Coal bottom ash as sand replacement in concrete: A review

Abstract
There is a need to improve the sustainability of concrete by incorporating waste by-products and at
the same time controlling the use of precious river sand as well as invaluable land from becoming
waste dis- posal area. Coal bottom ash (CBA) is one such by products that can be used as river sand
substitute in concrete. The present study investigates the effects of CBA on fresh, mechanical, and
durability properties of concrete as reported in literature. The chemical and physical properties of
CBA are diverse from various sources and years of investigation as it is influenced by the coal
combustion system. Being rich in silica, CBA has pozzolanic characteristic. Many experimental works
revealed that CBA can be used in appropriate proportion to enjoy the benefits of workability,
enhanced concrete strength and durability. Almost all the researchers promote the idea of turning
variety of wastes to wealth to save valuable green area for better use rather than dumpsite and
reduce high dependency on river sand mining supply to ensure the sustainability of green river
environment for prosperity of all the nations.
1. Introduction
Land, energy and water being among the most treasurable assets of mankind contribute to the
climate change depending on its utilization method and extensiveness of exploration [1]. Excessive
use of these valuable assets, without considering the wellbeing of the natural environment, would
harm the future generation. Realization on the severe impact caused by the poor management of
these resources in upcoming years has resulted in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
implemented by United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2015. It provided a frame- work for
universal collaboration to achieve sustainable future on the globe [1]. At the same time,
construction industry, being one of the oldest ones continues to play a vital role in human develop-
ment and is also responsible in contributing to this agenda. This industry is the least sustainable one
globally as it consumes approximately half of the non-renewable resources [2]. Thus, along with the
increasing quantity of construction projects in upcoming years, there is certainly a need to embark
on a ‘greener path’ in construction industry in order to ensure a more sustainable future [3].

Coal bottom ash (CBA) is the unburnt matter of the coal incineration [4]. It is formed at boiler and
constitutes about 10–20% of coal ash [5]. In terms of chemical composition, this ash is a complex
mixture metal carbonates and oxides [6]. As the ash is considered waste material, it is thrown at
landfill or in the ponds. In certain power plants, the bottom ash is put collectively with fly ash before
cleared [7]. In fact, disposal of coal bottom ash in open air causes threat to humans and
environments [23]. The increased risk of health problem related to skin, lung and bladder cancer due
to coal bottom ash presence is described by Singh et al. [8]. The ash dumping also contaminates the
land; affect the quality of air and water owing to its toxicity [9]. The disposal of slurry type coal
bottom ash in ponds can also create many environmental problems [10]. As slurry pipeline failure
would lead to seepage of the waste and pollutes the environment, prevention steps should be
taken. These include consistent and routine type of inspection with the same intermission time, use
of suitable corrosion resistance coating material at the inner part of pipelines, increasing the ash
fineness, etc. These are some of the approaches that should be implemented [11]. Indirectly, the
coal bottom ash waste management demand for extra time, human resources and cost to be
allocated throughout the plant operations. The issues of increasing ash production rate and the
insufficiency of dumping sites for its disposal are distressing which were highlighted by Singh et al.
 Fig. 1.SEM of Rough textured bottom ash

2. Material characteristics
2.1. Physical aspect
The uneven spongy textured structured bottom ash is of angular and irregular shape [12]. This dark
grey ash is asymmetrical and porous [13]. Fig. 1 illustrates the appearance of ash as a mix of multi
texture and sizes [14]. The internal structure of porous bottom ash makes it lighter and more brittle
than the natural sand. Table 1 tabulates the physical properties of bottom ash. The specific gravity of
bottom ash varies from 1.39 to 2.60. These low values are due to the existence of voids in them [15]
and depend on coal combustion method [16]. This porous ash condition leads to higher water
absorption which is around 11.61–32.23%. The fineness modulus of coal bottom ash ranges from
1.97 to 3.55, which is in the range of conventional fine aggregate.

2.2. Chemical composition of bottom ash

The chemical contents of CBA vary depending on the coal origin and incineration method. The
percentages of silica, alumina and iron (usually present in pozzolanic materials) are high in bottom
ash. The sum of these elements falls in the range from 70% to 92% of the total chemical
composition. Loss on ignition of bottom ash has been reported in the range of 0.10–4.60%. Data
from many researchers shows that CBA can be classified as pozzolanic material (Class C or F) in
accordance to ASTM C618 [14]. On the other hand, the coarse size of CBA carries limited pozzolanic
reactivity. Thus, grinding it to finer size would increase the silica and ash reactivity [17]. It is believed,
the previous researchers attempt to utilize CBA in natural state without any processing promoting
energy saving and ease of use to enhance it attractiveness to concrete producer.

Hence, innovation of concrete products using this material as one of the mix ingredient would
inevitably save the landfill use, time, money and energy to discard this waste. This approach would
reduce production cost and environmental protection from the negative impacts of waste [18].
There are interesting review papers on the use of bottom ash as sand substitute in concrete. Some
appraisals present its effect on plain concrete properties [19,14], blended cement concrete [20], and
other special concrete. Continuous discoveries on performance of this material in fresh, mechanical
and durability properties of concrete inspired the compilation of the previous published works in
many parts of the world. Recommendations to further explore and optimize the use of this waste
are presented for upcoming research.
The use of saturated surface dry bottom ash as sand replacement at 100% tended to improve the
workability [18]. The easiness of mixing the concrete increases when sand is replaced with 30% to
100% bottom ash [21]. Similar observation was also reported by the same researchers two years
later. Other researchers reported that the blended cement fly ash concrete exhibits increment in
slump values with 50% CBA and decreases at 75% and 100% [22]. Similar patterns were also
observed in plain concrete containing CBA because of gravity effect whereby the viscosity of the
paste with lightweight aggregate CBA enabled to sustain their weight rather than natural aggregate
resulting in lower slump [23]. All researchers agree that the presence of CBA at different fineness
and quantity influence the mix workability.

4. Mechanical properties of coal bottom ash concrete

The compressive strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete are affected when
CBA is used as fine aggregate replacement. Ample data are available for compressive strength of the
concrete. Several researchers have studied these effects and reported the same in the literature. In
the following sub- sections, these effects on each of these mechanical properties are discussed.

4.1. Compressive strength

Generally, the literature reports that use of bottom ash as partial sand replacement affects the
concrete load bearing capacity. Many researchers reported that the combination of suitable amount
of bottom ash enhances the strength of concrete. Integration of CBA at 10% boosts the strength of
plain concrete and self-compacting concrete .. Use of 15% finer size bottom ash (passing 600 μm)
resulted an optimum content for the highest strength of the mix as compared to others [24].
Recently, Kumar et al. [82] reported that the compressive strength of concrete increased when up to
20% bottom ash was used.

4.2 Workability
Past researchers [23,24] who integrated oven dried coal bottom ash (CBA) reported that the
concrete slump continues to decrease as the amount of ash increases. Similarly, the slump flow and
passing ability of high workability concrete drops when bottom ash is added in the mix in the range
10–30%. The structure of oven dried CBA which consisted of voids, stores the mixing water causing
reduction in slump [23,25]. The water loss which was meant to ease the particles movement in mix
could be due to absorbing property of ash which is rich with empty pores. This leads to increase the
frictional force which reduces the workability of the mix [26]. The physical properties of ash with its
interlocking behaviour, irregular shape and rough surface texture are also another cause that lowers
the workability of mix [23].. Bottom ash in the range of 5–20% can also be integrated as sand
replacement to produce fly ash blended cement concrete with 28 days strength exceeding 30 MPa
[27]. It is possible to produce concrete containing 20% CBA with comparable strength to plain
concrete of 47 MPa [21]. Addition of 25% and 50% pre-treated Class F CBA which is finer and
consists of lower carbon content to replace sand produces lighter autoclaved aerated concrete with
enhanced strength due to tobermorite generation from the pozzolanic reaction [28]. Replacement of
sand with bottom ash up to 40% in concrete produces higher strength than the control specimens .
Approach of keeping the concrete workability constant while replacing sand with oven dried CBA up
100% contributed to positive strength increment. It is important to use the right amount of CBA to
enrich the compactness of internal structure as illustrated in Fig.2. Overall, use of suitable amount of
bottom.
Fig. 2. FESEM microstructure of mix with 100% sand (left) and 40% optimum amount of coal bottom
ash (right) [53].

Ash which varies owing to its physical and chemical characteristics enhances the strength of
concrete. Partial sand replacement with bottom ash (up to 50%) increases the strength of plain
concrete [29] and autoclaved aerated concrete when curing age is extended. It is interesting to note
that although the strength of specimens with CBA exhibits lower strength than control at age of 28d,
but at later age of 180 days, the mix with 50% and 80% CBA outshines all others [29]. Similarly, use
of saturated surface dry CBA from 25% to 100% in 20% fly ash blended cement concrete when
subjected to water curing resulted in lower strength at early curing age before it underwent strength
increment at later curing ages of 28 and 90 days. This was shown with mix containing 25% CBA being
slightly higher than the rest of the mixes achieving strength close to control [30]. This is owing to
chemical reaction of silica in bottom ash with Ca(OH)2. Production of surplus CSH gels works to
amplify the strength of concrete [31]. However, the use of CBA proportions at 75% and 100%
decreases the strength of auto-claved aerated concrete [21]. Excessive addition of CBA causes
formation of larger number of pores resulting in drop of strength [24]. Removal of large amount of
ordinary Portland cement which hinders early strength development and reduces supply of hydrated
lime production for pozzolanic reaction causes formation of insufficient CSH gel and higher porosity
resulting in adverse effect to concrete’s strength.

The literature studies showed that the performance of concrete containing coal bottom ash is
influenced by ash content, physical properties of ash, addition of superplasticizer and water cement
ratio used. Use of finer size ash at suitable content enhances concrete strength through pozzolanic
reaction and filler effect. Being a porous coarse material, the water demand increase when larger
quantity of ash is added which diminishes mix workability creating difficulties during compaction
finally resulting in concrete with high amount of pores and lower strength. However, approach of
controlling the slump while raising quantity of ash replaced gives satisfactory result. Most of the
research studies report the mechanical properties of coal bottom ash as fine aggregate replacement
in plain cement concrete. The effectiveness of high volume bottom ash as fine aggregate
replacement remains to be explored. Performance of concrete containing coal bottom ash combined
together with other waste materials to binary or ternary fine aggregate replacement derived from
other waste sources is interesting to be explored. The behaviour of binary or ternary blended
cement such as palm oil fuel ash, slag, fly ash concrete consisting of thermally treated coal bottom
ash as sand replacement is another area to be ventured.

4.3. Flexural strength

Bottom ash concrete displays a similar trend in the development of flexural strength as in the
compressive strength. As the bottom ash characteristic is uncommon from one power plant to
another, optimum quantity that results in concrete with better strength than conventional concrete
also varies from one research to another. Enhanced flexural strength performance were reported at
10% CBA [30,21], 20% and 25% . Fly ash blended cement concrete with bottom ash experience
significant flexural strength increment after water cured for 28 days which continue to improve up
to 180 days [27]. Prolonged curing period allows better pozzolanic reaction for higher generation of
binding gel that assist in strength development. The application of crushing-screening method in
reducing carbon content of bottom ash by [30] created new trends in the result whereby the highest
28day flexural strength value of all specimens were obtained at an optimal replacement of 10% and
changed to mix with 15% bottom ash which outperformed others at 56 days curing age. The same
mate- rial when replaced with sand up to 50% produces autoclaved aerated concrete with enhanced
strength after 18 hr of curing [33].
Contrast results have been reported by some researchers who observed strength reduction with
increasing quantities of bottom ash added throughout the curing ages. The internal structure of
bottom ash with pores causes the cement paste to be weaker [31], thus affecting the flexural
strength of concrete. At 28 days of curing, mix containing 30% and 40% bottom ash results in
concrete with strength of 81 and 86% respectively, com- pared to normal concrete as illustrated in
Fig. 3. Replacement of bottom ash beyond 40% has negative effects on concrete strength [32]. Total
replacement with bottom ash produces concrete with strength 24% lower than reference specimen
[21].

Fig. 3. Flexural strength results of different mixes containing bottom ash

 Fig. 4. Modulus of elasticity of different mixes containing bottom ash

Long term flexural strength testing of concrete with bottom ash in different curing medium is
required to clearly determine the kinetic reactions of coal bottom ash in cementitious environment.
The role of bottom ash in physical and chemical properties influencing the flexural strength
performance needs to be explored. More pre-treatments need to be conducted on coal bottom ash
to realize its use in high volumes without affecting concrete strength.

5. Durability of coal bottom ash concrete

Nowadays, the development of innovative durable concrete by utilizing sustainable material has
become an imperative aspect of the flourishing building industry [32] to ensure satisfactory
performance during its service life. In relation to that, structures constructed with concrete
incorporating coal bottom ash can sometimes are subjected to adverse environmental conditions,
such as sulfate and acid attacks. There is limited research available in this area. However, it would be
of utmost interest to the engineers as to how the durability performance of concrete is affected
when bottom ash is used as an ingredient. The effects of coal bottom ash use on the durability of
concrete when subjected to sulphate attack, acid attack and other durability related properties are
presented as following

5.1. Resistance to sulfate attack

Ghafoori and Cai reported that roller compacted concrete (RCC) containing bottom ash exhibited no
mass loss after exposure to sulfate attacks for 180 days. Other researcher Rafiei- zonooz et al. also
reported that concrete comprising bottom ash when submerged in 5% magnesium sulphate solution
for up to 210 days did not exhibit weight loss. In another different
Research by Ghafoori and Bucholc , bottom ash concrete and natural sand concrete displayed similar
expansion when subjected to sulphate environment. After a year, the same researcher [29] detected
higher expansion in bottom ash concrete than that of control specimen as illustrated in Fig. 5. In
recent years, incorporation of 10% CBA enhanced the resistance of self-compacting concrete
towards sulphate attack owing to the pozzolanic reaction resulting in reduction of calcium hydroxide
content. The later has been identified through XRD analysis [34]. Similar trend on lower intensity of
calcium hydroxide peak was noted by other researchers [35] pointing out the role of pozzolanic
reaction of solid waste materials which were added to improve the microstructure of concrete. The
reaction reduces calcium hydroxide and creates denser concrete through increment of CSH gel. The
variation in the results is probably due to difference in particle size of bottom ash used and its
pozzolanicity. However, long term durability performance of concrete containing coal bottom ash of
various fineness for up to 1 year or later still required to be investigated.
 Fig. 5. Sulfate resistance results of various mixes

5.2. Resistance to acid attack

Upon exposure in acidic environment up to 60 days, mass loss of bottom ash concrete was higher
than the normal concrete [20]. In an another research study, bottom ash concrete when immersed
in hydrocloric acid solution for 60 days exhibited a larger strength reduction as the amount of ash
replaced increased from 10 to 50%. This could be due to increase in porosity of concrete matrix [21].
Concrete porosity grows as more sand is substituted with bottom ash [34]. Existence of pores in
concrete allow the acidic solution to seep in easily and fasten the deterioration process. Less dense
hydrated cement paste having larger amount of pores would cause the calcium to be dissolved from
concrete. This would reduce adhesion between cement and aggregates which then lead to
detachment of the particles with the prolonged acid exposure, forming more voids before losing the
strength. The impact of acid attack on hardened cement paste destroys the whole pore system of
concrete thus diminishing the strength considerably [30].
Then, another researcher [33] elsewhere reported that the weight loss of both the conventional
concrete and the one containing bottom ash when exposed to acidic environment was almost
identical. Recently, another researcher [32] reported that fly ash blended cement concrete exhibited
higher resistance upon expo- sure to sulphuric acid attack with the substitution of CBA content up to
100%. The presence of coal ash is believed to consume calcium hydroxide through pozzolanic
reaction thus reducing the concrete permeability which enhances its resistance towards acid attack.
The generation of extra CSH gel fills in the concrete pores and then refining resulting in concrete
strength and permeability resistance improvement [18]. The difference in the mixed results of the
researchers could be due to variation in the characteristics of bottom ash employed. Use of coarse
bottom ash which is more porous as compared to ground bottom ash that is finer in size [27], is
expected to result in concrete with larger amount of pore thus making it more vulnerable to
intrusion of aggressive agent. However, the effect of coal bottom ash fineness and content as sand
substitute on the long term durability aspect of concrete in sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
solution is an interesting area to be ventured in future studies.

6. Applications
In its original form, the fine aggregate sized coal bottom ash with its unique characteristics is used
for certain applications in mining, road and building construction sectors. Report published by
American Road Transportation Builders Association high- lighted the rising utilization rate of CBA
starting 20.3% of production in 1974–39% in 2013. This material is used as base and surface material
for bike trails, surface course material in parks and running tracks, backfilling work and pavement
construction. An innovative combination of bottom ash with earthen material created certain
geotechnical targeted properties to assist in earthwork related job such as structural fill and
embankment. It is also used as mixing ingredient to produce concrete blocks, concrete bricks,
architectural veneer stone and grouts. In 2017, this material was utilized for many functions such as
preparation of road base/sub base, embankments, soil modification, snow and ice control, mining
application, blasting grit and others. As the generation of CBA is expected to grow at an average
annual rate of 0.1% over the next 20 years, expanding the use of this material would reduce quantity
of ash disposal as environmental polluting waste, cost saving for new landfill opening and healthier
living environment.

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