Microcontrollers

10ES42

Stepper Motor Interfacing:

Stepper motor is a widely used device that translates electrical pulses into mechanical movement. Stepper motor
is used in applications such as; disk drives, dot matrix printer, robotics etc,. The construction of the motor is as
shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Structure of stepper motor

It has a permanent magnet rotor called the shaft which is surrounded by a stator. Commonly used stepper
motors have four stator windings that are paired with a center tapped common. Such motors are called as four-
phase or unipolar stepper motor.

The stator is a magnet over which the electric coil is wound. One end of the coil are connected commonly either
to ground or +5V. The other end is provided with a fixed sequence such that the motor rotates in a particular
direction. Stepper motor shaft moves in a fixed repeatable increment, which allows one to move it to a precise
position. Direction of the rotation is dictated by the stator poles. Stator poles are determined by the current sent
through the wire coils.

Step angle:
Step angle is defined as the minimum degree of rotation with a single step.
No of steps per revolution = 360° / step angle
Steps per second = (rpm x steps per revolution) / 60
Example: step angle = 2°

No of steps per revolution = 180

Switching Sequence of Motor:

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As discussed earlier the coils need to be energized for the rotation. This can be done by sending a bits sequence
to one end of the coil while the other end is commonly connected. The bit sequence sent can make either one
phase ON or two phase ON for a full step sequence or it can be a combination of one and two phase ON for half
step sequence. Both are tabulated below.

Full Step:

Two Phase ON

One Phase ON

Half Step (8 sequence):

The sequence is tabulated as below:

8051 Connection to Stepper Motor: (explanation of the diagram can be done)

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Figure 2: 8051 interfaces to stepper motor

The following example 1 to example 6 shown below will elaborate on the discussion done above:

Example 1: Write an ALP to rotate the stepper motor clockwise / anticlockwise

continuously with full step sequence.

Program:

MOV A,#66H
BACK: MOV P1,A
RR A
ACALL DELAY
SJMP BACK

DELAY: MOV R1,#100

UP1: MOV R2,#50
UP: DJNZ R2,UP
DJNZ R1,UP1
RET
Note: motor to rotate in anticlockwise use instruction RL A instead of RR A

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Example 2: A switch is connected to pin P2.7. Write an ALP to monitor the status
of the SW. If SW = 0, motor moves clockwise and if SW = 1, motor moves
anticlockwise.

Program:

ORG 0000H
SETB P2.7
MOV A, #66H
MOV P1,A
TURN: JNB P2.7, CW
RL A
ACALL DELAY
MOV P1,A
SJMP TURN
CW: RR A
ACALL DELAY
MOV P1,A
SJMP TURN
DELAY: as previous example

Example 3: Write an ALP to rotate a motor 90° clockwise. Step angle of motor is
2°.

Solution:

Step angle = 2°
Steps per revolution = 180
No of rotor teeth = 45
For 90° rotation the no of steps is 45
Program:
ORG 0000H
MOV A, #66H
MOV R0, #45
BACK: RR A
MOV P1, A
ACALL DELAY
DJNZ R0, BACK
END

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Example 4: Rotate the stepper motor continuously clockwise using half-step 8-step
sequence. Say the sequence is in ROM locations.

Program:

ORG 0000H
START: MOV R0, #08
MOV DPTR, #HALFSTEP
RPT: CLR A
MOVC A, @A+DPTR
MOV P1, A
ACALL DELAY
INC DPTR
DJNZ R0, RPT
SJMP START
ORG 0200H
HALFSTEP DB 09, 08, 0CH, 04, 06, 02, 03, 01
END

Programming Stepper Motor with 8051 C

The following examples 5 and 6 will show the programming of stepper motor using 8051 C.

Example 5: Problem definition is same as example 1.

Program:
#include <reg51.h>
void main ()
{
while (1)
{
P1=0x66;
MSDELAY (200);
P1=0x33;
MSDELAY (200);
P1=0x99;
MSDELAY (200);
P1=0xCC;
MSDELAY (200);
}
}
void MSDELAY (unsigned char value)
{
unsigned int x,y;
for(x=0;x<1275;x++)
for(y=0;y<value;y++);
}

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Example 6: Problem definition is same as example 2.

Program:
#include <reg51.h>
sbit SW=P2^7;
void main ()
{
SW=1;
while (1)
{
if(SW==0){
P1=0x66;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0x33;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0x99;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0xCC;
MSDELAY (100);
}
else {
P1=0x66;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0xCC;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0x99;
MSDELAY (100);
P1=0x33;
MSDELAY (100);
}
void MSDELAY (unsigned char value)
{
unsigned int x,y;
for(x=0;x<1275;x++)
for(y=0;y<value;y++);
}

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DC Motor Interfacing with 8051:

The DC motor is another widely used device that translates electrical pulses into mechanical movement. Motor
has 2 leads +ve and ve , connecting them to a DC voltage supply moves the motor in one direction. On
reversing the polarity rotates the motor in the reverse direction. Basic difference between Stepper and DC motor
is stepper motor moves in steps while DC motor moves continuously. Another difference is with stepper motor
the number of steps can be counted while it is not possible in DC motor. Maximum speed of a DC motor is
indicated in rpm. The rpm is either with no load it is few thousands to tens of thousands or with load rpm
decreases with increase in load.

Voltage and current rating : Nominal voltage is the voltage for a motor under normal condition. It ranges from
1V to 150V. As voltage increases, rpm goes up. Current rating is the current consumption when the nominal
voltage is applied with no load that is 25mA to a few amperes. As load increases, rpm increases, unless voltage
or current increases implies torque increases. With fixed voltage, as load increases, power consumption of a DC
motor is increased.

Unidirectional Control:

Figure 3 shows the rotation of the DC motor in clockwise and anticlockwise direction.

Figure 3: DC motor rotation

Bidirectional Control:

(a) Motor not running (b) Clockwise direction

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(c) Counter clockwise direction (d) Invalid state (short circuit)

Figure 4: H-Bridge Motor Configuration

Figure 4 shows the H-Bridge motor configuration. It consists of four switches and based on the closing and
opening of these switches the motor either rotates in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.

As seen in figure 4a, all the switches are open hence the motor is not running. In b, turning of the motor is in
one direction when the switches 1 and 4 are closed that is clockwise direction.

Similarly, in c the switches 2 and 3 are closed so the motor rotates in anticlockwise direction, while in figure 4d
all the switches are closed which indicates a invalid state or a short circuit.

The interfacing diagram of 8051 to bidirectional motor control can be referred to fig 17-18 from text prescribed.

Example 6: A switch is connected to pin P2.7. Write an ALP to monitor the status of the
SW. If SW = 0, DC motor moves clockwise and if SW = 1, DC motor moves
anticlockwise.
Program:
ORG 0000H
CLR P1.0
CLR P1.1
CLR P1.2
CLR P1.3
SETB P2.7
MONITOR: JNB P2.7, CLOCK
SETB P1.0
CLR P1.1
CLR P1.2
SETB P1.3
SJMP MONITOR
CLOCK: CLR P1.0
SETB P1.1
SETB P1.2
CLR P1.3
SJMP MONITOR
END

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

The speed of the motor depends on 3 parameters: load, voltage and current. For a given load, we can maintain a
steady speed by using PWM. By changing the width of the pulse applied to DC motor, power provided can
either be increased or decreased. Though voltage has fixed amplitude, has a variable duty cycle. The wider the
pulse, higher the speed obtained. One of the reasons as to why dc motor are referred over ac is, the ability to
control the speed of the DC motor using PWM. The speed of the ac motor is dictated by the ac frequency of
voltage applied to the motor and is generally fixed. Hence, speed of the AC motors cannot be controlled when
load is increased.

Figure 5 below shows the pulse width modulation comparison.

Figure 5: PWM comparison

Example 7: A switch is connected to pin P2.7. Write a C to monitor the status of the SW.
If SW = 0, DC motor moves clockwise and if SW = 1, DC motor moves anticlockwise.
Program:
# include <reg51.h>
sbit SW =P2^7;
sbit Enable = P1^0;
sbit MTR_1 = P1^1;
sbit MTR_2 = P1^2;
void main ( )
{
SW=1;
Enable = 0;
MTR_1=0;
MTR_2=0;
while( )
{
Enable =1;
if( SW==1)
{ MTR_1=1;
MTR_2=0;
}
else
{ MTR_1=0;
MTR_2=1;
}}}

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Example 8: A switch is connected to pin P2.7. Write an C to monitor the status of the SW.
If SW = 0, DC motor moves 50% duty cycle pulse and if SW = 1, DC motor moves with
25% duty cycle pulse.

Program:

# include <reg51.h>
sbit SW =P2^7;
sbit MTR = P1^0;
void main ( )
{
SW=1;
MTR=0;
while( )
{
if( SW==1)
{ MTR=1;
Msdelay(25);
MTR=0;
Msdelay(75);
}
else
{ MTR=1;
Msdelay(50);
MTR=0;
Msdelay(50);
}
}
}
The interfacing diagrams for the above examples can be referred to the text.

Digital-to-Analog (DAC) converter:

The DAC is a device widely used to convert digital pulses to analog signals. In this section we will discuss the
basics of interfacing a DAC to 8051.

The two method of creating a DAC is binary weighted and R/2R ladder.

The Binary Weighted DAC, which contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the DAC connected to
a summing point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct output value. This is one of the fastest
conversion methods but suffers from poor accuracy because of the high precision required for each individual
voltage or current. Such high-precision resistors and current-sources are expensive, so this type of converter is
usually limited to 8-bit resolution or less.

The R-2R ladder DAC, which is a binary weighted DAC that uses a repeating cascaded structure of resistor
values R and 2R. This improves the precision due to the relative ease of producing equal valued matched

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resistors (or current sources). However, wide converters perform slowly due to increasingly large RC-constants
for each added R-2R link.

The first criterion for judging a DAC is its resolution, which is a function of the number of binary inputs. The
common ones are 8, 10, and 12 bits. The number of data bit inputs decides the resolution of the DAC since the
number of analog output levels is equal to 2n, where n is the number of data bit inputs.

DAC0808:

The digital inputs are converter to current Iout, and by connecting a resistor to the Iout pin, we can convert the
result to voltage. The total current Iout is a function of the binary numbers at the D0-D7 inputs of the DAC0808
and the reference current Iref , and is as follows:

Usually reference current is 2mA. Ideally we connect the output pin to a resistor, convert this current to
voltage, and monitor the output on the scope. But this can cause inaccuracy; hence an opamp is used to convert
the output current to voltage. The 8051 connection to DAC0808 is as shown in the figure 6 below.

Figure 6: 8051 connections to DAC0808

The following examples 9, 10 and 11 will show the generation of waveforms using DAC0808.

Example 9: Write an ALP to generate a triangular waveform.

Program:
MOV A, #00H
INCR: MOV P1, A
INC A
CJNE A, #255, INCR
DECR: MOV P1, A
DEC A
CJNE A, #00, DECR
SJMP INCR
END

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Example 10: Write an ALP to generate a sine waveform.

Vout = 5V(1+sin )

Solution: Calculate the decimal values for every 10 degree of the sine wave. These
values can be maintained in a table and simply the values can be sent to port P1. The
sinewave can be observed on the CRO.

Program:
ORG 0000H
AGAIN: MOV DPTR, #SINETABLE
MOV R3, #COUNT
UP: CLR A
MOVC A, @A+DPTR
MOV P1, A
INC DPTR
DJNZ R3, UP
SJMP AGAIN
ORG 0300H
SINETABLE DB 128, 192, 238, 255, 238, 192, 128, 64, 17, 0, 17, 64, 128
END
Note: to get a better wave regenerate the values of the table per 2 degree.

Example 10: Write a C program to generate a sine waveform.

Vout = 5V(1+sin )
Program:
#include<reg51.h>
sfr dacdata=P1;
void main( )
{
unsigned char sinetable[12]={ 128, 192, 238, 255, 238, 192,
128, 64, 17, 0, 17, 64};
unsigned char x;
while (1)
{
for(x=0;x<12;x++)
{
dacdata = sinetable[x];
}
}
}

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Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) interfacing:

ADCs (analog-to-digital converters) are among the most widely used devices for data acquisition. A physical
quantity, like temperature, pressure, humidity, and velocity, etc., is converted to electrical (voltage, current)
signals using a device called a transducer, or sensor. We need an analog-to-digital converter to translate the
analog signals to digital numbers, so microcontroller can read them.

ADC804 chip:

ADC804 IC is an analog-to-digital converter. It works with +5 volts and has a resolution of 8 bits. Conversion
time is another major factor in judging an ADC. Conversion time is defined as the time it takes the ADC to
convert the analog input to a digital (binary) number. In ADC804 conversion time varies depending on the
clocking signals applied to CLK R and CLK IN .

Pin Description of ADC804:

Figure 7: Pin out of ADC0804

CLK IN and CLK R: CLK IN is an input pin connected to an external clock source. To use the internal
clock generator (also called self-clocking), CLK IN and CLK R pins are connected to a capacitor and a
resistor and the clock frequency is determined by:

Typical values are R = 10K ohms and C =150pF. We get f = 606 kHz and the conversion time .

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Vref/2 : It is used for the reference voltage. If this pin is open (not connected), the analog input voltage is
in the range of 0 to 5 volts (the same as the Vcc pin). If the analog input range needs to be 0 to 4 volts,
Vref/2 is connected to 2 volts. Step size is the smallest change can be discerned by an ADC

Vref/2 Relation to Vin Range

D0-D7: The digital data output pins. These are tri-state buffered. The converted data is accessed only when
CS =0 and RD is forced low. To calculate the output voltage, use the following formula

Dout = digital data output (in decimal),

Vin = analog voltage, and
step size (resolution) is the smallest change
Analog ground and digital ground: Analog ground is connected to the ground of the analog Vin and
digital ground is connected to the ground of the Vcc pin. To isolate the analog Vin signal from transient
voltages caused by digital switching of the output D0 D7. This contributes to the accuracy of the
digital data output.
Vin(+) & Vin(-): Differential analog inputs where Vin = Vin (+) Vin (-). Vin (-) is connected to ground
and Vin (+) is used as the analog input to be converted.
RD: -to-low RD pulse is used to get the 8-bit converted data out of ADC804.
INTR:
converted data is ready to be picked up.
WR: -to-high transition, ADC804 starts converting the
analog input value of Vin to an 8- bit digital number.
CS: It is an active low input used to activate ADC804.

The following steps must be followed for data conversion by the ADC804 chip:

1. Make CS= 0 and send a L-to-H pulse to pin WR to start conversion.

2. Monitor the INTR pin, if high keep polling but if low, conversion is complete, go to next step.
3. Make CS= 0 and send a H-to-L pulse to pin RD to get the data out

Figure 8 shows the read and write timing for ADC804. Figure 9 and 10 shows the self clocking with the RC
component for frequency and the external frequency connected to XTAL2 of 8051.

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Figure 8: Read and Write timing for ADC0804

Figure 9: 8051 Connection to ADC0804 with Self-clocking

Figure 10: 8051 Connection to ADC0804 with Clock from XTAL2 of 8051

Now let us see how we write assembly as well as C program for the interfacing diagram shown in figure 10.

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Programming ADC0804 in assembly

MYDATA EQU P1
MOV P1, #0FFH
SETB P2.7
BACK: CLR P2.6
SETB P2.6
HERE: JB P2.7, HERE
CLR P2.5
MOV A, MYDATA
SETB P2.5
SJMP BACK

Programming ADC0804 in C

#include<reg51.h>
Sbit RD=P2^5;
Sbit WR=P2^6;
Sbit INTR=P2^7;
Sfr Mydata=P1;
Void main ( )
{
Unsigned char value;
Mydata =0xFF;
INTR=1;
RD=1;
WR=1;
While (1)
{
WR=0;
WR=1;
While (INTR == 1);
RD=0;
Value =Mydata;
RD=1;
}
}

ADC0808/0809 chip:
ADC808 has 8 analog inputs. It allows us to monitor up to 8 different transducers using only single chip. The
chip has 8-bit data output just like the ADC804. The 8 analog input channels are multiplexed and selected
according to the values given to the three address pins, A, B, and C. that is; if CBA=000, CH0 is selected;
CBA=011, CH3 is selected and so on. The pin details of ADC0808 are as shown in the figure 11 below.
(Explanation can be done as is with ADC0804).

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Figure 11: Pin out of ADC0808

Steps to Program ADC0808/0809

1. Select an analog channel by providing bits to A, B, and C addresses.
2. Activate the ALE pin. It needs an L-to-H pulse to latch in the address.
3. Activate SC (start conversion) by an H-to-L pulse to initiate conversion.
4. Monitor EOC (end of conversion) to see whether conversion is finished.
5. Activate OE (output enable) to read data out of the ADC chip. An H-to-L pulse to the OE pin will bring
digital data out of the chip.

Let us write an assembly and C program for the interfacing of 8051 to ADC0808 as shown in figure 12
Programming ADC0808/0809 in assembly

MYDATA EQU P1
ORG 0000H
MOV MYDATA, #0FFH
SETB P2.7
CLR P2.4
CLR P2.6
CLR P2.5
BACK: CLR P2.0
CLR P2.1
SETB P2.2
ACALL DELAY
SETB P2.4
ACALL DELAY
below.(Figure 12 can be referred from the text prescribed.)
SETB P2.6
ACALL DELAY
CLR P2.4
CLR P2.6
HERE: JB P2.7, HERE
HERE1: JNB P2.7, HERE1
SETB P2.5
ACALL DELAY
MOV A, MYDATA
CLR P2.5
SJMP BACK

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Note: replace the assembly instructions with equivalent C statements for programming ADC0808 in C

LCD Interfacing:
LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs for the following reasons:

The declining prices of LCD

The ability to display numbers, characters, and graphics
Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing
the LCD
Ease of programming for characters and graphics

Pin Description:

LCD Command Codes:

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LCD timing diagram for reading and writing is as shown in figure 14 and 15.

Figure 14: LCD timing for read

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Figure 15: LCD timing for write

Sending Data/ Commands to LCDs with Time Delay:

To send any of the commands to the LCD, make pin RS=0. For data, make RS=1. Then send a high-to-low
pulse to the E pin to enable the internal latch of the LCD. This is shown in the code below. The interfacing
diagram of LCD to 8051 is as shown in the figure 16.

given is :38H (2 lines ,5x7 matrix), 0EH (LCD on, cursor on), 01H (clear LCD), 06H (shift cursor right),
86H (cursor: line 1, pos. 6)
Program:
;calls a time delay before sending next data/command ;P1.0-P1.7 are connected to LCD data pins D0-D7
;P2.0 is connected to RS pin of LCD ;P2.1 is connected to R/W pin of LCD ;P2.2 is connected to E pin
of LCD
ORG 0H
MOV A,#38H ;INIT. LCD 2 LINES, 5X7 MATRIX
ACALL COMNWRT ;call command subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
MOV A,#0EH ;display on, cursor on
ACALL COMNWRT ;call command subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
MOV A,#01 ;clear LCD
ACALL COMNWRT ;call command subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
MOV A,#06H ;shift cursor right
ACALL COMNWRT ;call command subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
MOV A,#86H ;cursor at line 1, pos. 6
ACALL COMNWRT ;call command subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time

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Y ;display letter Y
ACALL DATAWRT ;call display subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
E ;display letter E
ACALL DATAWRT ;call display subroutine
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
S ;display letter S
ACALL DATAWRT ;call display subroutine
AGAIN: SJMP AGAIN ;stay here

COMNWRT: ;send command to LCD

MOV P1,A ;copy reg A to port 1
CLR P2.0 ;RS=0 for command
CLR P2.1 ;R/W=0 for write
SETB P2.2 ;E=1 for high pulse
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
CLR P2.2 ;E=0 for H-to-L pulse
RET
DATAWRT: ;write data to LCD
MOV P1,A ;copy reg A to port 1
SETB P2.0 ;RS=1 for data
CLR P2.1 ;R/W=0 for write
SETB P2.2 ;E=1 for high pulse
ACALL DELAY ;give LCD some time
CLR P2.2 ;E=0 for H-to-L pulse
RET
DELAY:
MOV R3,#50 ;50 or higher for fast CPUs
HERE2: MOV R4,#255 ;R4 = 255
HERE: DJNZ R4,HERE ;stay until R4 becomes 0
DJNZ R3,HERE2
RET
END

Figure 16: 8051 Connection to LCD

Sending Data/ Commands to LCDs checking the Busy Flag

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Example 12: Modify example 11, to check for the busy flag (D7=>P1.7), then send the

;Check busy flag before sending data, command to LCD;p1=data pin ;P2.0 connected to RS
pin ;P2.1 connected to R/W pin ;P2.2 connected to E pin
ORG 0H
MOV A,#38H ;init. LCD 2 lines ,5x7 matrix
ACALL COMMAND ;issue command
MOV A,#0EH ;LCD on, cursor on
ACALL COMMAND ;issue command
MOV A,#01H ;clear LCD command
ACALL COMMAND ;issue command
MOV A,#06H ;shift cursor right
ACALL COMMAND issue command
MOV A,#86H ;cursor: line 1, pos. 6
ACALL COMMAND ;command subroutine
;display letter N
ACALL DATA_DISPLAY
;display letter O
ACALL DATA_DISPLAY
HERE: SJMP HERE ;STAY HERE
COMMAND:
ACALL READY ;is LCD ready?
MOV P1,A ;issue command code
CLR P2.0 ;RS=0 for command
CLR P2.1 ;R/W=0 to write to LCD
SETB P2.2 ;E=1 for H-to-L pulse
CLR P2.2 ;E=0,latch in
RET
DATA_DISPLAY:
ACALL READY ;is LCD ready?
MOV P1,A ;issue data
SETB P2.0 ;RS=1 for data
CLR P2.1 ;R/W =0 to write to LCD
SETB P2.2 ;E=1 for H-to-L pulse
CLR P2.2 ;E=0,latch in
RET
READY:
SETB P1.7 ;make P1.7 input port
CLR P2.0 ;RS=0 access command reg
SETB P2.1 ;R/W=1 read command reg ;
BACK:SETB P2.2 ;E=1 for H-to-L pulse
CLR P2.2 ;E=0 H-to-L pulse
JB P1.7,BACK ;stay until busy flag=0
RET
END

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Programming LCD in C

Example 13: P I C
the busy flag method.

Solution:

#include <reg51.h>

sfr ldata = 0x90; //P1=LCD data pins

sbit rs = P2^0;

sbit rw = P2^1;

sbit en = P2^2;

sbit busy = P1^7;

void main(){

lcdcmd(0x38);

lcdcmd(0x0E);

lcdcmd(0x01);

lcdcmd(0x06);

lcdcmd(0x86); //line 1, position 6

lcddata P

lcddata I

lcddata C

void lcdcmd(unsigned char value){

lcdready(); //check the LCD busy flag

ldata = value; //put the value on the pins

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void lcdready(){

busy = 1; //make the busy pin at input

rs = 0;

rw = 1;

while(busy==1){ //wait here for busy flag

en = 0; //strobe the enable pin

MSDelay(1);

en = 1;

void Msdelay(unsigned int itime){

unsigned int i, j;

for(i=0;i<itime;i++)

for(j=0;j<1275;j++);

Keyboard Interfacing:
Keyboards are organized in a matrix of rows and columns. The CPU accesses both rows and columns through
ports. Therefore, with two 8-bit ports, an 8 x 8 matrix of keys can be connected to a microprocessor. When a
key is pressed, a row and a column make a contact. Otherwise, there is no connection between rows and
columns. A 4x4 matrix connected to two ports. The rows are connected to an output port and the columns are
connected to an input port.

Scanning and Identifying the Key:

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Figure 17: A 4X4 matrix keyboard

It is the function of the microcontroller to scan the keyboard continuously to detect and identify the key pressed

To detect a pressed key, the microcontroller grounds all rows by providing 0 to the output latch, then it
reads the columns
If the data read from columns is D3 D0 =1111, no key has been pressed and the process continues till
key press is detected
If one of the column bits has a zero, this means that a key press has occurred For example, if D3 D0 =
1101, this means that a key in the D1 column has been pressed After detecting a key press,
microcontroller will go through the process of identifying the key
Starting with the top row, the microcontroller grounds it by providing a low to row D0 only. It reads the
columns, if the data read is all 1s, no key in that row is activated and the process is moved to the next
row
It grounds the next row, reads the columns, and checks for any zero. This process continues until the
row is identified.
After identification of the row in which the key has been pressed. Find out which column the pressed
key belongs to

Algorithm for detection and identification of key activation goes through the following stages:

1. To make sure that the preceding key has been released, 0s are output to all rows at once, and the columns are
read and checked repeatedly until all the columns are high

When all columns are found to be high, the program waits for a short amount of time before it goes to
the next stage of waiting for a key to be pressed

2. To see if any key is pressed, the columns are scanned over and over in an infinite loop until one of them has a
0 on it

Remember that the output latches connected to rows still have their initial zeros (provided in stage 1),
making them grounded

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After the key press detection, it waits 20 ms for the bounce and then scans the columns again

(a) It ensures that the first key press detection was not an erroneous one due a spike noise

(b) The key press. If after the 20-ms delay the key is still pressed, it goes back into the loop to detect a
real key press

3. To detect which row key press belongs to, it grounds one row at a time, reading the columns each time

If it finds that all columns are high, this means that the key press cannot belong to that row. Therefore, it
grounds the next row and continues until it finds the row the key press belongs to
Upon finding the row that the key press belongs to, it sets up the starting address for the look-up table
holding the scan codes (or ASCII) for that row

4. To identify the key press, it rotates the column bits, one bit at a time, into the carry flag and checks to see if it
is low

Upon finding the zero, it pulls out the ASCII code for that key from the look-up table
otherwise, it increments the pointer to point to the next element of the look-up table

The flowchart for the above algorithm is as shown below:

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Note: The assembly as well as the C program can be written in accordance to the algorithm of the flowchart
shown.

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