descended into them and enabled them to perform the heaven-earth communication.

These diviners were employed by the Shang kings, and in many cases the king himself

was the head diviner or served as a diviner.3

At the moment of divination, the diviner proposed the charge (topic of the

divination), which were not questions but were wishes or tentative forecasts.4 These

were often divided into a pair of charges in the positive and negative mode. The content

of charges varied, ranging from military campaigns to the weather, childbirth, and

sickness. Meanwhile heat was applied to hollows drilled in the back of a tortoise

plastron or ox scapula until cracks appeared on the front surface. The pattern of cracks

would determine the outcome of the charge, and interpretations (crack notations) of

those cracks were then delivered by the diviner.5 Both the inscriptions of charges and

interpretations were then carved on the front of the shells or bones.6 For some

divinations, the inscribed charge carved on bone was only an abbreviation of a more

complete charge proposed orally for each crack.7

3
K. C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual, 45; see also David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History: The
Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China, 31.
4
David N. Keightley, ibid., 33.
5
Ibid., 40.
6
Ibid., 45: ―Contrary to what some scholars have supposed, the engravers did not carve the charge into
the bone or shell before the cracking took place, but after…The writing recorded not what was about to be
divined but what had been. Its purposes, therefore, were at least partly historical and bureaucratic—to
identify the topics, forecasts, and results for which the cracks had been formed.‖
7
Ibid., 33 n. 21.

17
 The inscriptions on oracle bone are aligned linearly, but sometimes curved lines

appear. With a great deal of crisscrossing those lines engendered a variety of

characters. Today more than one hundred thousand oracle bone pieces with

inscriptions have been unearthed, from which about five thousand Shang graphs have

been differentiated and about two thousand deciphered.8 These inscriptions carved on

shells or bones during the Shang divinations are named jiaguwen 甲骨文 in Chinese.

Shang oracular divination procedures were a crucial part of court and king‘s ritual

activity. Modern scholars have tried to identify a sequence of stages for divinations,

from initiating the oracular inquiry, carrying out the physical act of divining, reading the

cracks, engraving the inscriptions, and finally filing the shells and bones in the royal

archives.9 It is still unclear whether each function required a separate specialist or if one

diviner was in charge of the many functions. David Keightley and other scholars have

clarified that ―the inscriptions were not engraved by the diviners themselves, but by

special engravers.‖10 This conclusion is based on the fact that divinations made by the

same diviner were often engraved with markedly different engraving styles.

The name of the diviner was often given in the preface along with the day and

place on which the divination was performed. The identification of a diviner was

essential as it served to identify the officer who was responsible for overseeing the ritual

8
Source from Wang Jingxian, ―An Ancient Art Shines,‖ 68; the numbers are various in different
publications; as the more recent publications shows larger number, apparently more characters/graphs
have been identified in later days.
9
K. C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual, 90. See also David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History, 3–56.
10
David N. Keightley, ibid., 49.

18
that connected the human and spiritual world. Approximately one hundred and twenty

diviners have been identified for a 273-year period.11

Since writings display a remarkably uniform style, it is reasonable to presume

that the number of engravers was smaller than the number of diviners. Also, because

the diviners needed only to concern themselves with the religious act, ―theoretically it is

possible that the calligrapher [i.e., engraver] was the only person who had to be

literate,‖ says K. C. Chang.12 Matsumaru Michio‘s (松丸道雄) research also supports the

view that the engravers could have been few in number at any given time.13 This low

number indicates the strong possibility that there was a low rate of literacy in Shang

society. Those who could read and write became the possessors of oracular

knowledge, and thus they may be the first known members of the ―knowledge class.‖14

Their ways of making, keeping, and interpreting written records became instrumental to

the functioning of social, religious, and governmental affairs.

Most of the inscriptions were carved directly into the surface of the bone, but

other methods were not excluded. One study points out characters were written with a

brush but not carved, and the ink used at the time was originally red (or perhaps black)

and later turned brown or black with age.15 Another study finds the traces of ink strokes

11
Wang Jingxian, ―An Ancient Art Shines,‖ 68. See also David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History,
31.
12
K. C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual, 90.
13
Matsumaru Michio, Kōkotsu monji 甲骨文字, 8. (source from David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang
History, 49 n. 108)
14
K. C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual, 90.
15
Chen Mengjia 陳夢家, Yinxu buci zongshu 殷墟卜辭綜述, 13–14. (source from David N. Keightley,
Sources of Shang History, 46–47)

19
in lines subsequently carved thinly with a knife.16 ―The brush strokes generally followed

the same direction and sequence as those used by traditional and modern

calligraphers,‖17 writes Dong Zuobin 董作賓. While it is presumed that a brush was used

for practicing purposes, some free-hand carvings on unprepared bones were also

found.18 This suggests that the engraved oracle bone inscriptions were produced

through intensive training and preparation.

The presentation and the structure of the inscriptions on shells and bones

demonstrate the formal principles of symmetry and balance. The characters are made

predominantly of straight lines, which either connect or cross each other with rhythm

and order. Structural harmony and aesthetic awareness in textual composition are

evident from a piece of rubbing made from a carved oracle bone inscription, Bingbian

247 (fig. 1), with the preface, charge, and verification of Lady Hao‘s giving birth, datable

to 1200 BCE. Even though the characters appear flat and mechanical, the complete

inscription shows a neat and compact layout, rendered with proficient engraving skill.

Well-proportioned characters with even spacing demonstrate a sense of balance. This

kind of orderliness was maintained as a calligraphic aesthetic was developed

throughout the history of Chinese calligraphy.

In the late Shang era and the following Zhou dynasty (ca. 1100–256 BCE), many

dedicatory inscriptions were cast on bronze vessels. These too were used in rituals

performed by the rulers. In addition to serving a religious purpose, these inscriptions

also served political function. The exact process of calligraphic execution on bronze
16
David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History, 46.
17
Dong Zuobin, ―Ten Examples of Early Tortoise-shell Inscriptions,‖ 127.
18
David N. Keightley, Sources of Shang History, 47.

20
vessels is not entirely clear, but the purpose of the casting is often precisely indicated

on the inscription. Typically they were cast as a king‘s prayers to his ancestors or

instructions to his officials, and were often produced at the instigation of high officials

who had received favors from the king. A bronze basin, Shi Qiang pan 史墙盘 (fig. 2), is

a good example.19 The vessel, datable to the late tenth to early ninth century BCE, was

cast on behalf of a high official scribe, Qiang 墙.

On the face of the Shi Qiang pan, there are 284 characters arranged in 18

columns. The characters are formed in vertically oblong shape with even and flowing

lines. They are laid out in immaculate order, with a lucid delineation of columns and

rows. The curving lines, frequently applied and skillfully rendered, lend the inscription an

elegant and dignified look. The long inscription is clearly designed to serve political

purposes, as it includes not only the Qiang family history but also the deeds of the first

six Western Zhou kings. According to the inscription, Qiang‘s family lineage specialized

in zuoce 作册 (making of bamboo books), an exclusive profession linked with

knowledge of the past. It is possible that Qiang was well acquainted with oracle bone

inscriptions as a practice of divination. Nevertheless, in addition to religious ritual

functions, bronze vessel casting in the Western Zhou was under taken with strong

political and social inclinations.

Considering the massive number of bronze vessels produced and the increased

length of inscriptions, the number of calligraphers/engravers involved with bronze

carving would have to be much larger than those who produced oracle bone

19
The bronze basin was unearthed in 1976 from Fufeng County in Shaanxi Province. It is 47.3 cm in
diameter and 16.2 cm in height.

21
inscriptions, but the later calligrapher/engravers still had to be familiar with earlier

patterns of writing. Bronze inscriptions display a regularity, symmetry, and balance

similar to those carved on the oracle bones. Inscriptions on bronze vessels, however,

show an increasing variety of shapes and ornamental patterns. In most cases,

inscriptions were written with a brush and then engraved on clay molds, which were

used for casting bronze vessels.20 The form of strokes, in addition to showing variation,

often demonstrated vigor and firmness. It is this combination of qualities—vital, precise,

organic, and compact—that makes this style of bronze inscription appear ―dignified,

solemn, and charming in its simplicity.‖21 This form of writing was later used almost

exclusively for seal carving, and hence it is named the ―seal script‖ (zhuanshu 篆書).22

Inscriptions on both oracle bones and bronze vessels are significant for the study

of the religious and political culture of ancient China. They also offer us a tangible

narrative of calligraphy‘s emergence as an important art form. The stroke, structure, and

layout of the characters shaped the foundations of the art of calligraphy as it developed

in China.

Myths about the Invention of Writing

The writing on oracle bones and bronze vessels was too well-developed and

sophisticated to have represented the earliest writing in China. Recent archaeological

finds indicate that Chinese writing underwent a gradual process of development that

20
Most of bronze inscriptions were engraved on the molds before casting, but in later stage some bronze
vessels were inscribed after casting, see Wang Jingxian, ―An Ancient Art Shines,‖ 70–71.
21
Ibid., 72.
22
On seal script writing incised in bronze and stone or brushed on wood, bamboo, and silk, see Zeng
Youhe, A History of Chinese Calligraphy, 21–74.

22
can be traced back to approximately three thousand years before the oracle bone

inscriptions.23

Myths about the origin of Chinese writing revolved around notable cultural heroes.

One of the legends centers on the figure Cang Jie 倉頡,24 who was a royal scribe at the

court of Huangdi 黄帝, the ―Yellow Emperor.‖ A second myth involves one of the ―Three

Sovereigns,‖ Fu Xi 伏羲,25 who was primarily responsible for creating the Bagua 八卦

(Eight Trigrams).26

The early literature recording these myths dates from the third century BCE. The

Lüshi chunqiu 呂氏春秋 (The Annals of Lü Buwei), Han Fei zi 韩非子 (The Essays of

Han Fei), and Cang Jie pian 倉颉篇 (The Provisions from Cang Jie) explicitly name

Cang Jie as the inventor of writing.27 All three texts were compiled within a couple of

decades of each other, towards the end of the Warring States period (475–221 B.C.E.),

when the Qin State was conquering neighboring states and sought to unite the country.

At that time, the texts‘ authors, Lü Buwei 呂不韋 (?–235 BCE), Han Fei 韓 非 (ca. 280–

233 BCE), and Li Si 李斯 (280–208 BCE), served either at the court of the Qin 秦 State, or

later at that of the First Emperor of the Qin (r. 246–210 BCE) after conquering other

23
Cheung Kwong-yue, ―Recent Archaeological Evidence Relating to the Origin of Chinese Characters,‖
323–92.
24
For early legends about Cang jie, see William Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of Chinese
Writing System, 130–32, see also Jonathan Chaves, ―The Legacy of Ts‘ang Chieh: the written word as
magic,‖ 200–15.
25
Details on Fu Xi, see William Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of Chinese Writing System, 134.
26
The Eight Trigrams is used in Daoist cosmology to represent the fundamental principles of reality.
27
Lüshi chunqui : ―…Cang Jie zuo shu 倉颉作書…‖; Han Fei zi: ―Cang Jie zhi zuo shu ye 倉颉之作書也‖;
Cang Jie pian: ―Cang Jie zuo shu, yi jiao hou yi 倉颉作書, 以教後诣.‖ (quote from Tang Lan, Zhongguo
wenzixue, 51).

23
states.28 In the minds of these scholar-officials, the act of designating one authoritative

figure as the inventor of writing was part of a strategy, initiating a course for their ruler to

succeed in unifying the country by standardizing the writing system. The identification of

a mythological figure in the field of writing can be seen as an ideological weapon that

contributed to the Qin Emperor‘s political triumph.

Nevertheless, the characteristics of this legendary figure, Cang Jie, are not

described substantially in Qin literary references; only his name is mentioned. It was not

until the first century CE that the Han scholar Wang Chong 王充 (27–91), in his Lun

Heng 論衡, began to describe how Cang Jie invented writing. According to Wang

Chong, ―Cang Jie, the royal scribe of Yellow Emperor, had four eyes … [he] began to

trace the footprints of birds … and invented writing.‖29 To be endowed with four eyes

meant that Cang Jie was able to observe delicate marks left by birds and other animals,

an attribute which even today is understood as representing his supernatural power. As

a result, he found a way to record all kinds of markings and phenomena, which

eventually led to the invention of a system of writing. This narrative was further

elaborated in the last chapter of Han philologist Xu Shen‘s 許慎 (55–149) Shuowen jiezi

説文解字, the first Chinese etymological dictionary to explain symbols and analyze

28
Lü Buwei (?–235 BCE), the compiler of Lüshi chunchiu, was the chancellor of the Qin State before his
dramatic death in 235 BCE. Han Fei (ca. 280–233 BCE) served the court of the King of the Qin during the
late Warring States period together with Li Si (280–208 BCE), who compiled the Cang Jie pian and later
became the minister of the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty (220–202 BCE).
29
Wang Chong, Lun Heng, 3.5b: ―倉颉四目為黄帝史,‖ 5.4: ―倉颉作書,‖ … ―倉颉起鸟迹.‖ (quote from Tang
Lan, Zhongguo wenzixue, 46).

24
characters. Xu Shen‘s descriptions of Cang Jie are clear and reaffirm an established

legend.30

Another mythical figure endowed with supernatural power, Bao Xi 庖犧 (i.e. Fu

Xi), is also mentioned by Xu Shen in his Shuowen. Designating Bao Xi as the highest

among all the cultural heroes of antiquity, Xu Shen explains, ―Bao Xi ruled as a king

over the sub-celestial realm, … and created the Eight Trigrams of the Yi 易 [referring to

Yijing 易經, the Book of Changes] as a means to transmit the phenomena of the

heavens and patterns on the earth observed by him.‖31 Although Cang Jie and Bao Xi

are both introduced in the conclusive chapter of Xu Shen‘s prominent composition, the

legend about Bao Xi precedes the myth of Cang Jie. Xu Shen might have intentionally

positioned Bao Xi as superior to Cang Jie, and suggested Fu Xi‘s Eight Trigrams as a

tool used for communication prior to the writing system invented by Cang Jie.

Accounts of Fu Xi can also be found in earlier literature, such as Xici 繫辭, one of

the appendices to the Yijing from the third century BCE. According to it, Fu Xi is

endowed with more power, while Cang Jie‘s name is not mentioned at all. It states: ―Fu

Xi‘s creation of the Eight Trigrams was a means to communicate with the Co-responsive

Power of the Spirits and Auras and to categorize the veritable qualities of the myriad

30
Xu Shen, Shuowen jiezi, 15.1, in Zhonghua shuju ed., 314: ―黄帝之史倉颉見鳥獸蹏亢之迹知分理之可相
别異也初造書契‖—―Huangti‘s scribe Cang Jie saw the traces of the footprints of birds and beasts. He
recognized that these partiform structures could be distinguished and differentiated one from the other.
Thus he first created writing.‖ Translation is modified from William Boltz, The Origin and Early
Development of Chinese Writing System, 135.
31
Ibid.: ―古者庖犧氏之王天下也 … 始作易八卦以垂憲象…黄帝之史倉颉見鳥獸蹏亢之迹知分理之可相别異
也初造書契.‖ Translation is modified from William Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of Chinese
Writing System, 135.

25
creatures. Having created knotted cords, he [Fu Xi] then made nets and seines for

hunting and for fishing.‖32

The speculations about Fu Xi in Xici, however, never actually identified Fu Xi with

inventing a writing system. Fu Xi‘s creations, such as the Eight Trigrams, were only

graphic symbols that were used as devices to communicate with Spirit and Auras, and

the knotted cords were suggestive methods for recording things on earth. In other

words, Fu Xi‘s creations were primarily a means of communication and record-keeping

in early society. It was not until later that Xu Shen, a Han scholar, made the first attempt

to link the legends of Cang Jie and Fu Xi together in his Shuowen. This connection

proved enduring, as can be seen in myths about early Chinese writing, as ―from the first

century on, the one always carries with it the shadow if not the substance of the

other.‖33

Xu Shen‘s intention to associate both Fu Xi and Cang Xie with the invention of

writing seems to have reflected his religious and political leanings. Xu Shen was a

partisan of the Old Text School, which advocated the usage of the guwen 古文 (old

script, referring lesser seal script, the main script in the Qin dynasty) during the late Han

era.34 Embracing the systematization and standardization of the Chinese writing system

that had been established since the Qin dynasty, Xu Shen aligned himself with a

political tradition that named Cang Jie as the inventor of writing. On the other hand, Xu

32
Xi ci: ―作八卦以通神明之德以類萬物之情作结绳而为罔罟以佃以渔‖ (quote from William Boltz, The Origin
and Early Development of Chinese Writing System, 134).
33
William G. Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of Chinese Writing System, 136.
34
Michael Loewe, ed., Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, 430.

26
Shen‘s religious preference for Daoism may have inspired him to magnify the

importance of Fu Xi.

Xu Shen is known to have written a commentary on the Huai nan zi 淮南子,35

compiled during the mid-second century BCE during the early Han era, in which the

pursuit of Daoist spontaneity and nature is emphasized. As Daoist writers do not share

the Confucian belief that cultural advancement is the way to a better society, they often

are skeptical of certain human accomplishments praised by orthodox scholars and

criticize them as artificial.36 To invent writing was not necessarily an asset; on the

contrary, it could be a detriment. The statement, ―When Cang Jie created writing,

heaven rained grain/millet, and ghosts wailed in the night,‖37 is recorded in both Lun

Heng and Huai nan zi. This unnatural and deviant phenomenon is described as follow:

―While [the people‘s] extrinsic capabilities became all the more numerous, [their]

intrinsic power became all the more attenuated.‖38 In Daoists‘ eyes, the invention of

writing (for teaching, learning and creating written documents) was an action against

nature, just like those unnatural and deviant happenings. Since the intent of Huai nan zi

35
Huai nan zi is a collection of essays, resulting from the scholarly debates that took place under the
patronage and at the court of Liu An 劉安 (179–122 BCE) in the Han dynasty. The work encompasses a
wide variety of subjects, from ancient myths to contemporary government, from history to philosophy. The
overriding concern that pervades the Huai nan zi is the attempt to define the essential conditions for
perfect socio-political order under the universal patterns along the lines of Huang [di]-Lao[zi] Daoism, Yin-
Yang and the Five Phases. More details see introductory note about Huai nan zi from Michael Loewe,
ed., Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, 189. It is known that Gao You 高誘 (fl. 205–213) wrote
a Huai nan zi zhujie (Commentary of Huai nan zi), but William G. Boltz points out that Xu Shen could also
have written a commentary to the Huai nan zi before Gao You. see William G. Boltz, The Origin and Early
Development of Chinese Writing System, 131 n. 4, and Michael Loewe, ed., Early Chinese Texts, 191.
36
Isabelle Robinet, Taoism: growth of a religion. 28.
37
Wang Chong, Lun Heng, 5.4b: ―倉颉作書而天雨穀鬼夜哭.‖ Huai nan zi, 8.4: ―倉颉作書而天雨粟鬼夜哭.‖
38
Huai nan zi, 8.5: ―能越多而德越薄矣.‖ Translation is from William Boltz, The Origin and Early
Development of Chinese Writing System, 131.

27
is characterized as political utopianism intended to provoke the ruler to follow the

universal patterns conceived along the lines of Daoism, Xu Shen‘s portrayals of Fu Xi

and Cang Jie can be then understood.

In summary, the stories of Cang Jie and Fu Xi were fabricated and infused with

various philosophical, religious, and political agendas. Throughout Chinese history,

intellectuals who were aware of the power of writing often utilized the legendary Cang

Jie or Fu Xi to legitimize their political power or religious beliefs. Thus the legends offer

many clues to those searching for an understanding of the development of Chinese

writing and calligraphy.

Developments during the Han Dynasty

The development of calligraphy leapt forward during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–

220 CE). Script forms like li 隸 (official) and cao 草 (cursive) were fully evolved, and

other forms such as xing 行 (running) and zhen/kai 真/楷 (standard) began to emerge.

The availability of better writing tools is considered to be a contributing factor in the

development of calligraphy during this period,39 but the force that elevated writing from

the quotidian role of communication or record keeping to an art form resulted from

changes in the political and social structure of the Han dynasty. On one hand, writing

was necessary for the regime to integrate a complex imperial organization, and its

broad utilitarian use energized the emergence of new forms of writing. At the same time,

a new class of power-holding officials believed that ―brush and ink would reveal their

moral characters.‖40 They endeavored to legitimize their political and social status

39
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 146, 178–93.
40
Adriana G. Proser, ―Moral Characters: Calligraphy and Bureaucracy in Han China,‖ abstract.

28
through ―the way of writing,‖ which resulted in the transformation of writing into a literati

art.41

The major forms of Han writing were lishu (official script) and caoshu (cursive

script).42 The former was used mostly on engraved surfaces, and the latter on

handwritten documents. The origins of lishu can be traced to the script of xiaozhuan 小

篆 (lesser seal), which is characterized by uniform size, even spacing, and well

balanced composition with tautly even lines. This extremely uniform and regulated script

emerged during the reign of the First Qin Emperor, who used it to standardize the

Chinese writing system. The expansion of government agencies in the Qin and early

Han dynasties, however, demanded a more efficient writing script for record keeping.

This resulted in the emergence of a new script, lishu, in which the writers were allowed

to create more relaxed brush strokes. The same philosophical and critical trends that

influenced the development of lishu led to the evolution of caoshu, in which the structure

of the characters was loosened and brushstrokes moved rapidly without concern for

rigid boundaries.

Many calligraphy works produced by Han court officials reflect the political and

philosophical concerns of the period. The production of the Stone Classics was one of

the best examples. It was a major project sponsored by the Eastern Han government to

41
Ibid., 2–3.
42
Traditionally, scholars identified two kinds of cursive script existing during the Han period: zhangcao 章
草 (draft cursive, semi-cursive, or memorial cursive script) and caoshu 草書 or jincao 今草 (cursive or
modern cursive script). Sometimes the category of zhangcao is divided in two, referring to early zhangcao
as caoli 草隸, a combination of caoshu and lishu. Adriana G. Proser in her dissertation, ―Moral
Characters,‖ concludes that during the Han dynasty the term caoshu encompassed both semi-cursive
and cursive script types and it was only later scholars made the use of the term zhangcao to distinguish
semi-cursive from cursive. See Adriana G. Proser, ―Moral Characters: Calligraphy and Bureaucracy in
Han China,‖ 32, 34.

29
engrave the entire collection of the ―seven classics‖43 on both sides of forty-six

limestone slabs.44 The project was proposed by a high official and scholar-calligrapher,

Cai Yong 蔡邕 (133–192), and approved in 175 by Emperor Ling 靈帝 (r. 168–188) due

to an urgent need to collate and standardize the texts of the Confucian Classics. Hou

Han shu records, ―Since being written by the sages, the canonical works [i.e. Confucian

Classics] have long been transmitted, and many errors have entered into the text. They

have been wrongly interpreted by ordinary scholars, which confuses and misleads

younger students.‖45 Hence recording authoritative versions of these classics on stone

for study and verification was an efficient solution that prevented further alterations and

mistakes.

The erection of the Stone Classics was the first time in Chinese history that books

were carved on stone. The project took eight years (175–183) to complete. Carried out

in the capital of Luoyang 洛陽, Cai Yong and many other prominent calligraphers

participated in this great calligraphic enterprise.46 The characters were brushed in

cinnabar and written in the form of lishu. They featured beautiful sweeping horizontal

strokes which were carved by craftsman directly into the stone. When they were

43
―Seven classics‖ include The Book of Changes, The Book of Documents, The Book of Poetry, The
Rites, The Spring and Autumn Annals, The Gongyang Tradition, and The Analects, see Tsien Tsuen-
hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 80, for the particular version and number of characters selected from
each classic.
44
The exact number of stones is recorded differently in various sources; from forty, to forty-six and forty
eight. Wang Guowei believes that the total number of stones was forty-six that was derived by dividing
the total number of characters inscribed by the number of characters in each table for different classics
(source: Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 81, and n. 41). More details on Confucian
Classics on Stone inscription see Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 78–85; see also
Robert E. Harrist, Jr., The Landscape of Words, 232–33.
45
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 79.
46
Cai Yong was exiled in 178, and there were many different hands involved in transcribing the text
throughout the years.

30
completed, the stones were set in front of the Kaiyang Gate of the National University,

located to the south of Louyang. Due to wars, weather, and other effects of time, these

steles deteriorated and only fragments survive now, scattered in various collections.47

Nevertheless, the establishment of the Stone Classics was significant, as it not only

―demonstrated Emperor Ling‘s commitment to the teachings that provided an ideological

foundation for imperial rule,‖48 but also presented a textual and artistic account of the

bureaucratic class‘ effort to maintain moral and legitimate authority.

Bureaucratic evolution during the Han encouraged additional changes. An

informal, cursive version of official script known as zhangcao 章草 (draft cursive, or

semi-cursive script) emerged. The freely expressed brushstrokes of zhangcao facilitated

writing with speed, which aligned with the utilitarian purpose of efficient record keeping.

At the same time, letter writing with caoshu (cursive script) calligraphy was developed

among the scholar-officials, who took writing beyond practical function to a medium for

the expression of an aesthetic achievement.

The developments in calligraphic scripts reflect their transformations within a much

larger realm of cultural changes that took place during the Eastern Han period. In her

dissertation on the Han calligraphy, Adriana Proser demonstrates that writers‘ aesthetic

concerns in prose and calligraphy parallel many impressive developments in other

literary arts practiced by the Eastern Han scholar-officials. Literature was one obvious

example. In addition to the writing of prose essays, ―we also see primitive forms of

47
One large surviving fragment can be discerned at Beilin in Xi‘an, see Li Yuzheng, ed., Xi’an Beilin shufa
yishu, 34, and the other one in Shanghai Museum, see Robert E. Harrist, Jr., The Landscape of Words,
fig. I.28.
48
Robert E. Harrist, Jr., The Landscape of Words, 233.

31
poetry … grow into complex forms in the Eastern Han period. Two new forms of poetry,

the fu 賦 (rhapsody) and the yuefu 樂府 (ballad) appeared... In addition, the five-

character or seven-character line shi 詩 (verse) began to flourish.‖49 The pursuit of

higher artistic achievement can be seen in the ways officials maintained power and

influence through their moral and intellectual superiority. With regard to calligraphy, it

drove individuals to strive for the best possible technical and aesthetic sophistication in

writing, to collect and study superior calligraphy models, and ultimately to create a piece

of calligraphy that revealed a divine quality. Those efforts contributed to the aesthetic

development of calligraphy and formed the foundation for the growth of production and

collection of calligraphy for the generations beyond.

The emergence of theoretical and critical literature also contributed to the

formation of the calligraphic tradition. The earliest existing critical literature on

calligraphy is Fei Caoshu 非草書 (The Polemic against Cursive Script) written by the

Eastern Han Confucian moralist, Zhao Yi 趙一 (fl. 178–183), who states: ―Rather than

training one‘s mind and sharpening one‘s wit on a dissertation on cursive script, would it

not be better to apply oneself to the Seven Classics?‖50 Zhao Yi‘s statement appears to

be a disparagement of cursive script and those who practice it; however, it also reveals

how prevalent cursive script was at that time.

The predominance and superior quality of cursive script at the end of the Han was

described in another early calligraphy treatise, Caoshu shi 草書勢 (The Forces of

Cursive Script). Written by Suo Jing 索靖 (239–303), it states, ―Cursive script can be

49
Adriana G. Proser, ―Moral Characters: Calligraphy and Bureaucracy in Han China,‖ 172.
50
Zhao Yi, Fei caoshu, in FSYL 1.4: ―第以此篇[草書]研思鋭精, 豈若用之於彼七經.‖

32
smooth as a silver hook, or light as a startled bird; with wings outspread but not yet

flying, as if lifting then settling back… Like a stallion straining in fury against the bridle,

or the billowing sea foaming up in breakers, Like grasses and vines linked together, with

plum trees revealing their splendor, …‖51 As this passage illustrates, the description of

characters in the form of cursive script is often metaphorical, using images drawn from

nature. In the conclusion of his treatise, Suo Jing compares calligraphic practice to the

archetypal emblems in the Book of Changes, both of which activate the cosmic forces of

the universe. He states,

In doing away with the complex but preserving the subtle, [the calligrapher]
does not deviate from the archetypal emblems. Aspiring to the heights, he
reorders the universe. Turning to the commonplace, he equalizes
discrepancies. In giving creativity free reign, rain will fall, ice will melt. Like a
high-pitched voice, a sharp brush will move and spread like torrential water.
Beautiful compositions will emerge one by one, shining and wonderful,
luminous and bright…52

This passage informs us that calligraphic practice was valued as the mediation between

a subjective artist‘s mind and an objective universe. Suo Jing was active at the dawn of

the Six Dynasties (222–589), a period of prolonged political disunity after the fall of the

Han dynasty. The transcendental philosophies of Daoism and Buddhism encouraged

those who were talented in calligraphy to turn to nature for more inspiration. At the

same time, the moral, cosmic, and political values that were so immediate to Han

calligraphy would continue throughout the entire history of calligraphy that followed.

51
So Jing, Caoshu shi, in LDSF 19: ―蓋草書之為狀也，婉若銀鈎，漂若惊鵉，舒翼未發，若舉复安.‖
English translation from Wen C. Fong, ―Chinese Calligraphy: theory and history,‖ 33.
52
Ibid., 20: ―去繁存微，大象未亂，上理開元，下周謹案，骋辞放手，雨行冰散，高音翰厲，溢越流漫.‖
English translation from Wen C. Fong, ibid., 33–34.

33
Developments in the Six Dynasties: Daoist and Buddhist Elements in Calligraphy

Calligraphy was poised to become an important art form during the politically

divided Six Dynasties (220–589). This was a time when Daoism and Buddhism

flourished, while Confucianism was in the process of losing its privileged position.

Perceiving the growing influence of calligraphy in Chinese culture, Daoists and

Buddhists deliberately used calligraphy as an instrument to raise the status of their

respective religions. As a consequence, they greatly influenced the development of

Chinese calligraphy, in theory as well as in practice.

Wang Xizhi 王羲之 (303–361, or 306–365) and his seventh son Wang Xianzhi 王

献之 (344–386), known as the ―Two Wangs,‖ were among the most celebrated

calligraphy masters in the Six Dynasties. Wang Xizhi is considered the most prominent

calligrapher in Chinese history and often referred to as ―the Saint of Calligraphy.‖ Also

known by his style name Yishao 逸少, Wang Xizhi was skillful on various scripts of

calligraphy. His cursive script was modeled after Zhang Zhi 張芝 (? – ca. 192) and

standard script after Zhong You 鐘繇 (fl. 210–230), while Madame Wei 衛 (272–349)

was his direct teacher. The Wang family, many members known for being good at

calligraphy, along with other distinguished aristocratic families from north China,53 fled

to the south and assisted in the founding of the Eastern Jin (317–419) when the

Western Jin (265–316) disintegrated. Wang Xizhi served the Eastern Jin as General of

the Right Army, Youjun 右軍, by which title he is generally known. In his later years he

53
Besides the Wangs, other distinguished aristocratic families were Chenjun Xie (陳郡謝), Pengcheng Liu
(彭城劉), Yingchuan Yu (颍川庾), Qiaoguo Huan (譙國桓), Gaoyang Xu (高陽許), Nanyang Liu (南陽劉),
etc.. For more details on the political and cultural life of the period dominated by these powerful families,
see Richard B. Mather, trans., A New Account of Tales of the World.

34
served as governor of Kuaiji 會稽 prefecture where, around 353, he hosted the famous

poetry gathering at the Lanting (Orchid Pavilion) and wrote Lantingji xu 蘭亭集序

(Preface to the Collection of Poetry [Written] at the Orchid Pavilion), which is considered

the most celebrated piece of Chinese calligraphy.54

Many of the upper-class emigrants from the north, including the Wangs, adhered

to a Daoist sect, Tianshi dao 天師道 (Way of the Celestial Master), also known as the

Wudoumi dao 五斗米道 (Daoism of the Five pecks of Rice). They were rooted in the

coastal area around Langye 琅邪 in Linyi 臨沂 district, where the illustrious family of

Wang Xizhi then resided. This Daoist sect was established in the second half of the

second century, and became one of the earliest and most important forms of organized

religious Daoism.55

There are numerous traces in evidence of Wang Xizhi‘s pursuit of Daoism. Jin shu

晋書 tells us that Wang Xizhi, together with the Daoist Xu Mai 許邁 (fl. 340-360),56 was a

fervent seeker of longevity. Xu Mai was the elder brother of Xu Mi 許謐 (303–373), who

54
Wang Xizhi‘s biography is in Jin shu, 80.2093–101. For the celebrated Lantingji xu, see Donald
Holzman, ―On the authenticity of the ‗Preface‘ to the Collection of Poetry Written at the Orchid Pavilion,‖
306–11, and Hua Rende & Bai Qianshen, eds. Lanting lunji (Collected Essays on the Lanting xu).Tang
Emperor Taizong was an ardent admirer of Wang Xizhi. Taizong‘s promotion of Wang Xizhi‘s style
resulted in the formation of classical tradition of Chinese calligraphy; see Chapter 3 for further detailed
discussion. A wealth of scholarship has been produced about Wang Xizhi. For the promotion of Wang
Xizhi‘s style by Taizong and the formation of calligraphy tradition based on the Wang style see Lothar
Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 7–44, and Eugene Wang, ―The
Taming of the Shrew: Wang Hsi-chih (303–361) and Calligraphic Gentrification in the Seventh Century.‖
For Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy and model book tradition see Nakata Yujiro, Ō Gishi o chūshin to suru hōjō
no kenkyū.

55
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 248, and Chen
Yinke, ―Tianshidao yu binhai diyu zhi guanxi‖ (Daoism and the Inhabitants in the Maritime Provinces of
China, circa 126–536 AD), 449.
56
Xu Mai‘s friendship with Wang Xizhi and his daoist practice can be seen in Jin shu, 80.2101; Xu Mai‘s
biography in Jin shu, 80.2106–08.

35
figured prominently in the transmission of the Maoshan57 revelations, which later made

up the documents of one of the most important Daoist manuscripts, the Zhengao 真誥

(Declarations of the Perfected).58

The Maoshan revelations stated that calligraphy was a vehicle one could use to

communicate with Heaven. The central figure of this revelation was the mystic Yang Xi

楊羲 (330–?), a contemporary of the Two Wangs. Between the years 364 and 370,

Yang Xi experienced visions during which sacred texts were supposedly revealed to

him. He recorded these visionary texts in a state of religious exaltation.59

A century later, Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 (456–536), who was also an accomplished

calligrapher and art connoisseur, played a key role in preserving and expanding the

Maoshan tradition; he collected these manuscripts and completed his critical edition,

titled Zhengao, in 499.60 According to the Zhengao, Yang Xi was visited at night by

various celestials that descended from heaven, who guided his hand in copying the

sacred texts with a brush. The types of scripts, mentioned by Tao Huangjing, include

jinli 今隸 (contemporary lishu, an early form of kaishu),61 caoshu, xingshu, and kaishu.62

57
Maoshan is a mountainous area in south of modern Nanjing in where Xu Mi had some property and
erected there a ―Quiet Chamber‖ as his oratory. Later his son, Xu Hui, spent the last years of his life
entirely as a recluse on Maoshan. Maoshan had since olden times been a sacred mountain for hermits
(summary from Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 255).
58
See Michel Strickmann, ―The Mao Shan Revelations: Taoism and the Aristocracy‖ for Wang and Xu‘s
close relationship, and Zhengao and the Maoshan revelation.
59
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 254.
60
Ibid., and n. 42.
61
Zhengao, 1.7: ―此題本應是三元八會之書，楊君既就真字，今作隸字顯出之耳.‖—The original version of
these must have been written in the sanyuan bahui script, a script of the three origins and eight
connections. Master Yang who understood the characters of the Perfected has now transcribed them into
lishu and made them known. Translation is from Lothar Ledderose, ibid., 256.
62
Zhengao, 19.240: ―楊書中有草行多儳黵者 … 有謹正好書者.‖

36
Those copies passed to Xu Mi, and then to his brother Xu Mai, with whom Wang Xizhi

was a close acquaintance. ―Therefore,‖ says Lothar Ledderose, ―it can be assumed that

the Two Wangs knew of the Maoshan revelations.‖63 In Zhengao, the mystic Yang and

the Two Wangs are called the ―Three Masters‖ or ―Three Lords‖ (Sanjun 三君). Tao

Hongjing compared the handwriting of Yang Xi with that of the Two Wangs, and

concluded that ―the calligraphy of Master Yang is the most accomplished.‖ According to

Tao, Yang‘s writing bears a timeless quality, ―it is neither modern nor old-fashioned—

bujin bugu 不今不古, and at the same time displays a variety of characters large and

small — nengda nengxiao 能大能小.‖64 The ability to write with variety in scripts and

flexibility in sizes has since become the most important signifier of a proficient

calligrapher; this obtains for both sacred and secular writings. One of the Jin masters‘

great achievements was to finalize the formulation of the three scripts—caoshu,

xingshu, and kaishu—which have remained in use to the present day.

To illustrate the essential difference between religious and secular writings, Lothar

Ledderose compared the Maoshan tradition of religious manuscripts to the Wang

tradition in its formative period.65 In spite of some obvious similarities, one essential

difference between these two bodies of writings is that the Daoist manuscripts were

treasured primarily for their text, the sacred revelations, while the writings from the Two

Wangs‘ hands were esteemed more for the beauty of their calligraphic style.66 The

63
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 255.
64
Zhengao, 19.240: ―又按三君手迹, 楊君書最工, 不今不古, 能大能小.‖
65
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties.‖
66
Ibid., 277–78.

37
denigration of linguistic meaning has long been the cornerstone of early calligraphy

criticism. Art critic Zhang Huaiguan 張懷瓘 (fl. 720–740) in his Wenzi lun 文字論

distinguished between wenzi 文字 (written characters) and shu 書 (calligraphy), stating

that ―those who know calligraphy profoundly observe only its spiritual brilliance; they do

not see the forms of the written words.‖67 Nevertheless, throughout the long historical

development of Chinese calligraphy, the difficulty of separating beautiful writing from its

lexical meaning occur constantly. A famous eleventh century antiquarian Ouyang Xiu 歐

陽修 (1007–1072) sighed as he battled against himself since he had to ignore the

content of Buddhist inscriptions in order to appreciate the calligraphy carved on stone.

Although quality of aesthetic form has often been emphasized over content throughout

the history of Chinese calligraphy, the distinctions between them remain subtle. This

dilemma has complicated the study of calligraphy ever since the Two Wangs‘ tradition.

As the spiritual aspect of calligraphy became emphasized as the essential

aesthetic principle, calligraphy became increasingly valuable and worthy of collection.

Tao Hongjing, an enthusiastic collector and connoisseur of calligraphy who had a strong

sense about artistic authenticity, owned a large corpus of calligraphy pieces, including

Wang Xizhi‘s works and manuscripts from the Maoshan revelations. He also exerted a

strong influence on Emperor Wu of the Liang 梁武帝 (r. 502–549), who later became a

vigorous collector of Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy.68 This was the beginning of imperial court

67
Zhang Huaiguan, Wenzi lun, in LDSF 209: ―深知書者, 唯觀神彩, 不見字形.‖
68
In the Liang Wudi yu Tao Yinju lunshu jiushou; the center of discussion is the authenticity of works
attributed to the early masters, particularly Zhong You and the Two Wangs.

38
support for collecting works of calligraphy, a tradition that continued throughout China‘s

history.

A body of critical literature on collecting and systematic writings on how to rank

individual artists also began to emerge and grow rapidly at this time. Wang Xizhi‘s

accomplishment as a calligrapher was praised as ―the greatest ever‖ in Yang Xin‘s 羊欣

(370–442) Gulai nengshu renming 古來能書人名 (Names of Able Calligraphers since

Olden Times), one of the early preserved texts. It is the first treatise known to contain

short biographical information and critical remarks on more than fifty proficient

calligraphers, dating from the Qin era (third century BCE) to Yang Xin‘s contemporaries.

He paid homage to Wang by saying, ―in olden and modern times, there is not a second

one like him.‖69 Yang Xin was a contemporary of Wang Xianzhi,70 son of Wang Xizhi,

and studied calligraphy with him. Therefore, Yang‘s evaluation of the Wang‘s calligraphy

was considered reliable and, as a result, profoundly influenced later critics. It is thought

that Yang‘s opinion of Wang‘s accomplishment was influenced by his close connection

to Daoism.71 By attributing divine power to the aesthetic quality of Wang‘s work, Yang

insured that Wang‘s style of calligraphy became the ultimate standard for evaluation in

the calligraphic tradition.

Discussions of calligraphy were enthusiastic in the following decades. Critics often

used the term ―divine‖ to identify and classify the highest achievement of calligraphers,

69
Yang Xin, Cai gulai nengshu renming, in LDSF, 47: ―古今莫二.‖ English translation is from Lothar
Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 252.

70
Yang Xin studied calligraphy with Wang Xianzhi; see Yang Xin‘s biography in Song shu, 62.1661–62,
and in Nan shi, 36.932–33.
71
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 252 and n. 37.

39
and the word ―spirit‖ to describe the most valued calligraphy. ―He reveled in vacuity,‖72

said authoritative seventh century critic and theorist Sun Guoting 孫過庭 (fl. 685), as he

praised Wang Xizhi‘s Huangting jing 黄庭經 (The Yellow Court Classic), a Daoist

scripture, and the only text in small standard script written by Wang known to us.

Describing Wang‘s most celebrated Lanting ji xu, Sun declared, ―His thought roamed

and his spirit soared.‖73 In his evaluation of the calligraphy written by Wang Xizhi‘s son,

Wang Xianzhi, Sun claimed that he ―only pretended to rely on divine immortals.‖74 Even

though this remark is somewhat critical of Wang Xianzhi‘s work, it implies that ―divine

inspiration‖ is the highest aspiration for an artist. The Song connoisseur and

calligrapher, Mi Fu 米芾 (1051–1107), however, complimented Wang Xianzhi‘s style

and paid special attention to his yibishu 一筆書 (single-stroke writing).75 This form of

writing is still utilized today and is typically known as ―fire poker,‖ a technique commonly

associated with the superstitious practice of planchette writing (Huozhu huahui 火箸畫灰

or Fuji 扶箕).76 As Wang Xianzhi developed his cursive style in relation to planchette

writing, often found in religious manuscripts of the kind that inspired the mystic Yang Xi,

72
Sun Guoting, Shu pu, in LDSF 128: ―黄庭經則怡懌虚無.‖ Translation from Two Chinese Treatises on
Calligraphy: Treatise on Calligraphy (Shu pu) by Sun Qianli & Sequel to the ―Treatise on Calligraphy‖ (Xu
shu pu), introduced, translated and annotated by Chang Ch‘ung-ho and Hans H. Frankel, 10.
73
Ibid.: ―蘭亭興集思逸神超.‖ Translation from Two Chinese Treatises on Calligraphy (Chang Ch‘ung-ho
and Hans H. Frankel, trans.), 10–11.
74
Ibid., 125: ―乃假託神仙.‖
75
Mi Fu, Shushi, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, I.964a.
76
Fuji is a type of writing under religious inspiration. Holding a wooden stick in deep religious trance, the
medium writes on sand or on ash in a fast movement, usually in big caoshu. On the side an aide
recognizes and reads the characters aloud, and scribes hastily copies down these words. The practice of
planchette writing can be traced back in literary sources to the sixth century and is still practiced today.
See Lothar Ledderose, ―SomeTaoist Elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties,‖ 258.

40
Mi Fu‘s intention was to forge a link between Wang Xianzhi‘s style and heavenly

authenticity.

During the third to the fourth centuries, Buddhism began to spread among the

émigré gentry who engaged in a wide range of literary activities and religious

discussions. A so-called ―gentry Buddhism‖ movement was formed during this period.77

Many Buddhist monks became well-versed in the arts and secular Chinese literature

written by and for literati. This knowledge was necessary in order to engage the elite in

intellectual activities such as qingtan 清談 (literally, ―pure conversation‖).78 Participation

in literati gatherings enabled Buddhist monks to acquire the stature and authority of

traditional Chinese scholars; thus they were called ―gentlemen monks.‖79

With his extremely polished eloquence and remarkable talent for poetry and

calligraphy, the monk Zhidun 支遁 (314–366), better known as Daolin 道林, was one of

the most famous and representative gentleman monks. A contemporary of Wang Xizhi,

Zhidun was one of Wang‘s regular guests at his qingtan gatherings.80 The event for

which Wang‘s circle is best remembered was an outing in the spring of 353 to the

Orchid Pavilion on Wang‘s estate. There Wang Xizhi improvised a passage of three

hundred and twenty-four characters known as the Lanting ji xu (Preface to the

Collection [of poems composed] at the Orchid Pavilion) (fig. 3, full view and fig. 3a,

detail). In the Lanting Preface, Wang Xizhi recorded both his pleasure in this cultivated

gathering and his melancholic speculations on the transience of life. Not only did the
77
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.4–6.
78
Ibid., I.75.
79
Ibid., I.116–30.
80
Ibid., I.119.

41
beauty of his prose win him tremendous fame for its literary merit, the excellent

calligraphy of the essay was much acclaimed by later critics. The spirit that blossomed

through Wang‘s graceful running script made the Lanting Preface the most celebrated

piece of calligraphy in Chinese history.81

As a result of his mingling with Buddhists, the Daoist Wang Xizhi is believed to

have transcribed a Buddhist sutra, the Yijiaojing 遺教經.82 It is also known that Sun

Zhuo 孫綽 (300–380), a Buddhist, renowned calligrapher, and mentee of Wang Xizhi,

composed many important epigrams for monks.83 He was the author of a well-known

Buddhist doctrinal treatise, Yudao lun 喻道論 (An Elucidation of the Way), in which the

most famous and often quoted phrase is ―…Buddha means one who embodies the

Way‖ (佛也者體道者也).84 This statement can be interpreted as saying that Buddha is

everywhere and permeates everything, which includes the creation of art such as

calligraphy.

Metaphoric language that uses the human body to convey the power of calligraphy

permeates both Buddhist and Daoist writings. An excellent example may be found in the

seventh century Buddhist text Fayuan zhulin 法苑珠林 (Forest of Gems in the Garden

81
The most authentic versions of Lanting ji xu are believed the―Shenlong 神龍 and Dingwu 定武. The
former one was allegedly made by Feng Chengsu, one of the most skillful and distinguished copyists in
Taizong‘s court and carried seal of ―Shenlong‖—first two years of Zhongzong‘s 中宗 (r. 705–709) era,
now in the Beijing Palace Museum. The later one was a Song rubbing, now in the collection of National
Palace Museum in Taiwan. The discussion on the authenticity of the Lanting Preface, see Donald
Holzman, ―On the authenticity of the ‗Preface‘ to the Collection of Poetry Written at the Orchid Pavilion,‖
306–11, and Hua Rende and Bai Qianshen, eds. Lanting lunji (Collected Essays on the Lanting xu).

82
Yijiaojing is recorded in Zhao Mingcheng, Jinshi lu, 30.9, in Sibu congkan xubian, 48. It is stated that
Yijiaojing was attributed to Wang Xizhi, but in mid-Song, Ouyang Xiu denied its authenticity. Since then
there is discrepancy that Yi jiaojing might be a forgery by a Buddhist calligrapher.
83
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.132.
84
Ibid., 133.

42
of the Dharma), which states: ―I have a hymn spoken by the Buddha. If you write this

hymn and are able to use your skin as paper, your bones as the brush, your blood as

the ink, then this can rightly become a method that brings you joy.‖85 Real life cases in

which Buddhist monks and devotees pricked their body to draw blood and then mixed it

with ink to transcribe sutras have been recorded in historical documents. Examples

include the Tang monk Zengren 增忍 (812– 871) from the Longxing Monastery in

Lingwu (靈武龍興寺) and the [Later] Liang monk Hongchu 鸿楚 (fl. 910) from Dayun

Monastery in Wenzhou (温州大雲寺). According to their biographies, Monk Zengren

―pierced his own body to get blood for transcribing sutras, and in total 283 fascicles

were produced,‖86 and Monk Hongchu ―transcribed the complete Lotus Sutra with his

own blood.‖ 87 More discussion on the act of sacrificing one‘s body to garner religious

merit will follow in Chapter 6.

Some elements of Buddhist doctrine and methods for depicting Buddhist images

were adopted by Chinese artists as they developed their artistic forms and theories. The

distinctive schemata laid out for the strict definition of the proper position of each

Buddha, Bodhisattva, and Arhat, such as sanshier xiang 三十二相 (thirty-two marks)

and bashi zhong hao 八十種好 (eighty characteristics)88 for depicting the different sizes

of images, and the facial and bodily appearance of the Buddha, were applied to

calligraphy. This sense of order, which informed much Buddhist thought and practice,

85
T 53.907c: ―我有佛所說一偈, 汝能以皮為紙, 以骨為筆. 以血為墨. 書寫此偈. 當以與汝樂法.‖
86
Zan Ning, Song Gaozeng zhuan, in Zhonghua shuju ed., 26.667–68.
87
Ibid., 25.641.
88
Yu Xueliang ―Lun Fojiao dui Zhongguo shufa de yingxiang,‖ 2005.7.

43
may have inspired many calligraphers to articulate a method for the practice of

calligraphy, making it easier to teach, learn, and replicate.

When Wang Xizhi decided to teach his son Wang Xianzhi the art of calligraphy, he

formulated twelve rules for how to create the best disposition of brushstrokes. His Bi shi

lun shier zhang 筆勢論 十二章 (Discussion of the Disposition of Brushstrokes in Twelve

Sections) is one of the earliest extant texts on calligraphic theories on brushwork. These

rules were made compulsory, because they were believed to produce the best

calligraphy, especially for the writing of kaishu, the standard script. Wang states, ―There

are twelve doctrines in creating the best piece of calligraphy. By following each doctrine,

one would be able to set a standard. Once the standard is thoroughly understood

without any confusion, one would be able to bring together all the essence to create

marvelous calligraphy.‖89 By creating this method, Wang ensured that calligraphy

became a process that could be easily taught, understood, and repeated.

The twelve doctrines begin with section one, which is how to prepare a field for

writing (chuanglin 創臨). Section two addresses how one may open one‘s mind (qixin 啟

心). The observation of natural phenomenon (shixing 視行) as a way to create the

proper brush strokes is the subject of section three, which culminates with the

conclusion in section twelve that the actual execution of proper dots and lines—to

press, pause, or drag—should always be carried out according to the rule of nature. It is

89
Wang Xizhi, Bi shi lun – shier zhang, in LDSF 29: ―凡斯字勢，猷有十二章，章有指歸，定其模楷，詳其
舛謬，撮其要實.‖

44
this process that creates an accomplished calligrapher (picheng 譬成), the subject of the

last section.90

A similar format was employed by later artists, critics, and theorists. Guan Zhong

You shufa shier yi 觀鍾繇書法十二意 (Discerning Twelve Principles in Zhong You‘s

Calligraphy),91 written by the Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty, was an early example.

With his archaic and unadorned calligraphic style, Zhong You 鍾繇 (151–230) was

revered as the leading master and prime model for calligraphers producing standard

script. Later, the early Tang calligraphy master Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641)

compiled the Ba jue 八訣 (Eight Rhymed Formula)92 to illustrate the principles of

rendering brushstrokes, and Sanshiliu fa 三十六法 (Thirty-six Laws)93 to define methods

for shaping characters. An authoritative mid-Tang calligraphy theorist, Zhang Huaiguan,

wrote Lun yongbi shi fa 論用筆十法 (Discussion of Ten Ways of Using Brush),94 another

example of the flourishing literature on calligraphy that accelerated its growth and

contributed to its becoming a major art form.

The aesthetic principles formulated by these critics paralleled the Buddhist

philosophy of ―rhythm and order.‖ More specifically, these principles inform the rules for

creating the best strokes and shaping characters particularly in writing kaishu, standard

90
Besides sections 1,2,3, and 12 listed above, other sections 4 –11 are: shuodian 説點, chuge 處戈,
jianzhuang 健壯, jiaowu 教悟, guanxing 觀行, kaiyao 開要, jiezhi 節制, chalun 察論. For the complete
treatise, see Wang Xizhi, Bi shi lun – shier zhang, in LDSF 29–36.
91
Xiao Yan 蕭衍 (i.e. Liang Wudi), Quan Zhong You shufa shier yi, in LDSF 78.
92
Ouyang Xun, Ba jue, in LDSF 98.
93
Ouyang Xun, Sanshiliu fa, in LDSF 99.
94
Zhang Huaiguan, Lun yong bi shifa, in LDSF 216.

45
script, which has become the most popular calligraphic script from the Tang dynasty

onward. The clear, precise, and easy to read kaishu was the primary script used for the

Buddhist stele inscriptions and sutra reproduction in the Tang dynasty. As instructions

for producing calligraphy were made easy to follow, more people could participate in

writing, reading, and appreciating calligraphy. Consequently, calligraphy became more

attractive to Buddhist practitioners and members of Tang court alike, as an artistic form

for disseminating their ideas, beliefs, and values.

46
 CHAPTER 3
TANG COURT SPONSORSHIP ON CALLIGRAPHY

Emperor Taizong 太宗 (r. 626–649), given name Li Shimin 李世民, was the second

son of the Tang founder Gaozu 高祖 (r. 618–626).1 Upon ascending the throne, he

proclaimed his reign as ―Zhenguan‖ 貞觀 (Correctly Inspected), during which the Tang

imperial court was filled with eminent scholars and calligraphers including Ouyang Xun,2

Yu Shinan 虞世南 (558–638),3 and Chu Suiliang 褚遂良 (596–658),4 who were

collectively known as the ―Three Calligraphy Masters of the Early Tang Era.‖ Among

them, Yu Shinan instructed Taizong in calligraphy and received the highest respect from

him. Yu Shinan had studied calligraphy with Monk Zhiyong 智永 (fl. 600), a descendant

of Wang Xizhi.5 Esteeming this student-teacher relationship, Taizong could legitimately

claim to be in the direct lineage of Wang Xizhi.

1
Li Shimin (599–649), was bestowed as the Prince Qin 秦 before he was enthroned on 626 as the
second emperor of the Tang dynasty. For his life time promotion on art and literature, the posthumous
Memorial title "Wen" 文 was added at his death on 649. Taizong‘s official biography is in XTS 2.23–50.
During his reign (627–649), China flourished economically and militarily. Taizong contrived the political
harmony by tempering and adapting Buddhism along with Confucianism and Daoism. For Taizong‘s
ideological strategy on Buddhism, see Arthur Wright, ―Tang Taizong and Buddhism,‖ 239–64. For the
calligraphy‘s development in Taizong‘s court see Stephen J. Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early
Tang Dynasty,‖ 189–237.
2
Ouyang Xun‘s biography is in XTS 198.5465–66.
3
Yu Shinan‘s biography is in XTS 102.3969–73.
4
Chu Suiliang‘s biography is in XTS 105.4024–29.
5
Zhiyong, a native of Kuaiji 會稽, born during the reign of Emperor Wudi of (Southern) Liang (502–549),
was the seventh-generation descendant of Wang Xizhi, and became a monk during the Chen dynasty
(557–589). Zhiyong is considered as one of the most diligent calligraphers in Chinese history. He spent
thirty years wrting the thousand characters in the forms of both standard and cursive scripts, known as
Zhiyong zhencao qian ziwen 智永真草千字文 (Ziyong‘s thousand-character composition in standard and
cursive scripts), and eight hundred copies were made and distributed to the Buddhist monasteries of
eastern China.

47
 Emperor Taizong’s Promotion of Wang Xizhi’s Style

Taizong was a great admirer of Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy. He wrote an influential

commentary on Wang Xizhi‘s official biography in Jin shu, in which Taizong claimed that

he had studied all calligraphers and their extant works since ancient time and concluded

that Wang‘s skill was ―superior to anyone before or after him.‖6 In addition, Taizong

attempted to amass all the known writings by Wang Xizhi into the imperial collection and

trained the best calligraphers in techniques that reproduced Wang‘s masterpieces.7 As

original works gradually disappeared, the reproductions made at Taizong‘s command

became the primary vehicles for reconstructing Wang Xizhi‘s style.

During Taizong‘s reign, three hundred years after Wang Xizhi‘s death, the issue

of authentication arose. Taizong ordered a committee to examine the works in his

imperial collection that were attributed to Wang Xizhi and to assess every single item.

The committee was headed by Chu Suliang, who was said to be the only person able to

tell originals from forgeries.8 At the orders of Taizong, Chu Suiliang completed an official

catalog, Jin Youjun Wang Xizhi shumu 晋右軍王羲之書目 (List of Calligraphic Works by

Wang Xizhi, General of the Right Army of the Jin dynasty).9 The catalog contains 269

items classified according to two types of scripts: standard and running.10 There are

fourteen items, mounted as five scrolls, listed in the category of standard script. The

6
Li Shimin [Tang Taizong], Wang Xizhi chuan lun, in LDSF 121–22.
7
See section ―Reproductions‖ in this chapter for further discussion on reproducting Wang Xizhi‘s work.
8
XTS 105.4024.
9
Chu Suiliang, Jin Youjun Wang Xizhi shumu, in FSYL 3.88–100. See also Wei Shu, Tangchao xushu lu,
in FSYL 4.163.
10
This number count is mine. Lothar Ledderose‘s count is ―266,‖ see Lothar Leddrose, Mi Fu and the
Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 28; Amy McNair‘s is ―360 plus 14,‖ see Amy McNair, ―Fa shu
yao lu,‖ 77.

48
rest, mounted as fifty-eight scrolls, are in the category of running script. A title or brief

note is given for each scroll, and underneath there is information on each item‘s number

of lines and for whom it was written. The first item in the category of standard script is

the Yue Yi lun 樂毅論 (Eulogy on General Yue Yi),11 while the first running script is the

Lanting ji xu. That arrangement was possibly an indication of the emperor‘s personal

favorites.12 Including Yue Yi and Lanting, about thirty items still can be identified, in

various later collections of rubbings or in handwritten copies.13

Taizong also had a small seal cut with two characters, Zhenguan, to represent his

reign. The seal, inscribed with Taizong‘s own calligraphy, was impressed at the

beginning and the end of each scroll. This was probably the first time that a seal had

been used to authenticate an art work. Since then it has become standard practice to

place an official seal(s) on objects belonging to imperial collections, and the seals of the

Tang imperial collection have been much venerated by later connoisseurs.14 Chu

Suiliang had total authority in matters of authenticating Wang Xizhi‘s work; as a result,

he played a decisive role in shaping the legacy of Wang Xizhi. A more detailed study of

Chu Suiliang and his calligraphy follows later in this chapter and also in Chapter 4.

It is not surprising that Taizong himself emulated Wang Xizhi in his own

handwriting. Two extant and dependable works by Taizong‘s hand are Jinci ming 晋祠

銘 (The Inscription for the Ancestor Hall of Jin) dated 646 (fig. 4) and Wenquan ming 温

11
Yue Yi was a famous warrior of the third century BCE. An eulogy for Yue Yi was composed by Xiahou
Xuan 夏侯玄 (209–254).
12
Amy McNair, ―Fa shu yao lu,‖ 77.
13
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 28, and n. 84.
14
Lothar Leddrose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 26; see also Acker, Some
T’ang and Pre-T’ang Texts on Chinese Painting, I.216.

49
泉銘 (The Inscription for the Hot Spring) dated 648 (fig. 5). Both were engraved on

stones. The stele of Jinci ming was erected in the Jin Temple of Taiyuan city in Shanxi

Province and is still well preserved.15 The stele of Wenquan ming was unfortunately

lost. From the time of the Song onward this work had been known only from the

literature written about it, but at the beginning of the twentieth century a fragment of an

ink rubbing of Wenquan ming was discovered in a Dunhuang cave.16

The inscription on the Jinci ming appears mostly in standard script, but some

characters are written more freely, like running script. The fragmentary ink rubbing of

the Wenchuan ming is composed of about four hundred characters in fifty lines, each

line containing seven or eight characters, and exhibits Taizong‘s writing in a fluid

running script reflecting Wang Xizhi‘s luminous style. Wenquan ming is further

discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

Promoted enthusiastically by Taizong and his court, Wang Xizhi‘s style was

designated with such authority that it became an abiding tradition throughout the Tang

dynasty and beyond. Lothar Ledderose first coined the term ―Classical Tradition‖ in

reference to the Wang Xizhi tradition that has been canonized since the Tang dynasty.17

He defines it as ―the powerful artistic tradition that dominated the history of

calligraphy.‖18 The term ―classical tradition‖ has been widely adopted by Western

15
See Jinci zhi ming bing xu: Tang Li Shimin zhuang bing shu.
16
It is now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France; the item is numbered as P.4508.
17
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 7–44. See also Eugene Y.
Wang, ―The Taming of the Shrew: Wang Hsi-chih (303–361) and Calligraphic Gentrification in the
Seventh Century,‖ 132–73.
18
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 7.

50
scholars, while the Chinese equivalent is the ―Wang Xizhi Tradition‖ or the ―Two Wangs

Tradition,‖ which refers to Wang Xizhi and his seventh son Wang Xianzhi.

The Ideological Formation of Tang Court Culture

Taizong‘s infatuation with Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy also revealed a feature of the

emperor‘s political ideology, in addition to his personal aesthetic preferences.19 Since

Taizong‘s base was in the north, his promotion of Wang Xizhi, whose work represents

the highly cultured aristocracy of south China, served as a symbol of his desire to

facilitate national unification.20

Taizong‘s act of fostering a balance of power was, in fact, a continuation of the

policy begun by his father, Li Yuan 李淵, the first Tang emperor Gaozu.21 A northerner

and native of Longxi 隴西 (in modern Shaanxi Province), Gaozu understood that the

unification of the country depended on acquiring support from the south by promoting

southern culture and officials. He also established an institutional and political

framework ―to create a sense of continuity with the past.‖22 The ―past‖ referred to by

Gaozu can most immediately be interpreted as the court of the Sui 隋 dynasty (581–

617), in which he had served and held the high positions of Right Guard General and

Grand Counselor-in-chief. Li Yuan was bestowed with the title of Prince of Tang before

he usurped the throne of the last emperor of the Sui, Yangdi 煬帝 (r. 605–617). Yangdi,

19
Taizong‘s political ideology see Denis Twitchett, ―The Composition of the T‘ang ruling class: new
evidence from Tunhuang,‖ 51, and Stephen J. Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early Tang Dynasty,‖
233.
20
Robert E. Harris, Jr., ed., The Embodied Images, 96.
21
Gaozu‘s official biography is in XTS 1.1–21.
22
Stephen J. Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early Tang Dynasty,‖ 195.

51
too, was very much in favor of selecting southern scholars to serve his court and used

that policy to promote the country‘s unification.23

The cultural interdependence that developed between south and north China can

be traced back to the Period of Division during the sixth century. Southern elite arts,

which included poetry, painting, and calligraphy, were superior to those in the kingdoms

of Northern China, which were ruled by so-called ―barbarians‖ whose native tongue was

not Chinese. Overtime, northern rulers increasingly admired southern culture. Some

southern poets, such as Yu Xin 庾信, were kidnapped and held hostage so that they

could teach northern officials how to compose writings and improve the cultural

achievements of their courts. In terms of religion, however, the exposure to and

understanding of diverse Buddhist texts and teachings was more advanced in the north.

This owed to the overland trade routes between northern China and Central Asia, and

the Indian subcontinent, which were traveled by foreign missionaries. In fact, the monks

who founded monasteries or preached in south China were often foreigners who were

initially active in the north or were monks born in north China and trained by foreign

dharma masters.24

Gaozu and Taizong‘s act of institutionalizing a process of cultural signification can

be seen as a continuity of pursuit that had been undertaken by the nothern rulers for the

explicit purpose of unification. Gaozu‘s direct ―past‖ also included the highly cultural

dynasties of the Eastern Jin and [Southern] Liang. Shu Shu fu 述書賦 (A History of

23
Sui shu 3.60–62 and 32.908.
24
In respect to religion and literary culture in the sixth century, see Alan K. Chan and Yuet-keung Lo,
―Representing the Uncommon: Temple Visit Lyrics from the Liang to Sui Dynasties,‖ 189–222.

52
Calligraphy in Rhapsody Form) written by Dou Ji‘s 竇臮 (fl. 730–750) reveals Li Yuan‘s

artistic and cultural inclinations:

When Mighty Tang received blessings from Heaven, it unified the whole
universe and illuminated the gloomy world. Having settled the matter of
military achievement and practiced civic virtues, Gaozu applied the
technique of ‗dragon claws‘ [implying the calligraphic technique by Wang
Xizhi] to set forth his profound purviews. His heroic writings appeared
divine, and they crowned the excellent model of the Liang.25

The excellent ―model of the Liang‖ is identified by Dou Meng 竇蒙 (fl. 730–750) in his

annotation on Shu Shu fu, ―[In calligraphy] Li Yuan imitated Wang Xizhi‘s technique but

he actually took a renowned (Southern) Liang calligrapher, Wang Bao 王褒 (ca. 513–

576) as his mentor.‖26 The biography of Wang Bao tells us that he was a native of

Langye in Linyi and the direct descendant of Wang Dao 王導 (276–339), a cousin of

Wang Xizhi‘s father.27 This teacher-student relationship with Wang Bao earned Gaozu

the position of being designated as a legitimate follower of Wang Xizhi.

Among the scholar-officials from Sui Yangti‘s court who entered Gaozu‘s

government, the most eminent calligraphers were the three southern scholars, Ouyang

Xun, Yu Shinan, and Chu Liang 褚亮 (fl. 575–630).28 They collaborated during their

25
Dou Ji, Shu shu fu, in FSYL 6.199.
26
Ibid.
27
Zhoushu 41.746–47; see also in Tong liu dian, 768.
28
Chu Liang‘s biography is in XTS 102.3975–76, see also THY 64.1114,1115 and 1117 for Chu Liang‘s
work and official involvement in the College of Literary Studies (Wenxue guan) and the Institute for the
Advancement of Literature (Hongwen guan). Chu Liang is the father of Chu Suiliang who is considered as
the most influential calligrapher in Taizong‘s era.

53
service to Sui Yangdi and became acquainted with Li Yuan, who had served at that time

as one of Sui Yandi‘s military commanders.29

After Li Yuan (Gaozu) was enthroned as the first emperor of the Tang, Ouyang

Xun was appointed Grand Secretary of the Department of the Imperial Chancellery.30

He was highly influential in his time and was asked to provide the calligraphic design for

the currency Gaozu began minting in the seventh month of 621.31 According to the

official Ouyang Xun‘s biography, his stunning brushstrokes had no parallel among his

contemporaries: ―Originally Ouyang Xun modeled his writing upon Wang Xizhi‘s

calligraphy style. Later he excelled by not being afraid to take risks; hence his

calligraphy became distinctive enough to be called the ‗Ouyang style‘ and his writings

were masterpieces to be used as models by others.‖32

None of Ouyang‘s handwritings has survived,33 but fortunately his calligraphy can

be traced from the extant stone carvings inscribed by him. The well-known

Jiuchenggong Li quan ming 九成宮醴泉銘 (Inscription on Sweet-water Spring at

Jiucheng Palace) (fig. 6) was inscribed by Ouyang in 632, when he was already

seventy-five. The inscription was written to commemorate the miraculous event of the

discovery of a spring by Taizong at Jiucheng Palace. The characters are carefully

rendered in standard script and extremely well proportioned in structure. The brush

29
The traces of their collaboration can be found from their official biographies: Ouyang Xun‘s is in XTS
198.5645, Yu Shinan‘s is in XTS 102.9369, and Chu Liang‘s is in XTS 102.3976; see also Stephen
Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early Tang Dynasty,‖ 193–95.
30
XTS 198.5645.
31
THY 89.1623.
32
XTS 198.5646.
33
One running script manuscript, the Zhang Han si lu 張翰思鱸 (Zhang Han Misses Perch), now in the
collection of Beijing Palace Museum, is attributed to Ouyang Xun, but its authenticity is debatable.

54
strokes are maneuvered with directional force, either vertical or horizontal, to create a

visual weight with perfect equilibrium and coherence. These qualities were later

incorporated into the essential characteristics of the Tang style of standard script.

Another traceable work of Ouyang is the rubbing of Huadu si bei 化度寺碑 (Stele

of Huadu Monastery). The stele was erected in 631 to commemorate the establishment

of the Huadu Monastery, but lost sometime in the Song dynasty, and early rubbings had

not been available for modern scholars until a twelve-page fragment was discovered at

Dunhuang. The writing is in a powerfully compelling standard script, disclosing

Ouyang‘s involvement and contribution to both the fields of calligraphy and Buddhism.

As an important Dunhuang discovery, the Huadu rubbing is further discussed in detail in

Chapter 5.

Young Prince Qin 秦王 (later emperor Taizong) Li Shimin, like his father and even

more so, vigorously promoted art and literature.34 In 621, the Prince founded the

College of Literary Studies (Wenxue guan 文學館) in the west side of palace. He formed

a group of eighteen scholar-officials, including Yu Shinan and Chu Liang, to serve as his

council.35 The Prince commanded the distinguished Tang painter Yan Liben 閻立本 (d.

673) to paint the portraits of those eighteen scholars, and asked Chu Liang to write a

set of eulogies for them entitled Shiba xueshi 十八學士 (Eighteen Scholars). As

described in the Tang huiyao 唐會要 (Laws and Institutions of the Tang dynasty),

―These scholars were called upon everyday to discuss art and literature with the

34
See above in this chapter n. 1.
35
THY 64.1117.

55
Prince.‖36 It is evident that Taizong‘s interest in calligraphy and art existed long before

his ascension to the throne. During those years of being taught by the best scholars in

the country, his passion for and participation in the arts was firmly established. As his

political power increased, he continued to enlist his confidants Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun,

and Chu Liang for high official positions, and he continued this strategy after his ascent

to the throne in 626.

Taizong‘s expansion of the Institute for the Advancement of Literature (Hongwen

guan 弘文舘) was one of his greatest cultural achievements.37 The Institute commanded

great prestige and attracted men of outstanding learning who discussed literature and

politics with the emperor. One of the institute‘s major missions was to teach the art of

calligraphy to the sons of high officials in the capital. The Tang huiyao records:

Sons of the imperial family and sons of civil and military officials of the fifth
rank and above who had the desire and talent to learn calligraphy were
admitted to the Institute for the Advancement of Literature to study
calligraphy. During the first year of the Zhenguan era (627), twenty four
students were admitted and studied standard script under the guidance of
Yu Shinan and Ouyang Xun.38

Taizong‘s effort in promoting calligraphy is well defined in this paragraph. The students

admitted to the Institute were taught standard script by Yu Shinan and Ouyang Xun, so

that they were proficient in the imperially codified standard script. These students

became the forceful assets to pass down the Tang style of standard script.

36
Ibid.
37
The history and function of Hongwen guan can be seen in THY 64.1114–17 (written as 宏文舘), and in
XTS 47.1209–10 (written as 弘文舘). Hongwen guan, previously named Xiuwen guan 修文舘 and
founded by Gaozu in 621, subordinate to the Secretariat and the Department of State Affairs, Menxia
sheng 門下省. The name was changed in March of 626, during the last year of Gaozu‘s reign. By
September of that year when Taizong ascended the throne, Hongwen guan was soon expanded to
correspond with Taizong‘s promotion on the civility.
38
THY 64.1115.

56
 The Tang court also promoted proficiency through the School of Calligraphy

(Shuguan 書館), which opened in 628. Established under the supervision of the

Directorate of Education (Guozijian 國子監), the School was to provide calligraphic

instruction to the sons of lower ranking officials (ranked eighth and below) and

commoners.39 Thirteen total members were admitted during that year.40 The students in

the Shuguan mingled with the students in other department of Guozijian, studying a

wide range of subjects.41 For those students, trained either from the Hongwen guan or

Shuguan but failed to pass the imperial examination, would most likely hired by the the

government agencies to be clerk calligraphers whose responsibilities were to copy

official documents and sometimes government-sanctioned Buddhist sutras, a

development which will be further discussed in Chapter 6.

Among other measures adopted by Taizong to promote calligraphy, he included

―skill in calligraphy‖ as one of the four criteria for selection to government office. ―Fine

and vigorous handwriting in standard script‖ (kaifa qiumei 楷法遒美) became one of the

prerequisites, along with physique (handsome and imposing), speech (good vocabulary

and diction to debate), and composition (excellent and logical writing). 42 This was the

first time in history that good handwriting became an essential requirement for service in

the government. To include good handwriting as one of the determinants of character

indicates a belief that a person‘s calligraphic skill reflects one‘s inner being. In many

39
XTS 48.1267: ―八品以下及庶人子為生.‖
40
THY 66.1160.
41
XTS 48.1267–68.
42
Ibid., 45.1171.

57
cases, calligraphy could outrank other criteria in the selection process, because any

composition that was not in good handwriting could immediately be eliminated.

Consequently, the Tang court was filled with scholar-officials who were also good

calligraphers.

The inclusion of calligraphy in the civil service examinations had a strong impact

on the cultural environment. Calligraphy, once a recondite art of the elite class, became

an attainable skill that the public could pursue. Practicing and mastering the brush

became an important function of people‘s everyday life and a compulsory prerequisite to

elevate one‘s status. This new cultural phenomenon was celebrated in Tang and Song

literature. The Tang poet Duan Chengshi‘s 段成式 (d. 863) anthology You yang zazu 酉

陽雜俎, a collection of prose essays recording numerous social phenomena that

appeared in the mid-Tang period, includes the story like this: ―Once in the middle of Dali

大曆 era (766–779), there was a beggar with no hands who was able to write by holding

a brush with his foot. He was copying sutras to make a living. … And [the quality of] the

calligraphy produced by this beggar even exceeded that of the officials.‖43 This story

suggests that calligraphy was commonly practiced throughout the country. It also

reveals the developing trend that calligraphy was no longer a privilege that belonged

solely to the elite-officials; instead, diligent practice could allow anyone, even a beggar,

to excel at calligraphy. Furthermore, it brings to our attention that a skillful calligrapher

could make a living, such as copying sutras. Whether or not this story about the beggar

is true, the fact that it was written by a Tang poet suggests that the practice of

calligraphy was linked to changes in how the relationship between art and society was

43
Duan Chengshi, You yang zazu, 5.34.

58
conceived at that time. That a beggar could be said to write calligraphy more beautifully

than a government official indicated that aesthetic skill could, to a degree, transcend

class hierarchies. Serving religious, political, and social ends alike, aesthetics could

somewhat democratize relationships among them. The beggar, a person who would

have been socially invisible, was rendered visible through his aesthetic skill, in this case

writing calligraphy.

A similar line of thinking is indicated in a comprehensive calligraphy catalog

compiled in the Song dynasty, the Xuanhe Shupu 宣和書譜 (Xuanhe Catalog of

Calligraphy), that itemized Emperor Song Huizong‘s 宋徽宗 (r. 1101–1125) collection.

The Catalog says, ―Throughout three-hundred years of Tang history, not only were

scholar-officials [of the Tang] excellent at calligraphy, but even the commoners (buyi 布

衣) or servants like runners (caoli 皂隸) were capable of showing their calligraphic

skills.‖44 This new cultural phenomenon can be attributed to the early Tang court‘s

vigorous promotion of the practice of calligraphy.

Taizong extended his personal aesthetic preference for calligraphy to establish a

new and powerful cultural tradition. He used his authority to command the Wang Xizhi‘s

style be the model for calligraphy as part of his strategy to culturally unify the new

empire. This act taken for a political ideology, however, resulted in the great cultural

accomplishment.

Yu Shinan and Chu Suiliang

The early Tang court‘s success in promoting calligraphy and establishing its orthodox

tradition was the cumulative effort of emperors and numerous scholar-officials. In

44
Xuanhe shupu, 18.144.

59
addition to Ouyang Xun, Yu Shinan and Chu Suiliang made the most remarkable

contributions.

Yu Shinan had established himself as Taizong‘s confidant since Taizong‘s youth. It

is noted in Yu Shinan‘s biography that the emperor praised him for possessing five

virtues—high morality, upright loyalty, broad scholarship, elegant literary composition,

and excellent calligraphy.45 At Taizong‘s request, Yu Shinan and other scholar officials

carried out many important projects. For example, an inquiry into the merits and faults of

previous rulers was composed in 631.46 The next year, Yu Shinan was appointed Vice

Director of the Imperial Library, where he and others examined and sorted out the

calligraphy collection in the Inner Storehouse.47 Yu Shinan died in 638 at age of 81 and

was bestowed with the posthumous title ―Wenyi‖ 文懿 (Admirable in Refinement).48

Yu‘s sole extant stele inscription is the Kongzi miaotang bei 孔子廟堂碑 (Stele

Dedicated to the Confucius Temple) (fig. 7), which now stands at Beilin in Xi‘an.

Originally erected between 628 and 630, it was destroyed shortly after its completion.

The current stele is a copy engraved during the early Song dynasty, with the basic

features of the original work retained. Zhang Huiguan once commented Yu in his well-

known Shuduan 書斷 (Critical Reviews on Calligraphy), stating that ―Yu‘s style had a

latent firmness seasoned by flexibility, just as an honorable man would refrain from

45
XTS 102.3972: ―帝每稱其五绝：一曰德行，二曰忠直，三曰博學，四曰文詞，五曰書翰.‖
46
THY 36.651.
47
Stephen J. Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early Tang Dynasty,‖ 196; see also FSYL 4.163, and
XTS 57.1450.
48
XTS 102.3973.

60
showing his cutting edge.‖49 This description is apt for Yu‘s inscription of the Kongzi

miaotang bei because the characters seem written with only gentle brushstrokes and no

force. It is said that Yu relied primarily on meditation, rather than imitation and practice,

to guide his calligraphy.50 Zhang Huiguan also pointed out that Yu Shinan carried on the

tradition of Wang Xizhi‘s ―broad compass‖ (honggui 宏規), which absorbed the best

qualities from various sources and adeptly employed different scripts. 51

Both Yu and Ouyang taught at the Institute for the Advancement of Literature

during the last decade of their lives. It is reasonable to assume that their writings,

rendered with careful strokes and symmetrically constructed characters, were the

models used to train young officials at the institute. The styles of Yu Shinan and Ouyang

Xun have often been compared, as they were extremely close in age and were both

considered the most revered calligraphers of their generation. ―Ouyang Xun‘s

calligraphy is like a brave general penetrating deep into the enemy‘s position with an

inevitable setback occasionally, while Yu Shinan‘s is like a carefully chosen protocol

official seldom making a slip of the tongue,‖ said Zhang Huiguan, who also concluded

that Yu's calligraphy was considered superior to that of Ouyang, because the ink and

stroke from Ouyang‘s calligraphy exposed sinews and bones, while Yu‘s was like an

honorable man who always refrained from showing his cutting edge.52 This passage

49
Zhang Huiguan, Shuduan, in FSYL 8.286: ―虞則内含剛柔，… 君子藏器，以虞為優.‖ The translation is
modified from Zhu Guantian, ―An Epoch of Eminent Calligraphers,‖ 201.
50
Zhu Guantian, ibid., 200.
51
Zhang Huiguan, Shuduan, in FSYL 8.285: ―其書得大令之宏規，含五方之正色，姿容秀出,… 行草之際,
…不亦宜乎.‖
52
Ibid., 8.286: ―歐若猛將深入，時或不利，虞若行人妙選，罕有失辭,‖ ―歐則外露筋骨，虞則内含剛柔，君
子藏器，以虞為優.‖ Translation is from Zhu Guantian, ―An Epoch of Eminent Calligraphers,‖ 200–01.

61
tells us that even though the pieces are written in the same form of the standard script,

calligraphy written by two different hands may appear similar at glance, they can look

very different when the details are scrutinized.

It should be noted that Yu Shinan was a devoted Buddhist. Several historical texts

record a story about Taizong‘s dream of seeing Yu Shinan after his death. The story

says, ―Afterwards, knowing that his old friend had been a devout Buddhist, Taizong

praised him in an edict and ordered that a maigre feast for 500 monks be held and a

Buddhist image made for the spiritual benefit of his old friend.‖53 Yu Shinan‘s Buddhist

faith can be traced back to the time when Taizong was still the Prince of Qin. Using

small standard script, Yu composed and wrote ―Poxie lun xu‖ 破邪論序 (A Preface to the

Discussion on Destroying Evil),54 to promote the Buddhist monk Falin‘s Poxie lun 破邪論

(Discussion on Destroying Evil), which opposed Gaozu‘s anti-Buddhist program.55 The

above instance demonastrates how Yu Shinan could use his fame as a calligrapher to

influence the court‘s religious policy; in this case, it was to support Buddhism.

So much did Taizong trust Yu Shinan‘s judgement and appreciat his talent

personality, but when Yu was getting older, emperor was worried that after the death of

Yu Shinan there would be no one with whom to discuss calligraphy. In 636, the minister

Wei Zheng 魏徵 (580–643) recommended Chu Suiliang, son of Chu Liang, to the

emperor, saying, ―When Chu Suiliang puts brush to paper, his writing is vigorous. He

53
Arthur F. Wright, ―T‘ang T‘ai-tsung and Buddhism,‖ 252–53, and n. 43; Fozu tongji, T 49.364c; Quan
Tang wen 9.2b, in Datong shuju ed., 113; JTS 72.2571.
54
A reproduction can be seen in Tseng Yu-ho Ecke, Chinese Calligraphy, pl. 10g; for Yu Shinan‘s
preface, see T 52.474c–75a.
55
Arthur F. Wright, ―Tang Taizong and Buddhism,‖ 246.

62
has succeeded in achieving Wang Yishao‘s [Xizhi‘s] style.‖56 Chu Suiliang gained the

Emperor‘s confidence immediately after Wei Zheng‘s recommendation. Soon after,

―Chu Suiliang was summoned to serve as Court Calligrapher (Shishu 侍書) and placed

in charge of the imperial collection.‖57

Of all the eminent calligraphers at Taizong‘s court, Chu Suiliang played the most

influential role. His calligraphic skill synthesized the styles of Wang Xizhi and Yu

Shinan, and thus emanated gracefulness and elegance. Zhang Huaiguan elucidates

Chu‘s style in his Shuduan: ―When he [Chu Suiliang] was young, he was fond of

examining Yu [Shinan‘s calligraphy]. When he became older, he inherited the art of

Youjun [Wang Xizhi]. Chu‘s kaisu [standard script] greatly captured the charm of

Wang‘s style.‖58 It is understandable, conceptually and in practice, that in order to

measure up to Taizong‘s expectation, Chu was determined to exceed Yu in carrying on

the Wang legacy.

Chu‘s ability to capture and express a meticulous rhythm in rendering

brushstrokes and character structures positioned him as a more accomplished

calligraphy master than Ouyang and Yu, according to Zhang Huaiguan:

[Chu‘s calligraphy] looks like a luxurious tower, with its windows reflecting
the carved lattices of interlocked patterns in which springtime woods are
visible in the far background; also like a beautiful woman whose radiance
and suppleness does not rely on the embellishment of a silk gauze dress, a
quality that was allegedly missing in the works of Ouyang and Yu.‖59

56
XTS 105.4024.
57
Ibid.
58
Zhang Huiguan, Shu Duan, in FSYL 8.286.
59
Original text from Zhang Huiguan, Shu Duan, in FSYL 8.286: ―若瑶臺青鏁, 窅映春林，美人嬋娟, 不任羅
綺， 增華綽约，歐虞謝之.‖ Translation is modified from Zhu Guantian, ―An Epoch of Eminent
Calligraphers,‖ 202.

63
 Chu‘s style was also fully appreciated by the Song artist and critic Mi Youren 米友

仁 (1074–1151), who praised Chu, ―the most accomplished practitioner of [Wang]

Xizhi‘s style. In his standard script (zhen 真) characters, there is official script (li 隷)

method. He achieved his own style. No one can equal him.‖60

Not all critics were enthusiastic about Chu‘s calligraphy. Li Sizhen 李嗣真 (d. 696),

a near contemporary of Chu Suiliang, commented that ―Chu was good at copying Wang

Xizhi‘s work with abundant sculpture-like strokes… [They] lack naturalness, and

represent a skill simply gained from diligent and strenuous training.‖61 A mid-Tang critic,

Dou Ji 竇臮 (fl. 740–750), made a similar evaluation of Chu Suiliang‘s diligence,

―dedicatedly proficient, and extremely restrained and prudent.‖62 Dou Ji, however,

added a scathing remark: ―perhaps [in some ways] it would be very much like a ridiculed

painter who, in trying to sketch a tiger, ends up drawing a dog.‖63 A comment like this

may be considered prejudiced and should not be taken as a proper and conclusive

judgment of this great master‘s entire career.

Chu Suiliang began to practice calligraphy at a very young age as his father, Chu

Liang, was a renowned calligrapher, and his style gradually matured. Although no

handwritten piece done by him has survived, Chu Suiliang‘s calligraphy style can be

discerned from four engraved steles bearing inscriptions penned by him, which reveal

the distinctive characteristics of his writing. It is also important to note that among these

60
Ma Zonghuo, Shulin zaojian, 8.123b–24a, in Beijing, Wenwu, 1984 ed., 84.
61
Li Sizheng, Shupin hou (Hou shupin or Shu hou pin), in FSYL 3.107.
62
Dou Ji, Shu shu fu, in LDSF 255 and FSYL 3.201: ―河南專精，克儉克勤.‖
63
Ibid. : ―恐無成於畫虎，將有類於効嚬.‖

64
four steles, two are related to Buddhism and one to Daoism. Yique Fokan bei 伊闕佛龕

碑 (Stele for Buddhist Shrine at Mount Yique), erected in 641, and Meng fashi bei 孟法

師碑 (Epitaph for Daoist Priestess Meng), erected in 642, exemplify the early phase of

Chu‘s style. A pair of steles inscribed with the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu 大唐三藏

聖教序 (Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripiṭaka64 of the Great Tang Dynasty) and

Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu ji 大唐三藏聖教序記 (Notes to the Preface to the Holy

Teachings of the Tripiṭaka of the Great Tang Dynasty) erected in 653, represent the

most refined phase of his calligraphy.

Yique Fokan bei was originally engraved on the Longmen Cliff south of Luoyang.

The stone was ruined long ago. Chu‘s writing may only be seen from rubbings made in

the Song and Ming periods.65 The original was written in standard script, with each dot

and stroke clear and crisp. The slightly compressed square characters are filled with

slender and wire-like brushwork, which can be said to match Li Sizhen‘s description of

―sculpture-like strokes‖ (fig. 8).

The stone of Meng fashi bei has long been lost, but a piece of a rubbing made

from the engraved inscription was passed down by the Qing collector Li Zonghan 李宗

瀚 and now resides in the Collection of Mitsui Memorial Museum, Tokyo (fig. 9). The

inscriptions of Meng fashi bei display brushwork and character structures that are

64
Tripiṭaka, Sanskrit for ―three baskets,‖ is the earliest collection of Buddhist scripture, which can be
found in many versions, while the oldest and most complete one is called the Pali Canon. Therefore
Tripiṭaka is also known as the Pali Canon with an alternate spelling: Tipiṭaka in Pali. The three Baskets of
the Law in Pali includes: the Vinaya-pitaka (pitaka means ―basket‖ in Pali) containing the rules of
communal life for monks and nuns; the Sutra-pitaka, a collection of sermons of the Buddha; and the
Adhidharma-pitaka, which contains interpretations of analyses of Buddhist concepts.
65
Zheng Fengming, Chu Suiliang shuxue zhi yanjiu, 100.

65
similar to the ones on Yique Fokan bei. The strokes seem borrowed from Ouyang Xun

(like the inscription of Jiuchenggong Liquan ming, see fig. 6) and the character

structures appear to have come from Yu Shinan (like the inscription of Kongsi miaotang

bei, see fig. 7).66 Written in standard script, Chu‘s calligraphy on both the Meng fashi as

well as the Yique Fokan reveal the early stage of Chu‘s style, which demonstrate a

great sense of propriety that is flavored with vestiges of official script.

Among the extant engraved inscriptions attributed to Chu Suiliang, Da Tang

Sanzang shengjiao xu (the Preface) (fig. 10a), and the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu ji

(the Notes to the Preface) (fig. 10b) are best-known. Dated 653 and signed by Chu

Suiliang, the inscriptions demonstrate the artist‘s shift in stylistic allegiance. His strokes

are slender and smooth, as he finally transforms the fluency and elegance of Wang

Xizhi‘s style to his own brush with firmness and flexibility. As these engraved

inscriptions embrace such a high degree of clarity, expressiveness, and vivacity, they

became a guide to the standard script of the Tang dynasty, and since had created a

lasting influence on the subsequent use of standard script in the history of Chinese

calligraphy. On that account, Chu has been praised as the ―leading teacher of all Tang

times.‖67 This recognition was extended by a modern specialist on Tang calligraphy,

Zhu Guantian 朱關田, likewise acclaimed him: ―We may therefore say that of the three

early Tang masters, Chu Suiliang was the only one who blazed a new trail for the

66
Various critiques on Meng Fashi bei are included in Zheng Fengming, Chu Suiliang shuxue zhi yanjiu,
103–107; also Huang Zongxi, Chu Suiliang kaishu fengge yanjiu, 78–83.
67
Liu Xizai, Shugai, in LTSF 702: ―褚遂良書為唐之廣大教化主.‖

66
development of the standard script of the Tang period. With a handsome, refined,

energetic style, he subsequently influenced all Tang calligraphers.‖68

These steles with refined calligraphic inscription were originally made to

commemorate Buddhist accomplishments; hence they imply a close relationship

between Buddhism and calligraphy. A detailed study of these steles is included in

Chapter 4. Further discussion of Chu‘s influence, particularly on Buddhist sutra

transcription, will be elaborated in Chapters 5 and 6.

Yu Shinan and Chu Suiliang were the leading calligraphy masters of the early

Tang dynasty and their works influenced the expansion of Buddhism. Well-transcribed

inscriptions on Buddhist steles testify that Buddhism was accepted by the Tang imperial

court and upheld by the literati. At the same time, the rubbings taken from these steles

later became models for calligraphy practice, and their disseminations furthered the

growth of both Buddhism and calligraphy. Stele inscriptions penned by Chu Suiliang,

considered the best model for Tang kai, the authorized standard script promoted by the

Tang court, became widely emulated.

Tang kai—Standard Script of the Tang Dynasty

Although kaishu, the standard script, emerged as early as the third century, it did

not achieve its full maturity until the Tang dynasty. The style of standard script that was

developed in the Tang court was termed by modern art historians as ―the standard

script of the Tang dynasty.‖69 The word ―kai‖ means ―model or pattern,‖ or something

68
Zhu Guantian, ―An Epoch of Eminent Calligraphers,‖ 205.
69
A term is used in general referring to the calligraphic form of standard script under the trend of Wang
Xizhi‘s expressive style, which was promoted by Taizong and then became the standarized script in the
Tang. Some Chinese and Japanese scholars use the term Tang kai when referring this particular type of
script. The following is my discovery of how the term, Tang kai was developed.

67
held up as a standard. The Laws and Institutions of the Tang Dynasty records that Yu

Shinan and Ouyang Xun taught and demonstrated the method of writing standard script

(kaifa 楷法) at the Institute for the Advancement of Literature.70 The mid-Tang critic Dou

Ji also commented that the particular method (fa 法) to achieve the best kind of

calligraphy was to undertake the style of Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi and follow their

styles faithfully.71 Song art critic used the phrase, ―embracing the method of standard

script‖ (you kaifa 有楷法) or ―following the pattern of standard script‖ (you kaize 有楷則)

in praising the calligraphic work produced in the Tang.72 Later a renowned Qin scholar

and critic, Weng Fanggang 翁方綱 (1733–1818) abbreviated the term, ―it has the style

of the Tang standard script‖ (you Tang kaifa 有唐楷法) to ―Tang kai‖ (唐楷)—―the Tang‘s

standard script‖— when it was used to describe the calligraphic style used on several

Tang stone inscriptions.73

This particular form of calligraphy in the Tang dynasty involves the form of script

as well as the expressive style. Amy McNair describes it as ―the imperially sanctioned

early Tang version of the Wang Xizhi style of standard script,‖ which can also be

characterized as the style used by the Tang sutra copyists.74 The characters written in

this style are generally well articulated yet fluent in brushstroke, and easy to write and

pleasant to read. Modern scholars specializing in Dunhuang manuscripts often use the

70
Tang huiyao, 64.1115: ―教示楷法.‖
71
Dou Ji, Shu shu fu, in LDSF 254: ―風承羲献, 守法不二.‖
72
Zhu Changwen, Xu shuduan, in LDSF 346.
73
Weng Fanggang, Suzhai Tang bei xuan, 2–3.
74
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.

68
term ―Tang kai‖ when referring to the style used by sutra copyists.75 Fujieda Akira

employed the term Tang kai, as he classified the Dunhuang Buddhist manuscripts

according to the various scripts used for copying.76 The ―Tang kai‖ named by Fujieda,

however, was specific to a script of not only the Tang court promoted kai style but

whose characters were reformed by Yan Shigu 顏師古 (581–645) during the reign of

Taizong. That means, more precisely, ―Tang kai‖ embodies both exemplary calligrahy

during the Tang as the art of calligraphy, and correct writing in respect to orthography.77

Since good calligraphy was a required element in the civil examination, it became

necessary that the Tang court established a clear standard for stylish calligraphy as well

as correctly written characters. With its precision, legibility, and formality, Tang kai was

widely used for government documents, inscriptions on epitaphs or steles, and sutra

copies.

The establishment of the Tang style of the standard script coincided with the early

Tang imperial sponsorship of calligraphy and promotion of Wang Xizhi‘s style. Tang kai

often reflected the aesthetic expression of Wang Xizhi‘s brushstrokes, combined with an

earlier form of standard script which had evolved from lishu (official script). In the List of

Calligraphic Works of Wang Xizhi compiled by Chu Suiliang, the first category of

Wang‘s works in the imperial collection is zhengshu 正書, which can be literally

translated as the ―correct or orthodox script.‖ Among the forty items included in this

75
Jiao Mingchen, Dunhuang xiejuan shufa yanjiu, 120; Wo Xinghua, Dunhuang shufa yishu, 120; Shen
Leping, Dunhuang shufa zonglun, 60.
76
Fujieda Akira, ―Chronological Classfication of Dunhuang Buddhist Manuscripts,‖ 104.
77
In respect of Tang orthography, see Li Haixia, ―Tangdai de Zhengzi yundong, ‖ and Shi Anchang,
―Tangdai zhengzi xuegao.‖

69
category, Yue Yi lun is listed as the first, which was transcribed by Wang Xizhi in the

year of 348 and later became the foremost example of his standard script.78

The authenticity of Yue Yi, however, was questioned as early as the fourth

century, in the Lun shu qi 論書啟 (Essay on Discussions of Calligraphy) by Liang Wudi

and Tao Hongjing.79 The Yue Yi lun in Taizong‘s collection, inherited from the Imperial

Collection of the Sui dynasty, had monk Zhi Yong‘s colophon, in which he praised its

originality. The extant copies of Yue Yi lun are believed to be rubbings made after the

Song, and the Yuqing zai 餘清齋 (ca. 1598–1614) version (fig. 11) is known as the

earliest one from the Imperial Collection.

Chu Suiliang wrote an individual entry on this item, in which he said, ―In the year of

639, under imperial order, Wang Xizhi‘s original Yue Yi lun was removed from the

Imperial Storehouse for the purpose of making copies. Six copies were made by the

skillfully trained copyist Feng Chengsu 馮承素 of the Institute for the Advancement of

Literature, and given to six high officials.‖80 At the end of that entry Chu Suiliang

concluded that in all six copies, ―the strength of the brushstrokes is so refined and

marvelous that they are thoroughly embedded with the principles of the [model]

standard script.‖81 Due to its prominent position, this Yue Yi lun may be the best and

most authentic work written in standard script by Wang Xizhi.

78
See above, n. 11 in this chapter.
79
FSYL 2.47.
80
Tang Chu Henan taben Yue Yi lun (Record on the Copies of [Wang Xizhi‘s] Yue Yi [lun] by Chu
Shiliang in the Tang dynasty), in FSYL 3.131–32; Chu Suiliang lists the persons who received those
copies: Zhangsun Wuji 長孫無忌 (c. 600–659), Fang Xuanling 房玄齡 (578–648), Gao Shilian 高士廉
(577–647), Hou Junji 侯君集 (d. 643), Wei Zheng 魏徵, and Yang Shidao 楊師道 (fl. c. 627–650).
81
Ibid.,132: ―筆勢精妙，備盡楷則.‖

70
 We can see Yue Yi lun as an example of the zhengshu characters, which have a

clear pattern of constituent brush strokes and are integrated into a perfect visual

configuration that has a distinctive spatial rhythm and symmetry. ―The calligraphy in this

version is concentrated and elegant, but not sleek. The strokes are precisely executed,

but still shaped in an individual way. In the composition of single characters and in the

flow of the lines, one senses a lively rhythm,‖ writes Lothar Ledderose in describing the

version of the Yue Yi lun made from Yuqing zhai‘s rubbing.82 From the early Tang

onward, this type of writing—elegant, precise, and full of rhythm—has become the

prime model for calligraphy. It was strenuously promoted in the capital and then as the

standard script of the entire country.

The Wang style of standard script, a codified calligraphic script in the Tang, is as

the combination of Wang Xizhi‘s rhythmic linear regularity and his self-expressive brush

strokes. Amy McNair offers a further elaboration; using Wang Xizhi‘s Yue Yi lun as an

example, she points out three distinctive traits: ―character compositions that fan out to

the right, sharply pointed strokes made with the exposed brushtip technique, and highly

modulated, bottom-heavy final strokes.‖83 She also argues that regardless of the

aesthetic qualities of calligraphic styles, other factors are just as important for this

particular style widely used as the standard script of the Tang: ―These factors include

characterology and public values of orthodoxy, formality, and the authority of antique

models.‖84 She utilizes the inscriptions on three Buddhist steles as examples, the

Epitaph for the Esoteric Buddhist Monk Amoghavajra (705-774), inscribed by the high

82
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 70.
83
Amy McNair, ―Public Value in Calligraphy and Orthography in the Tang Dynasty,‖ 269.
84
Ibid., 270.

71
official Xu Hao 徐浩 (703-782),85 the Stele of Prabhūtaratna Pagoda, inscribed by Yan

Zhenqing 顏真卿 (709-785),86 as well as the famous stele of the Preface and the Notes

to the Preface to the Holy Teachings. Three of these steles can be seen at the Forest

(Museum) of Steles (Beilin 碑林) in modern Xi‘an.87 Their carved inscriptions have been

praised for their rich and charming strokes and characters. The clear and formal

precisionof the characters written in the standard script of the Tang conveys authority.

The Tang standard script was also a model script for most of the manuscripts

produced during the Tang time, including numerous Buddhist manuscripts discovered at

Dunhuang. Called ―Tang kai‖ by Fujieda Akira, and ―kaishu‖ by Liu Tao,88 it is the

dominant type of script found in Dunhuang religious manuscripts.The Tang Buddhist

sutra copying style was closely tied to the use of Tang kai and will be further discussed

in Chapters 5 and 6.

85
Also known as the Stele in Memory of Monk Guangzhi sanzang (Guangzhi sanzang heshang bei 廣智
三藏和尚碑 or Bukong heshang bei 不空和尚碑). Erected in 781, the stele was made in memory of monk
Bukong sanzang ( d.775?), who was originally from Turfan and the leading patriarch of Esoteric
Buddhism during the Tang. One of his main disciple was Huiguo 惠果 (746–805) who then became the
teacher of the Japanese monk Kukai (774–835). Later Kukai became the founder of the Shingon sect of
Japanese Buddhism. The stele was inscribed with about 900 characters in a stone of 305x99 cm. For
more details, see Li Yuzheng ed., Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, 158–59. The calligrapher Xu Hao‘s biography
is in XTS 160.4965.
86
Also known as Stele of Commemorating Duobao Pagoda (Duobao ta ganying bei 多寳塔感應碑).
Erected in 752, the stele was established to commemorate Chan Master Chujin 楚金 (fl. 740–760) as the
founder of Duobao Pagoda; it has more than 2000 characters on a large stone in size of 285x102 cm. For
more details, see Li Yuzheng, ed., Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, 138–40. The calligrapher Yan Zhenqing‘s
biography is in XTS 192.5529–32.
87
The Forest of Stele (Beilin) is the museum of steles, located in the center city of modern Xi‘an.
Established in 1090 during the Northern Song dynasty, the collection now includes steles from the Han to
Ming and Qing dynasties, in total more than 2300 pieces with about 1100 pieces on display. Also known
as the ―Treasury of the Stele,‖ it is the first museum of steles in China. It contains more steles than any
other stele museums. For a complete catalog of Xi‘an Beilin collection, see Li Yuzheng, ed., Xi’an Beilin
shufa yishu.

88
Liu Tao, ―Dunhuang Shufa,‖ 273–74.

72
 The evolution of various scripts has been debated among calligraphy theoreticians

throughout history. The ―Wang style of standard script in the Tang‖ is a term used to

distinguish it from the type of standard script developed many centuries earlier as a

refinement of official script (lishu); in this style, the characters are strictly linear in form

but the brush strokes are modulated. For instance, Weng Fanggang characterized Chu

Suiliang‘s inscription on Yique Fokan bei as ―a work of Tang kai with the usage of

standards of lishu.‖89 This judgment most likely derived from the characteristically swift

and startling sweep of brushstrokes closely associated with typical official script that

appeared in Chu Suiliang‘s early work.

The precise time of origin of the standard script is still uncertain. Among the older

texts that have studied the development of scripts, the Shupu 書譜 (Treatise on

Calligraphy), completed in 687 by Sun Guoting, divides the early evolution of calligraphy

into two major groups, lishu (official script) and caoshu (cursive script). Sun Guoting

assigned the position of leading lishu calligrapher to Zhong You, caoshu to Zhang Zhi,

and credited Wang Xizhi and his son Wang Xianzhi for later synthesizing these two

styles.90 However, there was no particular term given to this synthesized script in Sun‘s

treatise, and later art historians have often designated Zhong You as the leading master

of the standard script tradition, as the standard script is seen as an extension developed

from lishu.91

89
Weng Fanggang, Suzhai Tang bei xuan, 3.
90
Sun Guoting, Shupu, in LTSF 124.
91
A thorough study on Zhong You, see Hui-liang J. Chu, The Zhong You (151-230) Tradition: a pivotal
development in Song Calligraphy.

73
 The modern scholar Cornelius Chang, in his study of script evolution,

characterizes the standard script as that ―in which the initial and terminal accents basic

to the structure of the script appear in the horizontal and vertical strokes.‖ Thus he

designates a few characters written at the top of a tablet discovered at Niya 尼雅,

Xinjiang (northwest China), together with fifty wooden strips, as examples of the early

standard script. Two of the wooden strips date from 269.92 Furthermore, he indicates

that the fully developed standard script may be found in an inscription on a fragment of

a Buddhist sutra, Chishi jing, which was unearthed in Turfan and dated 449.93 The style

of writing on Chishi jing is described by Chang: ―In this inscription the initial and terminal

kaishu accents of the horizontal and verticals as well as the bent, upper-right strokes

are unmistakably clear and are effortlessly executed.‖94 His description echoes the

comments by Lothar Ledderose, in another kaishu example that was unearthed from

Turfan.95

Chishi jing offers a good comparison to another early handwritten Buddhist sutra,

Da zhi du lun, signed by An Hongsong 安弘嵩 (fl. 400-430), a native of Turfan.96 Now in

the collection of the Beijing Palace Museum, this valuable piece of an early handwritten

92
Cornelius P. Chang, ―A Re-evaluation of the Development of Hsing-su Style in the Fourth Century AD,‖
22.
93
Ibid., fig. 8.
94
Ibid., 22.
95
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 9. The discovered
fragment is given a date 479 and now kept in East Berlin. The Chishijing fragment, mentioned in
Cornelius P. Chang‘s ―A Re-evaluation,‖ is now in the Shodo Museum, Tokyo.
96
An Hongsong, was originally from Turfan and later moved to the territory of Northern Liang (397–439),
a state duirng the Sixteen Kingdoms period.

74
sutra is included in Shi Anchang‘s Calligraphy of the Jin, Tang and Five Dynasties.97

The script is designated as ―official-standard‖ (likai ti 隸楷體) by Shi Anchang, who

attributed this piece of non-dated work to a period as early as the late fourth and early

fifth century.98

Two sixth-century handwritten manuscripts are included in Shi Anchang‘s catalog.

One is a copy of the Flower Adornment Sutra, transcribed by an official sutra copyist of

the Northern Wei (386–533), Cao Fashou 曹法壽, signed and dated 513 (the second

year of Yanchang 延昌).99 The second is a copy of the Nirvana Sutra, with a date of 573

(the second year of Jiande 建德 of the Northern Zhou dynasty, 557–581).100 Both of

these handwritten sutras are written in standard script.

A type of calligraphy very similar to these Buddhist sutras can also be found in

stone engravings. The best examples are the well-known Epitaph for Zhang Xuan

(Zhang Xuan muzhi 張玄墓誌) (fig. 12) of the Northern Wei dynasty, dated 531, and the

Epitaph for Zhu Dailin (Zhu Dailin muzhi 朱岱林墓誌) (fig. 13) of the Northern Qi

dynasty, dated 571. A calligrapher and art critic, He Shaoji 何紹基 (1799–1873), who

once had a copy of the stone rubbing from the Epitaph for Zhang Xuan, commented

about the style of calligraphy on the epitaph. He wrote, ―By incorporating certain seal

and official script elements into standard script, [the epitaph] has the merit of all three

97
Jin Tang Wudai shufa: the complete collection of treasures of the Palace Museum, compiled by Shi
Anchang, 144–48 (item 20).
98
Ibid., 144.
99
Ibid., 149–51 (item 21).
100
Ibid., 152–59 (item 22).

75
and seems to have expressed them to perfection.‖101 The term ―perfection‖ may very

well imply the strength and refinement of brush strokes that constitute the most

important quality in rendering a standard script. That quality of standard script is well

portrayed in the inscription of the Epitaph for Zhu Dailin, as every stroke of each

character ―was executed with great force.‖102

The above examples illustrate important contributions to the development of

calligraphy in the North with extensive use of standard script in handwriting and stone

inscriptions. Their style of standard script, however, is one where the horizontal strokes

are level and the structure of characters is expansive and sprawling. This type of

calligraphic expression appears rather unlike the taste that developed in the South,

where a different cultural climate created a contrasting style of calligraphy.

The educated elite of the South elevated calligraphy to an art form that was widely

practiced and collected. Theoretical literature and critiques of calligraphy also began to

be produced. Southern calligraphers were familiar with various types of scripts and

interested in experimenting with heterogeneous theories, and strove to be inventively

creative. Among the best representatives of southern calligraphy were Wang Xizhi and

his followers. In their standard script, the horizontal strokes were no longer evenly level.

According to Wang Xizhi, ―If both horizontal and vertical [strokes] are evenly rendered,

they would be as stiff as an abacus. When the presentation appears level from top to

101
He Shaoji, Dongzhou caotang shu lun, 841. The translation is from Wang Yuchi, ―Striving for
Perfection amid Social Upheavals: Calligraphy during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties,‖
184.
102
Wang Yuchi, ibid.

76
bottom and front to back, it is not calligraphy.‖103 The solution of how to break this

distasteful evenness or levelness was provided in the section seven of Wang‘s

Discussion of the Disposition of Brushstrokes in Twelve Sections.104 In teaching his son

how to produce the best standard script, he said: ―The right side of character should be

relatively less refined than the left side. [In each character] the horizontal strokes should

be thin, while the verticals should be made broader.‖105

Following these rules, characters in the form of standard script in the Wang‘s

writing were not expansive and sprawling like those produced by the Northern

calligraphers. Instead, they look uneven and are often slanted upward in order to make

the right side look larger than the left. In order to break artificial bilateral symmetry (as in

seal script), the compositional structure of Wang-style characters appears to cluster on

the left side and fan out to the right; this feature was later commonly described as ―left

tight, right loose.‖106 In order to exaggerate the unevenness, calligraphers often

deliberately created a sharp-tipped beginning and round finishing strokes, and

sometimes highly-modulated, top-light and bottom-heavy final strokes. The

characteristics of this expressive type of standard script were very evident in Tang

calligraphy.

Writing in the style of the standard script of Tang became a cultural standard

within and outside the Tang court. Taizong‘s promotion of Tang kai played a crucial role.

103
Wang Xizhi, Ti Weifuren bizhentu hou, in FSYL 1.8: ―若平直相似, 狀如算子, 上下方整, 前後齊平, 此不
是書.‖
104
See section ―Development in the Six Dynasties,‖ in Chapter 2.
105
Wang Xizhi, Bi shi lun – shier zhang, in LDSF 33: ―右相復宜粗于左畔, 横貴乎縴, 竪貴乎粗.‖
106
Amy McNair, The Upright Brush: Yan Zhenqing’s Calligraphy and Song Literati Politics, 120.

77
In the court, the officials were proficient with the regulated style of Tang standard script,

and students of the Institute for the Advancement of Literature and the School of

Calligraphy diligently practiced the imperially sanctioned early Tang version of the Wang

Xizhi style of standard script. Beyond the court, people in the country also imitated the

designated standard script, because ―Whatever is favored by the emperor is followed by

those below.‖107 In standardizing and establishing Tang kai as ―exemplary and correct

writing,‖ Taizong not only conferred a high value upon on the style and form of

calligraphy that infatuated him, but also produced a long-lasting impact on the

development of calligraphy as Tang kai was widely used in the Tang and also adopted

by later generations as the most common form of writing.

Reproductions

Copies of masterpieces were used as models for teaching and practicing. Their

quality undoubtedly had a strong impact in turn on the quality of students‘ output.

Numerous historical documents state that Taizong employed specialists in his palace to

reproduce Wang Xizhi‘s works. In Chu Suiliang‘s Record on the Copies of Yue Yi lun,

Feng Chengsu is mentioned as one of these specialists.108 Ho Yanzhi‘s 何延之 (fl. 720)

Lanting ji 蘭亭記 (Notes on Lanting) recorded the names of several more skilled

copyists worked on Lanting in Taizong‘s court.109 These copyists were called ―Rubbing

Maker-Calligraphers‖ (Tashu shou 榻書手) and were under the supervision of Editing
107
THY 65.1124: ―上之所好，下必從之.‖
108
Tang Chu Henan taben Yue Yi lun (Record on the Copies of [Wang Xizhi‘s] Yue Yi [lun] by Chu
Shiliang in the Tang dynasty), in FSYL 3.131
109
In Lanting ji (by Ho Yanzhi ) listed several copy specialists who were trained to copy Wang Xizhi‘s
Lanting xu; besides Feng Chengsu, there were Zho Mo 趙模, Han Daozheng 韓道政, and Zhuge Zhen 諸
葛貞. See Lanting ji, in FSYL 3.130: ―帝[太宗]命供奉搨書人趙模, 韓道政, 馮承素, 諸葛真等四人, 各搨數本,
以賜皇太子, 諸王, 近臣.‖

78
Clerks (Jiaoshu lang 校書郎), who were appointed by the Institute of the Advancement

of Literature to be in charge of comparing texts of government documents and other

materials for accuracy, revising them and supervising their reproduction.110

The copyists were trained in techniques designed to produce the most precise

copies. One method of making such copies was through tracing. First, a thin paper

sheet was placed directly on top of the original. Each brush stroke was outlined and

then filled in with ink to produce a faithful copy of the original. This tracing technique of

―coupling the outline and filling in with ink‖ was given a name of ―shuang gou tianmo 雙

鈎填墨.‖111 The method of tracing was also known on its own as ―mo‖ (摹 or 模), which

was often used to reproduce Wang Xizhi‘s work with great accuracy. 112 The copies

made by this method were named moben (摹本 or 模本), including the copies made

from Yue Yi lun and Lanting xu. They often were presented to officials, nobilities, or

distributed to members of the imperial family.113 One of the best means used by

Taizong to promote Wang Xizhi‘s works was the production of the most accurate

copies. Since these traced copies could intentionally or unintentionally be mistaken for

the original, however, the problem of distinguishing copies from originals has become

ubiquitous in the study of Chinese calligraphy.

110
XTS 47.1209–10.
111
This technique was detailed in many publications. See Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical
Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 34–35: ―Shuang gou tianmo is to first carefully trace the contours of the
strokes in thin dry lines on a paper sheet which is laid over the original, and then meticulously filled in the
space between the contours with tiny brushstrokes.‖ See also Robert E. Harris, Jr., ―Copies, All the Way
Down: Notes on the Early Transmission of Calligraphy by Wang Xizhi,‖ 181, and Yujiro Nakata, Chugoku
shoronshu, 111 and 254.
112
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 35.
113
See above, n.108 and n.109.

79
 Tracing was not the only method for making copies employed in the Tang court.

Another method, known as ―overlooking‖ (lin 臨), was to place the original and copy

sheet side by side. The copies produced by this method were called free-hand copies,

or linben (臨本). Although writing freely, the copyist was expected to produce characters

that followed the model so closely that it looked just like the original. It is known that

Taizong and Chu Suiliang copied many works of Wang Xizhi through the lin method.114

It is in no doubt that in order to create a good quality of free-hand copy, one must be an

accomplished calligrapher.

In the study of calligraphy, one often encounters the challenge to investigate

relationships between originals and copies, including how value—cultural, political,

religious and aesthetic—was assigned to and circulated through various acts of writing

and its reproduction. On one level, inscriptions on steles, and the rubbing made from

steles as well, allow us to trace a master‘s hand. This is particularly important because

the Tang masters‘ original handwritings perished long ago. From this perspective, the

first question that arises is: what is the relationship between an original handwritten

document, an engraving of that handwriting, a rubbing made from that engraving, and a

copy produced by using that rubbing as model?

One could argue that the original document is the most valuable because it is

closest to the source, the master‘s hand. Yet Patricia Berger, describing the Qing

emperors‘ pleasure in copying the Heart Sutra, emphasizes a relationship of

interdependence between originals and copies: ―If the copy depends ultimately on its

114
Ho Yanshi, Lanting ji, in FSYL 3.126: ―太宗以聼政之暇 … 臨寫右軍真草書帖‖; Li Sizhen, Shupin hou,
in FSYL 3.107: "褚氏臨寫右軍, 亦為高足.‖

80
model for its conception, the model depends just as much on the copy for its future.‖ 115

In terms of valuation, then, it is important to note that the esteemed Chinese practice of

calligraphy was taken up by Buddhists as a way to elevate the status of their faith. The

act of calligraphic copying became linked, in the case of sutra reproduction, to the

accumulation of merit. This in turn produced a demand for even more sutra copies,

which ultimately contributed to the spread of Buddhism throughout China.

At the same time, the Tang court‘s standardization of calligraphic script abetted

the goals of both Buddhists and Tang court by increasing the accuracy and efficiency of

copying. In addition, training programs offered by Buddhist monasteries and the Tang

court-supported School of Calligraphy made it possible for a new class of non-elite

calligraphers to make a living as copyists, in effect, their work propagated Tang culture

and at the same time cultivated Buddhist prolification. Thus the zealous calligraphic

practices promoted by the Tang court and the Buddhist monasteries generated a

dynamic reform in the early Tang society that may be linked to changes of Tang

people‘s conception of the relationship between art the society.

―At certain historical moments a text must have not only an aesthetic [expression]

but also a political or religious function in order to be perceived aesthetically,‖ says Juri

Lotman.116 No longer the sole prerogative of court elites or religious devotees, yet

heavily endowed with political and religious functions, calligraphic copying eventually

came to be perceived as an aesthetic skill worthy of recognition for its own value, which

to some degree, democratized the relationship between art, politics, and society.

115
Patricia Berger, Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China, 127.
116
Juri Lotman, La structure du texte artistique, translated from the Russian by Ronald Vroon, The
Structure of the Artistic Text, 69.

81
Moreover, to the extent that calligraphy was an art form whose perpetuation through the

ages depended greatly upon strategies of reproduction, it may be argued that copies

and copyists were as valuable in many ways as originals and masters—if not more so.

82
 CHAPTER 4
BUDDHIST STELES IN THE EARLY TANG DYNASTY

Buddhist Adaption of Chinese Steles

Buddhist steles are monumental stone slabs carved with images, text, or a

combination of the two. In the tradition of Indian Buddhism, stones were carved

exclusively with abundant images to illustrate spiritual teachings. In China, erecting

steles had been a pervasive social and religious phenomenon, and their presentational

form or design advanced through several stages of development. Erected flat stones

can be dated back to the first century CE or even earlier. Functioning as symbolic

monuments, with or without images, these early steles mainly served ritual purposes,

perceived as the cultural norm.1 By the later Han, this symbolic role became more

pronounced as Confucianism came to cultural prominence, and the stones were often

inscribed with revered texts such as the Stone Classics.2 The Chinese term bei 碑 was

coined at this time for these tablets which were carved with text and valued as literary

and calligraphic artworks.3

During the Six Dynasties, when Buddhism was flourishing broadly in China,

Buddhist steles were carved extensively with Buddhist narratives using images and

inscriptions. These were ―an independent Chinese Buddhist artistic idiom‖ and ―the first

truly synthetic style of Chinese Buddhist art,‖4 from which one can discern how a foreign

religion was adapted, transformed, and assimilated into Chinese culture and society.

1
For the early development of Chinese stele, see Dorothy Wong, Chinese Steles, 15–23.
2
See section ―Developments during the Han Dynasty,‖ in Chapter 2, and ibid., 25.
3
Dorothy Wong, Chinese Steles, 40.
4
Ibid., 176.

83
Carved images of Buddhist deities became less popular, as steles with more lengthy

inscriptions and depictions of donors appeared more frequently.5

By the Sui and early Tang dynasties, Buddhist steles bore texts almost

exclusively, indicating the efforts of Buddhists to incorporate Chinese cultural

preferences into the religion‘s expressive practices. This gesture of cultural adaptation

contributed to the proliferation of Buddhism and its widespread acceptance in China.

Dorothy Wong underlines the significance of this change of presentational preference,

which ―signaled the full integration of Buddhism with Chinese society.‖6

Shifting to an emphasis on the written word over carved image, many of the large

Buddhist steles engraved during the Tang dynasty are filled with texts. The most

noticeable development at this time was that the calligrapher‘s name and his skillful

presentation became a part of the form and function of a stele. This new phenomenon

signaled a significant cultural change indicating a preference for the aesthetic

presentation of calligraphy. For the first time, carved stones were no longer considered

only as treasures for preserving important texts (a function important in itself), but also

as a means for preserving the life of calligraphy as an aesthetic form. Stone surfaces

became a primary medium for presenting calligraphy and, even more so, for exhibiting a

specific style of calligraphy. As a consequence, the signature of the artist on the stone

could be just as enduring and significant as the text.

Earlier steles erected in public places were not signed by artists responsible for

the calligraphy. The question arises, then, of why this practice began during the Tang.

5
Ibid., 175–78.
6
Ibid., 4.

84
Taizong‘s promotion of a standardized script was probably a strong a factor that

influenced calligraphers who wished to identify themselves as masters of the style

endorsed by the court. The desire of monasteries to publicize the allegiance of famous

artists could be another factor. As the erection of any large Buddhist stele would need to

be approved by the court, adding to the purposal the name of a famous artist who was

also a high official increased the chance that it would be granted. Finally, the artists

might have wanted to indicate their personal support for or devotion to Buddhism. Given

the public location of steles, and the rubbings taken from them would carry the artist‘s

name and work far from the site of the stone. Through the broad scope of this

dissemination, critics, scholars, collectors, and other artists could appreciate the merits

of the work. In turn, the value that accrued to an artist‘s name and reputation would then

circulate back to the original stele, increasing its value, which, at the same time, served

the interests of the Tang court and Buddhist monasteries alike.

Many existing Tang steles reflect this new development and the circulation of

valuation it created. The Daoyin fashi bei 道因法師碑 (Stele of Master Daoyin) is famous

because the inscription was penned by a well-known calligrapher, Ouyang Tong 歐陽通

(fl. 1650), the son of the leading calligraphy master Ouyang Xun.7 Likewise, the

Duobao ta ganying bei 多寳塔感應碑 (Stele of Commemorating Duobao Pogoda) is a

well-known piece due to the fact that it was penned and signed by a revered

calligrapher, Yan Zhenqing.8 Another prominent stele, the Guangzhi sanzang heshang

7
The stele is a large stone slab (312x103cm), with about 2400 characters. It was erected in 662 to honor
Monk Daoyin who assisted Xuanzang in translating the Buddhist text. More information about this stele
can be found in Li Yuzheng ed., Xi’an Beilin shufa Yishu, 134–37. The calligrapher Ouyang Tong‘s
biography is in XTS 198.5466.
8
See Chapter 3, n. 86.

85
bei 廣智三藏和尚碑 (the Stele in Memory of Monk Guangzhi sanzang) was transcribed

by the highly respected calligrapher Xu Hao.9

Significant to my study is the fact that a large number of prominent Tang steles are

related to Buddhism. Among the many steles erected during the early Tang that reflect

strong religious and aesthetic preferences, the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu 大唐三藏

聖教序 (Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripiṭaka of the Great Tang Dynasty), and

the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu ji 大唐三藏聖教序記 (Notes to the Preface to the

Holy Teachings of the Tripiṭaka of the Great Tang Dynasty) are the most exemplary

ones.

Steles of the Da Tang Sanzang Shengjiao Xu and the Da Tang Sanzang Shengjiao
Xu Ji

A series of steles that bear inscriptions of the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu (the

Preface) and the Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu ji (the Notes to the Preface) are

significant to this study for many reasons: the texts were composed by Emperor

Taizong and the Crown Prince; they were engraved with the most refined calligraphy;

and a number of steles were erected with the same text and placed in various locations

within a relatively short period of time. They not only illustrated the Buddhists‘

adaptation of Chinese cultural norms and artistic expressions but also evidenced to the

court‘s support of Buddhism and its acceptance among the Chinese cultural elite. In the

course of mutual encounters and interactions, Buddhist involvement with Chinese

culture enhanced the growth of their religion, while the Chinese adoption of Buddhism

9
See Chapter 3 n. 85.

86
opened up new intellectual and artistic horizons.10 Calligraphy was instrumental to the

enhancement of both Buddhist religion and Chinese culture. This chapter illustrates how

calligraphy was utilized by Buddhists to legitimize and spread their religion which also

positioned Buddhism as integral to the development of Chinese calligraphy.

The Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu was written in 648 by Emperor Taizong, as a

eulogy commemorating the eminent monk Xuanzang‘s (602–664) historic pilgrimage to

India and his accomplishments as a translator of Buddhist scriptures, and was placed

as the ―Preface‖ to the translated Buddhist text Yogācāra-bhūmi 11by Xuanzang.12 Soon

thereafter, the Crown Prince Li Zhi 李治 (628–683)—the future Emperor Gaozong 高宗

(r. 650–683)—composed an essay known as Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu ji, in which

the prince praises the teaching of Buddhism and his father‘s support for Xuanzang‘s

translation project, known as the ―Notes to the Preface.‖

In 653, the two texts were penned in standard script by Chu Suiliang, the most

revered calligrapher at that time. They were engraved onto two steles, and standing as

a pair at the southern entrance of the Da Yan ta 大雁塔 (Great Goose Pagoda) at Da

10
Mario Poceski, Introducing Chinese Religions, 114.
11
Yogācāra-bhūmi, is known as Yujia shi tilun 瑜伽師地論 in Chinese, see T 30.279a–882a. It is one of
the basic treatises of the Yogācāra school (Faxiang zong 法相宗).
12
Xuanzang (602–664) was one of the most famous Chinese Buddhist monks in history. He was also a
scholar, traveler and translator who brought up the interaction between China and India during the early
Tang period. Upon Taizong‘s request, Xuanzang recorded his seventeen years journey (629–645) as
Xiyu ji 西域記. There are two modern English translations: Samuel Beal, Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the
Western World (London, 1884) and Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, 2 vols.
(London, 1904–5). In 688 Xuanzang‘s diciple, Huili, compiled his biography, Da Tang Da Ci’en si
Sanzang fashi zhuan, (also in T 50.220c–280a), The translated versions in English include Life of Hsuan-
tsang (1959), and A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang
Dynasty (1995) both translated by Li Rongxi.

87
Ci‘en si 大慈恩寺 (Great Grace and Goodwill Monastery).13 Later they were named by

their designated location as the steles of Yanta shengjiao xu 雁塔聖教序 (Preface to the

Holy Teachings at Yanta) and Yanta shengjiao xu ji 雁塔聖教序記 (Notes to the Preface

to the Holy Teachings at Yanta) (see fig. 10a and 10b).

In 672, the monk Huairen 懷仁 (fl. 645–675) completed a project that had the

same imperial texts re-carved onto one stele, with characters selected from the

calligraphies of Wang Xizhi in running script. This stele now stands at Beilin in Xi‘an and

it is commonly referred to as the Ji Wang shengjiao xu bing ji 集王聖教序并記 (Preface

and the Notes to the Preface to the Holy Teaching with the Collected Wang‘s

[calligraphies]) (fig. 14).

Two more steles were made with the same texts. One was intentionally made as a

copy of Chu Suiliang‘s inscription and erected in Tongzhou 同州,14 where Chu served

13
THY 48.845: Ci‘en Monastery, located at the Jinchang 晉昌 residential quarter to the south of the
palace in Chang‘an (modern Xi‘an), was built in 648 under the decree of Crown Prince in honor of his
mother, the deceased Empress Wende (601–636). See also The Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the
Great Ci’en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty, 207–216: In the spring of 652 Emperor Gaozong
supported Xuanzang‘s request to build a brick pagoda in Ci‘en Monastery to store the translated
scriptures preventing from fire disaster. The pagoda was built after the style the Western Region (i.e.
India) like stupa. It had five storeys, 180 feet in height, including the Wheel Sign and the Dew Basin. From
701-704, during the ruling of Empress Wu Zetian had the pagoda rebuilt to a seven-story brick pagoda in
the Chinese style. By the eighth century, during the reign of Zhongzong, the Pagoda was named the
th
Yanta (Goose Pagoda). Another Goose Pagoda (smaller) was built later in the 8 century also in Xi‘an.
The pagodas were then respectively named the Great and the Small. A massive earthquake in 1675
heavily damaged the Great Goose Pagoda. It was extensively repaired in 1964. The Pagoda currently
stands at a height of 64 m (210 ft) tall, in seven stories. The information about the original pagoda and
early history, see The Biography of the Tripitaka Mastery, 226, and Wang Shu, Xuzhou tiba, in Zhongguo
shuhua quanshu, 818a. The later changes see Tadashi Sekino and Daijo Tokiwa, Shina bukkyo Shiseki
1.9–23.
14
In modern Dali 大荔 county, Shaanxi Province.

88
as a Regional Inspector (cishi 刺史) from 650 to 653.15 It was moved to Beilin in 1974

and is known as the stele of Tongzhou shengjiao xu bing ji 同州聖教序并記 (Preface

and the Notes to the Preface to the Holy Teachings at Tonzhou) (fig. 15).16 The second

stele was erected in 663 and is located at Yanshi 偃師 County, near Luoyang, in

modern Henan Province. Its text was transcribed in standard script by a skillful but

lesser known calligrapher, Wang Xingman 王行滿.17 This stele is titled either the Yanshi

shengjiao xu bing ji 偃師聖教序并記 (Preface and the Notes to the Preface to the Holy

Teachings at Yanshi), which emphasizes the location, or the Wang Xingman shengjiao

xu bing ji 王行滿聖教序并記 (Preface and the Notes to the Preface to the Holoy

Teachings by Wang Xingman) (fig. 16), which emphasizes the artist.

The following sections introduce the political and religious forces that inspired the

composition of Taizong‘s Preface and the Prince‘s Notes to the Preface. Each stele will

be discussed in detail, including its appearance, inscriptions, and the calligrapher. I will

also discuss the importance of the inscriptions‘ reproduction and dissemination, as well

as the political and religious implication on the erectoion of each stele.

15
XTS 3.53 & 3.55. Two famous Tang poets, Bo Juyi 白居易 (772–846) and Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 (772–842)
were respectively appointed and served as the Regional Inspector of Tongzhou during Wenzong's era (r.
827–840), see XTS 17.560, 160.4212.
16
For more details see Li Yuzheng ed., Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, 130.
17
Very little is known about Wang Xingman, as no information recorded in XTS or JTS. Wang Chang
mentioned about Wang Xingman penned the Han Liang bei 韓良碑 (Stele of Han Liang) in Fuping 富平
County, Shaanxi Province, in his Jinshi cuibian, 49.24b, in Shi ke shi liao xian bian, 2.836. The new
archaeological excavation discovered a stele called Zhou Hu bei 周護碑 (Stele of Zhou Hu) transcribed by
Wang Xingman and erected in 658, but no rubbings made yet, see Shi Zhecun, ed., Tangbei baixuan, 82.

89
Taizong’s Preface and Gaozong’s Notes to the Preface

The exaltation of Buddhism in the Emperor‘s Preface and the Prince‘s Notes to the

Preface was more likely part of a political strategy, in addition to an affirmation of

personal religious conviction, under the Tang court‘s ―three-way‖ ideology to balance

the power of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism throughout the entire regime,18

Claiming direct descent from Laozi 老子 (the legendary founder of Daoism),19 through

their surname Li 李, members of the Tang imperial family maintained close relations

with Daoist priests.20 Not all Tang emperors were enthusiastic supporters of Buddhism,

and in fact Emperors Gaozu and Taizong tended to view Buddhism with disdain and

tried to suppress it.21 Nevertheless, the Tang emperors also understood the potential

political value of Buddhism‘s rapid growth. As a result, Buddhism not only survived, but

went on to formulate doctrines that successfully propagated the religion throughout

China and East Asia.22

Emperor Taizong was well known for his ability to balance religious and political

power. His interest in Buddhism was originally provoked by monk Xuanzang‘s

18
The ―three-way ideology‖ has been widely discussed by modern scholars; see Wright and Twitchett,
eds., Perspectives on the T’ang, 14–25; see also Stephen J. Goldberg, ―Court Calligraphy of the Early
T‘ang Dynasty,‖ 230–34, and Arthur F. Wright, ―T‘ang T‘ai-tsung and Buddhism,‖ 239–63.

19 Laozi was regarded as the founder of early philosophical Daoism (the religious Daoism was developed
later). The earliest reliable reference (circa 100 BCE) to Laozi is found in the Shiji 史記 (Records of the
Grand Historian) by Sima Qian (ca. 145–86 BCE), in which Laozi was said to be a contemporary of
Confucius (551–479 BCE), and his surname was Li 李, with given name Er (耳) or Dan (聃), served as an
official in the imperial archives in the Zhou dynasty during the 6th century BCE.
20
Li Yuan was persuaded by a Daoist priest, Wang Yuanzhi 王遠知, to believe that he (Li) was the
recipient of the Heavenly Mandate to claim the throne. Biography of Wang Yuanzhi is in JTS 192.5125
and XTS 204.5804.
21
For details see Stanley Weinstein, Buddhism under the Tang, 5–7; also Fo zu tong ji, T 49.362c.
22
Stanley Weinstein, ―Imperial Patronage in the Formation of T‘ang Buddhism,‖ 268: ―the doctrinal side
Buddhism [i.e. three major philosophical schools: Tiantai 天台, Faxiang 法相, and Huayan 華嚴] reached
its highest level of development under this dynasty.‖

90
pilgrimage to India. Whereas other members of the elite class were impressed by the

enormous number of Buddhist texts the monk brought back from India, Taizong was

most intrigued by Xuanzang‘s account of the successes and failures of Tang policies

throughout the lands in which he traveled.23

Nevertheless, the historical documents evidenced that Taizong had been a strong

patronage to Xuanzang‘s undertaking of translating Buddhist scriptures. For instance, in

March of 645, Taizong offered the financial support to Xuanzang‘s translation project,

including installing Xuanzang in the Hongfu 弘福 Temple near the imperial palace in

Chang‘an, and assembling a large staff to help him. The prime minister, Fang Xuanling

房玄齡 (579–648) was ordered to make the necessary arrangements to assist the

project, including the services of ―theory-provers, literary composers, callaigraphy

instructors, copyists, etc.,‖ (証義, 綴文, 筆受, 書手 等數) and no less than twenty three

monks drawn from monasteries throughout China to collaborate with Xuanzang, among

them many distinguished monks, such as Daoxuan 道宣, Xuanying 玄應 and Jingmai 靖

邁.24

In the summer of the twenty-second year of the Zhenguan era (648), Xuanzang

had just completed his translation of a 100 volume set of the Buddhist text Yogācāra-

bhūmi when he was summoned to the Yu Hua 玉華 Palace by Emperor Taizong.25

23
For more details see Arthur F. Wright, ―T‘ang and T‘ai-tsung and Buddhism,‖ 255.
24
see T 50.253c–254a, see also Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 131, and Biography of the
Tripitaka Master, 179–80.
25
Yuhua Palace was built by Taizong in 647 as a distant palace, located in the mountains to the north of
the capital of Chang‘an. In February of 648, Taizong was ailing and residing in the Yuhua Palace; he
stayed until early summer after meeting Xuanzang. For the details of Yuhua Palace see THY 30.555–56.
The details of Taizong and Xuanzang‘s meeting in the Yuhua Palace are recorded in Da Tang Da Ci’en si
Sanzang fashi zhuan, 137–38.

91
Although Emperor Taizong had extended imperial support to Xuanzang‘s translation

project and several meetings had taken place between them since Xuanzang‘s return to

China in early 645, this meeting was the first time that the Emperor inspected the texts

that Xuanzang had translated.26 After examining the scriptures, Taizong praised the

Buddhist doctrine and proclaimed, ―Compared with the Buddhist teachings,

Confucianism and Daoism, including all the nine schools of thought, are merely a small

pond in contrast with the great sea.‖27 He immediately ordered the authorities to instruct

the copyists of the Imperial Secretariat to make copies of the translated scripture for

circulation throughout the country so that ―all the people in the whole land might receive

the doctrines.‖28

Upon Xuanzang‘s request, Taizong soon composed the 781 character of Da

Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu in his own hand.29 The Emperor ordered his writing to be

placed at the beginning of the translated Scripture as a preface and to be read aloud in

the presence of all court officials.30 The Preface begins with Taizong‘s high praise of

Buddhism and glorification of Xuanzang‘s extraordinary journey and accomplishments.

26
Details on the dates and places held for those meetings see Da Tang Da Ci’en si SanZang fashi zhuan,
127–45.
27
Taizong‘s statement was recorded in Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 141; translation of
statement is from Biography of the Tripitaka Master, 194.
28
Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 141. Translation is from Biography of the Tripitaka Master,
194.
29 th
According to Xuanzang fashi xing zhuang 玄奘法師行狀, in T 50.218a, the date was August 4 of 648.
30
The event was recorded in Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 142, and also in Biography of
the Tripitaka Master, 195–96, ―The Emperor moistened his brush with ink and completed in a short time a
composition...He wrote it with his own hand and ordered it to be placed at the beginning of the various
scriptures. The Emperor, [who was] staying at the Qingfu 慶福 Palace, attended and guarded by different
officials, asked the Master to be seated and ordered Shanguan Yi 上官儀 (ca. 608–664), a scholar of the
Institute for the Expansion of Culture, to read aloud the preface the emperor had composed in the
presence of all the officials.‖

92
It concludes, ―It is my hope that the circulation and distribution of this scripture will be as

everlasting as the sun and moon, and that the far-reaching expanse of the blessings

therein will share with Heaven and Earth an eternal greatness.‖31 By considering

Buddha‘s words as eternal and describing Buddha‘s blessings commensurate with

Heaven and Earth, Taizong‘s acknowledgement and praise of Buddhism was highly

influential. The Preface composed by Taizong reveals the complex religious and

political perception that contextualizes my study. I have translated the Preface and

include it as part of my dissertation, the ―Appendix C.‖ The text of the Preface has been

translated by other scholars without or with few notes.32 I have furnished my own

translation with extensive annotations in order to provide a fuller understanding of this

important religious and historical statement.

Soon after reading his father‘s Preface, the Crown Prince, Li Zhi, who was residing

at the Chun gong 春宮 (Spring Palace), composed an essay in which he praised the

wisdom of Buddhism and Xuanzang‘s expedition, and further extolled his father‘s

support for Xuanzang‘s translation project and the writing of the Preface.33 The Prince‘s

essay is known as the Notes to the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka of the

Great Tang and contains 595 characters.

The exaltation of Xuangzang‘s accomplishments and the hearty endorsement of

Buddhism offered by these two literary compositions delivered a powerful message to

31
Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 143: ―方冀茲經流施，將日月而無窮；斯福遐敷，與乾坤而永
大.‖

32
Li Rongi, trans., A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci’en Monatery of the Great Tang
Dynasty (1995), 196–99; Anthony Yu, trans., Journey of the West, 4.419–22.
33
This event and the complete text of the Notes to the Preface are recorded in Da Tang Da Ci’en si
Sanzang fashi zhuan, 142–43.

93
the Buddhist community. It became obvious that the Buddhist religion was not only

accepted but highly esteemed by the imperial court. This recognition aroused great joy

in Buddhist societies all over the country. Śramaņa Yancong 釋彥琮 (fl. 650–688)

describes their delight:

Since the publication of the two holy prefaces [i.e. the Preface and the
Notes to the Preface], the princes and dukes, the vassals and religious and
lay persons, as well as the common people danced with delight in praise of
the Voice of Virtue. Both inside and outside the palace, the people praised
the two compositions, and in less than twelve days they were widely known
throughout the empire....34

Right after the Preface and the Notes to the Preface were composed, Abbot

Yuanding 圓定 of the Hongfu 宏(弘)福 Monastery and some other monks in the capital

sought a permanent form to preserve those valuable documents.35 They requested

permission to carve the texts on metal vessels or stone slabs, and reserve them in

monasteries, which the Emperor granted.36 ―Later, the monk Huairen and some others

of the [Hongfu] Monastery collected characters from among the calligraphies of Wang

Xizhi, General of the Right Army of the Jin dynasty, and had them engraved on slabs,‖

as it is recorded in monk Huili‘s biography of Xuanzang.37

34
See Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 148; translation is from The Biography of the Tripitaka
Master, 207.
35
Hongfu monastery, located at the Xiude 修德 residential quarter of the palace in Chang‘an, was made
as a monastery in 634 by Taizong in honor of his deceased mother, Empress Mu 穆. It was re-named as
Xingfu 興福 Monastery in 707, see THY 48.845 in which the name of monastery in Chinese is given as 宏
福, but in Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, it is written as 弘福. Hongfu Monastery was where
monk Xuanzang was residing and working on his translation projects from 645 to 648, see Da Tang Da
Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 131–58.
36
Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 148.
37
Ibid.; see also Biography of the Tripitaka Mastery, 207.

94
 It is likely that Huiren‘s project began immediately after the Emperor‘s approval,

although no document indicates the exact starting time. In 672, more than two decades

after the original text had been composed by the Emperor and the Prince, the project

was eventually completed and a stele was erected.

Stele of Ji Wang Xizhi Shengjiao Xu Bing Ji

Engraved with characters selected from the calligraphies of Wang Xizhi, the stele

containing Taizong‘s Preface and Gaozong‘s Notes to the Preface can be seen today at

Beilin in Xi‘an. It is commonly known as the Ji Wang Xizhi shengjiao xu bing ji 集王羲之

聖教序并記 (the Preface and the Notes to the Preface to the Holy Teaching with the

Collected Wang‘s [calligraphies]). The top of the stele is carved with seven Buddha-

heads, hence this stele is sometimes referred to as the Qifotou shengjiaobei 七佛頭聖教

碑 (Stele of Holy Teaching with Seven Buddha Heads).38 It is 350 cm in height and 100

cm in width.39 The body of the stele (beishen 碑身) is filled with inscriptions. There are

30 columns of text, each of which contains 83 to 84 characters. Each character is about

3.5 cm in width and 4 cm in height, which is well suited for a medium size calligraphy

script. The complete text can be read clearly except for a few words in the upper middle

part of the stele where a crack obliquely crosses the body.40

38
Li Yuzheng, Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, 54.
39
The measurements are various in different sources. 350 cm. x 100 cm in Li Yuzheng, Xi’an Beilin shufa
yishu, 54; 9‖4‘ x 4‖2‘ is recorded in Wang Chang‘s, Jinshi cuibian 49.13 in Shike shiliao xinbian, 2.831.
40
It was already noticed and mentioned by Liu Shengmu, Huan yu fang bei lu jiaokan ji, 4.4, in Shike
shiliao xinbian, 27.20125.

95
 The stele begins with the title Da Tang Sanzang shengjiao xu. Next to the title, two

important statements—―太宗文皇帝製 (Composed by Taizong, the Literary Emperor)‖41

and ―弘福寺沙門懷仁集晉右將軍王羲之書 (Monk Huairen in Hongfu Monastery collected

the characters from the calligraphies of Wang Xizhi, General of the Right Army of the

Jin dynasty [to engrave on this slab]‖—are presented in one line. This statement of

calligraphic authorship42 is followed by five individual bodies of text: the complete text of

Taizong‘s Preface (ten lines), Taizong’s reply to Xuanzang’s gratitude letter (one line),

Gaozong‘s Notes to the Preface (ten lines), Gaizong’s reply to Xuanzang’s gratitude

letter (one line), and a paragraph from the Heart Sutra (five lines).

At the end of the main text, five high officials are credited with giving the

translation of the sutra a proper elegance and finish. They are (1) Yu Zhining, Grand

Mentor of the Heir Apparent, Imperial Secretary, East Sector of Chief Administrator, and

Duke of Yan State (太子太傅尚書左僕射燕國公于志寧); (2) Lai Ji, Secretariat Director,

and Dynasty-founding District Baron of Nanyang (中書令南陽縣開國男來濟); (3) Xu

Jingzong, Minister of Rites, and Dynasty-founding District Baron of Gaoyang (禮部尚書

高陽縣開國男許敬宗); (4) Xue Yuanchao, Acting Vice Director of the Chancellery, and

East Sector of the Palace Cadets (守黃門侍郎兼左庶子薛元超); (5) Li Yifu, Acting Vice

Director of the Secretariat, and West Sector of Palace Cadet (守中書侍郎兼右庶子李義

府).

41
The posthumous Memorial title ―Wen‖ 文 (literary) was bestowed to Taizong at his death on 649.
42
I use the term calligraphic authorship to denote the person transcribed the text. This person is different
from the textural author, who composed the original text.

96
 The last line of the inscription reads, ―On the eighth day of the twelfth month in the

third year of [Gaozong] Xianheng era [672], erected by the Buddhist priests in the

capital; calligraphies engraved on the stone by civil official Gentleman-litterateur, Zhuge

Shenli, and Commandant of Militant Cavalry, Zhu Jingzang (咸亨三年十二月八日京城法

侶建立; 文林郎 諸葛神力 勒石 武騎尉 朱靜藏 鐫字).‖43

It may be assumed that an important project like this, which involved engraving

characters from the collected calligraphies of Wang Xizhi, required the best possible

engraver. Surprisingly, the only trace of information about the engraver emerges out of

the very recent discovery of ―Revised Family History of Zhuge clan‖ from Danyang Tapo

丹陽大泊 in Jiangsu 江蘇, which delineates Zhuge Shenli‘s family history.44 Zhuge

Shenli was a descendant of the famous Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 (181-234), the Chancellor

of Shu Han 蜀漢 during the Three Kingdom period (220-280), and was considered the

most accomplished strategist of his era. Zhuge Shenli‘s brother was Zhuge Zhen 諸葛真

who served in Taizong‘s court and was trained as a specialist to study the masterpieces

in the imperial collection. Along with other highly-trained copyists such as Feng

Chengsu, Zho Mo, and Han Daozheng, Zhuge Zhen was responsible for tracing the

famous Wang Xizhi‘s Langti xu.45 Zhuge Zhen later also served in Gaozong‘s court, and

in partnership with Feng Chengsu copied Wang Xizhi‘s Yue Yi lun.46 According to the

43
In Chinese ―Leshi 勒石‖ and ―Xizi 鐫字‖ are synonyms, meaning to engrave characters into stones.
44
Jin Tang fashu mingji, 66.
45
Ho Yanzhi, Lanting ji, in FSYL 3.130: ―帝[太宗]命供奉搨書人趙模, 韓道政, 馮承素, 諸葛真等四人, 各搨數
本, 以賜皇太子, 諸王, 近臣.‖
46
Wu Pingyi, Xushi fashu ji, in FSYL 3.114: ―至高宗, 又勒馮承素, 諸葛真搨樂毅論….‖

97
Zhuge Clan History, Zhuge Zhen carried the official title Gentleman-litterateur (wen

linlang, 文林郎).47 It is very possible that Zhuge Shenli was serving the court in a

capacity similar to his brother, and that was the title signed on the stele.

Even though the process of the afore named officials‘ finalizing and polishing the

sutra‘s translation took place in 656, the first year of Gaozong‘s Xianqing 顯慶 era,48

preparations to create the Ji Wang stele were most likely launched during Taizong‘s

era. The officials who were involved with the task of polishing the sutra‘s translation

named their titles on the stele with the ones appointed during the Zhenguan reign of

Taizong and the early years of the Yonghui reign of Gaizong.49

The Tang court and monastery probably had never ceased to support this project

since it was intended to promote Wang Xizhi‘s style of calligraphy. The task took an

excessively long time to complete probably due to inherent technical challenges. Prior

to the Ji Wang stele, no stone had been engraved by assembling characters from

various pieces written by a single calligrapher.50 To complete a monumental task like

47
Jin Tang fashu mingji, 66,
48
JTS 191.5109: ―顯慶元年 [656],高宗又令左僕射于志寧、侍中許敬宗、中書令來濟李義府杜正倫、黃門
侍郎薛元超等，共潤色玄奘所定之經…‖
49
JTS 4.69: Yu Zhining 于志寧 was appointed as Imperial Secretrary, East Sector of Chief Administrator
(shangshu cuopuye 尚書左僕射) in the second year of Yonghui (651). JTS 4.75: Yu Zhining was added
the title Grand Mentor of the Heir Appparent (taizi taifu 太子太傅) in the first year of Xianqing (656); JTS
4.47: Lai Ji 來濟 was appointed as Secretariat Director (zhongshu ling 中書令) in the sixth year of Yonghui
(655); JTS 4.66 and 4.77: Xu Jingzong 許敬宗 was appointed as Ministry of Rites (libu shangshu 禮部尚書
) before the the first year of Yonghui (650). JTS 4.77: Li Yifu 李義府 was promoted from Vice Director of
the Secretariat (zhongshu shilang 中書侍郎) to Secretariat Director (zhongshu ling 中書令) in second year
of Xianqing (657).
50
After Huairen attempted to compile characters from Wang Xizhi to assemble the complete inscription of
Shengjiao xu, there were 18 different stele made in the similar fashion, such as the Stele of Xinfu si (興福
寺斷碑), the Stele of Tianzun the Daoist Priest (田尊師碑), the Stele of Diamond Sutra (金剛經), etc., see
Zheng Congming, Shilun Jizi shengjiaoxu de tishi tezheng, 11, and Shi Zhicun, Tangbei baixuan, 116, for
more steles made in that nature.

98
the production of the Ji Wang stele required immense effort to search for and select the

most suitable characters needed for the composition. Aside from the challenge of

collecting the characters from various pieces written by Wang Xizhi, the most difficult

and intricate aspect of completing the stele must have been creating a homogeneous

effect while integrating the various sizes of characters from the original hand. Special

techniques were likely employed, such as using light-cast shadows to enlarge or reduce

the original characters.51 To reconstruct the characters in the texts without having

access to Wang‘s originals was also a significant challenge. The lost characters would

have to be created either by interpolating them from partial fractions of Wang‘s writing,

or by having someone to imitate Wang‘s work. In this case, the monk Huairen was the

commonly acknowledged contributor.

There was a great deal of speculation about the difficulty of overcoming the

obstacles to complete the Ji Wang stele. One of the most distinguished art critics of the

Ming dynasty, Dong Qichang 董其昌 (1555-1636), even argued that the entire

inscription on the Ji Wang stele was penned by Huairen, and Dong changed the

commonly known title Ji Wang Xizhi shengjiao xu to Huairen shengjiao xu 懷仁聖教序

(Preface to the Holy Teaching with the calligraphy of Huairen). Dong‘s argument was

based on the fact that during the Tang dynasty the rubbings from this stele were named

Xiao Wang Shu 小王書 (Calligraphy of Small Wang or Calligraphy of Wang Junior),

which suggested to him that the inscriptions were penned by Huairen.52 However, the

later critic Wang Su 王澍 (1668-1743) disputed Dong‘s arguments. He declared that

51
Zheng Congming , Shilun Jizi shengjiaoxu de tishi tezheng, 11.
52
Dong Qichang, Huachanshi suibi, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 3.1012a.

99
Huiren‘s calligraphy was not even one stroke the same as Wang‘s, on the basis of

examining Huairen‘s colophon written at the end of a Lanting tie—a model book made

out of Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting xu.53 Unfortunately, the particular version of the Lanting tie

with Huairen‘s colophon is no longer available and, with no other trace of Huairen‘s

writing, the argument of whether or not the Ji Wang stele was penned by Huairen is

moot.

Many art historians and critics have attempted to trace the provenance of

Huairen‘s work.54 Most of them agree that Huiren‘s assemblage was based on the Tang

imperial collection of Wang‘s works. A modern art historian, Zheng Congming 鄭聰明,

even compares many of the individual characters carved on the stele of Ji Wang with

the existing calligraphy models of Wang Xizhi made in later periods, such as Lanting tie

蘭亭帖, Sangluan tie 喪亂帖, Pingan tie 平安帖, and Kuaixue shiqing tie 快雪時晴帖.55

According to Zheng, about 94 characters are attributed to these popular models, 69 of

which originated from the most popular model, Lanting tie. But this comparison is not

necessarily reliable, since there were numerous versions of the Lanting model books

produced and Zheng did not specify which particular version he used. The time

difference between the inscriptions on the Ji Wang stele and the characters in these

later engraved model-books, even the best books from the Song dynasty (such as

Chunhua ge tie 淳化閣帖, Model Letters in the Imperial Archives Made in the Chunhua

53
Wang Shu, Xuzhou tiba, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 8.818a.
54
Jin Tang fashu mingji, 66; Nakata Yujiro, Ō Gishi o chūshin to suru hōjō no kenkyū, 268–69; Zheng
Congming, Shilun Jizi shengjiaoxu de tishi tezheng, 22–152.
55
Zheng Congming, ibid., 139–52.

100
Era, produced in 992), means that the later books are further from the original source.56

Therefore, the engraved inscriptions on the Ji Wang stele, assuming based on the

selected pieces from early Tang imperial collection, have a much higher degree of

authenticity.

The original intent of the monks from Hongfu monastery to create a monumental

stele with Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy was an acutely religious pursuit. Through Monk

Huairen‘s effort, the Ji Wang stele became one of the most esteemed works in the

history of calligraphy. The impact of this accomplishment is undoubtedly twofold: not

only could court calligraphers practice calligraphy with rubbings from the Ji Wang, but

sutra scribes also used these rubbings as the calligraphic sources of their copies.57

Proportional to their monumental purpose, the characters inscribed on stones are

usually much larger than the ones used for ordinary handwriting. From this perspective,

the size of characters on the Ji Wang stele became an issue, since they had to be

assembled and transformed from Wang‘s calligraphies. In order to accommodate the

original characters from Wang‘s hand-writing, the characters appearing on the Ji Wang

stele are relatively small (each 3.5 x 4 cm) in size compared with standard sized stone

inscriptions.58 To fill in the large surface space of the stone, other texts were added.

56
For the original catalogue of Wang Xizhi‘s work in the Tang Imperial Collection, see Tang Chu Suiliang
Youjun shumu, in FSYL, 3.88–100. Very few of these originals remained in later engraved model-letters
compendia, such as the well known Chunhua ge tie. Shunkei Lijima compared the importance of the stele
of Ji Wang with the popular Chunhua ge tie and claimed the time difference made the former one with
much higher degree of authenticity than the latter one in reflecting the original style of Wang Xizhi. See
Shunkei Lijima, Ippi itchō Chūgoku-hi hōcho seika, 6.[39].

57
Han Guopan, ―Bu Tianshou ‗LunyuZhengshizhu‘ xieben he Tangdai de shufa,‖ 444.
58
Comparing with most of Tang inscribed steles, the size of characters in the Ji Wang appears smaller;
however, it can be considered as the good dimension for a medium-sized model book for calligraphy
practice.

101
This was likely the reason why a section of the Heart Sutra and correspondence

between the emperors and Xuanzang were included.

The calligraphic value of the Ji Wang stele has been highly acclaimed in literary

references from the Song dynasty onwards. The tributes include numerous well-known

epigraphists who had either paid an actual visit to the famed stele or had read and/or

owned rubbings taken from it.59 Among them, Wang Chang‘s 王昶 (1725–1808) Jinshi

cuibian 金石萃編 (Collective Writings on Stone Engravings) contains the most

comprehensive information, which includes not only the author‘s observations about the

stele but also other pertinent literary references and calligraphic critiques. The most

sweeping appraisal is probably a statement made by Zhao Han 趙崡 (fl. 1615–1620), a

renowned specialist in the field of metal and stone inscriptions, who said, ―This bei has

been the model for calligraphy for hundreds of generations, and now it is even more

so.‖60 Indeed, the entire work appears to be from Wang Xizhi‘s own hand, as the

inscription was assembled from the characters of Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphies. Since

Wang‘s calligraphy was extremely valuable and rather scarce even in the early Tang

period, the lengthy engraving, consisting of 1,904 characters, preserved Wang Xizhi‘s

calligraphic tradition in the most comprehensive way. It offered the greatest repertoire of

Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy for those who are particularly fond of Wang‘s style.61

59
Zhao Han, Shimo juanhua, 2.5b in Shike shiliao congshu, Yi bian, 7.; Gu Yanwu, Jinshi wenzi ji, 166–
67; Qian Daxin, Qianyan tang jinshi wen bawei, 4.22–23, in Shike shiliao xinbian, 25.18787-88; Wang
Chang, Jinshi cuibian 49.13-23, in Shike shiliao xinbian, 2.831-36; Sun Xingyan, Huanyu fangbei lu, 3.6,
in Shike shiliao xinbian, 26.19880; Liu Shengmu, Huan yu fang bei lu jiaokan ji, 4–5, in Shike shiliao
xinbian, 27.20215–6. Huang Bosi, Dong guan yu lun , 33b-34a; Wang Su , Xuzhou tiba in Zhongguo
shuhua quanshu, 8.805a; Ye Changchi, Yu shi ,1.9, in Shanhai shudian 1986 printed ed, 12; Liu Xizai, Yi
gai, 153–54.
60
Zhao Han, Shimo juanhua, 2.5b, in Shike sh liao congshu, Yi bian, 7: ―此碑為百代書法模楷, 今時尤重.‖
61
Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 14.

102
 It is reasonable to presume that Monk Huairen, a distant descendant of Wang

Xizhi, attempted to assemble Wang‘s various calligraphies onto one stone so that the

rubbings could be made and distributed as a model to promote Wang‘s calligraphy

style. In fact, it stands as one of the first calligraphy model (tie 帖) to be cut into stone.62

As the Buddhist monasteries were supporting calligraphy education as vigorously as the

court during the early Tang, it is possible that both court calligraphers and sutra copyists

were using rubbings from the Ji Wang as model to learn the style highly promoted by

the court.

The installation of this stele was an extraordinary cultural phenomenon at the time.

The pursuit of cultural and aesthetic excellence demanded by the leading Buddhist

monks who successfully erected a Buddhist stele with characters collected from the

calligraphies of Wang Xizhi‘s work reflected the dynamic links between Buddhism and

the promotion of Wang‘s calligraphic tradition during the early Tang. The stele also

reveals Buddhism‘s acceptance by the Chinese cultural elite, who played a major role in

influencing the development of Chinese calligraphy.

Steles of Yanta Shengjiao Xu Bing Ji

Additional steles were erected with the texts of the Preface and Notes to the

Preface, as the vitality of the Buddhist community grew and much Buddhists understood

the potence of these steles to the spread of their religion. A pair of steles of such,

erected in the Great Goose Pagoda (Da Yan ta) at Ci‘en Monastery is the well-known

Yanta shengjiao xu bing ji 雁塔聖教序并記.

62
Ibid.

103
 One of the pair is engraved with the text of the Preface; eight characters—大唐三

藏聖教之序 (The Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka of the Great Tang

Dynasty)—are carved across the top of the stele in two columns (four characters on

each) that run from right to left in official script.63 The other one of the pair is with the

text of the Notes to the Preface; another eight characters—大唐三藏聖教序記 (The

Notes to the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka of the Great Tang Dynasty)

—are aligned in two columns from left to right in seal script. Both steles are about 200

cm in height, but the width for the Preface is 85 cm and that for the Notes to the Preface

is 110 cm.64 The Preface has 21 columns of text. Each has a maximum length of 42

characters and runs from right to left. The Notes to the Preface has 20 columns with 40

characters maximum in each, running from left to right, which is unconventional. This

reversal of form indicates that these two steles were carefully designed to be seen as a

symmetrical pair. The characters on the Notes appear slightly bigger than the ones in

the Preface. The texts of the two stones were transcribed by Chu Suiliang, the most

revered calligrapher at his time, and carved by Wan Wenshao 萬文韶, a reputable Tang

engraver.65

When Chu Suiliang penned the Preface and the Notes to the Preface, he added

the post colophon on each text respectively, with the date followed by his official titles

and name. On the Preface it reads, ―erected on the fifteenth day in the tenth month of

63
As it across the top of stele also as the head of stele, it is named guishou 圭首, guie 圭額, or beishou 碑
首.
64
The measurement is cited from Song version of rubbing in the collection of Tokyo National Museum,
while the size of two steles given by Wang Chang in his Jinshi cuibian is slightly wider (6‖3‘ x 3‖5‘).
65
Huang Xifan, Kebei xingming lu, 247.

104
the fourth year of Yuanhui era [i.e. 653]), penned by Grand Councilor (zhongshu lin 中書

令) Chu Suiliang.‖ On the Notes to the Preface it reads, ―erected on the tenth day in the

twelfth month of the fourth year of Yuanhui era [i.e. 653]), penned by Vice Director of

the Imperial Secretariat (Shangshu youpuye 尚書右僕射), Supreme Pillar of State

(Shang zhuguo 上柱國) and Dynasty-founding Duke of Henan (Henanjun kaiguogong 河

南郡開國公) Chu Suiliang.‖

Chu Suiliang had a long political career. He specifically included his official title,

―appointed by Taizong,‖ at the end of the Preface, and all three of his official titles,

―appointed by Gaozong,‖ at the end of the Notes to the Preface.66 The engraving of all

these titles publicized his high rank official positions. The completion of the inscriptions

and the erection of these two steles reveal a complex and intricate relationship among

politics, religion, and art production.

This pair of steles was originally erected at the Great Goose Pagoda at the Ci‘en

Monastery, and can still be seen there today. The Preface is positioned to the east and

the Notes to the Preface to the west of the south entrance to the Pagoda.67 Ci‘en

Monastery was begun in 648 by a decree of the Crown Prince, Li Zhi, who dedicated

the structure to his deceased mother, Empress Wende (文德皇后), who was a

66
Chu Suiliang was bestowed the appointment ―Grand Councilor‖ (zhongshu lin 中書令) in 648 by
Taizong and that was the last one among many other honors and titles Chu received from Taizong, see
XTS 105.4028. When Prince Li Zhi was succeeded Taizong and enthroned as Gaozong in 649, Chu
Suiliang was bestowed the appointment of Dynasty-founding Duke of Henan (河南郡公); soon later Chu
Suiliang was disparaged to Tongzhou as Regional Inspector (Tongzhou cishi 同州刺史). By the third year
of Yonghui era of Gaozong (652), Chu was called back to the court from Tongzhou and appointed the title
Mister of Personnel (Libu shangshu 吏部尚書) followed by another title Vice Director of the Imperial
Secretariat (Shangshu youpuye 尚書右僕射) appointed a year later in 653, see XTS 105.4028.
67
With location desgination of either the pagoda or the monastery, Yanta Shengjiao xu bing ji is also
known Ci’en Shengjiao xu bing ji.

105
dedicated Buddhist. That decree was made shortly after the Crown Prince wrote the

Notes to the Preface. He also ordered the construction of a separate house, Fanjing

yuan 翻經院, as a place for Xuanzang to translate Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang was

asked to be in charge of the monastery as its abbot, but he turned down the offer. Not

until after Taizong‘s death in 649, did Xuanzang finally take up residence in Fanjing

yuan in order to engage himself exclusively in his translation work.68

Three years later, in the spring of 652, Xuanzang decided to construct a stone

pagoda in the style of the Western Region (i.e. India) by the main gate of the

monastery. It was intended as a place to safely store the Buddhist scriptures and

images he had brought back from the western countries. The plan was thoroughly

supported by Gaozong. The pagoda was constructed with bricks in the Indian stupa

style. Five stories tall and about 180 feet in height, it was situated in the west courtyard

of the monastery. Monk Huili recorded this information in his biography of Xuanzang,

which states: ―On the top storey was a stone chamber with two slabs on the southern

side, one inscribed with the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka composed by

the late Emperor [i.e. Taizong], and the other one with the Postscript written by the

reigning Emperor [i.e. Gaozong]. The inscriptions were engraved in the calligraphy of

the Right Premier Chu Suiliang, the Duke of Henan.‖69

The completion and erection of monumental steles like Shenjiao xu was

undoubtedly approved by Emperor Gaozong, but who or what was the force behind it

was not clearly documented. It is reasonable to presume that Xuanzang, who was

68
The Biography of the Tripitaka Master, 207–216, 217, and 222.
69
Ibid., 226.

106
residing in Ci‘en Monastery at that time, made the request. It is also possible that he

asked for the best calligrapher, Chu Suiliang, to transcribe the text. Several instances

recorded in Xuanzang‘s biography indicate that Chu Suiliang was a supporter of

Xuanzang and Buddhism. When Xuanzang was summoned to Yuhua Palace in the

summer of 648, Chu Suiliang accompanied Taizong. Afterwards, Chu and several other

officials presented a long report to the Emperor, which began, ―Your servants have

heard that the Buddha‘s teaching is so profound and abstruse that it is beyond the

comprehension of heavenly and human beings….‖70 This passage showed Chu‘s strong

admiration for and faith in the Buddhist teachings. At the end of 648 (on the 23rd day of

the 12th month), several Buddha images, both embroidered and painted, were moved

from Hongfu Monastery to Ci‘en Monastery. Chu Suilinag was ordered by the Emperor

to receive and place them in the main hall.71 Under these circumstances, it is not

surprising that the steles containing the texts that praise Xuanzang and inscriptions

transcribed by Chu Suiliang were eventually made and erected in Ci‘en Monastery.

The exact date of the placement for the pair of steles is still debatable. The

account that describes the placement of the steles in the pagoda falls into a chapter that

records events happening between 652 and 654 in Xuangzang‘s biography. This time

frame corresponds with the actual dates carved on the steles. There are other historical

sources, however, that suggest an inconsistency regarding the date of the stele‘s

dedication. Jiu Tangshu, compiled in the ninth century by Liu Xu (887–946) 劉昫, states

70
Ibid., 194.
71
Ibid., 219.

107
―In 656 the engraved steles were sent to the Ci’en Monastery.‖72 This is two to four

years later than the date recorded in Xuanzang‘s biography, compiled by Huili, and

different from the dates carved on the stones. Nevertheless, the year 656 matches with

the date recorded in another document, Xu gaoseng chuan 續高僧傳 (Sequel to the

Biographies of Eminent Monks), compiled by the eminent monk Dao Xuan 道宣 (596–

667).73 Dao Xuan was a contemporary of Xuanzang and his dates are more likely to be

correct. This was probably the reason why the Jiu Tangshu, an official Tang history,

postuated that date.

This discrepancy in dating the famous steles may reflect the political turmoil that

followed Taizong‘s death. In the fall of 648, Chu Suiliang was chosen by Taizong to be

the Grand Councilor, a position that required him to consult regularly with the Emperor

and to participate in major governmental decisions.74 The following spring, when

Taizong was severely ill, he asked Chu Suiliang to assist the new emperor after his

death. In the summer of 649 Gaozong ascended to the throne, and soon after that he

made drastic changes in court personnels. Chu Suiliang was demoted from being

Grand Councilor to a position as a Regional Inspector in a remote place Tongzhou in

the eleventh month of the first year of Gaozong Yonghui era (650).75 During the next

two years, the country underwent several natural disasters. By the first month of the

third year of the Yonghui era (652), Gaozong recalled Chu Suiliang back to the court

72
JTS 4.75: 永徽七年 顯慶元年, 夏四月戊申，御安福門，觀僧玄奘迎御製赠書慈恩寺碑文，導從以天竺法
儀，其徒甚盛.
73
T 50.457b, it records the event with the date 656.
74
XTS 2.47, 105.4028.
75
Ibid., 3.53, 105.4028, and JXS 4.68.

108
and bestowed upon him a high official appointment as a Minister of Personnel in the

Secretariat (libu shangshu 吏部尚書). A year later (653), Chu Suiliang was promoted to

the position of Vice Director of the Imperial Secretariat. In the tenth month of the same

year, Chu penned Taizong‘s Preface and two months later he penned Gaozong‘s Notes

to the Preface. The inscriptions on this pair of famous stele were Chu Suiliang‘s last

dated work. Considering how much Chu was revered as the finest calligrapher at that

time, it is possible that the idea of having Chu transcribe the famous texts by the

Emperor and the Prince arose shortly after the texts were composed, but the political

disturbance prevented that idea from materializing. It is understandable that Xuanzang

and the monks from Ci‘en Monastery would grasp this opportunity when Chu returned to

the court.

One of the key figures behind this political turmoil was Wu Zhao 武曌, also known

as Wu Zetian 武則天 (625–705), who at the time was Taizong‘s concubine. After

Taizong‘s death, however, she became Gaozong‘s favorite concubine, which angered

many Tang officials, including Chu Suiliang.76 Chu‘s opposition resulted in his demotion

to Tongzhou. Two years later, in 653, after he was recalled back to the court and

promoted to a higher position, Chu transcribed the two famous texts. In 655, Gaozong

intended to depose his empress, Wang. This plan was vigorously opposed by Chu, and

in the ninth month of that year he was again condemned and sent to a remote county.

This time he was sent to Tanzhou 潭州 (in modern Changsa, Hunan Province).77 A

month later, Wu Zhao was crowned as an empress by Gaozong. Due to Wu Zhao‘s

76
XTS 4.81
77
JTS 4.74–75, see also XTS 3.56 and 105.4028.

109
increased political clout, it is possible that the beautifully inscribed steles were not

officially dedicated until 656, when Chu was finally sent away.

It is also reasonable, however, to presume that the final dedication of the steles

was, in part, due to the effort of Wu Zhao, who was a devoted Buddhist. Her dedication

to Buddhism may have equaled her political ambition.78 Her contribution to Buddhism in

general and Buddhist art in particular is well-known.79 A recent study claims that Wu

Zhao invented the printing process so that she could disseminate Buddha‘s words in as

many ways as possible, in part for garnering religious merit.80 Curiously, some of these

printed messages were discovered in Korea and Japan, but none in China, a fact that

might be attributed, once again, to political reasons; her opponents might have been

trying to erase her achievements after her death.81

During the time period when China was governed by Empress Wu (r. 696–705),

many Buddhist translation projects were initiated and accomplished under her order.82

In 700 Empress Wu summoned monk Yijing 義淨 (635–713),83 to the East Palace and

78
Fozu tongji, T 49.369b–371a; Jan Yunhua, trans., A Chronicle of Buddhism in China, 44–47; R.W.L.
Guisso, Wu Tse-t’ien and the Politics of Legitimation in T’ang China.
79
Fozu tongji, ibid.; R.W.L. Guisso, ibid.; Rong Xinjiang, Tangdai zongjiao xinyang yu shehui, 203–249.
80
T. H. Barrett, The Woman Who Discovered Printing. 131.
81
Ibid., 131–32.
82
Fozu tongji, T 49.369b–371a; A Chronicle of Buddhism in China, 44–47.
83
Monk Yi Jing (635–713) was one of the well-known monks in Tang. He was an admirer of Monk
Xuanzang, and became a monk at age 14 when Xuanzang finished his translation of a 100 volume set of
the Buddhist text Yogācāra-bhūmi for Taizong. In his late 20‘s, Yi Jing began his journey to India, and
studied in Srivijaya. In year 695, he returned back to Tang China at Luoyang, and received a grand
welcome back by Empress Wu. His total journey took 25 years. He brought back some 400 Buddhist
translated texts. 南海寄歸內法傳 (Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas) and 大唐西域求法高僧
傳 (Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty) are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his
adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese. Yi Jing‘s
biography is in Song gaoseng zhuan, 1–4.

110
commanded him to translate the Sutra of the Most Honored King; meanwhile Empress

Wu composed a preface to the translation and named it Sanzang shengjiao xu 三藏聖教

序.84 It bears the same title as Tangzong‘s famous Preface to Xuanzang‘s translation,

but different text. The complete text of the Empress‘ preface is recorded in Quan Tang

wen 全唐文 (Complete Literatures of the Tang Dynasty).85 The original writing was long

considered lost, but a fragment of the handwritten copy of Empress Wu‘s Preface was

among Dunhuang discoveries.86

In the early eighth century, between 701 and 704, Empress Wu had the pagoda at

Ci‘en Monastery rebuilt as a seven-story structure with bricks in the Chinese style.

During the reign of Emperor Zhongzong 中宗 (705-709), the pagoda was named the

Yan ta 雁塔 (Goose Pagoda). There was another, smaller Goose Pagoda built later in

the eighth century, also in Xi‘an. The earlier one was named the Great Goose Pagoda

and the later one the Small Goose Pagoda. The two steles were at one point moved to

the ground floor where they flanked the south entrance of the pagoda.

This pair of steles is well preserved. Because there are only few cuts or broken

lines, many faultless rubbings can still be obtained. These rubbings have long been

considered precious and collectable items, and have been used as models for

calligraphy practice. A free-hand copy of the Yanta inscription, presumably using the

84
T 49.370c.
85
Quan Tang wen, 97.7–8, in Datong shuju (1979) ed., 1254.
86
It is now housed in the Dunhuang collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3831).

111
Yanta version as a model, was among the discovered Dunhuang manuscripts (fig. 17).87

This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

Able to identify the authentic works of Wang Xizhi and to free-hand trace Wang‘s

works, Chu was the best and most authoritative figure Taizong could employ to collect

and promote Wang Xizhi‘s work. Unfortunately, none of the extant free-hand

manuscripts that claim to be Chu‘s handwriting can be verified for originality and

authenticity. The sole trace of Chu‘s authentic work lies in the inscriptions engraved on

the stones. Among the few steles transcribed by Chu Suiliang, this pair of steles, the

Yanta shengjiaoxu bing ji, is considered the best example of his work,88 and is most

likely the basis of Chu‘s designation as ―the leading teacher of all Tang times.‖89 Imbued

with Wang Xizhi‘s rhythmic, linear regularity, and self-expressive strokes, Chu Suiliang‘s

calligraphy exhibits the style, which hase fully integrated the firmness of standard script

and flexibility of running script. ―Gentleness and fluidity showing through the powerful

wrist,‖ may very well describe Chu‘s work.90 His style influenced the formation of Tang

kai, the standard script of the Tang, which came to be used as model for generations to

come.

The completion and erection of the Yanta stele, a masterpiece of calligraphic art,

also satisfied political and religious agendas. For Buddhists, the Yanta was a symbol of

87
Now it is housed in the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2780). See Wo Xinghua,
Dunhuang shufa yishu, 31, figs. 2–5. Also mentioned in Shufa tiandi, compiled by Ouyang Zhongshi, 220.
88
Liang Zhangju, Tuian suocang jinshi shuhua bawei, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 9.1011: ―褚公所書各
碑惟此最完好.‖
89
Liu Xizai, Shugai, in LTSF 702: ―褚遂良書為唐之廣大教化主.‖
90
Zhu Guantianm ―An epoch of Eminent Calligrapher,‖ 204

112
their religious success. For the Tang court, it offered a worthy model for the

standardized script.

Steles of Tongzhou Shengjiao Xu and Yanshi Shengjiao Xu

The aesthetic and cultural value of the Preface and the Notes to the Preface grew

congruently along with their strong political and religious implications. Thus, it is not

surprising that, in addition to the Ji Wang and Yanta, there are more steles engraved

with the famous texts of the Preface and the Notes to the Preface. At least two other

notable steles of this situation are known to us. One is the Tongzhou shengjiao xu 同州

聖教序 (see fig. 15), which was originally erected in Tongzhou, Shaanxi Province, but

was moved to Beilin in Xi‘an in 1994. The other one is Yanshi shengjiao xu 偃師聖教序

(see fig. 16), currently housed in the Study Hall of Yanshi (偃師學宮). The stele was

made upon a request by the monks from Zhaoti Monastery (招提寺) of Yanshi county in

Henan Province, and it was probably erected in that Monastery first but at some point

moved to the Study Hall.

The Tongzhou and Yanshi steles, comparatively speaking, have been less studied

by modern scholars, mainly because Ji Wang and Yanta were valued for the

calligraphies of famous hands, while the penmanship of Tongzhou is less certain and

that of Yanshi is attributed to a less famed calligrapher. In addition to these four steles,

there may have been one other that was penned by Chu Suiliang in a running script.

This was briefly mentioned by a Qing scholar Wang Chang in his Collective Writings on

Stone Engravings, but without a specific reference to its location.91 The stele is dated

"the third year of Xianhong," which was 672. This piece of information lodges this stele

91
Wang Chang, Jinshi Cuibian, 49.20, in Shi ke shi liao xin bian, 834.

113
in a disputable situation, as Chu Suiliang had been dead for more than a decade by the

year 672. Another epigraphist, Liang Zhangju 梁章詎 (1775-1849), not only mentions

this stele in his Compendium but adds a striking comment, that "the running script of

Chu Suiliang‘s calligraphy on this stele was the original model for Song Emperor

Huizong‘s shoujin ti 瘦金體 (gold slender style).‖92 Liang, too, confirms that ―it had been

long gone.‖ In fact, whether it ever existed at all is still in question.

Stele of Tongzhou shengjiao xu

The stele of Tongzhou is a large stele, 414 cm in height and 113 cm in width.93 It is

now located in the Second Chamber of Beilin in Xi‘an, where one also finds the stele of

Ji Wang. The top (head) of the Tongzhou stele is carved with eight characters: 大唐三藏

聖教之序 (Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka of the Great Tang Dynasty) in

official script, symmetrically placed into two columns that read from right to left. The

body of the stele is filled with the texts of both the Preface and the Notes to the Preface,

totaling close to 1,600 characters, written in standard script and engraved in grids of 29

columns and 58 horizontal rows.

The last two columns of the Tongzhou inscription have created confusion as they

were inscribed as, ―erected on the 23rd day in the 6th month of the third year of Longsuo

era [i.e. 663]‖ (龍朔三年嵗次癸亥六月癸未朔二三日乙已建) on line one, and ―Chu

Suiliang penned when serving in Tongzhou‖ (褚遂良書在同州倅廳) on line two. Since

92
Liang Zhangju, Tuian suocang jinshi shuhua bawei, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 9.1011
93
The measurement is cited from Li Yuzheng‘s Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, but in Wang Chang‘s Jinshi
cuibian 49.25, the measurement is 9‖1‘ x 4‖6'.

114
Chu Suiliang died in the year 658,94 the date 663 immediately puts the authorship in

dispute. The artist‘s signature without an official title also contradicts the fashion at that

time.

This Tongzhou stele has been commonly attributed as a replica of the famous

Yanta. The superb quality of the Tongzhou, however, raises interesting questions.

Those who praise the Tongzhou version often emphasize the clearness and the

strength of the brushwork, and do not believe that Tongzhou is only a replica. For

instance, epigraphist Zhao Han 趙崡 (fl. 1615–1620) extolled the crisp, lively, and

sharpened strokes on the Tongzhou and argued: ―The Yanta version should be the

original [due to the earlier date, but if the Tongzhou was a replica], I wonder how and

why the Tongzhou shows a surpassing quality than the Yanta !‖95 Zhao Han‘s question

about why the brushstrokes on the Tongzhou appeared fresher and sharper than those

on the Yanta may be explained by the fact that due to the authenticity of the Yanta

version, more ink rubbings had been requested and made from the Yanta, which

resulted in the inevitable deterioration and impairment of its carved impressions. In

comparison, the less used Tongzhou version looked fresh and well preserved.

The debate over whether or not the Tongzhou was a replica of Yanta was carried

on by many late Ming and Qing critics and epigraphists. Wang Shu 王澍 (1668-1743)

claimed that the Tongzhou version was simply a replica of the Yanta and ―a slight

difference on the thinness or thickness of brushstrokes was caused by the hands of

94
XHS105.4029, also in JTS 80.2739.
95
Zhao Han, Shimo juanhua, 2.6a–6b in the series Shi ke shi liao cong shu, Yi bian, 7; in Chinese: ―同州
[本]遒逸婉媚, 波拂處虯如鉄線. 後署龍朔三年書, 似勝 慈恩本... 大塔本[慈恩本] 似是真跡, 而同州本反勝, 何
也？‖

115
engravers.‖96 Apparently Wang Shu noticed the different rendering of brushstrokes on

these two steles, but he simply attributed it to a difference in engravers. On further

examination, Liang Zhangju argued that the Tongzhou was not a direct reproduction but

a free-hand copy obtained from a rubbing of the Yanta. The similarities and differences

between the Yanta and Tongzhou, according to Liang, reveal the strong possibility that

the creator of the Tongzhou was a skillful calligrapher who used the rubbing of Yanta as

a model, but produced something that was superior to the original.97 Liang‘s argument

suggests that the fresh beauty of the Tongzhou version is due to the copier‘s superb

calligraphic skill, which has impressed many critics and connoisseurs.

By comparing the characters and strokes from the Yanta and the Tongzhou, one

can argue that the Tongzhou version was made to reflect the copyist‘s admiration for

master Chu‘s refined and energetic style, but it was never meant to be a straight replica.

The two versions appear similar at first glance, but a close examination reveals

differences. For instance, ―伽‖ in the Yanta is written as ―迦‖ in the Tongzhou. The size

of characters on the Tongzhou is quite even and well placed in fixed grids (see fig. 15),

while in the Yanta many characters appear irregular. For example, the characters 能, 顯,

鷲 in the Yanta version (fig. 18) are larger than the same ones in the Tongzhou version,

which exhibit a much more uniform size throughout the entire inscription. This evidence

demonstrates that the original Yanta version manifests the artist‘s spontaneous

96
Wang Shu, Xuzhou tiba, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 8.807; in Chinese: ― 在雁塔者乃其真迹, 同州者
則後人所摹刻者. 雖一肥一瘦彼此不同而细較筆法其為一書而两刻.‖
97
Liang Zhangju, Tuian suocang jinshi shuhua bawei, chuan 3, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 9.1011, in
Chinese: ―評者謂此本質厚不佻，轉勝雁塔本，不知其質厚處，即是臨摹著力之跡。‖

116
expression, even though the Tongzhou version appears to be a careful and deliberate

reflection of the hand of master Chu. I would argue that the Yanta was used as a

calligraphy model by a skillful artist to create the Tongzhou version, while the

brushstrokes from the Tongzhou version revealed the copyist‘s deliberate effort and

strength.

The following observations about specific ways of handling brushstrokes from

different hands lend more credence to this supposition. The beginning and ending

points are rigid and forceful in most characters from the Tongzhou stele. Some obvious

ones, such as ―天,‖ ―有,‖ ―下,‖ and ―陰陽,‖ show that the central point was produced by

pressing the brush side-ways to leave a sharp angle, while the same characters in the

Yanta were created by hiding the central point of the brush to create smooth beginning

and ending points (fig. 19). Another good example is the character ―wu‖ (無) (fig. 20). In

the Tongzhou version, the tip of brush was used with deliberation to create a sharp and

strong beginning and ending of four vertical, two horizontal strokes, and four dot-

strokes. In contrast, these strokes in the Yanta version look smooth, rounded, and

effortless. They were accomplished by hiding the central point of the brush, which

leaves no trace of any sharpness or angle either on the beginning or the ending point.

The inscriptions on the Tongzhou offer excellent testimony to the fact that a good

practitioner working with a superb model could produce remarkable results; thus one

can find calligraphic merit in both the Tongzhou and Yanta versions of the steles. Art

critic Sun Chengze 孫承澤 (1592-1676) made an interesting comment about these two

steles: ―[Brushwork in] the Tongzhou is full of bone, while the Yanta is full of harmony

117
and expression.‖98 It is also worth mentioning that art critics usually made comments by

comparing the rubbings that were available to them, instead of paying a visit to steles.

Apparently, ink rubbings taken from these steles have become precious items for

collectors. Meanwhile, the collected rubbings were then, especially after the printed

method was employed after the Tang, often used as original for mass production to

create model books for calligraphy practitioners.

While debates over the penmanship of Yanta and Tongzhou may always exist, it

has become consensus among scholars that the Tongzhou stele was made by the

people in Tongzhou to honor the memory of their beloved calligraphy master Chu

Suiliang. Thus the primary reason for the erection of the stele may not necessarily have

been to praise Buddhism, despite the fact that it is Buddhist in content. Regardless, the

town people‘s effort to mimic and parade the best of Chu‘s calligraphy resulted, even if

indirectly, in the promotion of Buddhism; the value and honor conferred on the

calligraphic master could be transferred to Buddhism as well.

Stele of Yanshi shengjiao xu

The Buddhist community continued to create steles to promote their religion.

Containing the texts of the Preface and the Notes to the Preface, another extant stele is

known as the Yanshi shengjiao xu (see fig. 16). It was named after its location, Yanshi

County in Henan Province. The inscription on the stele was transcribed by a skillful but

lesser-known calligrapher, Wang Xingman, hence it is sometimes identified as the stele

of Wang Xingman shengjiao xu.

98
Sun Chenze, Gengzi xiaoxia lu, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 7.805; in Chinese: ―同州饒骨,慈恩饒韻.‖

118
 The Yanshi or the Wang Xingman is another large stone, 302 cm in height and

154 cm in width, engraved in 28 columns with 56 characters in each column.99 The

columns and rows form a distinct pattern of grids and the characters that fill each grid

are written in standard script. The statement of penmanship is indicated right after the

main title, ―Transcribed by Wang Xingman, Secretary in the Judicial Department‖ (門下

錄事臣王行滿書). The last two lines on this stele explain why it was erected: ―To honor

Zhaoti Temple, the stele was erected on the fifteenth day of the twelfth month in the

second year of the Xianqing era [i.e. year of 657].‖ (奉 為招提寺 顯慶二年嵗次 丁已十

二月乙卯朔十五日己已建). During the Tang dynasty, a Zhaoti Monastery was in old

Houshi County (猴氏縣),100 which later became part of Yanshi County in Henan

Province. The stele was moved and it currently resides in the Study Hall in Yanshi

County.

Little is known about Wang Xingman. Although his signature on the stele is

accompanied by his official title, hardly any significant information about the artist can

be found. Wang Xingman is not mentioned in the standard official histories, the Jiu Tang

shu and the Xin Tang shu. Only from Wang Chang‘s 王昶 (1771–1836) Jinshi cuibian 金

石萃编, do we learn that Wang Xingman inscribed another stele, Hang Liang bei 韓良碑,

at Fuping 富平 County in Shaanxi Province.101 Ink rubbings of Hang Liang bei are

scarce and not easily found, but new archaeological excavations revealed a stele

99
Measurement is from Wang Chang‘s Jinshi cunbian 49.24, in Shike shiliao xinbian, 2.836.
100
Modern Yanshi county in Henan Province covers the territory of ancient Houshi County .
101
See Wang Chang, Jinshi cuibian, 49.24b, in Shike shiliao xinbian, 2.836.

119
named Zhou Hu bei 周護碑, which was also inscribed by Wang Xingman. Rubbings

from this stele are yet to be made.102

Although information is lacking about the artist, the Yanshi stele was cited by

many well-known epigraphists in their accounts of historically significant epigraphs.103

Qing epigraphist Liang Zhangju proudly declared that he had obtained a Yanshi rubbing

near suburban Beijing. He proclaimed that the beauty of Yanshi surpassed

Tongzhou.104 The Yanshi was dated only four years later than the famous Yanta stele

inscribed by the renowned Chu Suiliang. Monks at the Zhaoti Monastery must have

trusted Wang Xingmang to transcribe the same text for Yanshi. In his well-esteemed

compendium that records numerous rubbings from famous steles, Liang Zhangju

describes Wang Xingmang‘s calligraphy on the Yanshi as follows: ―There is a vital spirit,

expressed in a genial manner. The structure is profound and solid. Indeed, it can

contend with Dengshan 登善 [the style name of Chu Suiliang].‖105 Liang‘s comparison of

the Yanshi inscription with Master Chu‘s calligraphy raised the esteem of this Yanshi

version, and drew much attention to this lesser known artist and his work.

From a section of rubbing (see fig. 16) taken from the Yanshi stele, one can

discern an even but agile and fluent brush movement, and the character structures are

clear and regular. The overall effect of the Yanshi reflects Chu‘s style from his early

102
Shi Zhecun, Tangbei baixuan, 82.
103
See Wang Chang, Jinshi cuibian, 49.24b, in Shike shiliao xinbian 2.836; Liang Zhangju, Tuian
suozang jinshishuhuabawei, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 9.1011b; Sun Xingyan, Huanyu fangbei lu,
3.6, in Shike shiliao xinbian, 26.19880; Qian Daxin, Qianyan tang jinshi wen bawei, 4.15, in Shike shiliao
xinbian, 25.18784.
104
Liang Zhangju, Tuian suozang jinshi shuhua bawei, in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu, 9.1011b.
105
Ibid.

120
work, such as Meng fashi bei (see fig. 9), but Wang interprets it with maturity and

fluidity. From this rubbing, one may assume that Wang Xingmang was confident

enough not only to imitate Chu, but also, to some degree, to challenge the old master.

Given the fact the Yanshi stele was dedicated ―to honor Zhaoti Monastery,‖ the

primary intent informing its creation was to promote Buddhism. However, the choice of

duplicating the form as well as the content of the well-known Yanta stele was most likely

due to the beauty and value of its calligraphy. The monks from the Zhaoti Temple

erected the Yanshi stele fairly quickly after the Yanta had been established, presumably

to capitalize on some of the Yanta’s fame and popularity, which was based on Chu‘s

calligraphy. While the Tongzhou stele was produced primarily to bring honor to the

town, the Yanshi stele was made to glorify the monastery. But all three steles

demonstrate how calligraphic script could distribute aesthetic, religious, and political

value simultaneously, albeit in different inflections.

121
 CHAPTER 5
BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES AND DUNHUANG MANUSCRIPTS

In addition to Buddhist steles, Buddhist scriptures transcribed on paper or silk offer

another format that allows us to trace how calligraphy flourished during the Tang

dynasty. These scriptures contributed to the development of calligraphy perhaps even

more than the dedicated steles.1 Believing that the act of copying or commissioning the

transcription of a sutra was a pious deed that garnered religious merit, Buddhists

produced a colossal amount of Buddhist scriptures. These scriptures are treasured as

original sources for the study of both calligraphy and Buddhism, as they not only contain

the texts of sacred writings, but also feature calligraphy as the technical and aesthetic

form for relaying this content. These handwritten materials from the Tang and pre-Tang

periods were not available until the dawn of the twentieth century. After they were

discovered in Dunhuang Cave 17, they offered a new perspective that changed the

framework of calligraphy scholarship.

Dunhuang, a thriving Buddhist community, was located near an oasis on the Silk

Road that linked China to Central Asia. It flourished from about the fourth to thirteenth

centuries, but went into decline in the fourteenth century. Hundreds of caves, dedicated

as shines or for other uses by the resident Buddhist clergy, were completely closed at

some point in the eleventh century. It was not until the early twentieth century that the

caves were rediscovered.2 In Cave 17 tens of thousands of manuscripts were revealed;

a majority was Buddhist sacred texts produced primary during the Tang dynasty.

1
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 224–39.
2
492 decorated caves remain to this day.

122
 The vast number of manuscripts from Dunhuang illustrates the extraordinary

accomplishments of sutra copyists, whose work altered the status of calligraphy, shifting

it from a primarily elite practice to one in which a broader constituency of the population

could participate. Although this shift in demographics was, for the most part, in history

dismissed by critics and elite collectors, many of these discovered handwritten copies

exhibit qualities found in the work of elite masters, a phenomenon that has fascinated

and amazed modern scholars, collectors and critics of calligraphy alike.3

This chapter examines selected Dunhuang manuscripts in order to reconstruct the

dynamic relationship between the style of elite masters and that of the lesser-known

sutra copyists. It also discusses the translation and transcription of Buddhist scriptures

from a retrospective point of view with the focus on the rapid growth of reproduction

during the Sui and Tang dynasties, and interactions between the imperial court

sponsorship, monastic institutions, and devoted private patrons.

Historical Development of Buddhist Scriptures

Buddhist scriptures and related texts were first introduced into China in the first

century, during the late Han dynasty. After that, the proliferation and popularization of

Buddhism paralleled the growth of sutra translation and copying, especially during the

Six Dynasties. By the Sui and Tang dynasty, Buddhist manuscripts copies had become

ubiquitous.

Early Development of Translation and the Transcription of Buddhist Scriptures

Buddhist scriptures were brought to China by the first Indian missionaries, whose

names from the late fifth century onward are given as Dharmaratna 竺法蘭 (fl. mid-first

3
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 225.

123
century) and Kāsyapa Mātanga 攝摩騰 (fl. 67). It was for them, according to tradition,

that the Han Emperor Ming (r. 58–75) built the first monastery, Baima si 白馬寺 (White

Horse Monastery) in the viscounty of Luoyang.4 In 67 at least five Buddhist scriptures

were translated by Dharmaratna and Kāsyapa Mātanga into Chinese, but only one—

Sutra in Forty-two Sections—has survived, and it is now commonly regarded as the first

Buddhist scripture in the Chinese language.5

The number of translated and transcribed Buddhist scriptures greatly increased

during the following centuries. In the third century, the famous court scholar Xun Xu 荀

勖 (231–283) compiled the imperial catalogue of the Western Jin dynasty (256–316),

which included sixteen scrolls of Buddhist works.6 During the politically chaotic period of

the fourth to sixth centuries, the cultured public turned their attention toward Buddhism.

Devoted laymen would stay in monasteries for various periods of time, some even for

years, during which they assisted in the translation of scriptures or to copying of sutras.7

Important achievements in Buddhism were made under the Chinese Śramaņa Dao‘an

道安 (312–385) and Huiyuan 慧遠 (334–416), and the Kuchean Buddhist monk

Kumārajīva 鸠摩羅什 (344–409/413).

Dao‘an and Huiyuan, known for their literary talents, collaborated with

contemporary lay literati. They were part of a group of ―cultured clergies‖ who were

4
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, 22
5
Gao seng chuan, compiled by Hui Jiao, 3. Sutra in Forty-two Sections consists of approximately 2,000
characters divided into 42 independent sections. See also Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China,
29–30.
6
Daoxuan, Guanghong ming ji, 3.17b–18b; Xun Xu‘s biography is in Jin shu, 39.1152..
7
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.75.

124
heavily involved in the development of ―gentry Buddhism.‖8 Dao‘an played a leading role

in translation activities in the capital of Chang‘an during the second half of the fourth

century.9 Huiyuan, a zealous follower of Dao‘an, established contacts in Chang‘an in the

north as well as Jiankang 建康 in the south. He also established ―Mt. Lu (盧山) as a

combination of a religious centre and a collective hide-away for Buddhist-minded

literati.‖10 This group of Buddhist literati included Zong Bing 宗炳 (375–443), a scholar

also known as one of the greatest painters and calligraphers of his time, and Wang

Qizhi 王齊之, a member of the Wang clan from Langye, who were prolific producers of

calligraphy.11 Their mutual encounters and manifold interactions demonstrate that

Buddhism was cultivated by adapting to local cultural norms. During this confluence of

Buddhism‘s adaption to Chinese cultural milieu, Buddhists developed and linked

doctrines, practices, and artistic expressions with native Chinese elements, which

resulted in a wide and favorable reception of Buddhism in China. Meanwhile, as

Buddhism permeated various aspects of Chinese society and culture, it enriched

Chinese civilization.12

The growth of Buddhism in China rapidly progressed when the Mahāyāna tradition

was imported. More open to cultural syncretism, Mahāyāna traditions adapted easily to

Chinese traditions, which served to firmly establish Buddhism as a major presence and

force in Chinese religious life. Many of the translated Mahāyāna scriptures and treaties

8
For the development of ―gentry Buddhism,‖ see Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.5–10.
9
Ibid., I.202–04.
10
Ibid., 217.
11
Ibid., 218–19.
12
Mario Poceski, Introducing Chinese Religions, 114.

125
use terminology culled from Chinese thought, particularly Daoism.13 Vimalakīrti Sutra is

a good example, and has played an important role in promoting Buddhism among the

cultured gentry, as it contains both remarkable literary qualities and highly philosophical

ideas that are soothing for Chinese (further discussed on section of ―Early examples‖ in

this chapter). Between the beginning of the third and the middle of the seventh century,

the Vimalakīrti Sutra was translated into Chinese seven times.14 A popular version was

translated by Kumārajīva. A Kuchean monk and scholar, Kumārajīva arrived in

Chang‘an in 401 and translated many important Mahāyāna scriptures and treaties,

including several prominent ones such as Vimalakīrti Sutra, Amitābha sutra, Diamond

Sutra, and Lotus Sutra. Due to the superb readability of his translation style, his works

were extremely popular.

In the fifth century, Sengyou 僧佑 (445–518), of the Liang dynasty (502–533),

compiled one of the earliest Buddhist catalogues. Completed in 374, Sengyou‘s

Catalogue contains 2,162 works in 4,328 scrolls,15 including Dao‘an‘s Zongli zhongjing

mulu 综理衆經目錄 (Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures).16 Sengyou was also the author

of a famous compendium, Hongming ji 弘明集, in which he analyzed the theories of

Buddhist literature that were known in China from the early Han to Liang.

The Liang scholar Ruan Xianxu 阮孝緒 (497–536) compiled a comprehensive

catalogue entitled Seven Records, which listed as many as 2,410 Buddhist writings and

13
Ibid., 121–22.
14
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.50.
15
Yao Mingda, Zhongguo muluxue shi, 260.
16
Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China, I.30.

126
425 Daoist works.17 Ruan Xianxu was also known as a paleographer. His writing, Wenzi

jilue 文字集略 (Collected Anthology on Characters), is listed with other important

calligraphy treatises in the Annal of Art and Literature of Xin Tang shu (Tang shu yiwen

zhi 唐書藝文志).18

The dramatic increase in Buddhist texts may also be attributed to the invention of

paper in the late Han period.19 Writing on paper was easier than using bulky bamboo,

costly silk or wooden slips, and it became the dominant medium for transcribing texts.

The major impetus behind the rapid growth of transcribed Buddhist texts, however, was

a combination of factors: strong imperial court sponsorship, ardent monastic support,

and enthusiastic patronage from devotees. This phenomenon occurred during the Six

Dynasties, but became more dynamic and systematic throughout the Sui and Tang

dynasties.

Development during the Sui and Tang Dynasties

During the reign of Emperor Wen 文帝 (r. 581–604) of the Sui dynasty, particular

events furthered the establishment of Buddhism, including the restoration and

preservation of Buddhist texts that had suffered during a long period of political

disruption and severe persecutions of Buddhists by the Northern Emperors.20 In the

year 581, the first year after he took the throne, Emperor Wen issued a decree calling

17
Daoxuan, Guanghong ming ji, 3.17b–18b.
18
XTS 57.1448.
19
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 145.
20
Two large Buddhist persecutions occurred during the Northern Dynasties; one in 446–454 excuted by
Emperor Taiwu 太武帝 of the N. Wei, and another in 574–577 by Emperor Wu 武帝 of the N. Zhou. For
the Buddhist activities during the period of division, see Mario Poceski, Introducing Chinese Religions,
130–31.

127
for the copying of all Buddhist scriptures. They were to be deposited in the temples of

large cities and specially prepared copies were commissioned for the Imperial Library.21

Also under imperial sponsorship, Fei Changfang 費長房 (fl. 561–597) compiled the most

comprehensive and earliest bibliography of Buddhism in 597; it lists 2,146 works in

6,235 scrolls.22 According to the seventh century Buddhist text Fayuan zhulin, more

than 130,000 scrolls were transcribed during the reign of Emperor Wen alone.23

Both the Sui Emperor Wen and his son, Emperor Yang 煬帝 (r. 605–617), were

dedicated Buddhists and vigorously promoted the transcription of Buddhist literature.

Monk Yancong 彥琮 (557–610), active during the reigns of both emperors, was an

influential figure who supported the mass production of Buddhist literature during the

Sui dynasty.24 In 602, the second year of Renshou 仁壽 era of Emperor Wen, Yancong

compiled a Zhong jing mulu 衆經目錄 (Catalog of Miscellineous Scriptures), which

categorized scriptures according to how they were translated, including direct

translation, re-translated works, and translated but with problems.

The policy of promoting Buddhism was continued in the court of Emperor Yang. In

606, he ordered the establishment of a Bureau of Translation of Buddhist Texts (Fanjing

guan 翻經館) at the Daxingshan Monastery (大興善寺) in Chang‘an.25 The figure in

charge of the tasks of translation and transcription was the revered monk Yancong. At

21
Sui shu, 35.1055.
22
Yao Mingda, Zhongguo muluxue shi, 273.
23
T 53.1019a–23a.
24
Yancong‘s biography in Xu gaoseng zhuan, T 50.436b–39c. Yancong is also the author of Xiyu zhuan
西域傳 (Record of the West Land).
25
Sui shu, 3.75.

128
the time, the number of copies of Buddhist texts in private hands was growing rapidly.

Copying sutras became fashionable during the Sui dynasty and, as a result, ―Buddhist

sutras in private hands were tens and hundred times as many as those of Confucian

classics.‖26 Thus, the Sui dynasty may be considered ―the greatest period of the

production of Buddhist literature.‖27

The official Translation Bureau established by Emperor Yang played an important

new role in the quantity as well as quality of sutra production. Yancong codified the

eight criteria considered necessary in order to be a good copyist, including ―read

through the [ancient] text of Cang [Jie pian] 倉頡篇 and [Er] Ya 爾雅, and have

calligraphic skill in zhuan shu (seal script) and li shu (official script).‖28 Cang Jie Pian

(The Provisions from Cang Jie), named after the legendary inventor of writing, was

edited by Li Si, who sought to standardize the small seal script during the Qin dynasty. 29

Containing about 3,300 characters, it is one of the earliest primers designed for

students learning to write Chinese characters. Er Ya (Approaching Correctness), the

oldest extant Chinese dictionary to explain words in context, is a pre-Qin compilation of

glosses to classical texts. The fact that copyists were required to read these texts

suggests that the study of calligraphy was not merely a hands-on-practice, but

demanded knowledge of historical background. Yancong‘s emphasis on seal script and

official script, rather than on other calligraphy forms, may indicate that the writing of

26
Sui shu, 35.1055. ―天下之人, 從風而靡,竟相景慕,民間佛經多于六經數十百倍.‖
27
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Written on Bamboo and Silk, 18.
28
T 50.439a.
29
See section on ―Early Writing System,‖ in Chapter 2.

129
religious text demanded a great deal of accuracy and regularity, which are the main

characteristics of both seal and official scripts.

After the late Han era, however, the form of official script underwent a process of

evolution. By the Sui dynasty the distinctive characteristics of the original official script,

which featured sweeping horizontal strokes with sharp tips, gradually disappeared and

were replaced by a new way of rendering strokes with more stable construction and

homogeneous tone of brush movement. This particular way of evoking more natural and

fluent brushstrokes resulted in a new form that was later known as standard script. A

prototype of standard script—likai 隷楷 or kaili 楷隷, a combination of official and

standard scripts—was a popular script used for stele inscriptions during the Sui dynasty.

In his Yushi 語石 (Words from the Stones), Ye Changchi 葉昌熾 (1849–1917) calls

our attention to these inscriptions on the Sui steles because they exhibit the synthesized

form of calligraphic styles inherited from the preceding dynasties that was to become a

forceful inspiration to the Tang and later periods.30 He says, ―Xiaozhuan 小篆 and bafen

八分 gradually evolved into kaili 楷隸, which was a result of artful skill and strength.31

This reform is derived from divine intelligence, yet does not deviate from the traditonal

trends.‖32 The Yushi chronicles the development of stele over two thousand years,

30
Yushi is a literary document of stele inscriptions collected from the pre-Qin to Qing periods.
31
Bafen 八分 is a term to describe a type of form (script) used in the Han dynasty, and considered as one
variation of official script. Literally, it can be translated as ―eight divided shares,‖ referring to the shares
taking either most part of old seal script or most part of new official script during the Han dynasty.
Throughout the history of Chinese calligraphy, this term has been interpreted in many ways by art critics.
In general, it is associated with the old official script with more squarish structureand even linear brush
strokes. Details see Qi Gong, Gudai ziti lungao, 28–32.
32
Ye Changchi, Yushi, 1.7 in Shanghai shudian (1986) ed., 11: ―隋碑上承六代, 下啟三唐, 由小篆八分趨于
楷隸, 至是而巧力兼至. 神明變化, 而不離规矩.‖

130
recording the format and content of inscriptions, the calligraphic styles, engraving

techniques, and collectors of important rubbings as well as anecdotes about many

famous steles. Yan Changchi‘s perception indicates the important and influential role

that the Sui dynasty played in the history of the development of Chinese calligraphy.

An understanding of calligraphy in both historical and theoretical terms has always

been a prerequisite for those who are pursuing proficiency in the art. In the Han

dynasty, both teaching and learning calligraphy was a private matter, but one highly

encouraged by the government.33 By the fourth and fifth centuries, during the time of the

Jin, the government became more involved and hired teaching Erudites who were

highly proficient in calligraphy.34 By the time the Sui unified the country the court was

the center of calligraphic activity. An official ―Calligraphy School‖ (shuxue 書學) was

established and a number of teaching faculty and students regulated its function and

growth.35 Other than transcribing records for the court, the members of the School also

participated in governmental decisions regarding the transcription of Buddhist literature.

Examples from fascicle four of the Siyi jing, dated 588, and fascicle eight of the

Zhonganhan jing, dated 602, will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.

In their pursuance of social prosperity and cultural brilliance, the early Tang court

continued the ideological policy of the Sui, which included the promotion of calligraphy

as well as the support of Buddhism. Tang emperors reached out to the new Buddhist

33
Wang Guowei, Guangtang jilin, 4.7, in Beijing Zhonghua Shuju (1999) ed., 179: ―漢時教初学之所, 名曰
書馆….其書用《倉颉》 ... 諸篇 …漢人就學, 首學書法, 其業成者, 得試為吏, 此一级也.‖
34
Biography of Xun Xu is in Jin shu 39.1152: ―勖領秘書監, 立書學博士, 置弟子教習, 以 鍾胡為法.‖
35
Sui shu 28.777:“國子寺… 统國子, 太學, 四門, 書算學，各置博士— 書算各二人, 助教. .. 書算各二人, 學生… 書
四十人.‖

131
monasteries36 and performed many public displays of Buddhist devotion and acts of

piety at court.37 With the court‘s interest and support, Buddhism reached its highest

level of development during the Tang dynasty,38 which created a great demand for the

production of sutra transcriptions. In addition to support from the court, two other forces

synchronized to facilitate the mass transcription of sutras: earnest promotion of

calligraphy practice by Buddhist institutions and strong interest in creating sutra copies

by laymen and patrons.

The dissemination of Buddhist scriptures depended entirely on hand-copied

productions, before the invention and use of printing techniques for mass distribution of

religious texts in the eighth and ninth centuries.39 In fact, the demand for mass

production of Buddhist literature was the motivating force that encouraged printing.40

However, due to the perishable nature of silk and paper, handwritten Tang and pre-

Tang materials became extremely rare. For modern scholars, the study of early

36
It is recorded in that more than 40 Buddhist temples built in capital Chang‘an in the Tang dynasty, and
mostly by the early emperors, see THY 48.843–55.
37
Such as sutra chanting, lectures on scripture, and masses for the dead, see Stanley Weinstein,
―Imperial Patronage in the Formation of T‘ang Buddhism,‖ 267.
38
In addition to the three early established and more philosophical schools, the Tiantai, the Faxiang and
the Huayan, there were others, such as the Sanjie (Three Stages), the Jingtu (Pure Land), the Ch’an, and
the Mi (Esteric). See Stanley Weinstein, ―Imperial Patronage in the Formation of T‘ang Buddhism,‖ 268–
306.
39
The printed Buddhist text can be traced as early as in the era of Empress Wu (696–704). For more
details, see T.H. Barrett, The Woman Who Discovered Printing, 85–128. Discussion on the earliest extant
dated (868) blockprint fragment, the frontispiece to Prajñāpāramitā sūtra (Jingang jing 金剛經), see Mote
and Chu, Calligraphy and the East Asian Book, 66–67, fig. 35.
40
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin. Written on Bamboo and Silk, 205.

132
calligraphy was rather arduous until the discovery of manuscripts in the remote

Dunhuang Cave at the beginning of the twentieth century.41

Dunhuang Manuscripts

Dunhuang—Important Buddhist Site

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, Dunhuang was a Buddhist

community active from the fourth to the fourteenth centuries. Throughout much of its

history, Dunhuang was dominated by monastic establishments. During the Tang

dynasty, trade along the Silk Road was flourishing and Dunhuang was an imperially

governed prefecture. Dayun 大雲, Longxing 龍興, and Kaiyuan 開元 were large

Buddhist monasteries in Dunhuang that were established under Tang imperial mandate.

Buddhist monks and lay adherents travelled throughout the region, bringing scriptures

from India or travelling to India in search of new texts. Original texts in Sanskrit or

Prakrit were often sent by local governments to the Tang court, where translators and

whole teams of copyists, proofreaders, and editors made accurate translations by court

order. Copies of the newly translated Buddhist scriptures and transcriptions were then

disseminated from the two capitals, Chang‘an and Luoyang, to Dunhuang.42

The story of Dunhuang and its collection of manuscripts, including their placement

in the library cave and the cave‘s subsequent sealing, is full of lacunae.43 Cave 17, the

only cave containing stored manuscripts, was probably first discovered sometime
41
The exact year and time of the rediscovery of Dunhuang treasures are still under lingering dispute; see
Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 9.
42
Rong Xinjian, Dunhuangxue shibajiang , 222.
43
Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 3: One legend tells that in 366 a monk came
upon a low, long riverine cliff, named Mogao 莫高 to excavate a remote mediation cave. In the decades
following the Dunhuang rulers and populace, there were more caves built, some for meditation, and more
as small chapels. When caravan traffic ceased sometimes in the fourteen century, Dunhuang culture
declined and some caves were completely closed.

133
between the year of 1899 to 1900 by a Daoist monk named Wang Yuanlu 王圓禄.44 He

presented several manuscripts and printings from the cave to local officials, but the

majority of inscriptions remained in situ, largely undisturbed. It was not until 1907–08,

when Hungarian archaeologist Marc Aurel Stein (a British national at the time) and

French sinologist Paul Pelliot conducted expeditions in the area, that the entire cave

was opened and tens of thousands of manuscripts were removed.

Dunhuang Manuscripts Collections

The 40,000 plus manuscripts discovered from Dunhuang Cave 17 are datable to

the fourth to eleventh century, with a few believed to be from as early as the third

century.45 They appear in a number of languages—Chinese, Tibetan, Uighur, Kuchean,

and Sanskrit, among others, and contain various subjects, both religious and secular.

Many documents reflect the colorful political situation and economic conditions of

Dunhuang during this period. However, the majority of manuscripts are transcribed

Buddist sutras; there are also some Daoist manuscripts, Confucian classics, copies of

masterpieces for calligraphy model-books, and stone rubbings of well-known stele

44
Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries. 4: The cave numbers are given in the twentieth
century by the Dunhuang Academy. Cave 17 was a small cave leading off the right-hand side to Cave 16
entrance corridor, a largish cave about halfway along the cliff on ground level, was used at one point by
Monk Hongbian 洪辯, the head of the Buddhists in this region, who had probably been instrumental there.
Cave 17 was surmised to have been built after his death as a memorial chapel. A statue of Hongbian was
placed against the main wall there.
45
A fragment of Piyu jing 譬喻經 (Parable sutra) with a signed date of the third year of Ganlu (Ganlu
sannian 甘露三年), is now in the Calligraphy Museum in Tokyo, Japan. ―Ganlu sanian‖ could by that of
CaoWei (曹魏甘露三年, i.e. 256) or that of QianQin (前秦甘露三年, i.e. 359.). Another fragment, Daode
jing 道德經 (Laozi), copied by Suo Dan 索紞 (ca. 250–325), dated to the year 270, now deposited at the
Art Museum of Princeton University, for more information see Robert E. Jr. Harris and Wen C. Fong. The
Embodied Image: Chinese Calligraphy from the John B. Elliott Collection, 90, see also Frederick W. Mote
and Hung-lam Chu, Calligraphy and the East Asian Book, 55–57; William Boltz disputes its date, see
William Boltz, ―Notes on Authenticity of the So Tan Manuscript of the Lao Tzu,‖ 508–15. The latest dated
manuscript from Dunhuang cave is a copy of the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom dated 1002.

134
inscriptions. They have become the most valuable resource for studies of the region‘s

culture, including its religions and calligraphic practices.

A few Dunhuang manuscripts were available prior to the first major expedition and

excavation.46 Mark Aurel Stein, influenced by these early writings on Dunhuang,

launched his famous expedition,47 which was later followed by Paul Pelliot.48 It was

reported that ―when the entranceway was opened, a cache of tens of thousands of

manuscripts, documents and paintings was discovered, stacked from floor to ceiling.‖49

Stein and Pelliot removed thousands of manuscripts, which are now amassed in the

Dunhaung Collection in the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France.50

Throughout the twentieth century, the Dunhuang manuscripts have been collected

and made available for study around the world. In addition to the London and Paris

holdings, Dunhuang materials are collected in many other museums and libraries,

including the National Library in Beijing, the Shanghai Museum, the Liaoning Provincial

Museum, the National Palace Museum in Taiwan, The National Museum of India in New

Delhi, the Royal Library in Copenhagen, the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University,

the Library of Congress in Washinton, D.C., the Gest Library at Princeton University, the

46
The first two reports, ―Three Further Collections of Ancient Manuscripts from Central Asia,‖ Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal 66. 4 (Dec. 1897), 213–260, and ―A Collection of Antiquities from Central
Asia, Part I,‖ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 68, I (1899), 1–110, and 53. Both reports were
written by A.F.R. Hoernle, a respected scholar of Indo-Aryan languages. Sources from Susan Whitfield,
ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 5, ns. 4 and 5.
47
Details see Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 5-8.
48
Ibid., 9.
49
Ibid.
50
In the British Library, each Dunhuang manuscript (a long scroll, a leaf, or a fragment) is considered an
individual entity and assigned a unique number preceded by a letter ―S‖ (for Stein). In the Bibliothèque
Nationale de France, the items are treated in a similar fashion but with a letter ―P‖ (for Pelliot) listed before
the item number.

135
Freer Gallery of Art in Smithsonian Institution, and so on. A systematic inventory of the

manuscripts did not occur when they were first discovered, and even now the total

number can be only estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 pieces. Some of the pieces are

fragments, but many are in complete scroll or leaf-book format. It is estimated that about

36,000 Dunhuang manuscripts were written in Chinese.51 They are precious and crucial

sources for the study of medieval China. Through an international collaboration, the

images of many manuscripts, paintings, and artefacts from Dunhuang are digitized and

available for online search.52

Dunhuang manuscripts occupy an interesting position among other discoveries,

Susan Whitfield makes such a comment, ―which is neither wholly akin to works of art

nor to texts, but something of each.‖53 Early scholarship focused primarily on the study

of the manuscripts as texts, but due to the fact that they are often sacred texts,

researchers are sometimes inspired to touch the document ―for a direct link with the

hand of the creator.‖54 Perhaps it was this ineffable sense of awe that inspired scholars

to study the objects themselves, including the material, the size, and ultimately the

characters written on them.

Selected Examples

The following are a few selected examples of Dunhuang manuscripts arranged by

chronological order. They briefly illustrate a historical trajectory of Buddhist manuscripts

as they developed from as early as the fourth century to the Tang dynasty. Each

51
Jiao Mingchen, Dunhuang xiejuan shufa yanjiu, 2 and n. 2.
52
The International Dunhuang Project: the Silk Road online website: http://idp.bl.uk/
53
Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 12.
54
Ibid.

136
scripture manifests certain specific characteristics that illustrate issues of calligraphic

quality and format.

Early examples

(1)Vimalakīrti Sutra, dated 393 (the fifth year of Linjia of the Late Liang 後涼 麟嘉五年)55

One of the very earliest hand-copied sutras unearthed from Dunhuang is a section

of the Vimalakīrti Sutra, signed by Wang Xianggao 王相高 and dated 393 (fig. 21).56

Although the discovery is a fragment, it contains more than 6,500 legible characters.

The date on the manuscript indicates that Mr. Wang was a contemporary of Kumārajīva.

It is possible that Wang‘s copy may very well be the duplication of Kumārajīva‘s first

translated version of the Vimalakīrti Sutra.

Mr. Wang modestly wrote at the end of the colophon: ―疏拙, 見者莫笑之‖—―[my

writing is] heedless and clumsy; whoever reads this, please do not laugh at me.‖

Wang‘s calligraphy appears a bit obtuse and naïve in its brushstrokes, and

demonstrates the transitional form structure of official script to the early standard script.

The brush lines are sometimes modulated with sweeping horizontal strokes that end in

sharp tips, but the inner strength of the brushwork is evenly distributed and defines each

character with balanced structure and a slightly elongated shape. This bold yet

somewhat elegant style characterizes the calligraphic development during this period.

Nevertheless, given that Buddhist sutras were often lengthy, the copyist‘s attention

was not always on perfecting each individual stroke, but rather achieving legibility and a

55
Linjia was the year title of Taizu 太 祖(Lu Guang 呂光) of the Late Liang (386–404), one of 16 kingdoms
during the Division Period. Territory of the Late Liang includes Dunhuang area. See Jin shu, 121.3053–
64, for the biography of Lu Guang.
56
It is now housed in the Shanghai Museum.

137
sense of dynamic equilibrium. This copy of Vimalakīrti Sutra reveals such features.

Wang‘s plea for pardon indicates that calligraphic proficiency was probably on his mind.

Even though not all sutra copyists were skillful calligraphers, their intention and effort to

pursue the best quality of calligraphy was often evident.

(2)Ten discourses of Being Initiated into Monkhood, dated 405 (the first year of Jianchu
of the Western Liang 西涼建初元年)57
A fifth century handwritten Buddhist sutra can be discerned from another

Dunhuang discovery piece, the Ten discourses of Being Initiated into Monkhood, which

was signed by a mendicant Buddhist monk Deyou 德祐, in 405 (fig. 22).58 The

characters in theTen discourses were composed with more even brushstrokes than

those in Wang Xianggao‘s Vimalakīrti Sutra, and significantly reduced the sharply tipped

and exaggeratedly sweeping horizontal strokes. These changes in rendering

brushstrokes and structure exemplify the copyist‘s inclination to write in the form closer

to standard script and spurn away from official script.

The colophon of the Ten Discourse contains a humble remark by the copyist about

his handwriting: ―手拙用愧，見者但念其意，莫咲其字‖—―I regret my clumsy hand, and

for those who are reading this sutra, please appreciate its meaning, do not laugh at the

calligraphy.‖ This passage mirrors the remark made by Wang Xianggao, mentioned

above, but these appologetic notes may not simply indicate a desire for the pardon of a

copyists‘ unpolished skills. In addition to the possibility that it suggests a rhetorical

expression common at that time, this passage may reveal the importance of quality in

57
Jianchu was the year title of King of Wuzhao (武昭王) of the Western Liang (405–423). Prefectures
around Dunhuang area endorsed Li Xuansheng 李玄盛 as King of Wuzhao in 405. Jin shu, 10.253; see
Jin shu, 87.2270, for biography of Li Xuansheng.
58
It is now housed in the British Library (S.0797).

138
the task of sutra copying. For the copyist and reader alike, a transcribed sutra conveys

not only a religious text but beautiful calligraphy as well. The copyist‘s desire for

vindication may very well indicate that the standard for the best calligraphy was already

established, and the notion that meaning (texts) and form (calligraphy) were equally

important was deeply imbedded in the mind of a copyist.

Examples from the Sui dynasty

(1) Fascicle four of the Siyi jing (思益經卷第四), dated 588 (the eighth year Kaihuang
era of Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty 隋文帝開皇八年)

Fascicle four of the Siyi jing (fig. 23)59 was written in 588, early in the reign of

Wendi, the first Emperor of the Sui. At the end of the scroll a twenty word colophon

reads, ―Inspected by Policy Adviser in the Chancellery, Wu Xianhua, and proofread by

Monk Huikuang in the Prefecture Yuanzhou of Zhengding County.‖60 Although the name

of the person who actually penned this sutra is not recorded, the colophon suggests that

the reproduction was the result of a cooperative effort between government and

monastery. Monk Huikuang proofread the text to assure accuracy, while the quality of

the transcribed calligraphy was validated by a high court official in the Chancellery,

whose position was closely affiliated with the School of Calligraphy.61 It is evident that

sutra reproduction began to be regulated by the government. ―This [Siyi jing] was

government sanctioned sutra copy,‖ claims Jiang Liangfu, a Dunhuang manuscript

specialist, ―as all of those sanctioned sutra copies were inspected by government

59
It is now housed in the British Library (S.4020).
60
The complete phrase in Chinese reads, ―員外散骑常侍吴顯華监，袁州政定沙門惠矌校.‖
61
School of Calligraphy was under official designation of Court for Education (Guozi si 國子寺), headed
by Chancellor, chosen from among its staff of Cavalier Attenants-in-ordinary (Sanqi changshi 散骑常侍),
see Charles Hucker, A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China, 130 (#542), 299 (#3542), 300
(#3546).

139
officials.‖62 While the duty of the monasteries was apparently to insure the accuracy of

texts, the government was most likely responsible for maintinaing a standard of

calligraphic format and quality.

The colophon of the Siyi jing also states that the transcription was made at the

request of Cui 崔, the wife of the Prince Qin 秦王,63 in order to acquire the blessings of

the Buddha for all beings on earth. It is not surprising that this particular piece was

discovered in Dunhuang, since Prince Qin‘s territory included the Gansu corridor.

Sponsored by the imperial family, this copy exhibits extreme neatness and regularity,

and the calligraphy is superb in quality. Exactly 17 characters are placed in each

column, spaced as if they were written with grids but without any trace of lines. The

calligraphy on this sutra, which surpasses many other Dunhuang manuscripts of its

time, demonstrates the high standard of quality required by the Sui court. It was written

with fluent and elegant standard script. The strokes are energetic yet graceful,

expansive and sprawling in structure. This spontaneity of expression anticipates styles

developed later by the early Tang calligraphy master Chu Suiliang and the high Tang

master Yan Zhenqing.

(2) Fascicle eight of the Zhongahan jing (中阿含經卷第八), dated 602 (the second year
of Renshou era of Emperor Wen of the Sui 隋文帝仁夀二年)

Fascicle eight of Zhongahan jing (fig. 24)64 is another good example of sutra

copyiny in the Sui dynasty. Its colophon includes the date and the name of the person

62
Jiang Liangfu, Mo gao ku nianbiao, 173.
63
In 582 (the second year of Kaihuang era), Sui Wendi bestowed his son, Yang Jun 楊俊 with a title of
Prince of Qin 秦王; see Sui shu, 5.13.
64
It is now housed in the British Library (S.3548).

140
who penned the sutra: ―On the twentieth day in the twelfth month of the second year of

[Wendi] Renshou [602], written by jingsheng 經生 Chang Cai 張才.‖ The term jingsheng

can be translated as the person who transcribes the sutras, i.e., sutra copyist. Modern

scholars also use a term ―sutra scribe‖ or ―sutra transcriber.‖65 A more detailed

description of sutra copyists‘ roles and styles will be discussed in Chapter 6.

The colophon also tells us that this copy of Zhonganhan jing was proofread twice,

once by a monk from the Daxingshan Temple and again by a monk from the Daji

Monastery (大集寺). Since the Daxingshan Monastery housed the court Translation

Bureau, the reproduction of this Zhonganhan jing was probably imperially sponsored.

The main body of the scroll consists of 17 characters in each column of neat grid-

like rows, exactly the same page layout found in the Siyi jing mentioned above. The

characters were written in standard script with a compact structure and horizontal

strokes that slant slightly upward. The radical snap and sharply hooked strokes, later

characteristic of the standard script of the Tang dynasty, distinguish this sutra.

Examples from the Tang dynasty

The vast majority of the Dunhuang manuscripts were generated during the Tang

dynasty. This section highlights some of the examples that astounded the world of

calligraphy: the practice copies of Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting xu, Jiang Shanjin‘s 蒋善進

Zhiyong Zhencao Qianziwen 智永真草千字文 (Thousand characters in the forms of

standard script and cursive script), a rubbing from the stele of Wenquan ming inscribed

65
Amy McNair uses the term, ―sutra scribe,‖ in her ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of
Calligraphic Style,‖ and Frederick Mote, Frederick uses ―sutra transcriber‖ in his Calligraphy and the East
Asian Book.

141
by Emperor Taizong,66 and a rubbing from Huadu si bei, penned by an early Tang

master Ouyang Xun.67

These works are not all Buddhist texts, but their existence attests to the fact that

calligraphy practice was highly regarded in Dunhuang. These discoveries also provide

valuable evidence of cultural exchanges between the Tang court and rural areas such

as Dunhuang. In order to emphasize the important role Buddhism played in this

interaction, I include a Buddhist treatise, the Apitan piposha lun, which was reproduced

during Gaozong‘s era; it represents the high quality of work that sutra copyists were

capable of producing.

(1) Practice copies of Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting xu

Currently the Bibliothèque Nationale de France holds four fragments of practice

copies of Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting xu, and the British Library holds two.68 These copies of

Lanting, discovered in Dunhuang, offer evidence for the wide distribution of Lanting

copies and the success of Taizong‘s promotion of Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy. The

discoveries also correspond to some literary statements about the distribution of Lanting

copies. He Yanzhi 何延之 (fl. 722– ) and Wu Pingyi 武平一 (fl. 684–741) tell us that

Wang Xizhi‘s Langting xu was greatly cherished by Taizong, who kept the original and

ordered the court copyists to make more copies for distribution.69 For more than a

thousand years, art historians have questioned the authenticity of works attributed to

66
See also the section on ―Taizong‖ in Chapter 3.
67
See also the section on ―Formation of Tang Court Culture‖ in Chapter 3.
68
Items, held in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, are: P.2622v, P.3194v, P.2544, and P.4764; in the
British Library are S.1601, and S.1619
69
Tang He Yanzhi Lanting ji (Notes on the Orchid Pavilion), in FSYL 3.130. ; Tang Wu Pingyi Xu shi
shufa ji (Records on Mr. Xu‘s [Xu Hao] Calligraphy of the Tang Dyansty), in FSYL 3.114.

142
Wang Xizhi, due to the fact that most of them were the Song or later copies. The

Dunhuang practice pieces are valuable as they present the handwriting of Tang people.

Even though they do not approximate the quality of Master Wang Xizhi‘s original work,

they do give an immediate sense of an early Tang calligraphy practitioner‘s hand.

Both fragments of Lanting, now housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France,

(P.3194—fig. 25a, and P.2622—fig. 25b), show three lines with about twenty characters

from the very beginning of the text (original Lanting has 28 lines, 324 characters). These

practice pieces were written on the versos of other documents. Re-using documents as

practice paper might have been the result of a shortage of supplies in Dunhuang at the

time.70 For instance, at the end of the colophon on one manuscript (S.2925) read, ―It

was hard to obtain paper and ink.‖71 The recto of one Lanting practice (P.2622) is

Jixong shuyi 吉凶書儀 (Book on Auspices and Omens), and the recto of the other

(P.3194) is a section from Lunyu jijie 論語集解 (Annotative Notes of the Analects of

Confucius), on which the date was given as, ―the thirteenth year of [Emperor Xuanzong]

Dazhong 大中‖ (i.e. 859). It is assumed that this practice Lanting copy was completed

sometime later than that date, as the character "qun" 羣 from the original was altered to

the character "群" which was the pattern used in the mid to late Tang.72

70
There were periods where the materials were in short supply. In 755 China was plunged into civil war
by the rebellion and the emperor recalled all troops posted in the western regions to fight the rebels. The
Tibetan army had then moved into Central Asia and taken control of the major towns including Dunhuang.
The Tibetans ruled there until 848. Although they were driven out by a Chinese loyalist, after this, the
control and supply to Dunhuang from central China had never been sufficient, especially after the Tang
dynasty fell in 907. See Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 3–4.
71
See Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 20 n. 2.
72
See Shen Leping, Dunhuang shufa zonglun, 114.

143
 By the time this Lanting practice piece appeared in the mid ninth century, it had

been two hundred years since Taizong ordered copies of Lanting. Presumably many

more copies were made through different hands and distributed widely. Identifying

which version of Lanting was used as a model for the Dunhuang copyists is difficult.

Modern scholar Shen Leping 沈樂平 claims that the ―Shenlong version‖ of Lanting73

was used as the model for the practice (see fig. 25a) that appears on the verso of Lunyu

jijie. He bases his opinion on the relatively late date of the work. In my eyes, this rustic

practice work is far removed from the sophisticated ―Shenlong‖ version of Lanting. The

leisurly styled, and graceful, fluent strokes that characterize the running script of the

Shenlong Lanting (see fig. 3) do not exist in this practice piece. What does appear

clearly, however, are the less expressive, austere, and rigid strokes. The writings on

these mid to later Tang practice pieces may very well reflect a trend of writing style that

existed at that time.

Another practice piece of Lanting (fig. 26)74 contains the complete text, but with

quite a few mistakes. After copying the entire text once, the practitioner intended to

repeat it but stopped after a few characters. Again, the quality of the calligraphy appears

mediocre. This inferior handwriting by no means reflects any of the original qualities of

Wang Xizhi‘s work, but comparison with other short practice pieces listed above reveals

the calligrapher‘s proficiency with regard to regularity and symmetry of brushstrokes and

73
It is one of the versions of Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting xu. It was attributed to Feng Chengsu, one of the court
copyists in Taizong‘s court. This copy bears a half seal of Emperor Zhongzong (r. 705–709) whose first
two years of reign is named Shenlong, therefore, this copy of Lianting xu is named Shenlong version.
74
Now it is in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2544).

144
character structure. Cheng Ruzhong 鄭汝中 attributes this piece to the hand of a

Jingsheng (sutra copyist),75 to whom practice calligraphy was most likely a daily routine.

Throughout the centuries, the Lanting xu and its reproduced versions76 have been

passed down through famous hands and imperial collections. From the prolific number

of Lanting copies found in Dunhuang, it is reasonable to speculate that copies of Wang

Xizhi‘s calligraphy were widely disseminated, and the calligraphy tradition based on

Wang Xizhi‘s style was often used as a practice model by those who were preparing

themselves to be good sutra copiers.

(2) Zhiyong Zhencao Qianziwen, copied by Jiang Shanjin

A frequently discussed and highly acclaimed calligraphy piece from Dunhuang is

the Zhiyong Zhencao Qianziwen (fig. 27a),77 which was signed by Jiang Shanjin, with

date and a statement to annotate his work, ―This is a free-hand copy of Zhiyong‘s

thousand-character composition in standard and cursive scripts, in the seventh month of

the fifteenth year of the Zhenguan era [i.e. 641].‖ The tone of the note and the high

quality of calligraphy leads us to believe that Jiang intended to produce a copy for other

calligraphy practitioners to model with. This fragment contains the last 34 lines of

Qianziwen (thousand-character composition), where 170 characters are written in

standard and cursive scripts.

The original Qianziwen was written by Monk Zhiyong, who was a seventh

generation descendant of Wang Xizhi and was active in the sixth century. According to

75
Zheng Ruzhong, ―Dunhuang shufa guankui,‖ 36.
76
There are six authentic handwritten versions of Lanting xu and dozens of versions in the form of
rubbings based directly or indirectly on one of the handwritten copies; for more details see Lothar
Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition of Chinese Calligraphy, 22–23.
77
Now it is in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3561).

145
a Tang literary reference, Zhiyong spent thirty years writing the thousand characters in

the forms of both standard and cursive scripts. Eight hundred copies were made and

distributed to the temples around the east Chejiang prefecture, and the copies that

survived into the Tang era were worth tens of thousands of qian (Chinese monetary

unit).78

Today, many versions of Zhiyong‘s Qianziwen can be found in various

collections.79 Modern scholar Rao Zongyi 饒宗頤 made a comparison between Jiang

Shanjin‘s free-hand copy Qianziwen from Dunhuang and that of a distinguished Ogawa

(小川) version.80 He commented that Jiang‘s brushstrokes were more direct and

sharper, concluding on a complimentary note: ―This early Tang hand writing with its

brilliant and lustrous ink color is indeed an unrivalled gem. [I] fondled it again and again,

and could hardly put it down.‖81 Undoubtedly Jiang's copy has been one of the most

praised manuscripts of the Dunhuang cache. Another Dunhuang calligraphy specialist

Jiao Mingcheng has intention to establish the canonical status of Jiang's calligraphy.

That intention is conveyed in this statement: ―The trace of ink and brush in this copy by

Jiang Shanjin stands out beyond any work of his contemporaries. Even the Emperor of

Taizong and three early Tang court calligraphy masters would be inferior to him.‖82

78
Tang He Yanzhi Lanting ji, in FSYL 3.125.
79
For details, see Facang Dunhuang shuyuan jinghua, complied by Jao Tsung I, 1.265.
80
Shuji mingpin congkan, 72.
81
Facang Dunhuang shufa congkan, complied by Jao Tsung I, 1.265 in Chinese: ―唐初手迹，墨色晶瑩 ，
诚矌世瓌寶，摩挲至再， 不忍釋手.‖
82
Jiao Mingchen,. Dunhuang xiejuan shufa yanjiu, 132.

146
 Although no historical documents trace Jiang Shanjin‘s life and career, he was an

accomplished calligrapher residing in Dunhuang and his superb execution of calligraphy

presumably became models for others. A few characters penned by later copyists

appear in what was originally a blank space, as does another date, ―the second year of

[Gaozong] Shangyuan [675].‖ From this we can speculate that Jiang's celebrated free-

hand copy of Qianziwen was used by others for practicing calligraphy (fig. 27b).

The discovery of Jiang Shanjin‘s Qianzhiwen in Dunhuang attests to the success

of Emperor Taizong's promotion of Wang Xizhi‘s style. Jiang's copy confirms the

popularity of Wang‘s tradition and the fact that it extended far beyond the court.

Proficient calligraphy became fashionable in this Buddhist community, and competent

calligraphers, like Jiang Shanjin, became the work force employed to reproduce large

numbers of Buddhist sutras. A nicely transcribed sutra could then be used as a model

for more copies and further distribution. This continuous circulation between models and

copies in part contributed to the democratization of calligraphy during the Tang.

(3) Rubbing from the stele of Wenquan ming

The stele of Wenquan ming was erected in 648 near Mountain Li (Lishan 驪山),83

where Taizong often visited. Fond of the sweet warm water spring there, Taizong

wanted to monumentalize the site by establishing a stele with inscriptions of his own

composition and transcription.84 Unfortunately, the original stone has long been lost and

rubbings from it were even rare during the Song dynasty. The only trace of its existence

83
Mountain Li is a branch of the north side of Qinling 秦嶺, about 25 kilometers east of Xi‘an. It‘s shaped
like a horse, therefore named Lishan 驪山, which is particularly famous of spewing hot spring, beautiful
sencery and diverse.
84
Cefu yuangui: jiao ding ban, 113.1234: ―真觀 二十二年 正月, 太宗作温湯碑, 誇示羣臣, 自書刻石.‖

147
was found in the literary reference, until a fragment rubbing was discovered in

Dunhuang.

When this fragment came to light, it was highly celebrated by modern scholars

who were studying Taizong‘s Wenquan ming. Now held in the Bibliothèque Nationale de

France (P.4508), this fragment of the Wenquan ming rubbing (see fig. 5 full view, fig. 28

detail with date) is in the form of a hand scroll mounted on sheets of paper. It consists of

the last paragraph which contains fifty lines of inscription with seven to eight characters

in each line. At the end of the rubbing is a line of 14 characters written in running script,

which reads: ―[The rubbing was made] on the thirtieth day in the eighth month of the

fourth year of [Guozong] Yonghui era [653] by Weigu fu 圍谷府 Guoyi 果毅.‖85 These

words state that the rubbing was made by a Tang official within five years of the stele‘s

erection. This explains why the brushstrokes appear crisp and penetrating. The

conditions in the cave also contributed to the well-preserved sharpness of the ink stone.

This Dunhuang piece is treasured for at least two of its qualities. First, it is a great

addition to the extremely scarce examples of Taizong‘s calligraphy. Up to now the only

extant stone that was traceable to Taizong‘s brushwork was the stele of the Jinci ming

(Inscription of Jin Temple), located in the city of Taiyuan. The stone was deteriorated,

but was the sole source of authentic Taizong calligraphy (see fig. 4), until Wenquan

ming was exposed to the world. Second, the inscription of Wenquan ming represents

Taizong‘s most mature calligraphy. It was penned by Taizong when he was fifty-one

85
In Chinese, it reads, ―永徽四年八月三十日圍谷府果毅.‖ Weigu fu 圍谷府, a prefecture, was first
established in the S. Liang and reestablished in the Sui dynasty, and later became subordinate to the
Region of Bian (Bian Zhou 汴州); now is the city of Kaifeng 開封. Guoyi 果毅 was a Tang military official
title–Assault-resisting Garrison. (source from Facang Dunhuang shuyuan jinghua, complied by Jao
Tsung-i, 1.260)

148
years old, a year later before his death. The characters, written in the form of running

script, reflect much of Wang Xizhi‘s style in the Lanting Xu, but at the same time they

also demonstrate Taizong‘s own splendid style with their fluent, polished brush strokes

and peculiar oblong structure. Taizong‘s brushwork in the Wenquan ming ―is like the glib

wind that flows through an embracing snow with power that seems bestowed from the

heaven, and impossible to reach.‖86 The brushstrokes illustrate a much higher degree of

expressiveness than those in Taizong‘s another well-known but earler work, Jinci ming

(646), and the character structures demonstrate greater flexibility which vividly reflects

essence of Wang Xizhi‘s style.

Mounted as a long scroll (23x154 cm.), the Wenquan ming rubbing was probably

acquired and treasured by a local art collector. However, it may also have been used as

a model for calligraphy practice. On the blank space towards the bottom of the

Wenquan ming rubbing one can discern a few characters written to imitate the original.

For instance, the character ―quan‖ (泉) on line 46 (see fig. 26) was deliberately copied

with extremely fluent strokes and the keen structure of the original. The discovery of the

Wenquan ming rubbing in Dunhuang and its use as a calligraphy model offer more

evidence for the far-reaching influence of the Tang court in its effort to promote

calligraphy, as well as the Buddhist community‘s response to that advocacy.

(4) Rubbing from the Huadu si bei

Another important finding from Dunhuang was the rubbing of the Huadusi stele,

originally sited at the Huadu Monastery in the Zhongnan 终南 mountain ridge, about

86
Facang Dunhuang shuyuan jinghua, complied by Jao Tsung-i, 1.261: ―行筆如流風廻雪, 天縦之姿, 良不
可及.‖

149
fifteen miles from Chang‘an. The stele was erected in the fifth year of the Taizong

Zhenquan era (631) to commemorate the establishment of Huadu Monastery, where the

relics of the Chan Master Yong 邕 were stored. The text was composed by a well-

known Tang poet and historian, Li Baiyao 李百药 (565–648), who applauded the merits

of Master Yong as well as Buddhist doctrines and meditations. The early Tang

calligraphy master Ouyang Xun transcribed the text in the form of standard script, with a

total of 35 rows with 33 characters on each row. The calligraphy in this inscription would

represent the master‘s most mature work, as it was written when the artist was seventy-

four.

The stele was reported lost sometime in the Song dynasty, and the original

rubbings have not been available since then. Many replicas, however, had been made,

and received high remarks. For instance, Wang Shizhen 王世貞 (1526–1590) credited

Ouyang Xun for his initial effort to transform the earlier Jin style, i.e., Wang Xizhi‘s style,

to the Tang standard script and praised his calligraphy was compelling, ―as its square

structure held in a tension of opposition rendered harmonious through the smooth and

round nature of the brushstrokes.‖87 Despite the numerous compliments, the late date of

these rubbings raised suspicions among scholars, who continue to question their

authenticity. With the discovery of the Tang rubbing from the Huadu stele, scholars

finally have access to a rubbing made very close to the time when the stele was

erected. This was a gem long sought. ―It shines even ten steps away from it,‖ says Luo

87
Wang Shizhen, Yanzhou shanren xu gao, 166.22, in Mingren wenji congkan, I. 22.7627: ―化度碑帖: 書
法自率更[毆陽詢]而始變晋體…謂之楷, 結構精緊, 風華燁如,體方用圓以勁…‖

150
Zhenyu 羅振玉 (1866–1940).88 Modern scholar Shen Leping, specialized in Dunhuang

manuscripts, comments on the Dunhuang Huadu, not only echoing Wang Shizhen‘s on

the compelling brush, but concluding that Ouyang‘s characters represents the best form

of [Tang] standard script.89

A careful examination of the characters on this rubbing reveals a strong possibility

that the stele from which the Dunhuang Huadu rubbing was made during the Taizong‘s

reign. Claims of authenticity, other than the superiority of the calligraphy, are based on

the observation that certain forbidden characters during the reigns of Gaozong and

Zhongzong (705–709) appear on the Huadu rubbing.90 For instance, the character ―世‖

(shi) was completely prohibited in Gaozong‘s era out of respect for his father Taizong,

whose given name was Shimin 世民. During Taizong‘s era, however, ―世‖ was allowed if

it was not used along with the character ―民‖.91 Containing the character 世, the rubbing

of the Dunhuang Huadue must have been made from a stone carved before Gaozong,

presumably from the original transcribed during the era of Taizong. Another character,

―弘‖ (hong),92 is also a clue for an earlier dating, as it was a forbidden character during

the reign of Emperor Zhongzong (705-709) and there is no sign of it having been

88
Facang Dunhuang shuyuan jinghua, complied by Jao Tsung-i, 1.262.

89
Shen Leping, Dunhuang shufa zonglun, 118: ― <化度> 為楷法第一 …尤精緊，深合体方筆圓之妙.‖
90
Mentioned in Shen Leping, Dunhuang shufa zonglun, 122.
91
When Emperor Gaozong succeeded his father Taizong, he ordered both characters shi 世 and min 民
to be absolutely prohibited even they are not used together. ―Shimin‖ was the given name of Taizong.
During Taizong‘s reign, these two characters were the taboos only if there were used together.
92
Emperor Zhongzong‘s elder brother named Li Hong 李弘. In respect to his brother, Zhongzong ordered,
during his reign, prohibite the use of the character hong 弘. For instance ―Hongwen guan‖ (弘文館)
changed to ―Zhaowen guan‖ (昭文館), Prefecture Hongjing 弘静 changed to Anjing 安静, etc.

151
removed or hidden in the Dunhuang rubbing. Considered the most authentic rubbing of

all that remain, the Huadu enables scholars to study and compare it with other versions

of Huadu, such as a Song rubbing from the Tang stone, a Song rubbing from a Song

replica stone, or any other combination.

The fragment of the Dunhuang Huadu rubbing is composed of twelve pages. The

first two pages, which contain the title of the stele, are now in the Bibliothèque Nationale

de France (fig. 29)93 and the rest are in the British Library.94 The height of each page is

about 10.6 cm, containing five characters in each column and four columns on each

page. The use of loose-leaf paper was not yet popular, and it only began to appear in

the Tang dynasty.95 Making rubbings on loose pages (leaves), as the Huadu

demonstrates, became a scheme designed to produce calligraphy model books. In this

case from Dunhuang, one can presume that sutra copyists could have used Huadu

rubbing as a model to enhance their skill on writing with a style of the standard script

promoted by the Tang court.

Although the content of the Huadu was Buddhist related, Ouyang‘s standard script

was probably the further inspiration for a devoted sutra copyist. The standard script in

the Huadu exhibits Ouyang‘s precise strokes and masterfully robust structure that

characterized the later stage of his career. This kind of powerful and compelling

presentation was undoubtedly a favored choice for sutra copyists, as Ouyang‘s stand

script writing occupied an important position in the history of Chinese calligraphy.

93
P.4510.
94
S.5791.
95
Cheng Dachang, Yan fan lu, 73:“今之書册, 乃唐世葉子, 古未有是也.”

152
(5) Copies of inscription from the Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripitaka of the
Great Tang Dynasty

At least two fragments from the Dunhuang discoveries are possible the copies of

the famous Yanta shengjiao xu, and they both now are housed in the Bibliothèque

Nationale de France.96 The brushstrokes and character structure appeared on the item

of P.2780 (see fig. 17), resemble the work of Chu Suiliang. Written in typical Tang kai,

each stroke is rendered gracefully and with care, though the brushwork in this later copy

appears less swift and less powerful. In addition, the structure of characters seems

more squarish than those found in the original inscription of Yanta transcribed by Chu

Suiliang (see figs. 10a and 10b).

This copy is undated, but it can be firmly identified as a product of the period when

Empress Wu, or Wu Zetian, was ruling the country in the last two decades of the

seventh century. During her regime, she made an attempt to reform some traditional

Chinese written characters. The altered character ―圀‖ (on line second of fig. 17) on this

copy replaces the traditional character ―國‖ (guo), which is a clue to the proper dating.

By the time this Dunhuang copy was produced, many different versions of Shengjiao xu

had been produced; therefore, it is difficult to define which version might be the model.

In fact, we cannot assume this copy was for sure modeled from a stone rubbing. After

Taizong composed the text, he urged to place his writing as the preface to the

translated treatise by Xuanzang and ordered many copies to be made and distributed

all over the country.97 Therefore, the possibility arises that the copyist simply transcribed

the text from one of the distributed texts, which could have been transcribed by any

96
P.2780 and P.3127.
97
Da Tang Da Ci’en si Sanzang fashi zhuan, 141–42; also in Biography of the Tripitaka Master, 195–96.

153
calligrapher/copyist from the Tang court. Although it is difficult to determine the original

source of this Dunhuang fragment based on, the copy undoubtedly reveals the Tang

court style of standard script either a hand of court copyist or master Chu Suiliang.

The other fragment (P.3127) also reflects a matured Tang kai style. The dexterous

brushwork indicates the copyist‘s desire to employ the form of running script.98 It is

possibile that the copyist had encountered the rubbing taken from other version of

Shengjiao xu, the Ji Wang, which was inscribed with characters written mostly in the

form of running script. Again, to assume the Ji Wang was the model of this discovered

fragment is a speculation. What we can be certain is that the works done in the capital

of Chang‘an were widely disseminated throughout the Dunhuang area. Meanwhile,

Buddhists diligently copied and disseminated the edifying texts of Buddhism. In the

process, the skilled practice of calligraphy was promoted with copies containing

Buddhist text, and their dissemination ultimately contributed to the spread of Buddhism.

(6) The Apitan piposha lun

Several fascicles from the Apitan piposha lun were known, among the Dunhuang

discoveries, for the illustrious calligraphy. They were transcribed by Shen Hong 沈弘, an

accomplished sutra copyist active in the second year of Emperor Gaozhu‘s Longshuo

龍朔 era (662). At present, these fascicles are scattered across various museums,

libraries, and individual collections. Fascicle sixty is held in the Calligraphy Museum at

98
Wo Xinghua, Dunhuang shufa yishu, 31.

154
Tokyo (fig. 30a), fascicle fifty-two in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (fig. 30b),99

and fascicle fifty-one in the hands of a private collector, Liu Youyuan 劉幼雲.100

Each of them is written in the format of a handscroll. Both Tokyo and Paris scrolls

contain colophons stating that the copies were made to garner merit. They read, ―On

the fifteenth day of the seventh month in the second year of Emperor Gaozhu Longshuo

龍朔 era [662], a high official, the Tang Right Guard in Chief and Duke of State E 鄂,

Weichi Baolin 尉遲寳琳,101 came to the Yunji shan Monastery (雲際山寺) and acquired

copies of the Apitan made in order to garner the blessings from Buddha for the

Emperor, Empress, seven generation of parents, and all beings on the earth.‖102 Weichi

Baolin‘s request was not uncommon in Buddhist practice, since acquiring bliss can be

multiplied when one transfers the merit of such actions to parents or other beings.

Shen Hong signed his name underneath the title, jingsheng (sutra copyist). He

was probably trained and hired by the Monastery. The skill of his calligraphy was highly

praised by modern specialists who have encountered the scrolls. Referring to the

beauty of the scroll in Paris, Rao Zongyi writes, ―The calligraphic style of the scroll is

impeccable. The dots and the strokes, the movement and the pause, are rendered in a

99
P.2056.
100
Mentioned in Tonko shoho sokan, compiled by Jao Tsung-i, 23.49.
101
Weichi Baolin was the Son of Weichi Jingde 尉遲敬德, a distinguished military general who served
Emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty, Emperors Gaozu, and Taizong of the Tang. Weichi Jingde‘s biography
is in XTS 89.3752–55. Baolin succeeded his father‘s title as the Duke of State E, and also was appointed
the chief minister of the Court of the Imperial Regalia (Weiweiqing 衛尉卿), see XTS 201.5733.
102
Recorded from the colophons on the scrolls.

155
beautiful and lively way, like pearls dancing on a jade plate. It is a work that stands out

as the calligraphy model for all sutra copyists for the early Tang dynasty.‖103

Another modern art historian, Zhu Guantian, praises Shen‘s Apitan as

representing ―the superb calligraphic quality of the Tang sutra copies.‖104 Shen Hong‘s

work is further celebrated by Jiao Mingchen, who describes it as, ―fluent but energetic,

vigorous but appealing, smooth and hearted, graceful and splendid, his style is full of

pleasure, and characters are formed in proper angles but the brushstrokes are round

and smooth.‖105

In terms of stylistic characteristics, descriptions of Shen Hong‘s calligraphy reflect

the style of the early Tang masters Ouyang Xun and Yu Shinan. Phrase to describe

Ouyang‘s work, ―its square structure held in a tension of opposition rendered

harmonious through the smooth and round nature of the brushstrokes,‖106 and that to

describe Yu‘s, ―a latent firmness seasoned by flexibility,‖107 are close to descriptions of

Shen Hong‘s calligraphy. Representing the excellence of production from early Tang

sutra copyists, Shen Hong‘s accomplishments can be interpreted as a consequence of

imitating the elite styles of his day. Regardless of intention, copyists‘ mimicry added

prestige to their own writing, hence the growth of the sutra copying style paralleled with

that of elite calligraphy masters. The Dunhuang manuscripts are valuable resources

103
Tonko shoho sokan, compiled by Jao Tsung-i, 23.49.
104
Zhu Guantian, Zhongguo shufa shi [v. 4]: Sui Tang Wudai juan, 212.
105
Jiao Mingchen, Dunhuang xiejuan shufa yanjiu, 134.
106
See above, n. 87.
107
Zhang Huaiguan, Shuduan, in LDSF 192: ―虞[世南]則内含剛柔.‖

156
from which we may construct a dynamic relationship between the styles of the

celebrated masters and those who were lesser- known or anonymous.

157
 CHAPTER 6
BUDDHIST SUTRA COPYISTS AND SUTRA COPYING STYLE

Buddhist monks and lay devotees, as well as the Tang court clerk calligraphers all

participated in and contributed to the accomplishments of sutra transcription. Benefiting

from the calligraphy education promoted by the government and supported by the

monasteries during the Tang dynasty, many sutra copyists were proficient calligraphers.

This chapter discusses the distinctive qualities of these sutra copyists, and categorizes

them into three major groups: Buddhist monks, privately hired sutra copyists, and

government employed calligraphers. Selected examples are used to illustrate the

distinguishing characteristics of each of these groups.

The demand for copyists and sutra reproductions during the Tang dynasty was

increasingly persistent and widespread. In the Buddhist religion, the act of transcribing

sutras or hiring others to copy sutras is a religious endeavor undertaken to garner merit

or acquire the blessings of the Buddha. The practice of copying the sacred texts

requires carefully articulated brushstrokes to ensure legibility and beauty, but to meet

the demands for quality and quantity simultaneously, a balance must be achieved. As a

result, a distinctive ―sutra writing/copying style‖ developed. This chapter investigates this

particular style in terms of its historical development, particularly how it came to be

influenced by the Tang court‘s political agendas, which sought to regulate calligraphic

practices by instituting a standardized script, the Tang kai.

Sutra Copyists

Among the enormous number of copied sutras, some were written anonymously,

but many of them stated with dates, transcribers‘ names and titles. This information tells

us that sutra copying activities were engaged in by three main groups: Buddhist monks,

158
privately hired sutra copyists (jingsheng), and government employed clerk calligraphers

(kaishu [shou] 楷書[手] or shushou 書手).

Buddhist Monks as Sutra Copyists

Many monks transcribing sutras is relevant to learning and pursuing their religion,

but more importantly, sutra transcription was a devotional and pious act. In many

occasions, at the end of a scroll the monk who transcribed the sutra often signed his

name and the date. For instance, the colophon of an early Tang sutra, Foming jin, now

in the Dunhuang Collection at the Beijing Library (萊字 83), reads: ―transcribed on the

seventh day of the fifth month in the year of Gengyin 庚寅 [i.e. 630 or 690] by monk Shi

Baochang 石保昌.‖1 In many cases monks identified themselves with their affiliated

monasteries and locations. ―Monk Huizhen 惠真 wrote at Xiuduo Monastery 修多寺 in

the Prefecture of Gan 甘州,‖ appears on the colophon of a copy of Foshuo shanxin pusa

ershisi jiejing, now in the Beijing Library (辰字 48).2

The Tang poet Cen Shen 岑参 (715-770) wrote a poem about the Tang monks‘

passionate enthusiasm for translating and transcribing Buddhist sutras,

Master Zhang rarely comes out the [Chuguo] monastery,3

And dwelling in deep seclusion;
He professes the desire to transcribe all Buddhist sutras,
That exceeds tens of thousands of scrolls. ….4

1
Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 128.
2
Ibid.
3
THY 48.845: Chuguo monastery 楚國寺 in Jinchang district 晋昌坊, was a ruined Xingdao monastery
興道寺 in the Sui dynasty. Tang Gaozu inaugurated Chuguo monastery to honor his deceased fifth son,
Zhiyun 智雲, who was killed in capital when Gaozu raised his revolt in Taiyuan.
4
Cen Shen Shiji biannian jianzhu, compiled by Liu Kaiyang, 773. The poem in Chinese: ―璋公不出院, 羣
木閉深居. 誓寫一切經, 欲向萬卷餘…‖

159
Master Zhang was one of the numerous enthusiastic monks who diligently transcribed

sutras. During the Tang dynasty, Buddhist monasteries performed functions which were

closely aligned with the imperial state. While the Tang government worked tirelessly to

promote institutional growth and cultural enrichment, the Buddhist monasteries shared

the responsibility of educating laymen as well as the clergy. Promoting calligraphy

education and training sutra copyists was part of the monasteries alignment with

imperial policy, which advocated calligraphy as a highly valuable aesthetic and cultural

activity, as discussed in above chapters.

Although the amount of texts produced by the Buddhist monks is relatively small

when compared with the prodigious number of transcribed sutras, those produced are

meticulously and excellently crafted. Well-trained in calligraphic skills, monks undertook

the task of copying sutras with a mentality somewhat different from that of hired sutra

copyists. Less pressured for time, monks focused on quality instead. This is evident in

the transcribed section of the Buddhist text Sifenlu shanbusuiji jiemuo, now in the

Beijing Library (京辰 46). The colophon of this manuscript reads: ―The sutra was

carefully penned by Monk Liji 利濟, during the year of Wu 午 (?), from the eighth day of

the fifth month to the third day of the sixth month to commemorate a new gold lamp

erected at the Jinguangming Temple 金光名寺.‖5 Supported by the monastery, Liji could

afford to spend a month transcribing one sutra, which resulted in an accurate text,

excellent calligraphy, and an overall high quality of production.

5
Wo Xinghua, Dunhuang shufa, 3.

160
Independent Sutra Copyists

Numerous sutra copyists were laymen trained at Buddhist monasteries. As they

became more proficient, they were routinely employed or commissioned by monasteries

or private devotees. An individual sutra copyist was known as xiejing sheng 寫經生 or

jingsheng —person who copies sutras for a living. Sutra copyists often signed their

names, preceded by the title jingsheng on the colophon at the end of a scroll. There

were many jingsheng, such as Shen Hong mentioned earlier (in Chapter 5), and Wang

Han 王瀚, Guo De 郭德, Peng Kai 彭楷, and Wang Siqian 王思謙, whose names

appeared in many copied sutras discovered at Dunhuang.6

Calligraphy training of the jingsheng

To become a proficient sutra copyist necessitated extended training. One of the

best and probably the most common way of calligraphy training was to practice with

good models. The highly acclaimed court‘s codified standard script was the best, and

possible the only choice, for model selection during the early Tang era. Many Dunhuang

discovered fragments are evident of this notion. As discussed in the last chapter, a free-

hand copy of Shengjiao xu (see fig. 17) suggests that Chu Suiliang‘s calligraphy was

probably used as a model, and Jiang Shanjin‘s free-hand copy of Zhiyong Zhencao

Qianziwen was also a calligraphy model (see fig. 27a and 27b).7 Examples abound. A

well-executed calligraphy of Qishi jing8 replicates the admirable calligraphy from

Epigraph of Zhang Han 張翰, (later known as model-book of Zhang Han) penned by

6
For more details see Lin Congming, Dunhuang wenshu xue, 160-65.
7
See section on ―Examples from the Tang dynasty‖ in Chapter 5.
8
Now in Shanghai Museum Dunhuang Collection.

161
Ouyang Xun.9 These examples offer us clues to trace the basis of calligraphy training at

that time. Besides diligent practice, to write as well as the masters was most likely the

ultimate goal for becoming a proficient copyist.

Dunhuang fragments also inform us about some of the details of calligraphy

exercises. A practice piece illustrates one routine drill scheme that required 200

characters a day, and at the end of that practice the date, the student‘s name, and the

teacher‘s comments were also noted.10 The piece of practice work was done on the

verso of an official document, Shi Huihu Liangsi die 史會狐良嗣牒,11 dated the eighth

year of Gaozong Tianbao 天寶 era (749).12 In general, the Tang government kept

documents on files for about nine years and after that the back side of the paper could

be used for calligraphy practice or sutra copying.13 A shortage of supplies such as paper

probably contributed to the need to use both sides of the paper. During the Tianbao era

the central government was, and the security in Dunhuang was constantly challenged

by neighboring countries, including Tibet and the Arab Empire.14 This use of limited

resources to maintain calligraphy practice may reflect a strong commitment to

calligraphy practice in the Dunhuang area. Even during the economic downturn,

calligraphy education was continued.

9
Bai Qianshen, Yugu weitu he juanjuan fawu, 61, and figs. 97 and 98.
10
Wo Xinghua, Dunhuang Shufa, 2
11
Now in the British Library (S.2703).
12
Ibid.
13
See also Rong Xinjian, Dunhuangxue shibajiang, 310.
14
See Chapter 5 n. 70.

162
 Sometimes a proficient jingsheng became a monk, residing in the monastery and

devoting his life to sutra copying. For instance, monk Zhiming 智命 was originally a

jingsheng named Cheng Ting 鄭頲. His name was recorded on the colophon of a

Buddhist text, Chanshu zashi xia 禪數雜事下, dated 593.15 Later he became a

distinguished monk, and his life was recorded in the Biographies of Eminent Monks

compiled by Daoxuan 道宣 (596-667).16 Zhiming is only one example among the many

individuals who converted from being a Jingsheng to a monk, and presumably

continued copying sutra diligently.

Collaboration between monasteries and Tang court

Even well-trained copyists often labored under a heavy demand for sutra copies, a

pressure which could easily compromise their performance. In order to maintain the

quality of calligraphy, the early Tang court institutionalized sutra transcribing. In the

capital of Chang‘an, the government established and administrated the Bureau of Sutra

Transcription (Xiejingsuo 寫經所),17 which oversaw all sutra copying activities. The high

officials Yu Chang 虞昶 (fl. 660–680) and Yan Xuandao 閻玄道 (fl. 660–680) were

appointed to be in charge of the bureau. Yu Chang was the son of court calligraphy

masterer Yu Shinan, and Yan Xuandao was a nephew of the well-known artist Yan

Liben 閻立本 (?–673) and high official Yan Lide 閻立德 (?–656).18 The names of Yu

15
Zhu Guantian, Zhongguo shufa shi [v. 4]: Sui Tang Wudai juan, 212.
16
T 2060.682c–83a.
17
Zhou Gan, Tangdai shushou yanjiu, 90.
18
Information on Yu Chang, son of Yu Shinan, see XTS 102.3973; Yan Xuandao was possible the
nephew of Yan Lide 閻立德 whose biography is in JTS 77.2679, in which it states his son named Yan
Xuansui 閻玄邃. ―玄‖ (xuan) was a character designated to the given name of that generation in the Yan
family. See Tonko shoho sokan, compiled by Jao Tsung-i, 23.50.

163
Chang and Yan Xuandao appear on various copied sutra, with the title Jianjiao jiang 檢

校將 (Inspecting Censor), which means they acted as special commissioners to

overlook the process of sutra copying and to ensure the overall quality of sutra

reproductions.

A copy of fascicle three of the Lotus Sutra, dated 672, lists ―Yu Chang‖ as the

commissioner, and a copy of the last section of the Diamond Sutra, dated 676, lists

―Yan Xuandao‖ as the commissioner.19 Presumably these government special

commissioners were regulating the form and aesthetic quality of sutra production, while

the monasteries were responsible for ensuring the accuracy of the texts, as many

monks were listed as editors and proofreaders on the copied sutras.

Collaboration between the government and the major monasteries responsible for

sutra transcription was forged in the early Tang period. Many extant Dunhuang

manuscripts attest to this process and tell us about the labor force involved in the task.

An example is presented in the following section.

Jingsheng Wang Siqian and his copy of the Lotus Sutra

A copy of fascicle six of the Lotus Sutra (fig. 31), dated 672 is a good example of

the well-organized production of sutra administered by the government and

monasteries.20 At the end of the scroll, a long colophon of several columns

demonstrates this formulaic system. The first column includes the date and the name of

the sutra copyist, jingsheng Wang Siqian 王思謙. The next column tells us that twenty

19
The Lotus Sutra now is in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2644); the Diamond Sutra is in the
Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3278); see Dunhuang shufa congkan, compiled by Jao Tsung-i,
23.49–50.
20
The copy is now housed in the Dunhuang County Museum (敦博 55).

164
pages of sheets were used. The third column lists the name of the mounter

(zhuanghuang shou 装璜手), Jie Shanji 解善集. The fourth column records the name of

the first proofreader, which is the sutra copyist himself. The names of the second

proofreader, the monk Guizhen 歸真, and the third proofreader, the monk Sidao 思道,

are stated in the fifth and sixth columns. The next four columns name four high-ranked

monks from Taiyuan Monastery (太原寺), including the great worthy Shenfu (大德神符),

the great worthy Jiashang (大德嘉尚), the abbot Huili (寺主慧立), and the high seat

Daocheng (上座道成), who were examiners. The last two columns show the

involvement of two imperial government officials: the project supervisor, Xiang Yigan 向

義感, who was also the Administrative Assistant and Chamberlain for the Foundry Office

(判官少府掌冶署), and the specially appointed commissioner, Yu Chang, the Superior

Grand Master of the Palace (太宗大夫) and Duke of the Dynasty-founding Yongxin 永興

District.21

It was routine to have monks proofread the sutras transcribed by jingsheng, as

jingsheng were not necessarily conversant with the doctrines of Buddhism. To maintain

absolute accuracy, the transcribed sutras had to be proofread by ordinary monk(s), then

examined and finally approved by higher-ranked monks. Those who examined Wang

Siquian‘s work were all highly reputable monks: Shengfu, Jiashang, and Daocheng.

They were recognized as disciples of the eminent Monk Xuanzang and were well-

respected.22 Their names appeared as the examiners on at least seven Dunhuang

21
The honorable title, the ―Duke of Dynasty-founding Yongxin District‖, which was granted to the father,
Yu Shinan, was then succeeded by the son. See XTS 102.3973.

22
Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 132.

165
manuscripts now held in the British Library.23 The court official Xiang Yigan, an officer

from the Foundry, was probably in charge of the supplies for the task. Yu Chang

represented the government, insuring that the work was completed according to

established rules and standards.

The characters penned by Wang Siqian exhibit an elegance of style and fluency

similar to the brushstrokes of Shen Hong‘s work.24 Although very little is known about

Mr. Wang, one source mentions that he was a student of Yu Shinan.25 The fluent,

mature strokes and precisely rendered structure of the characters are well represented

in Wang Siqian‘s works, which have often been considered exemplary of the beauty of

Buddhist manuscripts from Dunhunag. Examining Wang Siqian‘s writing, one can

discern ―an air of unworldly aloofness,‖ which is often used to describe the character of

Yu Shinan‘s calligraphy.26 However, Yu‘s peculiar merit is his meticulous stroke and

flawless construction of each character. In my opinion, this particular quality is not

completely captured in Wang Siqian‘s works, which occasionally display some

imprudent brushstrokes and recklessly composed characters. This kind of comparison,

however, is not entirely fair. As Yu‘s original handwriting perished long ago, the only

examples we have are rubbings from a stele. The transcription of Yu‘s calligraphy onto

the stele demanded precision and accuracy, while Wang‘s transcription of sutra was

performed under the pressures of speed and efficiency.

23
The items including, S.1456, S.2573, S.2637, S.2956, S.3079, and S.3094; see Wang Yuanjun,
Tangren shufa yu wenhu, 132.
24
For Shen Hong‘s work, see The Apitan piposha lun in section ―Examples from the Tang dynasty‖ in
Chapter 5.
25
Zhou Gan, Tangdai shushou yanjiu, 90. See also Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the
Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
26
Ouyang Zhongshi and Wen C. Fong, Chinese Calligraphy, 201.

166
 Imperfections such as those found in Wang‘s transcription may be attributed to the

incessant demand for sutra copies, which can be traced from the dates that appeared

on colophons at the end of the scrolls. Fascicle six of the Lotus Sutra transcribed by

Wand Siqian is dated the twenty-first day of the second month in the second year of

Gaozong Xianheng 咸亨 era (672). Four days later, Wang Siqian transcribed fascicle

two of the Lotus Sutra.27 Ten days after that he completed the transcription of fascicle

three.28 It is possible that there were some other fascicles written in between these

dates that have been lost.

Working under such constant demand, one can understand the need for strict and

painstaking rules and regulations to enforce the quality of production. The exhaustive

process of governing and approving the copied sutras became a necessity because

these copies were most likely used as models to be imitated for further reproduction in

the prefectures.29 This effort to keep texts accurate, while retaining a high standard of

legibility and aesthetic form, was beneficial for increasing the value and spurring the

development of both Buddhism and calligraphy.

Jingsheng’s compensation

The quickness with which the work was done indicates that sutra copyists were

probably paid by the number of pieces produced. One manuscript30 describes how the

27
Lin Congming, Dunhuang wenshu xue, 161–62. The colophon states ―On the twenty-fifth day of the
second month in the second year of Gaozong Xianheng era written by Wang Siqian.‖ The scroll is now
housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.4556).
28
Ibid., 161. The colophon states, ―On the seventh day of the third month in the year of Gaozong
Xianheng era written by Wang Siqian.‖ The scroll is now housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France
(P. 2644).
29
Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 130. See also Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism
and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
30
Now it is in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2912).

167
scribes were compensated for their work: ―To copy one set of Dabanruo jing 大般若經 is

paid for three silver plates (total thirty-five ounce—liang 两), one hundred piculs (shi 碩)

of wheat, fifty piculs of millet, four catties of flour … Paper and ink are supplied by the

copyist.‖31 Converted to the Tang currency, this compensation equals about three

hundred wen 文 (i.e., the smallest monetary unit at that time), which compares favorably

with the one hundred forty wen per month salary paid to lower temporary government

employees.32 The pay scale of an individual copyist was not fixed and very much

depended on the reputation of the scribe. Less skilled scribes would likely be paid less,

suggested by a poem written at the end of a manuscript33: ―Today by finishing the sutra,

[I] will be getting five pint (sheng 升) of wheat. Better not get into the high interest debts,

otherwise at the end [I myself] would suffer the dreadful consequence.‖34 Assuming that

calligraphic skill was a major factor in determining a copyist‘s compensation, we could

speculate that the potential for increased compensation, when coupled with the demand

for sutra copies, may very well have inspired copyists to hone their skills.

Court Employed Clerk Calligraphers

The government employed calligraphers to perform the task of sutra copying in

addition to their other official duties, such as government record keeping. Many Tang

31
Zhou Gan, Tangdai shushou yanjiu, 73. See also Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 134: ―寫大
般若經一部施银盘子叁枚(共三十五两) 麥壹百硕 粟五十硕 粉肆斤… 寫經直纸墨筆自供足.‖
32
XTS 55.1369.
33
It is dated 919, and now housed in the collection of the British Library (S.692).
34
Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 135: ―今日寫書了，合有五升麥。高貸不可得，還是自身災.‖
Chinese measurement: 1 sheng = 1 liter.

168
Dunhuang manuscripts were signed with kaishu, kaishu shou, or shushou,35 titles that

refered to the clerk calligraphers who were sub-official functionaries under the Tang

government system. Considered ―non-official specialists,‖ these men of literary and

calligraphic merit were selected by various government agents to assist in the extensive

and growing tasks of record keeping and copying.36 Although not officially ranked, they

could be promoted after a period of meritorious service.37 The official documents of the

Tang dynasty, including Jiu Tangshu and Xin Tangshu, Tang Huiyao, and Tang Liudian

唐六典 (Codes and Regulations of the Six Boards of the Tang Dynasty) listed the

number of clerk calligraphers employed in each government agency, but do not clearly

indicate who or how many of them actually participated in copying sutras. The dynamic

activities of clerk calligraphers engaged in the work of sutra copying are found in

information provided on the colophons at the end of transcribed sutras from Dunhuang.

It may be presumed that many of these clerk calligraphers were trained at the Institute

for the Advancement of Literature (Hongwen guan) or were the students of School of

Calligraphy (Shuxue).38 Adept at rendering the standard script, Tang kai, the clerk

calligraphers played an important role in promoting the style of Tang kai, as the copied

sutras were often disseminated to the prefectures as models for further production.39

35
Charles O. Hucker in his A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China defines kaishu and kaishu shou
as ―clerkly calligrapher,‖ which, in my interpretation, seems to emphasize the clerkly nature of the job. I
modify that translation to ―clerk calligrapher‖ to stress the fact that calligraphy is the essence of the work.
36
XTS 45.1180.
37
THY 65.1125, 64.1116.
38
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
39
Ibid., see also Wang Yuanjun, Tangren shufa yu wenhua, 128–32.

169
Government affiliations

Many Dunhuang manuscripts reveal a routine that a government employed

calligrapher usually signed the date on which the transcription was completed,

proceeded by his title, name, and governmental affiliation on the colophons at the end

of the scrolls. The following are some examples from the British Library Dunhuang

Collection.

Fascicle five of the Lotus Sutra (S.1456), ―On the thirteenth day of the fifth month
in the third year of [Gaozong] Shangyuan 上元 era (676), [it was] transcribed by a
clerk calligrapher Sung Xuanxi (楷書孫玄奚) of the Imperial Library (Bishu sheng
秘書省).‖

Fascicle seven of the Lotus Sutra (S.2596), ―On the twenty-first day of the third
month in the third year of [Gaozong] Shangyuan (676), [it was] transcribed by a
clerk calligrapher Wang Zhiwan (楷書王智菀) of the Institute for the Advanced
Literature (Hongwen guan 弘文舘).‖

Fascicle six of the Lotus Sutra (S.3348), ―On the twenty-fifth day of the ninth
month in the first year of [Gaozong] Shangyuan (674), [it was] transcribed by a
clerk calligrapher Xiao Jing (楷書蕭敬) from the Secretariat of the Heir Apparent
(Zuochun fang 左春坊).‖

The above examples indicate that some clerk calligraphers who were hired by the Tang

government were actually participating in the task of sutra transcription. The

government agencies include predominant ones, such as the Imperial Library and the

Institute for the Advancement of Literature, and minor or subordinate agencies, such as

the Secretariat of the Heir Apparent.

The numbers of calligraphers, hired by various government agencies and their

jurisdictions, range from as few as two to as large as eighty. Examining many official

documents, I discover that the number and titles of calligraphers assigned to the

affiliated agencies are recorded inconsistently in various historical documents. For

instance, Jiu Tang shu notes that thirty kaishu shou were assigned to Hongwen guan

170
(Institute for the Advancement of Literature),40 while the Xin Tang shu states twelve

kaishu to Hongwen guan.41 Jiu Tang shu says that twenty-five kaishu shou were

assigned to Shiguan 史館 (The Historiography Institute),42 while the Xin Tang shu

records Shiguan has twelve kaishu, and eighteen kaishu shou.43 Pishu sheng 祕書省

(Imperial Library) hired the largest number of clerk calligraphers, eighty kaishu shou

states in Jiu Tang shu but only ten kaishu in Xin Tang shu.44

Many subordinate agencies were also staffed with clerk calligraphers. The

Editorial Service (Zhuzuo ju 著作局) under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Library had

five kaishu.45 The Eastern Palace (Donggong 東宫), residence of the Heir Apparent, had

twenty-five kaishu in the Editorial Service (Sijing ju 司經局).46 The Institute for the

Veneration of Literature (Chongwen guan 崇文館), a subordinate to the Secretariat of

the Heir Apparent (Zuochun fang 左春坊), had ten kaishu.47 The Bureau of Astronomy

(Sitian tai 司天臺), a subordinate to the Palace Library (Mishu sheng 祕書省), had five

40
JTS 43.1848: Hongwen guang is subordinate agent to the Chancellery (Menxia sheng 門下省).
41
XTS 47.1210.
42
JTS 43.1853: Shiguan is subordinate to the Palace Secretariat (Zhongshu sheng 中書省).
43
XTS 47.1214.
44
JTS 43.1855; XTS 47.1214.
45
XTS 47.1215.
46
Ibid., 49.1294.
47
Ibid.

171
kaishushou.48 Even the office of Female Service (Yeting ju 掖庭局), a unit of the Palace

Domestic Service (Neishi sheng 内侍省), had two kaishu.49

The numbers of employed clerk calligraphers are not always referenced with a

given date or time period, which means that the hiring was probably determined by

need and varied at different times. It is also not clear whether kaishu and kaishu shou

carried the same responsibilities but were differently titled. Nor do we know with

certainty if these kaishu or kaishu shou were assigned the duty of copying sutras. What

we do know from the extant Dunhuang manuscripts, however, is that the government

employed calligraphers did participate in sutra copying and signed their official titles and

names in the sutras they copied. These Dunhuang scrolls offer us handwritten Tang

documents that also validate and rectify some historical facts. The three copies of the

Lotus Sutra in the British Library Collection, listed above, confirm the fact that during the

Emperor Gaozong‘s Shangyuan era the clerk calligraphers, who worked for the Imperial

Library, the Institute for the Advancement of Literature, and the Secretariat of the Heir

Apparent, were all engaged in sutra transcription work and carried the title kaishu.

Official sanction of copied sutras

The sutras transcribed by clerk calligraphers were officially sanctioned and

complied with the same strict rules and well-organized system that organized works

produced by the jingsheng. Fascicle three of the Lotus Sutra, transcribed by the clerk

calligrapher Cheng Du (書手程度) is a good example (fig. 32).50 Comprised of sisteen

48
Ibid., 47.1216.
49
Ibid., 47.1222.
50
It is now in the British Library Collection (S.5319).

172
columns, this sutra begins with the date: the second year of [Gaozong‘s] Xianheng 咸亨

era (i.e. 671), followed by the copyist‘s name and title: shushou Cheng Du. The next two

columns tell us that nineteen sheets of paper were used, and also gives the name of the

mounter: Wang Gong 王恭. The next six columns record the names of monks as the

examiners, and the following two columns provide the names of the inspectors: the

abbot Huili and high seat Daocheng of Taiyuan Monastery. The next columns list the

proofreaders, including two monks from Dazongchi Monastery (大揔持寺), and Cheng

Du himself. The sutra ends by naming the Tang court officially appointed supervisor,

Xiang Yigan, with the official title of Administrative Assistant from the Foundry Office,

and the special commissioner, Yu Chang, with the official title of Superior Grand Master

of the Palace.

The close collaboration between monasteries and the government can be traced

from this sutra copied by Cheng Du and others, such as the Lotus Sutra copied by

Wang Siqian (discussed earlier in the section of jingsheng). Two inspectors from the

monastery, Huili and Daocheng, the governmental supervisor Xiang Yigan, and the

commissioner Yu Chang are all listed on the colophon at the end of both Cheng Du‘s

and Wang Siqian‘s works. The reappearance of these names on copied sutras that

were completed by copyists hired either privately by the monasteries or by the

government further confirms the close working relationship monasteries and

government. More interesting is the fact that on the same sutra Cheng Du signed his

title shushou right after the date to identify himself as the person who transcribed the

sutra, but under the column for those who proofread the stura, he endorsed it with the

title jingsheng. It is possible that Cheng Du was trained and worked in the monastery as

173
a jingsheng and then was employed by the government as a shushou. This situation

would probably have been the case for other copyists besides Cheng Du, and

sometimes blurred the definition between shushou and jingsheng. Often the quality of

production from shushou or jingsheng would be consistent as long as it subscribed to

government standards.

Despite this painstaking and exhaustive system, the number of copied sutra

produced under government sanction is considerable. Emperor Gaozong‘s era was

particularly productive. Using the Lotus Sutra in the British Library Collection as the sole

example, within a three year range (672–674) one can identify the following:

Fascicle three (S.4209) …transcribed on the fifteenth day of the fourth month in
the third year of Xianhong (672) by a Qunshushou 群書手 Zhao Wenshen 趙文審
from the Chancellery…

Fascicle four (S.4551) …transcribed on the twenty-ninth day of the eighth month
in the third year of Xianhong (672) by a qunshushou 群書手 Liu Daci 刘大慈 from
the Chancellery …

Fascicle two (S.2573) … transcribed on the seventeenth day of the ninth month
in the fourth year of Xianhong (673) by a qunshushou 群書手 Feng Anchang 封安
昌 from the Chancellery …

Fascicle four (S.0312) … transcribed on the twenty-first day of the ninth month in
the fourth year of Xianhong (673) by a qunshushou 群書手 Feng Anchang 封安昌
from the Chancellery…

Fascicle three (S.0456) … transcribed on the second day of the eighth month in
the fifth year of Xianhong (674) by a kaishu 楷書 Xiao Jing 蕭敬 from Secretariat
of the Heir Apparent …

Each scroll above identically lists the government appointed officials Xiang Yigan and

Yu Chang as the supervisor of the production. As a director of the Bureau of Sutra

Transcription, Yu Chang must have been authorized to look after all the copies

produced by the clerk calligraphers from various government agencies. From the above

174
examples, one can also see that the Chancellery during the Xianhong era hired many

clerk calligraphers and named them qunshushou 群書手, which can be literally

translated as ―the flock of clerk calligraphers.‖ That term, however, does not recorded in

the Tang official histories, such as Xin Tang shu and Jiu Tang shu. We can say that

Dunhuang manuscripts are providing us with information that was missed from the

historical recordes compiled later.

The Standard Format of Copied Sutras

The layout for transcribed sutras was standardized during the Tang. Each sheet of

paper, with hidden or visible grids, consisted of twenty-eight columns with seventeen

characters in each column. Each character occupied a size of 1.5 cm. or 1.8 cm in each

column. Following this standard, one can easily figure out the exact number of

characters required to fill in each page and how many pages of paper were needed to

complete a fascicle of any given sutra.51 The sheets then were collected and mounted

as a hand scroll. This standard format imbues the entire composition with a sense of

alignment and regularity.

The rigid format of seventeen characters in each column was adopted before the

Tang time and is traceable to the transcribed sutras of the Southern Dynasties. By the

Sui dynasty almost all transcribed sutras were executed under the rule of seventeen

characters per column. Examples can be found in the scroll of fascicle eighteen of the

Daji jing, dated the third year of the Emperor Wendi‘s Kaihuang 開皇 era (583) (fig. 33),

and the scroll of fascicle four of the Siyi jing dated 588.52 In these and most other

51
Rong Xinjian, Dunhuangxue shibajiang, 303; see also Zhou Gan, Tangdai shushou yanjiu, 90.
52
Both of them are now housed in the British Library: Daji jing is coded S.3935, and Siyi jing is S.4020.

175
transcribed sutras from the Tang era, the characters are tightly spaced from top to

bottom in each column, with more space left between columns. This arrangement of

having more space in between columns is probably more comforting for the eyes of

readers. At the same time, the characters that occupied the same column, with the

space in between tightened, were written in a more squarish manner that diverged from

the normal configuration of standard script, which was vertically elongated.

A similar format of seventeen characters in each column, with hidden or visible

grids, is commonly used in Japanese sutra scrolls. The famous Lotus Sutra at

Itsukushima Shine (1164),53 for example, is laid out strictly with seventeen characters in

each column throughout the entire twelve scrolls. This suggests that the Tang‘s

influence on Japanese culture was penetrating even on subtle matters like this.

Tang Court’s Sponsorship of Sutra Production and Distribution

From the early to the late seventh century, during the years from Taizong‘s

Zhengguan to Gaozong‘s Xianhong eras, handwritten scriptures in China reached the

pinnacle of their development. Government agencies, including the Imperial Library, the

Institute for the Advancement of Literature, the Historiography Institute, etc., were, in

spite of their routine governmental responsibilities, all involving in the tasks of copying

sutra, supplying materials, making scrolls, and distributing sutras.

In addition to retaining copyists, government agencies also hired paper makers

(shuzhi jiang 熟纸匠) and scroll mounting installers (zhanghuang jiang 装潢匠). Some

53
The Lotus Sutra at Itsukushima is a religious text and scrolls were offered by the Taira family as an act
of piety and devotion. It represents the highlight of art and culture of Fujiwara Period (897–1185).

176
agencies would simply hire shuzhi zhanghuang jiang 熟纸装潢匠, artisans who were

good at both paper making and scroll mounting.54

Due to the demand for paper, the techniques and materials for paper making

rapidly improved in the Sui and Tang dynasties. The paper used during the Sui shifted

from the hemp cloth of earlier periods to hemp bark. The creation of finer and thinner

paper was mainly due to improvements on the design of paper-making screens. No

longer made from reeds but rather slender bamboo strips, this improved model

increased screen density; also thereby improving the paper quality. In the eighth

century, a new type of paper was produced using fine hemp fibers that constructed a

thicker paper with refined quality. This improvement in quality resulted from another new

type of screen made with a sheet of fine silk cloth, which smoothed the surface of the

paper. This kind of surface allowed for an easier movement of brushstrokes, better ink

absorption, and ultimately clearer writing. The best preserved sutras were written in the

form of Tang kai on the paper made of hemp fiber and yellow die (huangma zhi 黄麻

纸).55 The colophon often indicates how many sheets (zhang 張 or mei 枚) were used.

The numbers vary, but typically range from twelve or eighteen to twenty-plus pages.56

The scroll mounting installers were responsible for mounting the collected sheets

into a well-formed scroll. Highly skilled, the installers were considered to be just as

54
In XTS 47.1214, it states, ―six paper makers in the Historiography Institute (Shiguan).‖ In XTS 47.1214,
―ten paper makers and ten mounting installers in the Imperial Library (Mishu sheng).‖ In XTS 49.1294,
―one paper maker and one mounting installer in the Secretariat of the Heir Apparent (Zuochun fang).‖ In
XTS 47.1210, ―eight paper maker/mounting installers in the Institute for the Advancement of Literature
(Hongwen guan).‖
55
More details on paper making in Dunhuang, see Rong Xinjian, Dunhuangxue shibajiang, 302–7; Lin
Congming, Dunhuang wenshu xue, 89–97; Fujieda Akira, ―Chronological Classification of Dunhuang
Buddhist Manuscripts,‖ in Susan Whitfield, ed., Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries,103–12; Jean/Pierre
Drege, ―Dunhuang papers: preliminary morphological analysis of dated Chinese manuscripts,‖ 116.
56
See Lin Congming, Dunhuang wenshu xue, 97–103 for the actual examples.

177
important as the copyists. The sutras completed under the monasteries and government

sanctioned system usually carried a column reserved for the mounting installers

(zhanghuang shou), which preceded the names of the copyists. Jie Shanji 解善集 was

one of the distinguished installers active in Gaozong's time. More than twenty

discovered Dunhunag scrolls dated to the years of Gaozong‘s Xianhong (670-673) and

Shangyuan (674-675) eras bear his name.57

The distribution of copies was dictated in the Codes and Regulations of the Six

Boards of the Tang Dynasty, which states: ―The literary work of the Four Series (Sibu 四

部)58 must have three copies; the first one is the original, the second one is the duplicate

copy, and the third one is the depository copy.‖59 The duplicate copy can be bestowed

(or distributed) via imperial order. After it is given away, more copies can be made. It is

not clear whether the copying and distribution of Buddhist texts followed the same

mandate. But it is reasonable to presume that all officially sanctioned sutras probably

had at least three copies, one for the temple, one to be stored in the court, and one to

be distributed to the prefectures. More copies could be made as needed. Many

transcribed sutras discovered in the Dunhuang caves were possibly imperially ordered

57
Most scrolls are in the British Library, including S.36, S.513, S.84, S.312, S.456, S.1084, S.1456,
S.2637, S.2181, S.3094, S.3348, S.3361, S.4168, S.4353, S.3079, S.2573, S.4209, S.4551. Some in the
Bibliothèque Nationale de France, including P.3278, P.2195, P.2644, P.4556. One scroll in Shanghai
Museum: fascicle three of the Lotus Sutra, and one in Shanghai Library: fascicle one of the Lotus Sutra.
Detail see Lin Congming, Dunhuang wenshu xue, 107–12.
58
The Four Series is traditionally categorized into Classics (jing 經), History (shi 史), Philosophy (zi 子),
and Literary Collections (ji 集). Details on Tang court‘s governing the Four Series see Tang liu dian,
10.298–300.
59
Zhou Gan, Tangdai shushou yanjiu, 19.

178
copies. There were probably many more copies made and disseminated across the

country to be used as models for the production of provincial copies.60

The quality of provincial copies could lag behind the high standards required of

government distributed models. Yet sometimes a provincial copy demonstrated an

extremely high quality. Fascicle 329 of the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom,61 (dated

674) in the Elliott Collection at Princeton, is a good example (fig. 34). It is assumed to

be a provincial copy, because the scroll is signed with only one collator‘s name and not

the complete roster of copyists, mounting installers, proofreaders, supervisors, and

commissioner that is typically a feature of standard governmental-sanctioned sutras.62

The scroll was signed with a name Li Yihai, who was probably a collator responsible for

checking the accuracy against the original.63 Although the sutra was copied by an

anonymous scribe, it is reasonable to believe that the copyist was required to faithfully

reproduce the same style of calligraphy as that which appeared on the government-

sponsored manuscript produced in the capital. In the mid-seventh century, Chu

Suiliang‘s elegant Tang kai script was the most popular and imitated style, and it is not

difficult to recognize that the Princeton scroll was executed by imitating his graceful

style. It is evident that this calligraphy style originated in central metropolitan areas, and

60
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
61
In Chinese it is translated as ―The Great Sutra of the Wisdom That Reaches the Other Shore,‖ which in
complete contains 600 fascicles. The Sutra was translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Xuanzang in the
year of 663. See Harrist, and Fong, ed., The Embodied Image, 100, noted by Amy McNair, ―The Great
Sutra is a collection of shorter scriptures, including the well-known Heart Sutra and Diamond Sutra, which
contain the Buddha‘s teachings on prajnā or ‗wisdom‘.‖
62
Amy McNair, ―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
63
Ibid.

179
was later adapted by provincial artists as the result of the government‘s systematic

sponsorship of sutra copying and distribution.

Sutra Copying Style

General Attribution, Variations, and Special Characteristics

―Sutra copying style‖ (xiejing ti 寫經體) is a term in calligraphy that generally refers

to a form used to transcribe religious texts. It is a fluid style, constantly reflecting the

prevailing taste of calligraphic form at any given time. Since most existing sutras and

the majority of Dunhuang manuscripts are dated from the sixth to the ninth centuries

and are written in the form of standard script that was predominant at that time,

standard script has been often associated with the sutra writing style. In his discussion

of the development of sutra writing style, Frederick Mote emphasizes the idea of ―one

particular genre‖ that ―has its own logic, stressing smooth uniformity, varying in artistic

quality but recognizably of one genre.‖64 This notion is supported by Amy McNair, who

affirms that standard script was most suitable for religious texts due to its remarkable

consistency. She concludes, ―The history of standard script is closely bound to the

transcription of religious texts.‖65

The discovered Dunhuang Buddhist manuscripts, however, illustrate the fact that

various calligraphy scripts were employed over different time periods and that

distribution corresponds with the historical evolution of scripts in general. In his essay

―Chronological Classification of Dunhuang Buddhist Manuscripts,‖ Dunhuang specialist

Fujieda Akira classified the discovered manuscripts by their dates and scripts.66

64
Frederick W. Mote and Hung-lam Chu, Calligraphy and the East Asian Book, 52.
65
Amy McNair,―Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 225–38.
66
Akira Fujieda, ―Chronological Classification of Dunhuang Buddhist Manuscripts,‖ 103–14.

180
According to Fujieda, around 400 CE a writing style similar to official script (lishu),

written on bamboo and wooden slips, was used by sutra copyists. Around 500 CE,

manuscripts were written in the form of mixed official and standard script (lishu and

kaishu). By the end of the sixth century, the script written in the Sui, demonstrated a

homogeneous use of the standard script (kaishu), while the Tang dynasty the script was

transcribed in a new standard form known as Tang kai. As noted by Fujieda, sutras

transcribed in Tang kai displayed not only a new calligraphic style in terms of strokes

and form, but also a correct form for characters that were codified by an orthographic

movement (zhengzi 正字, ―correct writing‖).67

As Fujieda argues, the long development of sutra writing styles in China reflects all

subsequent stages of calligraphic script evolution. The emphasis on the merit and

efficacy of a standard script was further developed in the Tang dynasty. The qualities

that characterize the style at that time are formality, precision, consistency, and

legibility, qualities essential to the transcription of religious texts.

The changes in brush types and improvement in paper quality that made

noticeable differences in calligraphic styles are also discussed in Fujieda‘s report.68 A

softer kind of brush made from goat hair, which had been widely used since the Sui

dynasty, allowed a writer to move the brush faster and be more productive. As

67
Ibid., 104: ―During the reign of Taizong (627–649), the Director of the Imperial Library, Yan Shigu 颜師
古, criticized kai characters as not conforming to the li style which appeared in Shuowen jiezi, Several
hundred characters were ‗corrected‘ and between 671–677 the court produced ‗correct‘ versions of two
sutra (one being the Diamond Sutra) which were distributed nationwide. There were over 30 copies
extant in Dunhuang which exhibit the new forms of characters. It is possible to distinguish therefore
between old and new kai styles. The new style is called Tang kai.‖ For more details on orthography in the
Tang dynasty see Amy McNail, ―Public Values in Calligraphy and Orthography in the Tang Dynasty,‖ Li
Haixia, ―Tangdai de zhengzi yundong,‖ and Shi Anchang, ―Tangdai zhengzi xuegao.‖
68
Akira Fujieda, ―Chronological Classification of Dunhuang Buddhist Manuscripts,‖ 107–11.

181
evidenced in many characters, sutra copyists sometimes displayed a tendency to

replace standard strokes with trifling strokes. This meant that their calligraphic

presentation diverged from the aesthetic quality approved by the mainstream tradition,

and sometimes led critics to discredit work produced by sutra copyists.

Critical assessments of Buddhist sutra writings, when combined with the reticence

of Chinese scholars to value the importance of religious texts, has led to a tendency for

scholars to question, often with contempt, the importance of Buddhist texts in the

Chinese tradition of calligraphy. As a consequence, Buddhist sutras written with high

quality calligraphy could be ignored simply because they were religious in content.

Modern scholars, however, have begun to establish the aesthetic value of handwritten

sutras beyond their primary value as religious texts containing sacred revelations.

Lothar Ledderose‘s study of Wang Xizhi shifts the emphasis from studying the religious

importance of these texts to a focus on their aesthetic quality.69 Susan Whitfield

describes her opinion of the handwritten sutras as being ―neither wholly akin to works of

art nor to texts, but something of each.‖70 More specifically, Whitfield‘s statement can be

interpreted as suggesting that the art of writing and the spiritual nature embodied in the

religious text are dynamically intertwined.

Among the vast number of transcribed Buddhist texts, some were executed with

extraordinary calligraphic skill and were highly praised by later critics. Yang Ting 楊庭

(fl. 690–700), an independent sutra copyist (jingsheng), transcribed Wuyun lu 五蕴論

69
Lothar Ledderose, ―Some Taoist elements in the Calligraphy of the Six Dynasties.‖

70
Susan Whitfield, Dunhuang Manuscript Forgeries, 12.

182
(Treatise on the Five Refinements), which was collected by Song Emperor Huizong

and recorded in the Xuanhe Calligraphy Catalog as follows:

The characters produced by [Yang Ting] exemplified the excellence of standard

script, and were highly praised among his peer calligraphers during the Changshou
長壽 era (692–693). The sutra copyists during the Tang time established their own
distinctive style. Outstanding among them were such works as [Yang] Ting‘s
calligraphy, which was considered truly marvelous.71

The work by Yang Ting vanished long ago, but commentary found in the prestigious

Xuanhe Calligraphy Catalog draws attention to the value of Yang Ting‘s aesthetic

presentation. The term ―distinctive style‖ that was used to praise Yang‘s calligraphy in

the Catalog has been repeated by art historians to describe a quality jingsheng copy.

There are other sutra scribes whose works were also appreciated and glorified in

Xuanhe shupu, such as that of the monk Tan Lin 曇林 (?- 593):

Tan Lin was skilled at writing small script. His strokes were full of strength
without even a single trace of casualness. Their regularity and evenness
represents the high quality of work that sutra copyists were capable
producing. He transcribed a section of Jingang shangwei tuoluoni 金剛上味
陀羅尼 from the Diamond Sutra, which is now in the Imperial Collection [of
the Song]. It contains several thousand characters, but its consistency in
scale makes it easy to read, and read fast. Although the calligraphy might
appear constrained and lacking a certain loftiness of expression, the visual
coherence between the naturalness of the brushstrokes and his spirit truly
deserve to be applauded.72

This long phrase, which sings the praises of Tan Lin, illustrates the general criteria for

reckoning excellence in sutra copying: skillfully created small script that is full of

strength, tidy and consistent. Above all, the script should be consistent to make it easy

71
Xuanhe shupu, 5.38: ―楊庭, 為時經生, 作字得楷法之妙, 長壽間,一時為辈流推許… 唐書法至經生自成一
律, 其間固有超绝者, 便為名書, 如庭書, 是亦可觀者.‖
72
Ibid., 5.41: ―釋曇林.作小楷, 下筆有力, 一點畫不妄作, 然修整自持, 正類經生之品格高者, …累數千字, 终
始一律, 不失行次,便於疾讀, 但恨拘窘法度, 無飄然自得之態, 其意與筆正特見嚴謹, 亦可嘉也.‖

183
to read, as the most valuable and ineffable quality is brushwork suffused with an artist‘s

spirit.

Stylistic Comparison: Copyists in Debt to the Elite Masters

The extraordinary works by the jingsheng Yang Ting and the monk Tan Lin are no

longer available to us, but remarks about their accomplishments in the Xuanhe Shupu

have become classic references for the study of sutra copying style. Modern

observations on some extraordinary Dunhuang manuscripts echo the Xuanhe’s praises

on the works by the jingsheng Yang Ting and the monk Tan Lin. Jingsheng Shen

Hong‘s Apitan piposha lun is an example, which was written in small script with extreme

accuracy and consistency (see figs. 28a and 28b), and was prasised by modern

scholars. Complementing Shen Hong‘s copy, Rao Zongyi says, ―It stands out as the

calligraphy model for all the sutra scribes for the early Tang dynasty.‖73 Jiao Mingchen

焦明辰 also praises Shen Hong‘s calligraphy with words like fluent, energetic, vigorous,

appealing, smooth, hearted, graceful and splendid; he concludes it in the following

passage, ―His style is full of pleasure, structure is square but brush strokes are

curvilinear. His work undoubtedly represents the excellence of the early Tang‘s

production from sutra scribes.‖74 With all the acclaim for Shen Hong‘s calligraphy, it

becomes imperative to examine his works further.

By studying the rendering of strokes and the composition of Shen Hong‘s

characters, one can discern his debt to the famous early Tang master Chu Suiliang and

calligraphy sage Wang Xizhi. The overall presentation of Shen Hong‘s brushstrokes

73
Tonko shoho sokan, compiled by Jao Tsung-i, 23.49.
74
Jiao Mingchen, Dunhuang xiejuan shufa yanjiu, 134.

184
exhibit a flexible pause, extreme rhythm and rich vibrancy, and are comparable to Chu‘s

inscription on the stele of Preface to the Holy Teachings and Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting Xu.

When individual strokes and characters are examined, the resemblances are even more

obvious and often striking. The character xian 咸 (fig. 35a) in Sheng Hong‘s Apitan

bears an uncanny resemblance in both structure and stroke presentation to the same

character in Wang Xizhi‘s Lanting (fig. 35b) and the characters gan 感 (fig. 35c) and huo

惑 (fig. 35d) in Chu Suiliang‘s Yanta Shengjiao xu. The left side of the character is

feathered with relaxed strokes, while the right side is constructed with an intense and

vigorously exaggerated long stroke slanting to the right, finished with a distinguishing

hook. The effect is accomplished by twisting the brush straight up. This presentation

yields a very different result than what one might expect: an elongated stroke ending

with an easy incline to the right. An expressive style like this is consistently presented

throughout Sheng Hong‘s Apitan. One can easily notice that pattern from characters

such as yi 義, wo 我, and zhi 紙 (fig. 36a). The same characteristic was evident in Chu

Suiliang‘s Yanta Shengjiao xu, particularly in characters such as zang 藏, yi 儀, and zai

載 (fig. 36b), and Wang Xizhi‘s sui 歲, mao 茂, and sheng 盛 (fig. 36c) in Lanting xu.

Note also that all their long vertical strokes begin with the brush tip inclined

horizontally in the opposite direction before moving vigorously downward. The

inclination was brief and yet strong enough to display a well-controlled brush tip.

Although the exposition was small, by forming a contrasting angle with the long vertical

stroke this presentation actually creates an effect of balance and expansive quality, with

a handsome hook at the end. Shen Hong‘s Apitan was dated to 662, less than ten years

after Chu Suiliang inscribed the famous Preface. Chu‘s style was still prominent at this

185
time, so it is not surprising that the novel shape and active strokes of Chu Suiliang‘s

calligraphy were vividly modeled.

A similar stroke structure was adopted by the productive jingsheng Wang Siqian, a

contemporary of Shen Hong. Many fascicles of the Lotus Sutra transcribed by Wang

Siqian were among the Dunhuang discoveries mentioned earlier in this chapter. The

characters xian 咸, zhi 紙, and gan 感, written on the colophon of fascicle three of the

Lotus Sutra (see fig. 29), also incorporate a long, slender, and exaggerated downward

stroke complete with a small horizontal stroke at the beginning, which ends with a

straight upward hook stroke. Wang Xiqian‘s Lotus Sutra is dated to 672, when Chu

Suiliang‘s style was most favored in court and country as well. Such close similarity may

be the result of sutra copyists‘ faithfulness in representing the dominant calligraphy style

promoted by the court.

Chu Suiliang‘s undulating lines and his distinctively long and graceful ―throw‖ (pie

撇) stroke can be recognized in many copied sutras. The Sutra of the Perfection of

Wisdom in Princeton is a good example, even though it was only a provincial copy, in

which the ―throw‖ stroke in the characters like ruo 若, mo 摩, and xu 虚 (fig. 37) closely

resemble that in the characters yi 儀, jin 金, se 色, rong 容, jing 鏡, and li 麗 (fig. 38) in

the inscription of the famous Preface. The provincial sutra copyists also adopted Chu

Suiliang‘s fully angled ―hook‖ (gou 鉤) stroke, which can be seen throughout the

copyist‘s Great Sutra (see fig. 37). In this provincial copy, the copyist is purposely

showing the brush tip at the beginning point of every horizontal or vertical stroke (see

also fig. 37).

186
 Although all the significant features of Chu Suiliang‘s calligraphy have been

deliberately emphasized and well executed by this anonymous copyist transcribing the

Great Sutra, there are still defects that can be seen in the provisional copy. Amy McNair

compares the character bian 變 in the Great Sutra and zheng 徴 in Chu‘s Yanta (fig.

39).75 Both characters contain the ―drag‖ (na 捺) stroke, which, when used, is the last

stroke to complete a character and often governs the balance of the composition. The

drag stroke in both characters is depicted in a long, slender, and exaggerated manner;

instead of dragging downwards, they are stretched outward and, as a result, the

character appeared lifted and lively. The provincial copyist, however, seems to lack the

precise skill to complete the drag stroke with the sharp angle that was produced by

master Chu. In addition, the center part of the character bian 變 is crudely abbreviated.

This kind of lapse may suggest, according to McNair, ―that our copyist might not have

met the high calligraphic standards demanded in the capital.‖76 In my opinion, the

clumsy abbreviation in the character bian may be the result of the time constraints that

were faced by all sutra copyists. Sometimes abbreviations were necessary for the same

reason. Abbreviating the original character wu 無, which contains bountiful strokes, with

the simplified form 无, which has only four simple strokes, was a particular convention

commonly adopted in sutra copying (see fig. 34).

Regardless, there are always differences that can be detected between a master‘s

hand and that of a copyist‘s, and close resemblance between them is evidence that the

calligraphic quality established in the early Tang court was successful, long-lasting and

75
Amy McNair, “Texts of Taoism and Buddhism and the Power of Calligraphic Style,‖ 230.
76
Ibid.

187
far reaching. The Buddhists‘ efforts to sustain high standards of calligraphy in sutra

copying and to distribute the copies on a grand scale proved to be of great value in

cultivating and elevating the popularity of calligraphy, which began in the Sui dynasty

and developed fully during the Tang. However, this impact awaits further corroboration;

and its evaluation may be a subject of future research.

Possible Influence of Copyists on Elite Masters

Along with the recognition that copyists often imitated the elite styles of their day, a

question arises as to whether or not the work of copyists had made some influences on

elite masters. To answer that question, one would have to counter a long tradition of

scholarship. Often denied or devalued by the intellectual mainstream, religious

manuscripts have not been considered important in the historical development of the

calligraphic tradition in China. While literary sources supporting the argument that sutra

copyists influenced masters are scarce, one can certainly look for evidence in the

surviving manuscripts.

A major shift in the development of Chinese calligraphy is apparent in a change

that took place during the mid-Tang period, when elegant, elongated characters were

supplanted by rounder and squarish characters. The squarish effect emphasized in the

style of the leading calligraphy master at this time, Yan Zhenqing, was said to have

initiated this new development. However, as discussed previously, squarish characters

had in fact often appeared in the copied sutras of earlier periods. This strongly suggests

that Master Yan Zhenquing had encountered many copied sutras and they may have

influenced his ―distinctive‖ style.

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 A few examples support this argument. A twenty-two-line handwritten copy of

Empress Wu‘s Preface to the Holy Teaching of Tripiṭaka (Sanzang shengjiao xu 三藏聖

教序) (fig. 40), dated 700,77 exhibits brushstrokes and compositional structures that later

appeared in Yan Zhenqing‘s calligraphy. Manuscripts written at the end of seventh

century illustrate similar traits: Taixuanzhen yibenji jing 太玄真一本際經, transcribed by

the Daoist nun Zhao Miaoxu 趙妙虚 (fig. 41),78 and a fragment of colophon of the Lotus

Sutra (fig. 42),79 both display round but powerful strokes and squarish characters.

These manuscripts were executed many decades before Yan Zhenqing became an

influential figure. Similarities in character structure and brushstroke between Zhao

Miaoxu‘s Taixuanzhen yibenji jing and the celebrated Stele of Commemorating Duobao

Pogoda inscribed by Yan Zhenqing are striking. It is presumptuous to assume that Yan

utilized the earlier Dunhuang manuscript as a model to develop his style. Nevertheless,

it is reasonable to believe that even an elite master like Yan Zhenqing could have

encountered some earlier transcribed sutras that may have influenced his stylistic

development.

Sutra Copying/Reproducing and Merit Making

Before and after the invention of printing, one important fact remained unchanged:

the transcription and propagation of Buddhist texts were acts of faithful devotion, and

sutra copying was a pious act performed as a means of cultivating religious merit.

Within the Buddhist world of medieval China, it was widely believed that one who copies

77
Discussed in section ―Steles of Yanta Shengjiao Xu Bing Ji‖ of Chapter 4, 111 and n. 84.
78
Dated 695, the Taixuanzhen yibenji jing is housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2170).
79
Dated 697, this fragment of colophon of the Lotus Sutra is housed in the British Library (S.2157).

189
sutras, commissions a sutra copyist to transcribe sutras, or pays for printing of sutras

(after printing was invented) would accrue enormous blessings in this or a future life.

Numerous passages from various Buddhist scriptures attest to the bliss that was

supposedly accumulated through transcribing sutras. In the Lotus Sutra, one of the

most influential scriptures in East Asian Buddhism, the Buddha says, ―If any good man

or good woman shall accept and keep this Scripture of the Dharma Blossom, whether

reading it, reciting it, interpreting it, or copying it, that person shall attain eight hundred

virtues of the body.‖80 This passage is part of a long revelation, where Buddha offers

blessings and calls living beings to purify body and mind in order to enjoy, love, and

revere the Scripture of the Lotus Blossom. This is part of a religious practice that

includes reading, reciting, explaining, or copying scripture. Similar message, confirming

that these religious practices are the means by which one may accumulate merit, can

be found in many sections of the Lotus Sutra: ―If there is anyone who can receive and

keep, read and recite, recall properly, cultivate and practice, and copy this Scripture of

the Dharma Blossom …be it known that that person has been praised by the Buddha

with the word ‗Excellent!‘‖81 From a Chinese perspective, a society that privileges writing

as a literary, spiritual, and aesthetic endeavor, the copying of sutras achieves twofold

80
T 9.47c: ―若善男子善女人受持是經若讀若誦若解説若書寫得八百身功德.‖—妙法蓮華經卷第六法師功德
品第十九.Translation is from Leon Hurvitz, trans., Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma,
264.
81
T 9.061c: “若有受持、讀誦，正憶念，修習書寫是法華經者, 當知是人, 則見釋迦牟尼佛, 如從佛口聞此經
典, 當知是人, 供養释迦牟尼佛, 当知是人, 佛赞善哉”—妙法蓮華經卷第七普賢菩薩勸法品第二十八.
Translation is from Leon Hurvitz, trans., Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, 335.

190
purpose: it reaffirms the cultural belief that writing cultivates a person‘s virtue, while, the

same time, garners the blessings from the Buddha.82

Encouraging devotees to read, recite, practice, transcribe, and disseminate sutras

can be found in many Mahayana scriptures. The Flower Adornment Sutra specifies that

merits and virtues accumulated in this way will benefit others and facilitate one‘s entry

into the Land of Pure Bliss of Amitabha Buddha.83 In addition to emphasizing the

blessings that can be acquired by transcribing sutras, Flower Adornment Sutra offers

further instruction for a more rigorous form of devotion also attained through writing. A

passage in which the bodhisattva Samantabhadra Puxian 普賢 advises the pilgrim

Sudhana 善才 to take ten great vows, including the one to ―imitate the Buddha,‖ reads:

―The Buddha Vairocana was willing to give his life. He peeled his skin for paper, broke

off a bone for a pen, and drew his own blood for ink. The scriptures he copied in this

manner stacked up as high as Mount Sumerued.‖84 Another important record of blood

writing in Buddhist sutras is in the Brahma’s Net Scripture,85 which instructs devotees

to: ―Cut away your skin for paper, draw your blood for ink and use your marrow for

water. Break off a piece of your own bone for a pen and copy out the Buddhist

82
My speculation is that, given the Chinese privileging of writing, sutra copying may have been
considered the highest form for accumulating merit.

83
T 10.846c: ―受已能讀, 讀已能誦, 誦已能持, 乃至書寫, 廣為人說, 是諸人等. 於一念中, 所有行願,
皆得成就, 所獲福聚無量無邊, 能於煩惱大苦海中, 拔濟眾生, 令其出離, 皆得往生阿彌陀佛極樂世
界.‖—大方廣佛華嚴經卷第四十. The citation is from the Flower Adornment Sutra, a version translated by
Prajña 般若, completed around 798, in T 10.661a–848b.
84
T 10.845b: ―言常隨佛學者, 如此娑婆世界, 毘盧遮那如來, 從初發心, 精進不退, 以不可說不可說身命而為
布施, 剝皮為紙, 折骨為筆, 刺血為墨, 書寫經典, 積如須彌, 為重法故, 不惜身命.‖—大方廣佛華嚴經卷第四十.
Ibid.

85
Brahma’s Net Scripture is ―a text that claims to be a translation of an Indian original, but was probably
in fact compiled in China in the fifth century.‖ See John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism,‖
179, and n. 9.

191
precepts.‖86 When the actual practice of mixing blood with ink and copying scriptures

with a brush on paper was carried out, it reflects ―the determined zeal of devotes who

saw themselves on the margin of the Buddhist world.‖87 This implies that great physical

suffering combined with perseverance is, for these Buddhists, a joy. Fayuan zhulin, a

seventh century Buddhist text, reiterates the notion that this particular kind of devotion

and affirmation can bring joy.88

Although sutras written with human blood have not survived, numerous historical

documents and resources assert that many monks and devotees pricked their tongue or

finger to draw blood, mixed it with ink, and then used it to copy Buddhist scriptures.89 A

well-known example, monk Zengren from the Longxing Temple in Lingwu, transcribed

two fascicles of scriptures with his own blood and later submitted these scriptures to the

emperor.90 This kind of ascetic practice is lauded not only in Buddhist texts, but also in

Tang history and poetry. Jiu Tang shu tells us that when Emperor Suzong 肅宗 (r. 756-

761) was ill, his empress copied Buddhist scriptures with her blood, in the belief that her

action would contribute to her husband's recovery.91 A poem composed by monk

Guanxiu 貫休 (832-912) praises a fellow monk who drained the blood from his ten

fingers in order to complete seven rolls of the Flower Adornment Sutra.92 In addition to

86
T 24.1009a. Translation from John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism,‖ 179.
87
John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism,‖ 180.
88
T 53.907c: ―我有佛所說一偈, 汝能以皮為紙, 以骨為筆, 以血為墨, 書寫此偈, 當以與汝樂法.‖

89
John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism,‖ 177–78.
90
Zan Ning, Song Gaozeng zhuan, 26.667–68.
91
JTS 10.260.
92
Quan Tang shi, 837.9438.

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textual references, a carved inscription on the celebrated Stele of Commemorating

Duobao Pogoda,93 erected in 752, states that the Chan Master Chujin 楚金 (fl. 740–760)

used his own blood to transcribe the Lotus Sutra, the Brahma’s Net Scripture,and the

Sūtra of Meditation on the Bodhisattva Universal Virtue.

More vivid examples can be found in the Dunhuang manuscripts. According to one

colophon in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, an eighty-three year old devotee

claims to have drawn his own blood, which he then mixed with ink, to transcribe the

Diamond Sutra. At the end of the colophon, he gives a date of 906 and dedicates his act

to ―all the believers in Sha Prefecture; may the state and the land be still and peaceful;

may the wheel of the Law turn forever. Should I die in writing it, I ask only that I quickly

pass out of this world, I have no other prayers.‖94 The claim of drawing blood to copy

sutra should not necessarily take literally, and could interprete that this eighty-three

year-old devotee ―ornamented‖ the writing with his physical suffering as a sign of his

sincerity.95 It is my opinion that even if these references to the use of blood and skin

were metaphorical rather than actual, the conceptual link made from physical suffering

as the highest devotion to the actual act of writing underscores the importance of writing

as a primary vehicle for the accumulation of merit. In turn, this physical sacrifice, which

93
The Stele was penned by Yan Zhenqing. For details on the stele and calligrapher, see section ―Tang
kai,‖ in Chapter 3, and n. 86.

94
A copy of the Diamond Sutra in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France coded P. 2876 has a colophon
reads, ―天祐三年歲次丙寅四月五日八十三歲老翁刺血和墨手寫此經流布沙州一切信士國土安寧法輪常轉以
死寫之乞早過世餘無所願.‖ Translation is modified from John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese
Buddhism,‖ 184.
95
John Kieschnick, ―Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism,‖ 185.

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signals the practitioner‘s high degree of religious devotion, increases the value of the

writing.

Buddhist Dissemination vs. Daoist Isolation

The spirit conveyed by the artist is a key factor in the evaluation of calligraphy as

an art form. As outlined earlier, from the time writing was invented, the act of writing has

been imbued with divine power. This emphasis on the metaphysical transformed during

calligraphy‘s formative period to a focus on aesthetic quality. Theories about the

practice of calligraphy, as well as the systems that emerged to critique or classify

calligraphic works, tended to regard calligraphy as a spiritual pursuit, an attribute that

qualified calligraphy as a form of art. Terms such as ―untrammeled‖ or ―divine‖ were

used to describe the great masters of calligraphy, while the best kind of calligraphy was

often referred to as inspired with ―spirit.‖ The phrase ―reveled in vacuity‖96 was used by

Sun Guoting in his Shupu to describe Wang Xizhi‘s Huangting jing, a Daoist scripture

containing the only small standard script written by Wang Xizhi. Lanting xu, the most

celebrated piece of Wang‘s work, was written with a graceful ease, which was

articulated as ―his thought roamed and his spirit soared.‖97

Being highly imbedded with spirit, calligraphy was used by both Buddhists and

Daoists as a vehicle to promote their religions. Their ideas regarding production,

however, were different. In Daoism, practitioners believe that the fate of manuscripts

should be guided by heavenly providence; hence the sacred scriptures were not made

96
Sun Guoting, Shu pu, in LDSF 128: ―黄庭經則怡懌虚無.‖ Translation from Two Chinese Treatises on
Calligraphy: Treatise on Calligraphy (Shu pu) by Sun Qianli and Sequel to the ―Treatise on Calligraphy‖
(Xu shu pu), translated and annotated by Chang and Frankel, 10.
97
Ibid.,: ―蘭亭興集思逸神超.‖ Translation from Two Chinese Treatises on Calligraphy (translated and
annotated by Chang and Frankel), 10–11.

194
for everybody, but rather for the initiated. The permanent possession of a piece of

scripture assured that the owner enjoyed the direct communication with the spirit and

heavenly grace. For Buddhists, however, the practice of copying and disseminating

sutras was an act of faithful devotion. Endeavoring to accumulate merit, Buddhists‘

efforts resulted in the production of a colossal number of Buddhist manuscripts, which

contributed to the prolific spread of their religion. At the same time, Buddhists engraved

their scriptures on mountain stones and erected steles with inscriptions of either

Buddhist texts or words that commemorated Buddhist events or honored eminent

monks. These monuments not only served to promote the religion, but also preserved

the calligraphy for a long period of time. In contrast, due to the exclusive nature of

Daoism and the secrecy of their texts, public stones with Daoist inscriptions were rare,

and the mass production of Daoist text was inhibited. Both Buddhism and Daoism,

however, sought to transfer the cultural value already ascribed to calligraphy within the

Chinese tradition to religious purpose, thereby increasing the prestige and value of their

own religions. In turn, religious spirit has long influenced critical evaluations of the

aesthetic qualities of calligraphy as well as its practice.

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 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

The primary sources available for the study of Tang calligraphy are inscriptions on

steles and manuscripts from Dunhuang. Most of these calligraphic transcriptions are

related to Buddhism and reflect complex interactions between the ideology, practices,

and agendas of Buddhism, and those of the early Tang court.

Emperor Taizong‘s efforts to promote Wang Xizhi‘s calligraphy as the model for

the Tang style of standard script, later known as Tang kai, provided the foundation for

the establishment of a classicial tradition of Chinese calligraphy. While refined and

energetic, as well as formal, precise, and easily legible, Tang kai was widely used for

government documents, stele inscriptions, and sutra copies. The use of Tang kai

increased the accuracy and efficiency of copying, and, in turn, not only propagated

Tang culture but also escalated the spread of Buddhism in China. In the support of

calligraphic practices, the interests of the Tang government and the mission of

Buddhism sometimes converged, often to the benefit of both. In addition, the vigorous

promotion of calligraphy orchestrated by the Tang court and the subsequent response

from Buddhist monasteries transformed calligraphy from an elite practice to an activity

prevalent among commoners. This new cultural milieu is evident from the voluminous

Tang Buddhist manuscripts discovered from Dunhuang and examained in this study,

and through which a dynamic relationship between the elite calligraphy masters and

sutra copyists has been revealed.

This study has illustrated that the reproduction and distribution of Buddhist

manuscripts and rubbings taken from Buddhist steles created opportunities for more

people, even non-elite and secular populations, to read, appreciate, and ultimately

196
practice calligraphy. In the service of religious and political ends, calligraphic practices

during the early Tang somewhat democratized relationships in society, as aesthetic

skill, like calligraphy, could serve to transcend class hierarchies. Like ―passing clouds

and flowing streams‖ (xingyun liushui 行雲流水), calligraphy was an art form that

connected and moved across institutional and social boundaries.

197
 APPENDIX A
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Bingbian 247 (Rubbing of jiaguwen)—preface, charge, and verification of Lady

Hao‘s giving birth, datable to 1200 BCE, in the Collection of Academia Sinica, Taiwan.
Source: David N. Keightley, Source of Shang History, fig. 12.

2. Shi Qiang pan, with rubbing, datable tenth to early ninth century BCE, in Baoji
Municipal Museum, Shaanxi Province. Source: Ouyang Zhangshi, Chinese Calligraphy,
pl. 2.8.

3. Wang Xizhi, Lanting xu, ink on paper, original dated 353, Tang imitation, Shenlong
version, allegedly made by Feng Chengsu, in the Collection of the Palace Museum,
Beijing. Source: Ouyang Zhangshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 3.23.
3a. Detail of above. Source: Ouyang Zhangshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 1.19.

4. Tang Taizong, Jinci ming, ink rubbing on paper, 646. Stele in Jinci. Source: Li
Gang, ed., Jinci zhi ming bin xu, p. 38.

5. Tang Taizong, Wenchuan ming, ink rubbing on paper, 648, in the Collection the
Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.4508). Source: Rao Zongyi, ed., Facong
Dunhuang shuyuan jinhua, 1.7.

6. Ouyang Xun, Jiuchenggong Liquan ming, ink rubbing on paper, 632, Northern
Song rubbing in the Collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing. Source: Ouyang
Zhongshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 4.7.

7. Yu Shinan, Kongzi miaotang bei, ink rubbing on paper, 628–630, rubbing from the
original stele, now in the collection of the Mitsui Memorial Museum, Tokyo. Source:
Ouyang Zhongshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 4.9.

8. Chu Suiliang, Yique Fokan bei, mounted ink rubbing, 641, Song dynasty rubbing
in the collection of the National Library of China, Beijing. Source: Ouyang Zhongshi,
Chinese Painting, pl. 4.10.

9. Yu Shinan, Feng fashi bei, ink rubbing, 642, Song dynasty rubbing in the
Collection of Mitsui Memorial Museum, Tokyo. Source: Ouyang Zhongshi, Chinese
Painting, pl. 4.11.

10a. Chu Suiliang, Yanta shengjiao xu, ink rubbing, 653, Ming dynasty rubbing in the
Palace Museum, Beijing. Source: Ouyang Zhongshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 4.12.
10b. Chu Suiliang, Yanta shengjiao xu ji, ink rubbing, 653, Ming dynasty rubbing in the
Collection of Wenwu chubanshe, Beijing. Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta
shengjiao xu ji (Beijing: Wenwu, 1983), [p. 36].

198
11. Wang Xizhi, Yue Yi lun, ink on paper, from Yu Qing zhai fatie (model book
produced ca. 1598–1614). Source: Lothar Ledderose, Mi Fu and the Classical Tradition,
fig. 6, also in Shodo Zenshu 4.27.

12. Zhang Xuan muzhi, mounted ink rubbing of an in-tomb epitaph, 531, in the
Shanghai Museum. Source: Ouyang Zhangshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 3.50.

13. Zhu Dailin muzhi, mounted ink rubbing of a stele, 571, in the Palace Museum,
Beijing. Source: Ouyang Zhangshi, Chinese Painting, pl. 3.51.

14. Ji Wang shengjiao xu bing ji, ink rubbing, 672, Song dynasty rubbing in the
Collection of National Palace Museum, Taibei. Source: Song ta shengjiao xu (Taibei:
National Palace Museum, 1983, 1964c), [p. 1–2].

15. Tonzhou shengjiao xu bing ji, ink rubbing, 663, Stele is now in Xi‘an Beilin.
Source: Li Yuzheng, Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, p. 132.

16. Wang Xingman, Yanshi shengjiao xu bing ji, ink rubbing, 657, Stele is now in
Henan Yanshi. Source: Shi Zhecun, Tangbei baixuan, p. 81.

17. Free-hand copy of Yanta shengjiao xu, ink on paper, ca. 700, in the Collection the
Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2780). Source: Wo Xinghua, Dunhuang shufa
yishu, fig. 2.5.

18. Characters 顯,能,鷲,from Yanta shengjiao xu bing ji, see above no. 10a and
10b, Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p. 58, 37, 43].

19. Top: Chu Suiliang, Yanta shengjiao xu, see above no. 10a and 10b. Source:
Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta hengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), p. [1], [4]; bottom: Tongzhou
shengjiao xu, see above no. 15. Source: Li Yuzheng, Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, p.132.

20. Top: character 無 in Yanta Shengjiao xu, see above no. 10a and 10b. Source:
Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta hengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), p. [4], [6]; bottom: character 無 in
Tongzhou hengjiao xu, see above 15. Source: Li Yuzheng, Xi’an Beilin shufa yishu, p.
132.

21. Copy of the Weimojie jing, ink on paper, 393, in Shanghai Museum. Source: Jiao
Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan yanjiu, fig. 2.

22. Copy of the Shisong biqiu jieben, ink on paper, 405, in the British Library (S.0797).
Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan yanjiu, fig. 3.

23. Copy of the Siyi jing (fascicle four), ink on paper, 588, in the British Library (S.
4020). Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan yanjiu, fig. 29, pp. 266–67.

199
24. Zhongahan jing (fascicle eight), ink on paper, 602, in the British Library (S. 3548).
Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan yanjiu, fig. 33, pp. 280–81.

25a-b. Lanting xu, fragments, free-hand copy (practice), ink on paper, ca. late 9th
century, in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3194 and P.2622).
Source: Shen Leping, Dunhuang shufa zonglun, p. 112.

26. Lanting xu, free-hand copy (practice), ink on paper, ca. 9th century, in the
Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2544). Source: Shen Leping,
Dunhuang shufa zonglun, p. 113.

27a. Jiang Shanjin, Zhiyong zhencao qianziwen, fragment, free-hand copy, ink on
paper, 641, in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3561). Source:
Rao Zongyi, Facang Dunhuang shuyuan jinghua, 1.90.
27b. Jiang Shanjin, Zhiyong zhencao qianziwen, the last section, free-hand copy, ink
on paper, 641, in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.3561). Source:
Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan, fig. 39, p. 300.

28. Tang Taizong, Wenquan ming (detail), ink rubbing on paper, fragment with
handwriting and date (653), in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France
(P.4508). Source: Rao Zongyi, Facong Dunhuang shuyuan jinhua, 1.17.

29. Ouyang Xun, Huadusi bei, sections of ink rubbing on paper, 631, in the Collection
the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.4510). Source: Rao Zongyi, Facong Dunhuang
shuyuan jinhua, 1.18,19.

30a. Shen Hong, copy of the Apitan piposha lun (fascicle sixty), ink on paper, 662, in
the Calligraphy Museum in Tokyo. Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan, fig.40,
pp. 302–03.
30b. Shen Hong, copy of the Apitan piposha lun (fascicle fifty-two), ink on paper, 662,
in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2056). Source: Rao Zongyi,
Dunhuang shufa congkan, 23.29.

31. Wang Siqian, copy of the Lotus Sutra (fascicle 3), ink on paper, 672, in the
Dunhuang County Museum (敦博 55). Source: Harrist and Fong, The Embodied Image,
p. 231, fig. 7.

32. Cheng Du, copy of the Lotus Sutra (fascicle 3), ink on paper, 671, in the British
Library (S.5319). Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan, fig. 42, pp. 310–11.

33. Copy of the Daji jing (fascicle eighteen), ink on paper, 583, in the British Library
(S.3935). Source: Jiao Mingcheng, Dunhuang xiejuan, fig. 28, p, 262.

34. Copy of the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom (fascicle 329), ink on paper, 674, in
the Elliott Collection of Princeton. Source: Harrist and Fong, The Embodied Image, pp.
100–101.

200
35a. Character 咸 in the Apitan piposha lun (fascicle fifty-two), by Shen Hong, see
above no. 30b.
35b. Character 咸 in the Lanting xu, by Wang Xizhi, see above no. 3.
35c. Character 感 in the Yanta shengjiao xu bing ji, by Chu Suiliang, see above no.
10b. Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p.48].
35d. Character 惑 in the Yanta Shengjiao xu bing ji, by Chu Suiliang, see above no.
10b. Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p. 9].

36a. Characters 我, 紙, 義 in the Apitan piposha lun (fascicle fifty-two), by Shen Hong,
see above no. 30b.
36b. Characters 載, 藏, 儀 in the Yanta shengjiao xu bing ji, by Chu Suiliang, see
above no. 10b. Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p. 2, 25,
1].
36c. Characters 盛, 歲, 茂 in the Lanting xu, by Wang Xizhi, see above no. 3

37. The Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom (fascicle 329), detail, ink on paper, 674, in
the Elliott Collection of Princeton. Source: Harrist and Fong, The Embodied Image, p.
101.

38. Chu Suiliang, Yanta Shengjiao xu, section, see above 10b. Source: Tang Chu
Suiliang shu Yanta Shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p. 12]

39. Character 變 in the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom in the Elliott Collection of
Princeton, see above no. 37; character 徵 from Yanta Shengjiao xu, by Chu Suiliang,
see above no. 10b. Source: Tang Chu Suiliang shu Yanta shengjiao xu ji (Wenwu), [p.
5].

40. Copy of Sansang Shengjiao xu, composed by Empress Wu, by an anonymous

copyist, ink on paper, 700, in the Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France
(P.3831). Source: Facong Dunhuang shuyuan jinhua, Rao Zongyi, ed., 1.103, 104.

41. Zhao Miaoxu, copy of the Taixuanzhen yibenji jing, ink on paper, 695, in the
Collection the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (P.2170). Source: The International
Dunhuang Project: the Silk Road Online http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.a4d?uid=-
15351323537;recnum=59236;index=1

42. Copy of the Lotus Sutra (fascicle four with colophon), ink on paper, 697, in the
British Library (S.2157). Source: The International Dunhuang Project: the Silk Road
Online http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.a4d?uid=-
15348699867;recnum=2156;index=1

201
 APPENDIX B
TABLE OF CANONICAL BUDDHIST TEXTS CITED IN THE DISSERTATION

Amitābha Sutra (Chi: A Mituo jing 阿彌陀經 or Mituo jing 彌陀經)

Apitan piposha lun 阿毗曇毗婆沙論 (Skt: Abhidharma-vibhāṣā-śāstra)

Brahma’s Net Scripture/Bodhisattva Precepts Sutra (Chi: Fanwang pusa jie jing 梵網菩
薩戒經; usually abbreviated Fanwang jing 梵網經 or Pusajie jing 菩薩戒經)

Chishi jing 持世經

Da zhi du lun 大智度論 (Skt: Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra)

Daji jing 大集經 (Abbrivated from: Da fangdeng daji jing 大方等大集經; Skt:
Mahāsaṃnipāta-sūtra; Eng: Sutra of the Great Assembly of Great Doctrinal
Universality)

Diamond Sutra (Chi: Jingang bore boluomiduo jing 金剛般若波羅蜜多經; usually

abbreviated Jingang jing 金剛經; Skt: Vajracchedikā prajñāpāramitā-sūtra)

Heart Sutra (Chi: Bore boluomiduoxin jing 般若波羅蜜多心經; usually abbreviated Xin
jing 心經; Skt: Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya sūtra)

Flower Adornment Sutra (Chi: Defang guangfo huayan jing 大方廣佛華嚴經; usually
abbreviated Huayan jing 華嚴經; Skt: Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka sūtra, usually
abbreviated and commonly known as Avataṃsaka Sūtra)

Foming jing 佛名經 (Eng: Sutra on the names of the Buddha)

Foshuo shanxin pusa ershisi jiejing 佛説善信菩薩二十四戒經

Lotus Sutra (Chi: Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法蓮華經; usually abbreviated Fahua jing 法華經;
Skt: Saddharma Puṇḍarīka sūtra)

Nirvana Sutra (Chi: Daban niepan jing 大般涅槃經; usually abbreviated Niepan jing 涅
槃經; Skt: Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra)

Piyu jing 譬喻經 (Eng: Parable Sutra)

Qishi jing 起世經

Sifenlu shanbusuiji jiemuo 四分律刪補随即機羯磨

202
Siyi jing 思益經 (Skt: Viśeṣacintabrahma-pariprcchā-sūtra)

Sutra in Forty-two Sections (Chi: Sishierzhang jing 四十二章經)

Sutra of Meditation on the Bodhisattva Universal Virtue (Chi: Fo shuo guan Puxian Pusa
xingfa jing 佛説觀普賢菩薩行法經 or Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing 觀普賢菩薩行法經;
usually abbreviated Puxian guan jing 普賢觀經 or Puxian jing 普賢經)

Sutra of the Most Honored King (Chi: Jinguangming zuishengwang jing 金光明最勝王經;
Skt: Suvarṇaprabhāsa-uttamarāja-sūtra)

Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom/Great Sutra of the Wisdom (Chi: Dabanro polomiduo
jing 大般若波羅蜜多經; usually abbreviated Dabanro jing 大般若經; Skt: Great
Mahāprajnāpāramitā sūtra)

Ten Discourses of Being Initiated into Monkhood (Chi: Shisong biqio jieben 十誦比丘戒
本)

Vimalakīrti Sutra (Chi: Weimojie jing 维摩詰經; Skt: Vimalakīrti nirdeśa sūtra)

Yogācāra-bhūmi (Yujia shi tilun 瑜伽師地論)

Zhongahan jing 中阿含經 (Eng: Middle Length Āgama Sutra; Skt: Saṃyuttanikāya
Saṃyukta-āgama Sūtra)

203
 APPENDIX C
ANNOTATED TRANSLATION OF THE PREFACE TO THE HOLY TEACHINGS OF
THE TRIPIṬAKA OF THE GREAT TANG, COMPOSED BY TANG TAIZONG

大唐三藏聖教序
Preface to the Holy Teachings of the Tripiṭaka1 of the Great Tang

太宗文皇帝製
Composed by Taizong [r. 629–649], the August Emperor Wen2

蓋聞二儀有像，顯覆載以含生；四時無形，潛寒暑以化物。
It is said that the two primordial principles [yin and yang]3 have visible form and harbor
life by the manifestations of [Heaven‘s] covering and [Earth‘s] support4; although the
four seasons have no shape, they transform all things through their latent ability of cold
and heat.

是以窺天鑑地，庸愚皆識其端；明陰洞陽，賢哲罕窮其數。
For this reason, peering into heaven and inspecting the earth, [even] the common fools
all distinguish the two extremes; [yet] while illuminating yin and penetrating yang, the
virtuous and wise seldom exhaust the multitude [of their diversity].

1
Tripiṭaka, Sanskrit for ―three baskets,‖ is the earliest collection of Buddhist scripture, which can be found
in many versions, while the oldest and most complete one is called the Pali Canon. Therefore Tripiṭaka is
also known as the Pali Canon with an alternate spelling: Tipiṭaka in Pali. The three Baskets of the Law in
Pali includes: the Vinaya-pitaka (pitaka means ―basket‖ in Pali) containing the rules of communal life for
monks and nuns; the Sutra-pitaka, a collection of sermons of the Budddha; and the Adhidharma-pitaka,
which contains interpretations of analyses of Buddhist concepts.
2
Li Shimin 李世民 (599–649), second son of Tang Gaozu 高祖 (r. 618–626), was enthroned on 626 as
the second emperor of the Tang dynasty with the Temple title ―Taizong‖ 太宗. At his death on 649, the
posthumous Memorial title ―Wen‖ 文 was added. He proclaimed his era, the period of Zhenguan 貞觀
(627–649). During his reign, China flourished economically and militarily. He contrived political harmony
by tempering and adapting Buddhism along with Confucianism and Daoism inside and outside the
imperial court. Biography in XTS 2.23–50.
3
In Xici 繫辭, the so-called Ten Wings appended to the core text of the Changes 易經, it states, ―The
Changes embodies the universe from which the two spheres (yin 陰: heaven, and yang 陽: earth) were
created, and from these were born the four images (lesser yang, greater yang, lesser yin, greater yin).‖ (―
易有太極 , 是生兩儀; 兩儀生四象.‖) For the original text and annotations see Zhou I quanyi 周易全譯, by
Xu Zihong 徐子宏 (Guizhou: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1991), 367. The ―four images‖ is interpreted as
the four seasons.
4
Fuzai 覆載 refers to heaven and earth and their huge coverage. The phrase was originated from Yuben
liji, ―zhong yong‖ section 語本禮記中庸: ―天之所覆, 地之所載.‖

204
然而天地苞乎陰陽而易識者，以 其有像也；陰陽處乎天地而難窮者，以其無形也。
That Heaven and Earth, being bound to yin and yang, are easy to distinguish is
because they possess visible form. That yin and yang, residing in heaven and each, are
difficult to exhaust is because they have no shape.

故知像顯可徵，雖愚不惑；形潛莫睹，在智猶迷。
Thus it is apparent that when an image is sufficiently manifest to be verified, even a fool
would not be confused; but when a shape is hidden and not at all detectable, a wise
man may still be deluded.

況乎佛道崇虛，乘幽控寂，弘濟萬品，典御十方，舉威靈而無 上，抑神力而無下。
All the more so in the case of the exalted vacuity (or immateriality) 5 of Buddha‘s Way
which avails itself of solitude to control loneliness. It extends salvation to the myriad
categories [of things] and its code manages the ten directions6. When its authoritative
spirituality is uplifted, there is nothing higher, when its spiritual force press down, there
is nothing lower.

大之則彌於宇宙，細之則攝於毫釐。
In its size, it is more boundless than the universe; in its minuteness, it is more [easily]
crushed than the slightest particle.

無滅無生，歷千劫而不古；若隱若顯，運百福而長今。
Admitting no destruction nor birth, [the Way of Buddha] has passed through a thousand
kalpas7 and not grown old; seemingly hidden, yet seemingly manifest, it has conveyed
countless blessings yet is eternally of the present moment.

妙道凝玄，遵之莫知其際；法流湛寂，挹之莫測其源。
The abstruse doctrine is composed in dark mystery. When following it up, none can
perceive the boundaries. The flow of the doctrine is steeped with solitude. When ladling
it out, none can fathom its origin.

故知蠢蠢凡愚，區區庸鄙，投其旨趣，能無疑惑者哉！
Therefore, in the case of the doltish masses, being very simple and ordinary, although
they [may] take interest in the doctrine, how could they not be confused!

5
Xu 虛 is defined as that which is without shape or substantiality in Buddhism. It is often combined with
kong 空 or wu 無; both xukong 虛空 and xuwu 虛無 can be interpreted as empty, void, or immaterial.
6
―Ten directions,‖ Shifang 十方, is a Buddhist term including the four main directions towards East, West,
South, and North, with four corners of southeast, southwest, northeast, and northwest, plus two upward
and downward directions. In total, that completes every direction and every corner of universe.
7
Kalpa, a Sanskrit, means the length of a Day and Night of Brahma, described in the Pali Canon as the
―unrolling and rolling up‖ of the universe.

205
然則大教之興，基乎西土，騰漢庭而皎夢，照東域而流慈。
Nevertheless, the florescence of the great doctrine was based in a Western land.8 It
rose to the court of Han and brightened our blind slumber, as it shone up on
borderlands of the East and caused compassion to stream forth.

昔者，分形分跡之時，言未馳而成化；當常現常之世，民仰德而知遵。
Long ago, when the form and footsteps [of the historical Buddha] could be discerned,
his words had not yet spread far but his enlightenment has already accomplished. In the
world now, people look up his virtue and understand how to follow it.

及乎晦影歸真，遷 儀越世，金容掩色，不鏡三千之光；麗象開圖，空端四八之相。
By the time his shadow faded away and returned to the ultimate truth, the Nirvana,9 he
changed his look and transgressed another world. [Sculptured] faces cast in shining
gold do not mirror [His] three-thousand beams of light; elegant images used as
illustrations vainly reach toward [the teaching about] the Four Phases10 and Eight
Directions.11

8
In Mahayana Buddhism, Westland Xitu 西土 is an abbreviated term for the ―Pure Land of the West,‖
referring to India.
9
―歸真‖ (guizhen) literal means to return to the place where one was originally from. It can be traced in
many classical writings, such as the ―Eastern Capital Rhapsody‖ by Ban Gu (32–92) 班固東都賦: ―遂令海
內棄末而反本, 背偽而歸真.‖ In current text, it refers to the Buddhist term, ―Nirvana,‖ which is the supreme
goal of Buddhist; release from suffering and individual limitations of existence, as the ―Enlightenment," the
ultimate goal of all Buddhists. The word is derived from a root meaning extinguished through lack of fuel,
and since rebirth is the result of desire, freedom from rebirth is attained by the extinguishing of all such
desire. The attainment of nirvana breaks the otherwise endless rebirth cycle of reincarnation. Nirvana is,
therefore, a state attainable in this life by right aspiration, purity of life, and the elimination of egoism.
10
The four phases of life, sixiang 四相 in Buddhism refers to shengxiang 生相—from the void to the
existence, zhuxiang 住相—the growth, yixiang 異相—the change to be old and decayed, and miexiang 滅
相—the final elimination. These four phases act in a continuous motion; as one is born, the other one
dies; while one dies, the other one is born.
11
The eight directions of life, baxiang 八 相 in Mahayana Buddhism refers to: jiang doushuai 降兜率—
descending from heaven, rutai 入胎—taking possession of a foetus (being conceived as a foetus), zhutai
住胎—growing in a womb, chutai 出胎—being born, chujia 出家—leaving home life and becoming a
devotee, chengdao 成道—attaining spiritual perfection, zhuan falun 轉法輪—promoting the wheel with
roller breaking heresy, carrying forward Buddhism, and rumie 入滅—entering the final elimination. These
eight directions are actually the extension of four phases of life (see note 10). Each phases (being born,
growing, getting old and die) has a greater and lesser phases; one is main phase while the other one is
subordinate and total completes the eight directions of life.

206
於是微言廣被，拯含類於三塗；遺訓遐宣，導群生於十地。
Hence it is the words broadly extended that save and protect all things from the three
evil paths12; the bequeathed doctrines, preached far and wide that guide the all living
creature to reach the ten realms.13

然而真教難仰，莫能一其旨歸，曲學易 遵，邪正於焉紛糾。
Nevertheless the true doctrine is difficult to rely on, for none have been able to unite
meaning into a single [body]. Distorted schools of thought [about it] are easily followed;
the deviant and the truthful are mixed in confusion therein.

所以空有之論，或習俗而是非；大小之乘，乍沿時而隆替。
Therefore, there are [different] disquisitions about [the meaning of] Śūnyatā 14, and
which ones are right or wrong is often decided by habitual custom; [just as] the Greater
Vehicle and Lesser Vehicle15 have in alternation prospered over the course of time.

有玄奘法師者，法門之領袖也。
[Now] there was a Dharma master by the name of Xuanzang [569 or 602–664],16 who
became a leader of the Buddhist faith.

12
Buddhist expression for the lowest transmigrations— the path of fire (hell), the path of blood (hungry
ghosts), and the path of the knife (beasts).
13
In Mahayana Huayan Scritpure, the ten realms refer to different stages of entering the path towards
final enlightenment, including 歡喜地, 離垢地, 發光地, 焰慧地, 極難勝地, 現前地, 遠行地, 不動地, 善慧地,
法雲地.

Śūnyatā, (Sanskrit noun from the adj. sūnya - 'void' ), is kòng/kū, 空 in Chinese/Japanese, meaning
14

"Emptiness" or "Voidness", is a characteristic of phenomena arising from the fact (as observed and taught
by the Buddha) that the impermanent nature of form means that nothing possesses essential, enduring
identity. In the Buddha's spiritual teaching, insight into the emptiness of phenomena (Pali:
suññatānupassanā) is an aspect of the cultivation of insight that leads to wisdom and inner peace. The
importance of this insight is especially emphasized in Mahayana Buddhism, and receives a more
―positive‖ explication in the Tathagatagarbha sutras.
15
The terms of ―The Lesser Vehicle‖ and ―The Greater Vehicle‖ appeared around the first century as to
distinguish the early Buddhist schools and later reformulated teachings of Buddha. Hinayana, a Sanskrit
and Pali term literally meaning ―the lower or lesser vehicle (a way of going to enlightenment),‖ is also
known as Theravada Buddhism with focus primarily on meditation and on the monastic life. On the
contrary, Mahayana, ―the greater vehicle,‖ in order to accommodating masses, turned Buddhism into a
more esoteric religion by developing a theory of gradations of Buddhahood. Mahayanists believe that at
the top stand for Buddhahood is preceded by a series of lives, the numerous Bodhisattvas, hence the
religious authority is extended to a greater number of people rather than concentrating it in the hands of a
few.
16
See Chapter 4 n. 12.

207
幼懷貞敏，早悟三空之心；長契神情，先苞四忍之行。
Imbued with virtue and perspicacity at young age, he apprehended [things] with the
mind of ―Three Empties‖17 in his early life. Committed to matters of spirituality for a long
period of time, he previously bound himself to the practice [of contemplating] the ―Four
Endurances.‖18

松風水月，未足比其清華；仙露明珠，詎能方其朗潤。
[Even] the breeze through the pine trees and the moon [reflected] in the water could
never compare with his purity and elegance; [even] the dew of immortality and the most
lustrous pearl cannot be set alongside his limpidity and smoothness.

故以智 通無累，神測未形，超六塵而迥出，隻千古而無對。
Hence with his wisdom, he could reach without bondage, and with spirituality, he could
fathom the formless. He transcended and removed himself from the six worldly
environments (six defilements).19 He was unique, through a thousand ages, without
counterpart.

凝心內境，悲正法之陵遲；栖慮玄門，慨深文之訛謬。
He concentrated his mind very deep inside, and was saddened by the deterioration of
the orthodox Dharma; his ponderings settled at the ―Gate of Mysteries,‖20 (or Gate of the
Abstruse Teaching?) and he deeply regretted the errors in its [transmitted] writings.

思欲分條析理，廣彼前聞，截偽續真，開茲後學。
He formed the intention to distinguish points of doctrine and analyze the truth, to
broaden that which had earlier been known, to cut away the false and to add to the true,
and to open this way for later learners.

17
Three contemplations of the aspect of emptiness is the profound meaning of the Mahayana teaching:
non-attachment as its significance, and no form nor deeds, no rising nor falling are its implications. The
Buddha was able to realize "emptiness" (―śūnyatā‖ in Sanskrit), and by doing so he freed himself from
unsatisfactoriness (s. dukkha). From the standpoint of enlightenment, śūnyatā is the reality of all worldly
existences (s. dharma). The realization of Śūnyatā leads one to no attachment and clinging but towards
enlightenment.
18
In Mahayana text, the noble truth of suffering includes the four aspects of endurance: birth, aging,
illness and death (生,老,病,死).
19
Liuchen 六塵, a Buddhist expression, means the six states of carnal world: color, sound, smell, taste,
touch and perception of power (色,聲,香,味,觸,法). It can also refer to Six Defilements: greed, hatred,
ignorance, arrogance, doubt, and false views.
20
Xuanmen 玄門, literally translated as the Gate of Mysteries, implying the Gate of Abstruse Teaching
which refers to the profound school, i.e. Buddhism. Also that of the Huayan 華嚴(Kegon) which has a
division of Ten Mysterious Gate (shi xuanmen 十玄門) or Ten Mysterious Affinities Arise(shi xuan yuanqi
十玄緣起), the ten philosophic ideas, indicating the ten metaphysical propositions, or lines of thought.

208
是以翹 心淨土，往遊西域。乘危遠邁，杖策孤征。
For this reason, with a heart longing for the Pure Land,21 he set out on a journey to the
Western Regions.22 Bearing dangers on a faraway journey, he [grasped] a riding whip 23
[to set out] on his lonely expedition.

積雪晨飛，途間失地；驚砂夕起，空外迷天。
Piled-up drifts of snow flew in the morning, causing him to lose his way along the route;
sandstorms arose in the evening, obliterating the sky to the farthest horizon.

萬里山川，撥煙霞而進影；百重寒暑，躡霜雨（別本有作「雪」者）而前 蹤。
Through ten-thousand miles of mountains and rivers, he pushed aside mist and fog as
his shadow crept forward; through a hundred changes of cold and heat, he treaded
upon frost and rain as his footsteps advanced forward.

誠重勞輕，求深願達，周遊西宇，十有七年。
His earnest sincerity was so weighty that his labors became light; his yearning was so
profound that his compelling desire was realized. All around the Western Lands he
traveled, for a total of seventeen years.

窮歷道邦，詢求正教，雙林八水，味道餐風，鹿苑鷲峰，瞻奇仰異。
He traveled exhaustedly through the country where the Way of Buddha was prevailed in
order to acquire the orthodox teachings [of Dharma]. By the Twin [śāla] Trees24 and
Eight Rivers,25 he ate his meals under the wind while tasting the flavor of the Buddha‘s
Way. In the Deer Park26 and on the Vulture Peak,27 he watched magnificent scenes and
looked at marvelous things.
21
Jingtu 淨土 refers to India, as in the ―Pure Land of the West,‖ see above n. 8. Literally, Jingtu can be
translated as pure locality, i.e., where a chaste monk dwells. It has, however, become a standard term for
The Pure Land, or Paradise of the West, in Sanskrit sukhāvatī, presided over by Amitābha. Other
Buddhas have their Pure Lands; seventeen other kinds of pure land are also described, all of them of
moral or spiritual conditions of development, e.g., the pure land of patience, zeal, wisdom, etc.
22
Western Regionsrefers to the region in China west of the yangguan 陽關 (gate to the path of the sun;
i.e., the main gate). During the Ha and Tang dynasties, the area was traveled by merchants and
missionaries, and various routes known collectively as the ―Silk Road‖ played an important role in cultural
exchange.
23
Zhangce 仗策, literally translated as ―to grasp a whip,‖ refers to riding a horse.
24
Twin trees, refers to the śāla-trees in Kusinagar under which the Buddha entered nirvana. In the
Mahaparinibbana Sutta it was recorded that the petals of śāla flowers rained on him as he breathed his
last.
25
Eight rivers of India—Ganges, Jumna, Sarasvatī, Hiraṇyavatī or Ajiravatī, Mahī, Indus, Oxus, and Sītā.
26
The first sermon of the Buddha was given in the Deer park at Isipatana. There he addressed the
bhikkhus of the group of five.
27
Mountain of vulture, Jiu fong 鷲峰, is a mountain in India said to be like a head of a vulture, and often
known as the resort of Buddha and called Vulture Peak.

209
承至言於先聖，受真教於上賢，探賾妙門，精窮奧業。
There having inherited most valuable sayings from previous saints, and having received
genuine instruction from superior sages, he explored to the wonderful gate [of
Buddhism], and diligently sought for the subtle meaning of [Buddhist] doctrines.

一乘五律之道，馳驟於心田；八藏三篋之文，波濤於口海 。
The course of ―One Buddha Vehicle‖28 and ―Vinaya in Five Parts‖29 were speedily
achieved in the field of [Xuanzang‘s] mind; as for the texts of the Eight Treasures30 and
the Three Baskets,31 they poured out like waves and billows of the ocean rolling from
his mouth.

爰自所歷之國，總將三藏要文，凡六百五十七部，譯布中夏，宣揚勝業。
Then from the countries he passed through, he collected all the important texts of the
Tripitaka. In total six hundred fifty-seven works32 were translated and distributed in the
land of China for the promulgation of great deeds.

引慈雲於西極，注法雨於東垂，聖教缺而復全，蒼生罪而還福。
[By doing so, Xuanzang] drew forth clouds of compassion from the extreme West that
pured Dharma rain upon the Eastern reaches. Holy Teachings that had been lacking
were again complete, and common beings who were living in sin were restored to a
blessed state.

28
One Buddha Vehicle, Yi cheng (sheng)一乘 (Ekayana in Sanskrit) refers to the Vehicle that offers the
path to Enlightenment. In Ekayana it is believed that the buddha-nature in all is recognized and the
noblest form of Buddhist practice is the way of the Bodhisattvas, those who devote themselves to
attaining enlightenment not only for themselves but for all beings. In the context of the Lotus Sutra
(Ekayana Buddhism —―One Vehicle‖) unifies all spiritual paths as ways to Enlightenment, and empowers
the believers to lead more creative lives by developing a flexible mind.
29
Vinaya in Five Parts, Wu fen lu 五分律 (Mahisasakavinaya in Sanskrit), was introduced into China by
famous monk Fa-Xian (died before 432) about 412. Vinaya refers to the regulations of the monastic life.
The Chinese version of this Vinaya came out in 418 and its Chinese title ―Mo-ho `Shen-chih Lu` (摩訶僧袛
律)‖ was given. The clerics in the the Ch'ang-an (長安) area, welcomed this set of monastic rules and
practiced them in their daily life.
30
There are four categories of Buddhist scriptures in each Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana: Vinaya
pitaka (lu 律)—the regulations of monastic life, Sutra pitaka (jing 經)— the discourses of the Budddha,
Adhidhamma pitaka (lun 論) —the interest in scholasticism, and vidya-dhara pitaka (zhou 咒)—the
incantations. Total those Buddhist literature is sometimes called Eight Treasures, Bazang 八藏 or
Babuzang 八部藏.
31
San jia 三篋 refers to San zang 三藏, three major Buddhist scriptures: lu, jing, and lun (see above n. 1).
32
The total number of 657 books includes 224 books of Mahayana sutras, 192 books of Mahayana
sastras, 15 books of the Tripitaka of the Sthavira School, 15 books of th Tripitaka of the Sammatiya
School, 22 books of the Tripitaka of the Mahisasaka School, 17 books of the Tripitaka of the Kasyapiya
School, 42 books of the Tripitaka of the Dharmagupta School, 67 books of the Tripitaka of the
Sarvastivadin School, 36 books concerning the Hetuvidya Sastra and 13 books concerning the
Sabdavidya Sustra. See Li Rongxi, The Life of Hsuan-tsang, 208–09.

210
濕火宅之乾 燄，共拔迷途；朗愛水之昏波，同臻彼岸。
The dry flames of a burning house were extinguished, such that all people could be
plucked away from the path of delusion; murky waves of the ―river of infatuation‖ were
clarified, such that all people could together reach the other bank [or the other end of
realm].33

是知惡因業墜，善以緣昇，昇墜之端，惟人所託。
Therefore we know that evil befalls us in consequence of [past] sins and good things
arise through [appropriate] conditions. The extremities of the befalling [of evil] or rising
up [of good] owe solely to that upon which men rely.

譬夫桂生高嶺，零露方得泫其華；蓮出淥波，飛塵不能汙其葉。
This may be compared with the osmanthus that grows on a high peak – only then may
its flowers be moistered with scattered dew; or with the lotus that emerges from waves
filtered [of impurities]34 – there flying dust cannot defile its leaves.

非蓮性 自潔而桂質本貞，良由所附者高，則微物不能累；所憑者淨，則濁類不能沾。
It is not the case that the essence of the lotus is naturally pure, or that character of the
osmanthus is originally chaste. It is very much owing to the height on which the tree
depends that it cannot be entangled by trifling things,35 and also because of the
pureness upon which the flower relies that nothing foul can stick to it.

夫以卉木無知，猶資善而成善，況乎人倫有識，不緣慶而求慶！
Now then, if inanimate plants and trees avail themselves of the quality of goodness in
order to achieve goodness, so how much more should not human beings, who are full
of consciousness and awareness, follow what is felicitous in order to seek felicity?

方冀茲經流施，將日月 而無窮；斯福遐敷，與乾坤而永大。
It is my hope at this time that the circulation and distribution of this scripture will be as
unending as the sun and moon, and that the far-reaching expanse of the blessings
therein will share with Heaven and Earth an eternal greatness.

33
In Buddhism, the other end of realm refers to the place in which the masses can escape the world of
laity and reach for the Buddhahood. The Buddhist expression is ―Faramita.‖
34
Lubo 淥波 implies a manmade pond.
35
Weiwu 微物 means extremely small things.

211
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 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

As an immigrant to the United States from China via Taiwan, Ruth Sheng

manifests an extraordinary case of east meets west. That meeting has benefitted her

own life as well as the various communities with which sheng has become affiliated.

After graduated from the National Taiwan University as a history major in 1969, she

moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where she earned a Master of Arts in Art History in 1976 and

Master of Library and Information Science in 1978 at Case Western Reserve University.

Her academic accomplishments led to positions respectively at Harvard University and

Princeton University, where she was in charge of Asian slides and photos collection for

supporting research and teaching. Her design of a system to classify and catalogue the

visual resources has allowed the efficient and user-friendly access to retrieve the large

amount of meterials in both of the collections.

In the late 80s, Sheng moved to Gainesville, Florida, with her husband Peter, a

coastal and oceanographic engineer, and three-year old son, David. In the following

decades, she devoted herself to child rearing and community work. She became an

active docent at the Harn Museum of Art in the University of Florida, participating in

curatorial research, collection development, and various educational activities. Sheng

also founded the Gainesville Chinese School to raise awareness and promote local

interest in learning Chinese language and culture. In addition to overseeing the general

development of the school, her responsibilities included curriculum design and teaching

courses in Chinese language as well as painting and calligraphy. During the 90s, she

taught Chinese language courses at the University of Florida, and was periodically

invited to lecture on Chinese art for both academic classes and community programs

pertaining to Chinese culture.

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 In the spring of 2004, Sheng was accepted to the doctoral program at the

University of Florida‘s School of Art and Art history. At the same time, she was invited to

teach Chinese calligraphy at the university. Since then, her teaching and research have

complemented each other. Her choice of dissertation topic reflects her lifelong love of

studying, teaching and practicing calligraphy. Sheng designed her calligraphy class to

integrate learning about the historical development and aesthetic principles of

calligraphy with hands-on practice. Through her devotion and enthusiasm, the class has

successfully produced the beautiful calligraphic works which have been publicly

exhibited at the end of each semester. For the past three years, Sheng and several of

her students were invited to display their work at the International Calligraphy Art

Exhibition in Shanghai. Bestowed in the homeland of calligraphy, such recognition

affirms that these beautiful calligraphic works offer, in large part, a celebration of the

success of cross-cultural study. Ruth Sheng will continue to devote herself in teaching

and research in the field of Chinese calligraphy.

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