PGSO S1 02 (Block 2) PDF

PGSO S1 02
Sociology: An Introduction
SEMESTER - I
SOCIOLOGY
PAPER - 02
BLOCK - 2
KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Subject Experts
1. Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central University.

2. Dr. Sanjay Borbora, Dean, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Tata Institute Of Social
Sciences, Guwahati.
Course Co-ordinator : Gargi Gayan, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Sociology, KKHSOU
SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
8 Deborah, D., Research Scholar, IIT, Kanpur
9 Shabeena Yasmin Saikia, Associate Professor, GU
10, 12 Manabendra Sharmah, Research Scholar, NEHU
11 Gargi Gayan, Assistant Professor, KKHSOU
13 Dr. Upala Baruah, Cotton University and
Dola Borkataki, Assistant Professor, KKHSOU
Editorial Team
Content Editor : Rabin Deka, Associate Professor, Dept. of Sociology, Tezpur

University
Language Editor : Rtd. Professor Robin Goswami, Cotton College, Guwahati
Structure, Format & Graphics : Gargi Gayan, Assistant Professor, KKHSOU
First Edition : April, 2018
ISBN : ISBN : 978-93-87940-07-9

This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License
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City Office : Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781006; Web: www.kkhsou.in
The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.
SOCIOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION
FIRST SEMESTER
BLOCK - 2
DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT 8: Social Control Pages : 119-133

Types of Social control, Agencies of Social control: Socialization,
Customs, Laws and Education; Importance of Social Control
UNIT 9: Social Processes Pages : 134-149
Cooperation, Competition, Conflict and Accommodation
UNIT 10: Social Mobility Pages : 150-161
Concept and Types
UNIT 11: Family, Marriage, Kinship Pages : 162-178
Meaning, Characteristics, Importance of each as Social

Institutions, Changing Trends,
UNIT 12: Religion Pages : 179-204
Meaning, Religion as a Social Institution, Its Importance and

Role in Society
UNIT 13: Polity and Economy Pages : 205-221
Concept, Polity and Economy as Social Institutions, their Role

in Society
BLOCK INTRODUCTION:
This is the second block of the course, Sociology: An Introduction. The first unit of this block is Unit 8.
This unit will discuss the meaning of social control and the mechanisms through which societies exerts
controls over the actions of the individual in society.
Unit 8 will discuss the social process, known as social mobility by which individuals and groups change
their social and economic standing in society.
Unit 9 describe the meaning of social process. The unit will also discuss about different types of social
process like cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation etc .
Unit 10 will discuss about another important social process known as social mobility. It will discuss the
process by which individuals and groups change their social position.
Unit 11 will discuss about three important institutions of our society and they are family, marriage and
kinship.
Unit 12 will discuss about religion as a social institution, its origin and some of the theories explaining
religion.
Unit 13 will explain the meaning of political institution and the nature of political authority in simple ad
complex societies. The unit will also discuss about the nature of economy in simple and complex societies.
While going through this block you will come across some boxes which are put on the left side or right
side of the text. These boxes will provide the meaning of some words and concepts cited within the text.
Apart from this, there will be some broad and short questions included under Activity and Check Your
Progress in every unit. Activities will increase our thinking capacity because questions put in Activity are
not directly derived from the text. But answers to the short questions are provided in the section, Answers
to Check Your Progress. Besides, there are some text-related questions which are put in Model Questions.
These questions will help you in selecting and mastering probable topics for the examination so that you
can prepare for the examination with confidence.
UNIT 8: SOCIAL CONTROL
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Social Control
8.4 Agencies of Social Control
8.4.1. Socialisation
8.4.2. Customs
8.4.3. Laws
8.4.4. Education
8.5 Types of Social Control
8.6 Importance of Social Control
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Further Reading
8.9 Answer to Check Your Progress
8.10 Possible Questions
8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

l identify how our life and the activities are regulated.
l know that our own customs, the legal laws, our education are
shaping and altering our behaviour
l understand the agents of social control
l understand that social control is needed to ensure social order and
also to live a balanced life.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
People in society do not act in isolation and, hence, there is a need

to conform to norms. In society, there is a need for controlling the activities
of the people so that each of the social institutions can perform their functions
effectively. In fact, there would be no society without social control, because
Introductory Sociology 119

Unit 8 Socail Control
society cannot function without an agreed upon and enforced social order
that makes daily life easier and a complex division of labour possible. Without
it, chaos and confusion would reign.
There are different ways in which conformity of people is ensured,
mainly through implementation of laws, social pressure and socialisation.
If people do not agree to conform to norms of society, then certain
sanctions are imposed like punishments, which can be of many forms.
The nature of sanction varies from a simple fine to imprisonment; even
death penalty, which is the most extreme form of sanctions. Other forms of
sanctions include- confused and disapproving looks, disapreval from family,
peers and authority figures, and social ostracization. Hence, those
processes, planned or unplanned, which make people conform to collective
norms are known as social control.
In this unit we will discuss that apart from the social norms, social
control is achieved through a variety of means, such as through rules, laws,
and social, economic, institutional structures.
8.3 SOCIAL CONTROL
Social control, or processes which ensures conformity, can mainly

be divided into two forms depending on the nature of society. Judson R.
Landis says that in simple society with strong primary ties, rules are often
not in written forms; constituting the informal type of social control. He adds
that, on the other hand, complex societies have a more stringent forms of
rules like written laws representing the formal types of social control. Landis
further adds that the different forms of sanctions in simple society are
gossips and ridicule, public opinion, exclusion from the social group; while
in complex society, there are prisons, police to ensure conformity.
William Cole refers to social control as all those means which
ensure people’s compliance to norms so as to fulfil the expectations set for
them. By “means”, Cole includes “group or associations which control the
behaviour of people to meet the expected role. For example, a family (a
group) may guide, convince, or compel its children to conform; a church or
a government (an institution) may seek through teaching, through its services
120 Introductory Sociology
Socail Control Unit 8
and through law, conformity to expectations; a retail trade organisation (an

association) may establish certain regulations regarding credit standards
or methods or competing in business.”
Social control is also an instrument for regulating behaviour with
the use of legitimate norms and values, which maintains solidarity in the
society. T. B. Bottomore explains that behaviour can be regulated mainly
through the use of force and through the use of norms and values; where
the latter constitute social control. This means social control is adhering to
norms and values of respective groups, thus preventing tensions, conflicts
and maintaining cohesion. He further mentions different types of norms or
values which serve as social control, namely, customs and opinion, law,
religion, morals, education etc. Also, he mentions the agents of social
control- such education system, political system, church, family, other
religious bodies and other specialized organisations.
Additionally, social control refers to the methods or “techniques”
used to limit deviation in behaviour. M. F. Nimkoff and Paul B. Foreman say
that when groups or associations are formed, they have their own norms
and values and which might differ from the societal values. Consequently,
if these associations deviate, then it becomes a problem for social control.
Social control also includes the punishments, which are a response
to deviant behaviour. For Donald Black, if a person deviates from the norms
and values, then punishments are meted out to them. These punishments
range from “destruction or seizure of property, banishment, humiliation,
beating, execution, demand for compensation by victim for misconduct,
sorcery, gossip, scolding, or a facial expression of disapproval such as a
scowl and stare. Additionally, punishments can also be in the various modes
of intervention by third parties, such as mediation, arbitration and
adjudication.
In a relatively broader way, social control can also be the means in
which the entire social order bind together and operates as a whole,
maintaining stability in the society. R. M. MacIver and Charles H. Page says
that in order to understand social control, one has to understand the way in
which society is patterned and regulates individual behaviour and also how
these patterned behaviours maintain the social organisation. Paul B. Horton

and Chester L. Hunt said that social order is maintained by the effective
performance of one’s respective roles in the society. They further said that
in society, there are relationships and customs which needs to operate
efficiently. For these relationships to operate efficiently people must know
their duties or role expectation towards each other. Performance of these
expected roles brings order and equilibrium in the society.
MacIver and Page mentions about four types of codes or rules and
their related sanctions. Associational codes, communal code, moral code,
and legal code. Associational codes refers to the rules of organisations like
factory, or hospital. Those who disobeys the rules of the respective
organisations may either lose their membership or lose of their livelihood
or lose the license. Communal codes include the rule of custom which is
sanctioned by some degree of displeasure or ostracism, but this in its extreme
form is one of the most powerful sanctions that exists. This communal
code is maintained by gossip among people when someone disobeys
communal codes. MacIver and Page defines moral codes in two ways-
firstly, as mores and secondly, as based on individual conscience. As mores,
moral laws can be “simply those customs, the violation of which is regarded
in the community as definitely wrong”. In another words, the moral code is
the “body of rules which the individual conscience upholds as constituting
right or good conduct”. The last type of social code indentified by MacIver
and Pages is the legal code. Legal codes are the codes “which have the
ultimate sanction of physical enforcement, of unconditional fine,
imprisonment or death. This implies that legal code is the law of the state
and it has the power to exercise force over any offender. The family rules,
school and college rules have to be in agreement to this legal code of the
state.” This legal code is mostly found in modern countries.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: According to MacIver and Page, what are the

four types of codes?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q.2: State the “means” of social control, mentioned by Cole?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Characteristics of Social Control

Certain characteristics of social control can be identified. They are mentioned
below :
l It is an influence exerted through social suggestions, public opinion,
religion and appeal.
l Influence is exercised by social groups through family, union, club
etc. and not by a single person or individual.
l Social control is exercised for some specific ends and goals to be
achieved by the individual of a collective group.
8.4 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
According to T.B. Bottomore, agencies refer to the means of carrying

out social control. He mentions various agents of social control like education
system, political system, family, religious bodies and other specialized
organisations.
Agencies of social control or instruments of social control such as
public opinion, suggestion, personal ideal, religion, art, and social valuation
draw much of their strength from the primal moral feelings. They take their
shape from sentiment rather than utility. They control man and woman in
many ways which have little to do with the welfare of society. They are
aimed to realise not merely a social order but what one might term as
moral order. These are called ethical codes.

On the other hand, law, belief, ceremony, education, need not spring
from ethical feelings at all. They are frequently the means deliberately chosen
in order to reach certain ends.
However, for the purpose of this study, four agencies of social control
are intentionally selected, namely socialisation, customs, laws and education
which is discussed in the next section.
8.4.1 Socialisation
The primary way through which social order is produced is

through the ongoing, lifelong process of socialization that each
person experiences. Through this process, we are taught from birth
the norms, rules, and behavioural and interactional expectations
that are common to our family, peer groups, community, and the
greater society. Socialization teaches us how to think and behave
in accepted ways, and in doing so, effectively controls us in our
participation in society. Socialisation is a process through which a
child learns what is wrong and what is right. This socialisation
process takes place not only in the family but also through peer
groups, teachers in the school, church, and the mass media. If these
agents of conformity fail to function then certain forms of sanctions
are attributed to the corresponding behaviour.
Socialisation refers to the process whereby an individual learn
the skills and imbibes the values of society. Anthony Giddens says
that socialisation is the process whereby an infant slowly becomes
an informed and self-aware person and develops skills specific to
the culture into which she or he is born. Through this process, the
child does not only receive but also expresses certain demands to
the caretaker. Furthermore, this socialisation process is carried out
by agencies like the family- where the child gradually imbibe the
values of the family; peer groups- which influence the person in all
spheres; the school- where children are taught how to maintain
discipline along with imparting the formal education; media- which
expose people to different cultures and lifestyles. Similarly, Michael
Haralambos says that socialisation is the process whereby

individuals learn the culture of their society. This socialisation
process, particularly the primary socialisation, takes place during
infancy by acting in response to the behavioural patterns of the
parents including their language, and how they behave in their
agreement and disagreement of things. Apart from family, other
socialising agency is the peer group, with whom the child learns to
enjoy oneself and learns to conform to societal norms. However,
this does not mean that socialisation is limited to childhood only but
it takes place throughout one’s lifetime. Socialisation is such an
important process that without it, people would not know how to
operate along the values of the society.
According to Nimkoff and Foreman, socialisation refers to
the “internalising through learning, of group norms as right,
convenient and expected”.
The impact of socialisation is so great that if everyone were
socialised in the same culture, then everyone will develop similar
habits, wishes and customs. Horton and Hunt says that socialisation
process have a deep effect on the life of the individuals as it
determines the kind of wish, customs and habits that one has.
People from the same culture tend to develop similar habits. They
further mentions that people will unintentionally conform to any kinds
of expectation in the society if they all had a similar socialisation
experience. The learning of what is right or wrong in the society
through socialisation regulates the behaviour of individuals to conduct
according to the accepted norms of society.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.3: What are the agents of socialisation?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

8.4.2 Customs
Customs are very much a part of our lives so much that we

need to reflect on how much intricately they are related to our social
life. MacIver and Page states that customs are the most
spontaneous of all social rules and often the most compelling ones.
Despite their persuasive nature, customs are sanctioned by a wide
variety of informal social pressures. Customs include all kinds of
action that are performed right from our getting up in the morning.
The things that we do till we grow old are all related to customs.
Custom is not upheld by authority but comes about by
common practice. MacIver and page says that custom is a group
process which emerged gradually, without any authority being
exclussively responsible for its maintenance. But, customs are
maintained by “common acceptance” of the people. Through chance,
trial and error, experience, particular modes of procedure are devised,
are followed and imitated, and an unobtrusively accepted as social
mores. MacIver and Page have given an example: no special
authority prescribes the raising of the hat to ladies or tipping in
restaurants; but it is rather done through unexpressed rules which
is a part of western customs. Bottomore mentions that customs,
along with public opinion can be regarded as less formal types of
social control than laws as in the former, there is “certain vagueness,
and sometimes ambiguity, with regard to infractions of the code of
behaviour which they prescribe, and in regard to punishments” and
the latter has a more “systematic elaboration”. As a result, Bottomore
adds, “custom has frequently been contrasted with law”, and a
distinction is made between societies which “enforced” law and
those where customs are “accepted”.
In the societies characterised by primary relations, the
influence of customs and opinions are strong while in modern
societies, laws are more effective. Bottomore mentions that in
primitive societies custom had a larger influence, on the other hand

laws are more effective in modern industrial societies. MacIver and

Page say that in simple societies, there are primary relationships
and hence gossips greatly influence the social behaviour.
8.4.3 Laws
MacIver and Page define law as “the body of rules which are
recognised, interpreted, and applied to particular situations by the
courts of the state. It derives from various sources, including custom,
but it becomes law when the state, is prepared to enforce it as a
rule binding on citizens and residents within its jurisdiction.”
Laws have a unique form of sanction as compared to the
other social codes. MacIver and Page says that in associations, the
sanction involves exclusion and prohibition from membership or
barring a member from their certain rights and privileges. However,
for legal rules, the sanction is done with coercion.
Also, Bottomore adds that “legal rules are more precise than
other rules like moral and legal sanctions. They are more definite
and frequently more effective than those of morality.” But, moral
codes and legal codes are dependent on each other.
The effectiveness of legal laws is dependent on the moral
endorsement of the people. Bottomore says that “the maintenance
of a legal order depend upon the moral climate of a society. The
effectiveness of legal regulation never rests solely upon the threat
of physical sanctions, but upon a general attitude of respect for law,
and for a particular legal order; and this attitude itself is determined
by moral approval of law as embodying social justice.” This means
law is dependent on the morals of the people whether laws are
given respect or not. In a religious country like India, religious laws
are given utmost importance. Hence, implementation of any kind of
law becomes effective.
Bottomore says that law brings a “degree of certainty in
human behaviour”. Laws, enacted by the national and legal bodies,
encourage and discourage certain actions. Cole says that “laws
may be designed to encourage the performance of a favourable

type of behaviour as, for example, safe driving. Other laws are
designed to discourage certain type of behaviour, like murder,
stealing, and armed robbery or drunken driving.” He further mentions
that laws vary greatly from community to community as every
society is composed of communities who are widely different in
their economic and education status.
Other government agencies enforce formal social control
as well, like those that regulate which substances or foods can be
legally sold, and those that enforce building codes, among others. It
is up to formal bodies like the judiciary and the penal system to dole
out sanctions when someone fails to comply with the laws that define
formal social control.
8.4.4 Education
Education is the medium of transmitting knowledge to new

generations. Bottomore also says that “education, from infancy to
adulthood, is thus a vital means of social control, and its significance
has been greatly enhanced in the last two decades by the rapid
expansion of education at all levels.Through education new
generations learn the social norms and the penalties for infringing
them.
Education simply refers to the process of socialisation while
school refers to the formal instructions. According to Landis,
“education is the more general term and refers to the process of
socialisation- learning the knowledge, skills, and appropriate ways
of behaving in order to exist in a larger social world. He further says
that schooling is the narrower term, and refers to the formal
instruction in a classroom setting.
In modern societies, the process of education is aided by
the new technologies unlike in the early societies. Bottomore says
that “education is concerned with transmitting the way of life, while
in modern industrial societies, because of the mass of available
knowledge, the application of science to production, and the

elaborate division of labour, formal education not only preponderates
in the process of education as a whole, but it is largely devoted to
the communication of empirical knowledge”. The second difference
mentiond by Bottomore is that in early societies a relatively
unchanging way of life and knowledge were transmitted but the
scientific knowledge communicated by modern education is
expected to change and education in general is required to prepare
individuals for a changing rather than a static world. Modern science
and technology teaches “general rational approach to nature and
social life, which has an increasingly important role in establishing
and maintaining social co-operation”. Furthermore, modern
education teaches the individual to have independent values and
ideas which play a role in regulating behaviour.
8.5 TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Informal and Formal Social Control

Cole divides the types of social control into- informal and formal.
The informal social control includes tradition, the stories, the legends that a
specific society have. Cole says that these methods of social control may
teach the people how to behave, increase loyalty towards one another, instil
patriotic feelings, and offer other kinds of inspiration for the people. Personal
example and public opinion are also other methods of informal social control.
Informal social control is enforced by rewards and sanctions. Reward
often takes the form of praise or compliments, but also takes other common
forms, like high marks on school work, promotions at work, and social
popularity. Sanctions are used to enforce informal social control. It can take
the form of the ending of a relationship, teasing or ridicule, poor marks in
school, or being fired from work, among others.
In the formal social control, Cole includes regimentation, law,
propaganda, brainwashing and rewards. Regimentation is when the various
phases of life are regulated to achieve a given goal. This is common

especially in times of war through rationing, regulation of the use of materials

and equipment with the aim of winning the war. Law may be either to
encourage the performance of a favourable type of behaviour like safe driving
or to discourage disapproved types of behaviour, like murder, robbery etc.
Laws are also dependent on the nature of the community and the
enforcement level also differs from one place to another. Propaganda is
designed especially to bring favourable results to the propagandists or the
causes they represent. It may be directed by placing the propagandists
and the interests they represent in a favourable public light. It may be
directed by placing a competitor in an unfavourable light, thus serving also
the propagandists’ interests.” Brainwashing is a technique of social control
consisting of “alternating periods of harsh treatment and leniency with
emphasis upon flogging, starvation, and ample meals”. Rewards are often
use by parents and schools to approve the good behaviour of the students.
Ian Marsh, along with M. Keating, A. Eyre, R. Campbell and J.
McKenzie mentions additional types of formal social control like the police
along with customs and excise, private security firms, store detectives and
regulatory bodies such as factory inspectorates.
However, the distinction of social control into formal and informal is
not fixed. Cole (in reference to the types mentioned above) relates informal
methods of social control as more evident in simple societies while the
formal methods are strong in complex societies. This distinction of social
control into formal and informal is not always true in every situation. Marsh
said that the division (mentioned above) between informal and formal social
control “is not absolute; although the police are the most visible agent of
social control”.
In many cases, a simple police presence is enough to create formal
social control. In others, police might intervene in a situation that involves
unlawful or dangerous behavior in order to stop it—to “arrest” literally means
to stop—in order to ensure that social control is maintained.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.4: Give examples of informal and formal social

control.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
8.6 IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Two important reasons are vital for implementing social control.

Firstly, as Horton and Hunt said there is a need to maintain social order in
society and hence social control needs to be implemented. Secondly, as
Cole also states, social control is necessary for the - control of relations
and control of conditions. The control of relations is involved in the interaction
of person to person, person to group, and group to group. For example, in
individual families, some members lose their temper, they may fight with
their parents or their brothers and sisters or otherwise. This may create
problems in the relations which needs to be controlled. In some simple
societies where a member of one family commits a crime against a member
of another family, the offender may be disciplined by members of his own
family or by the opposing clan. This punishment could extend to death.
This shows how all social institutions develop systems of social control in
relations between people.
Social control and Social Deviation
Social control and social deviation are also closely related. No society
succeeds in getting its entire people to behave as expected all the time.
The term, ‘social deviation’ is given to any failure to conform to the customary
norms of the society. Deviation takes many forms. The juvenile delinquent,
the hermit, the ascetic - all have deviated from the conventional social norms.
In a simple society where all members accept a single set of norms,
deviation is easy to define. In a complex society with many different
competing norms, the problem grows more complicated. Furthermore, there
may be a number of deviant subcultures, whose norms are condemned by
the conventional morality of the society.

There are ideally two types of deviants. The individual deviants, and
the group deviants. The former reject the norms which surround them and
deviate from their subculture and in case of group deviants the individual is
a conforming member of a deviant group.
Deviation can also be divided into cultural and psychological deviants.
Cultural deviants simply deviate from the expected behaviour norms.
Psychological deviants are deviants from the norm in their personality
integration.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.5: What is the difference between “control of

relations” and “control of conditions”?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
8.7 LET US SUM UP
l Social Control is necessary to regulate the behaviour of the people

for the society to function
l Social control is the means through which people are made to
conform to norms. This includes family, church, associations, etc.
l There are various forms of social control- formal and informal
l Informal type of social control are found in simple societies and are
enforced through rewards compliments and social pressure
l Formal type of social control is mostly found in complex societies.
This type of social control are enforced mainly through law,
regimentation
l These forms of social control are implemented by certain agencies
like socialisation, government education, customs, beliefs.
l Despite the various agencies used for making people to conform to
norms and rules of society, not everyone conforms to it. Such groups
of people are then exposed to punishments, or social isolation

l However not everyone conforms to the social norms. The people

who fail to conform to norms are known as social deviants. Example-
juvenile delinquent, the hermit, the ascetic
8.8 FURTHER READING
Bottomore, T.B. 1978. Sociology : A Guide to problems and Literature India

: Blackie and Son Ltd.
Marsh, Ian, M. Keating, A Eyre, R. Campbell and J. Mc kenzie. 1996. Making
sense of society : In Introduction to Sociology.
8.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Ans to Q1: Associational, communal, moral and legal code.

Ans to Q2: By “means”, Cole refers to group or associations.
Ans to Q3: Family, peer groups, school.
Ans to Q4: Informal social control are tradition, the story, legends and tales
of the people group. Formal social control are regimentation, law,
propaganda, brainwashing and rewards.
Ans to Q5: The control of relations involves interaction between people.
And the control of conditions refer to the habitats in which one live.
8.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
A) Write short notes (Answer within 150 words)

Q1: According to Cole, what is social control?
B) Long answer question (Answer within 300-500 words)

Q1: What are the four agencies of social control highlighted here? Write
in detail about each of the agencies.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 9: SOCIAL PROCESSES
UNIT STRUCTURE

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Meaning and Definition
9.4 Co-operation
9.4.1 Meaning and Definition
9.4.2 Characteristics
9.4.3 Types
9.4.4 Role in Society
9.5 Competition
9.5.3 Types
9.6 Conflict
9.6.3 Types
9.7 Accommodation
9.7.3 Types
9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 Further Readings
9.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

Socail Processes Unit 9
After going through this unit you will be able to:

l describe the meaning of social process,
l identify the various ways of social interaction,
l discuss the different types of social process,
l explain the importance of these processes in society.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt about the various aspects of society. We have also

learnt that it is social relation, among other things, that makes a society.
Social relationship gets organized into economic, family, religion, political
institutions, etc. It is social relation again, based on which man forms a
wide variety of social groups. Social relationship involves social interaction.
Social interaction assumes several forms or modes. Accordingly, these could
be classified into co-operation, competition, conflict and accommodation.
In this Unit we will learn of these fundamental ways or modes which are
termed social process.
9.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION
As we have learnt earlier, the members of society play their roles. In

this process of role playing they interact among themselves. This is social
interaction. It is dyadic in the sense that, for social interaction to occur there
should at least be two persons involved. Social interaction is the basis of
social relation. In the various kinds of social relationships as among friends,
siblings, between doctor-patient, employer-employee, police-criminal,
among the different political parties, etc. we find, that, there is social
interaction. When we analyse social interaction, we find that these can be
classified into certain fundamental modes or kinds as co-operation,
accommodation, conflict, competition, integration, assimilation, etc. Here
we have followed the catagories of social processes as given by American
sociologist Robert park (1864-1944). These are called social processes.

Unit 9 Socail Processes
These fundamental modes of interaction among individuals and among

groups in society are termed social processes. The following are two
important definitions of social processes given by two distinguished
sociologists.
A.W. Green defines, “social processes are merely the characteristic
ways in which interaction occurs.”
According to Ginsberg, “social processes mean the various modes
of interaction between individuals or groups including cooperation, conflict,
social differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay.”
These fundamental modes of interaction are called social process
because interaction involves a process. We find that individuals and groups
interact. It may be in response to some other action. It may also be to get
some response from some individual or group. For example, when the
teacher teaches, the students listen. The students may seek further
clarifications from the teacher. Here, the action of the student is in response
to the action of the teacher. The action of the teacher, at the same time, is to
bring some response from the students. When the students seek
clarifications, the teacher again responds. Thus, in this example of social
interaction we find a chain of responses, with each one linked to the other.
This makes social interaction a process. Social interaction takes a basic
pattern or a basic mode. So, each mode of social interaction is a process.
These modes of social interaction have been termed social process. In the
above example, it has taken a pattern of cooperation. With the common
goal of dissemination and acquisition of knowledge, both teacher and
students are cooperating. The process of social interaction may take other
modes or patterns. Let us now discuss some of the other modes of social
interaction, namely, cooperation, accommodation, competition and conflict.
9.4 COOPERATION
Cooperation means working together. It, thus, means the

existence of some common goal or shared goals. The individuals
and groups work together to fulfill their goal or goals. Through their
interaction the common or shared goals are fulfilled. For example,
the family is a social group. All its members share some common
goals. For the fulfillment of these goals the members perform a wide
variety of activities and interact among themselves. Thus, their
interaction and relationship is one of cooperation.
Fairchild defines cooperation as such: “Cooperation is the
process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a
more or less organised way for the fulfillment of common objective.”
Following are the characteristics of cooperation.

Ø Cooperation is universal.
Ø It involves the existence of mutual goals.
Ø It involves combined effort.
Ø It develops interdependence between members of a society.
9.4.3 Types
Direct cooperation
Sometimes, the performance of identical functions leads to the
fulfillment of common goals. It is called as direct cooperation. Some
examples of direct cooperation are tilling the fields together, praying
together, and carrying some load.
Indirect cooperation
It is indirect cooperation when the fulfillment of the shared goal is
made possible with people doing different tasks. In our society, for
the fulfillment of the common goal of distribution of food products,
there is the involvement of a chain of people, i.e. the farmer and food
processor, the wholesaler and the retailer. Among all of them there
is indirect cooperation. In all kinds of societies we find indirect
cooperation. Complex societies with secondary groups are however,
characterised by indirect cooperation. In such societies there is
specialisation and division of labour. It means that persons or groups

are specialised in a particular kind of work. As for example, the doctor

is specialised in medicine. Specialisation of labour leads to division
of labour: different people doing different kinds of work. To accomplish
some goals all these specialised labour need to be put together.
There needs to be cooperation among them to fulfill certain goals.
LET US KNOW
Apart from common goals, in a society each individual/

group has some specific individual/group goals as well.
Our individual/group goals are so linked with one other that one can
fulfill one’s goal also by fulfilling that of the others. We know how a
farmer tills the soil, grows crops and sells it in the market. The
wholesaler buys the crops and sells it to many retailers. The retailer
sells it to the customers. Each of the persons in this chain is fulfilling
two goals. One is the fulfilling of the common need for food that we
all share and the other is fulfilling the individual need to earn money
for one’s livelihood. Also, each member in the chain is helping the
others in fulfilling their individual needs as well. There may be other
individual needs also. In this way the members of a society are
interdependent upon one another and thus cooperate. And through
cooperation we make social life possible. This show how important
is cooperation in society.
94.4 Role in Society
Society has some fundamental common goals. The conti-

nuity of the society is one fundamental common goal. For the conti-
nuity of social life people cooperate with one another and seek to
fulfill the many common goals. Another example of the several com-
mon goals is food. To fulfill our common need for food, the society
performs in cooperation a variety of activities, like food production,
food processing, distribution, quality management and marketing,
which finally lead to the fulfillment of our need for food. Without it,

there will be chaos and disorder in society.

Within these common goals the members of the society
have diverse individual and immediate goals or purposes. In the ex-
ample of the farmer, wholesaler and retailer we have seen that the
fulfillment of the individual goals is such that it enables the achieve-
ment of common goals. Individual goals are fulfilled in a way that
common goals are fulfilled. In this process there is cooperation in
society and the social life is maintained. Thus, we all work in such a
way that our goals are fulfilled.
Through cooperation
Ø The common goals are fulfilled and the many diverse individual
goals also are fulfilled.
Ø It leads to social order and harmony.
Ø Cooperation maintains social and group identity.
Ø In this process the society perpetuates.
9.5 COMPETITION
Human beings have several needs. But there is limited sup-

ply of commodities and resources. As such, these resources can-
not be shared by all. Consequently, every one cannot fulfill all their
needs. This leads to competition among people, for the various re-
sources that may include commodities, power, knowledge, status,
and for all those that are valued by the society.
Horton and Hunt define thus: “Competition is the struggle for
possession of rewards which are limited in supply, goods, status,
power, love – anything.”
According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Competition is the striv-
ing of two or more persons for the same goal which is limited so that
all cannot share it”.

Thus, competition has the following characteristics.

Ø Competition is for scare resources.
Ø Competition may be personal or impersonal. By personal com-
petition is meant competition that is among persons known to
one other and impersonal competition is among them who are
not personally known to one another.
Ø Competition is universal. In both simple and complex societies
competition is present in one form or the other.
Ø It can be found in a wide variety of social relations as among
students, job aspirants, political parties, etc.
9.5.3 Types
Three types of competition have been given by Bernard. These are

as follows.
Ø Economic competition
This type includes competition for economic benefits as jobs, sala-
ries, promotion and competition in the market as among the pro-
ducers, among the sellers, etc.
Ø Political competition
This is competition for political power between individuals and groups.
In democratic societies also we find the prevalence of this type of
competition. The political parties compete among themselves to form
the government.
Ø Social competition
Competition to improve ones’ social position is social competition. It
can be achieved through economic, political, religious and other
means. Possessing of formal degrees in various spheres of educa-
tion, or having a well paid job and economic benefits may raise a
person’s social status in society. Competition to improve one’s so-
cial status could be a motivating factor for the other kinds of compe-
tition.

ACTIVITY 1
Observe the relation you have with your friends. Find

out in which areas there is cooperation and competition
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You must have noticed cooperation and competition in regard to
your relation with your friends and among your family members.
How do you all manage both these modes of social
interaction?...............................
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Competition plays important role in society.

Ø It serves in allocating scare resources among the competitors.
Ø It assigns status to the individuals. Through competition a person
can achieve a new status. For example, competition for a job
may enable a person to secure the job. This gives the person a
new status.
Ø It facilitates social mobility.
Ø It motivates one to excel and increase efficiency. Competition is
an effort to secure scarce resources by surpassing others. It
provides motivation to put one’s best effort and increase
efficiency.
Both cooperation and competition are present in human societies.

9.6 CONFLICT
Along with cooperation and competition, social relationship

and interactions in a society may take the nature of conflict. We
have seen in the unit on social change as to how conflict exits in
society and becomes a source of change.
Conflict has been defined by A. W. Green, as “the deliberate
attempt to oppose, resist, or coerce the will of another or others.”
Horton and Hunt state, “Conflict may be defined as a process
of seeking to monopolise rewards by eliminating or weakening the
competitors”.
Thus, this shows that conflict arises when there is opposition
of some goal(s) between individuals and/or groups. Attempts are
made to achieve the goal(s) by means of opposing, resisting or
imposing one’s will on others. In the process, efforts are made to
weaken or eliminate the other. This is social conflict.
Thus, conflict has the following characteristics.

Ø Conflict is conscious. It involves deliberate and intentional efforts.
Ø It is personal in the sense that the opposing parties are personally
aware of each other. In case of nations in war, both the nations
are particularly aware of each others characteristics. In this
sense, it is different from competition because in the latter the
members may not know each other personally.
Ø It is universal. It exists because of the variety of interests and
goals of individuals and groups in a society. In this sense conflict
is inherent in a society.
Ø Society develops mechanisms for resolving conflicts because
long and severe conflicts may disrupt social life and create
problems.

9.6.3 Types
Group conflict
It exists between groups, which may be groups within a society or
country or between societies and countries. Group identity is a strong
force in society. It depends upon the sustaining of group interests.
However, on the other hand, it may lead to conflict among different
groups. Ethnic conflict and war between nations are examples of
this. Conflict may take the forms of class conflict, caste conflict,
international conflict, etc.
Individual conflict
It is conflict that exists among individuals. It may take the form of
litigation, which is a judicial struggle between individuals (in case of
group conflict litigation involves groups).
Conflict plays both a positive and negative role.

Positive role
Ø As society seeks to resolve conflict, new mechanisms of conflict
resolution develop.
Ø Efforts to resolve conflict may lead to a new situation, the old
conflict may no longer exist and a new situation develops.
Ø The new situation may bring around new norms and institutions.
Thus conflict can bring social change.
Ø The conflict theorists also state that conflict can result in
improving the situation of the oppressed.
Ø Group conflict develops solidarity and unity within the group.
Ø Group conflict may lead to alliance with other groups.
Negative role
Ø Conflict within a group weakens group solidarity. This threatens
the existence of the group.
Ø Conflict within and even among groups can disrupt order and
cooperation and lead to chaos. When there is war between
nations both the opposing nation faces problems.
Thus, conflict, in some ways is disruptive for an ordered life, yet in

societies conflict exists. Some conflicts are contained and controlled,
some repressed, some resolved while some changes into another
form of conflict. In such ways society manages conflicts. In this
process, the society continuously keeps changing.
ACTIVITY 2
Did you observe any conflict in your neighbourhood

or your district in the last 3 years?
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Make a note of the ways by which the conflict(s) has/have been
managed?
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9.7 ACCOMMODATION
Generally speaking it is a social process of adjusting with

the external environment. It involves making changes in the behaviour
of the individual or the group so as to adjust with the differences of
the others.
A situation of conflict cannot continue for long. Several forces
come to operate to resolve or contain the conflict. Accommodation
serves as a means of conflict management.
J. M. Baldwin states that “accommodation denotes acquired
changes in the behaviour of individuals which help them to adjust to
their environment.”
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “accommodation is a term used
by sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or
groups.”
Ø It is a form of adjustment. The differences between the individuals

and groups exist, but these differences are accepted.
Ø Thus, conflict may exist in a latent manner. At an overt level it is
contained.
Ø Accommodation is also a built-in mechanism of a society. There
are many different patterns of behaviour and subcultures in the
society. Culture trains its members to accommodate and continue
without much friction. An example is the family where the various
members carry on with the family life despite the many
differences in the individual attitudes, beliefs and behaviour of
the members. Accommodation, thus, can be subconscious.
Ø It may also be a deliberate exercise as in arbitration, mediation,
and conciliation of which we will learn while discussing the various
types.
Ø It is a universal and a continuous process.
9.7.3 Types
Yielding to coercion
When the parties are of unequal strength, the weaker party submits
to the demands and interests of the stronger party. This happens
when the weaker party is not in any position to resist the stronger
party. This is coercive accommodation.
Compromise
It is giving up of part of the demands by the conflicting parties. In the
process, each party can accommodate the demands of the other
party. Usually, this happens when both the parties are almost of equal
strength.

Third party intervention

Third party intervention may take the forms of arbitration, mediation
and conciliation. While in arbitration the decision of the arbitrator, i.e.
the third party, is binding, in mediation the decision of the third party
is not binding upon the contending parties. In conciliation, the third
party seeks to create conditions where the contending parties
themselves can arrive at an agreement.
Toleration
This is a form of coexistence with differences. The conflicting parties
accept each other’s differences. This is also a kind of avoidance,
where the conflicting grounds are avoided. Settlement of differences
and arriving at a resolution are yet to take place. Sometimes,
differences may become too complex to resolve by agreement and
compromise. In such situations individuals and groups might simply
avoid the conflicting aspects. This is toleration.
Conversion
In this type, one of the conflicting parties adopts the views of the
other. In such a situation the conflict is resolved.
Ø Keeps conflict from becoming overt

Accommodation is an integral social process. There is the
existence of various kinds of status and role, the different types
of social relationships, different interests, values and goals in
society. All these together comprise social life. Conflict is latent
(hidden) in a society. At the same time, the process of
socialisation trains the individuals and groups to play the various
roles and interact mutually. Thus, the individuals and groups are
trained to mutually orient one’s behaviour to that of others. This
means recognising and accepting the differences, i.e.
accommodation. In the example of the family given above we
have already seen that people accommodate with each other. This
keeps potential conflict from becoming overt (open). Accommodation

makes possible social relations and, thus, social life.

Ø Contains overt conflict
These different varieties may at times lead to a situation of overt
conflict. A society cannot continue for long with overt conflict, so
various processes come to operate to contain overt conflict.
Accommodation is one such process. In such situations
accommodation comes to occur after conflict occurs. It contains
overt conflict in a manner that the opponent is not destroyed.
Ø Makes possible social life
By keeping conflict from becoming overt and containing conflict
after it becomes overt, accommodation makes possible group
life, continuity of society and enables cooperation and also
competition in a manner that social life becomes possible.
ACTIVITY 3
For the continuity of the neighbourhood life the

members of your neighbourhood are making
accommodations in different areas of social life. Make
a note of three such areas.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Match the following.
(i) Cooperation (a) opposition of goals

(ii) Accommodation (b) Working together towards a
common goal
(iii) Conflict (c) Scarcity of resources and
surpassing the other
(iv) Competition (d) adjusting with differences
2. Say true or false.
(i) Accommodation helps to contain conflict.

(ii) Conflict creates group solidarity.

(iii) Conflict creates divisions in society.
(iv) Indirect cooperation is doing identical things.
(v) Competition can lead to social mobility.
9.8 LET US SUM UP
By now, from above the discussion we have come to know that

l Social process means the various modes of social interaction.
l Some of the fundamental ways or modes of social interaction are
cooperation, competition, conflict and accommodation.
l Each of these ways occurs universally in societies.
l Each of these social processes is related to the other.
l These processes contribute to the continuity of social life.
9.9 FURTHER READINGS
Rawat, H.K. 2007. Sociology: Basic Concepts. Jaipur: Rawat Publication.

Park, Robert, et. al. 1921. Introduction to the Science of Sociology,
Chicago University press.

PROGRESS
Ans. to Q.No.1: i - b, ii – d, iii – a, iv – c

Ans. to Q.No.2: (i) True (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False (v) True

Q.1: Define social process. Discuss the various types of social processes.
Q.2: What is cooperation? What are its characteristics and various types?
Q.3: What do you mean by accommodation? What are its various types?
Mention some of its characteristics.
Q.4: Define conflict? What role does it play in society?
Q.5: What are the characteristics of conflict? Discuss it types.
Q.6: What do you mean by competition as a social process? What are it
characteristics.
Q.7: What are the roles each social process plays in society?
*** ***** ***

UNIT 10: SOCIAL MOBILITY
UNIT STRUCTURE

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Definitions
10.4 Features of Social Mobility
10.5 Types/Forms of Social Mobility
10.6 Factors Responsible for Social Mobility
10.7 Factors Hindering Social Mobility
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Further Reading
10.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

l have a the comprehensive understanding of social mobility.
l know the definitions and features of social mobility.
l learn about the types of social mobility.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
Mobility means movement. By social mobility sociologists mean
movement of persons and groups from one social position to another. It
means a change in socio-economic position. A person’s social position is
determined by various factors. Some positions are acquired by birth and
some others are achieved by individual’s ability and hard work. In every
society some kind of social mobility is visible. In this unit we will learn about
various aspects of social mobility.
10.3 DEFINITIONS
According to Dictionary of Sociology social mobility means , ‘the
movement-usually of individuals but sometimes of whole groups-between
different positions within the system of social stratification in any society’.
Socail Mobility Unit 10
Young and Mack define social mobility as a change in the status of

an individual, a group or a category. By social mobility, then, we mean
movement within the social structure. Young and Mack proposes a simple
definition of social mobility where they argue that changes of position along
with status of a group or individual is known as social mobility.
Thus, we may say that social mobility denotes the movement of
people from one place to another where his or her social status and respect
may or may not be changed. Mobility occurs within the framework of
inequality
10.4 FEATURES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
The following are some of the features of social mobility:

l Universality: The basic and fundamental feature of social mobility
that is it universal in nature. It is found in all types human of society.
But it is worthwhile to mention here that some societies had revealed
closed type of social mobility such as the caste-based society in India
or the feudal society in medieval Europe
l Vary in Movement: One more feature of mobility is that societies
vary in the tempo of the movement. Industrial society has high degree
of mobility in comparison to tribal society or agrarian society.
l Reverse process: Mobility is not a one way process. It is recognized
as two-way process. People may attain a higher position and at the
same time there is a likelihood of falling down to the bottom level.
That is why it is known as reverse process also.
l Change of status: Mobility in position is associated with change in
status of individuals in society. For example after attaining higher
education an individual not only becomes economically well-off but is
also given higher status in society. However many a times it is also
found that status and dignity are not changed though a person goes
from one position to another. This often seen in societies where caste
system is rigidly followed. For example in some place even educated
dalits are not given a higher status in society.

Unit 10 Socail Mobility
l Based on quality of efficiency: Mobility seeks personal quality and

efficiency of the individual. One changes one’s position on the ground
of his/her own educational qualification, capacity and experiences.
Modern societies has put interest on achieved status rather than
ascribed status.
l Various Types: One more feature of social mobility is that it is
classified into various types such as horizontal, vertical, upward,
downward etc. There are in total eight types of social mobility which
are commonly and frequently used in the domain of sociological
literature. Every type of them has some unique feature which is varied
from one another.
LET US KNOW
Achieved status: Those status which an individual

earns through his/her hard work is known as achieved
status. A scientist has high status in society. This
status is earned by him or her.Ascribed status: The status which an
individual attain by birth through his/her family is called ascribed
status. In many parts of India higher caste people are giving higher
status. This status is inherited by them.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: a) Mention two types of status.

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b) Mention four features of social mobility.
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10.5 TYPES/ FORMS OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:
Social mobility is classified in to eight types. These are illustrated

below.
l Horizontal social mobility: It means the movement of an individual

from one social group to another situated on the same level. Here,
the position of an individual is changed but the social status and
ranks remain same. Thus, we may say that change of position
without change in status is known as horizontal social mobility. For
instance, if a person quits his job as a clerk in office A and joins as
clerk in office B then it is referred to as horizontal social mobility
because he changes only his position not the rank, pay etc.
l Vertical social Mobility: Vertical social mobility means movement
from one social stratum to another where social status and dignity
is changed along with his position. One may either go up or go
down. Personal qualification, efficiency, ability along with rational
outlook, capability plays a significant role.
l Upward social mobility: Upward social mobility refers to that
mobility where a person changes his or her position and rank to a
higher position. Promotion in work place such as assistant manager
of a firm becoming general manager or an MLA becoming an
important Minister etc are the example of upward social mobility.
Upward social mobility brings more power, authority as well as
responsibility and role in that particular frame work of organization.
Most of the member in a society is oriented towords upward social
mobility. Class is a form of stratification that may witness upward
social mobility.
l Downward social mobility: Downward social mobility means that
mobility where people go down from the position and status held at
a lower stratum. Personal incapability inefficiency, inability to perform
work properly etc is regarded as the basic cause for downward
social mobility. It is the reverse process of upward social mobility.
When a person is demoted from his/her earlier social rank and
responsibility as well as dignity and respect from the society.
l Open social mobility: Open social mobility is somewhat similar to
vertical social mobility. Here, people can change their position and
status on the basis of their quality and efficiency. In modern industrial
societies one may get equal opportunity to change his or her

designation along with his or her economic condition. That is why
the achieved status is regarded as important and significant in open
society. Social mobility in open society provides one ample
opportunities to develop one’s skill and potentiality in society
l Close social mobility: Another form of social mobility is closed
social mobility where a person never gets the chance to change
his/her position and status though he/she has the potentiality to do
so. Indian caste system, the feudal and slavery system of ancient
Europe are the examples of closed social mobility. It is regarded as
closed social stratification also .Movement is totally restricted in
closed social mobility from lower stratum to upper stratum and vice
versa. Birth and social position of the family are considered as the
vital aspect for social honor and respect.
l Inter-generational social mobility: Inter-generational mobility
means that type of mobility when a person moves to a social position
which is different (higher or lower) from the social position held by
his or her parents. Here one changes his or her rank in comparison
to his family’s social position. For instance, we may take the example
of a person who might be a son or daughter of a vegetable vendor
might achieve a position of bureaucrat, this can be said as
intergenerational mobility.
l Intra generational social mobility: One more aspect of mobility is
intra generational mobility. It refers to that movement where an
individual achieves a high position and dignity in comparison to his
or her own earlier position.
10.6 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOCIAL

MOBILITY
The following factors facilitate Social Mobility-

l Motivation: Each individual has a desire not only to have a better way
of living but also to improve upon his or her social standing. In open system
it is possible to achieve any status. This openness motivates people to

work hard and improve upon the skills so that one can attain higher social
status. Without such motivation and efforts on the part of the individual
social mobility is impossible.
l Achievements and Failures: Achievement here refers to extra ordinary,
usually unexpected performance, which attracts the attention of a wider
public to the abilities of a person. Not all achievements will result in social
mobility. Achievements affect status only if they are remarkable. For example,
a poor man who has acquired wealth or an unknown writer who has won a
literary prize will improve his/her status.
Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect and it may lead to downward
mobility. Fraudulent bankruptcy will remove a member of the upper class
from blue books; he/she may receive no dinner invitations from his/her peers
and he/she will become ineligible as a marriage partner. If he/she is already
married, his/her wife may divorce him. He/she will have to resign from his/
her clubs and all positions he holds. But he/she will not become a member
of the lowest stratum, although it will be difficult for him/her to find new
association.
l Education: Education not only helps an individual to acquire knowledge
but is also a passport for occupational position for higher prestige. To
become a doctor one has to have education in science subjects. Similarly,
to appear in a competitive examination of I.A.S., one has to be at least
graduate.
It is only after acquiring minimum formal education that individual can aspire
to occupy higher positions. It is through education that in modern India the
members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have not only being
able to change their traditional occupation but have also started occupying
jobs of higher prestige. In the modern industrial society in which statuses
can be achieved and education is basic requirement.
l Skills and Training: Each society makes provision to impart skill and
training to the younger generation. To acquire skill and training one has to
spend a lot of time as well as money. Why these persons spend money
and time? The reason being that society gives incentives to such persons.
When they complete their training, they are entitled to high positions, which
are far better than those positions which they might have taken without
such training.
Society not only assigns higher social status but also gives higher economic
rewards and other privileges to those persons who have these training.
Keeping in view these incentives people undergo training with a hope to
move up in the social ladder. In other words, skills and training facilitate in
improvement of the position, this leads to social mobility.
l Migration: Migration also facilitates social mobility. People migrate from
one place to another either due to pull or push factors. A particular place
may not have opportunities and facilities to improve upon. Hence, people
are forced to migrate to other places to earn their livelihood. At new places,
where they migrate, may have different openings and opportunities.
The persons who avail the opportunities can improve their social position.
We can take the example of people belonging to the Scheduled Castes of
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, who migrate to the States of Punjab and Haryana
to earn their livelihood. Here they become farm labourers.
After acqiring accumulating money they go back to their villages and buy
land. They till their own land and become owner cultivators. Hence, from
traditional work of Chamars or scavengers, they improve their status and
become owner cultivators. Similar is the situation with regard to Asians
who migrate to various European countries and the United State of America.
The pull factors attract the people because they do not have those facilities
at their place of residence and the new place attracts them by providing
these facilities, so that after acquiring new skills and knowledge they could
occupy better positions.
People migrate from villages to cities because urban centers have institutions
of higher status as well as opportunities for jobs. People come to urban
areas to acquire education and skills and occupy higher positions than their
parents and brothers who continue to live in villages. In this way we find
that both push and pull factors lead to migration which subsequently
facilitates social mobility.

l Industrialization: Industrial Revolution ushered in a new social system

in which people are given status according to their ability and training. No
importance was given to their caste, race, religion and ethnicity.
Industrialization resulted in mass production at cheaper rate. This forced
the artisans out of their work. In search of jobs they migrated to industrial
towns.They acquired new vocational training and got jobs in industries. With
experience and training they moved up in the social ladder. In the industrial
society, the statuses are achieved, whereas in the traditional society like
India, the statuses are ascribed according to birth. Hence industrialization
facilitates greater social mobility.
l Urbanization: In the cities there are more people and they have more
formal relations. People do not know each other intimately. Urban centers
are marked by anonymity. People are close to their friends and relatives
only. Urban settlements provide secrecy to individual’s caste and
background. Individual’s position is largely dependent upon his/her education,
occupation and income rather than his/her background. If an individual has
higher education, income and is engaged in occupation of higher prestige,
he/she occupies high social status irrespective of his/her caste. Urbanization
facilitates social mobility by removing those factors which hinder social
mobility.
l Legislation: The enactment of new laws can also facilitate social mobility.
When Zamindari Abolition Act was passed, most of the tenant cultivators
became owner cultivators which indicate improvement in their status that
is, from tenants to owner cultivators. Similarly, the legal provision for
reservation of jobs and promotion for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes has also helped in ensuring social mobility.
Reservation with regard to admission in professional colleges, reservation
in jobs and promotions have allowed a large number of individuals from
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to improve upon their status. When
V.R Singh Government accepted the Mandal Commission report it provided
reservation in job for the other Backward Classes (OBCs) also.
Similarly, the judicial system by passing certain judgments may also facilitate
social mobility. Hindu Marriage Act in different ways has enhanced the status
of women. Similarly, Hindu Succession Act has given equal rights to the
daughters in the family property. Racial Anti-Discrimination Act of America
has facilitated social mobility to the persons of Black race. In this way we
find that legal provisions also facilitate social mobility.
l Politicization: With education and greater exposure to mass media of
communication as well as greater contacts have made people aware about
their rights. The political parties also educate the people about their rights.
To achieve their rights people unite and force the authority in power to accept
their demands. These persons may use agitations, strikes etc. as methods
of attaining the desired goals. The political party in order to get votes provides
a number of concessions. With the help of these new concessions and
provisions, people improve upon their social status. A few persons may
become political leaders, Ministers, Cabinet Ministers or Chief Minister of a
State. Many such examples can be found in the present day Indian polity.
This has resulted into upward social mobility for them. Similarly, with greater
political awareness with representatives in State assembly and Parliament
they can design certain politics to help the lower segments of the society.
l Modernization: The process of modernization involves use of scientific
knowledge and modern technology. It also refers to rationality and secular
way of life. With the improvement in technology people who were engaged
in occupations of low prestige like scavengers discard their traditional
occupations and take up occupations which are not dirty and have no
polluting effects.
In this way, they change their position in upward direction. Similarly, the
level of development of a country also facilitates or hinders social mobility.
The less developed and traditional societies continue with old system of
stratification and with ascribed statuses.
Whereas the developed and modern societies paved the way for greater
opportunities and competition, it is only in the developed countries that there
is a greater possibility for achieved statuses. In other words, modernization
facilitates social mobility.

10.7 FACTORS HINDERING MOBILITY
According to H. M Johnson, one of the factors associated with

obstructing social mobility is associated with the existence of family. It means
that societies where family is a recognized group, there inequality of social
opportunity will continue (to some extent) to favor some. For example in the
earlier section we have seen that education facilitates social mobility but in
societies where ‘quality’ of education varies on the basis of one’s ability to
buy it then this can hinder social mobility.Again, social class remains intact
through class endogamy. This implies the tendency to arrange marriage
alliances within similar class groups. This ensures securing the valued
resources and advantages within a particular class from generation to
generation. In the famous theory forwarded by C.W Mills, known as the
elite theory it was argued that in American society a small minority consist
of the power groups. They belong to military, economic and political domain.
Though these groups are different from the functions played by one another
but their interests and ‘social background’ is often similar which interconnects
them as an unified group, which is termed by Mills as the ‘power elite’.
Within the three groups there is often exchange of personnel from one field
to another. Thus, inequality of opportunity through one’s socio-economic
position holds a tendency minimize social mobility.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.2: a) Mention four factors which facilitate social

mobility.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
b) Mention the author of the book power elite.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

10.8 LET US SUM UP
l Social mobility means movement of persons and groups from one

social position to another.
l Horizontal social mobility means the movement of an individual from
one social group to another situated on the same level.
l Vertical social mobility means movement from one social stratum
to another where social status and dignity is changed along with
one’s position.
l Upward social mobility refers to that mobility where a person changes
his or her position and rank to a higher position.
l Downward social mobility means that mobility where people are
falling down from the holding position and status to the lower stratum.
l Open social mobility is seen in societies where people can change
their position and status on the basis of their quality and efficiency.
l Closed social mobility is seen where a person never gets the chance
to change his/her position and status though he/she has the
potentiality to change.
l Inter-generational mobility means that type of mobility when a person
moves to a social position which is different (higher or lower) fromthe
social position held by his or her parents.
l intragenerational mobility refers to that movement where an individual
achieves a high position and dignity in comparison to his or her own
earlier position.
l Different factors like education, legislation, urbanization,
industrialization etc facilitate social mobility.
10.9 FURTHER READING
Haralambos, M. & Heald M. R. 1980. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives.

Delhi, Oxford University Press.

Johnson, Harry M. 1966. Sociology : A Systematic Introduction, Allied

Publisher.

PROGRESS
Ans. to Q1: a) Universality, Vary in Movement, Reverse process, Change

of status
b) Achieved and ascribed status
Ans. to Q2: a) Urbanization, politicization, modernization, industrialization
b) C.W Mills.
(A) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer within 150 words)

Q1: Define social mobility.
Q2: Write about the factors the hinder social mobility.
(B) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer within 300-500 words)

Q1: Discuss about the features of social mobility.
Q2: Briefly discuss about the types of social mobility with examples.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 11: FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP
UNIT STRUCTURE

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Meaning and Definition of Family
11.3.1 Family- the functionalist perspective
11.3.2 The Marxian Perspective of Family
11.3.3 Feminist analysis of Family
11.4 Meaning and Definition of Marriage
11.4.1 Characteristics of Marriage
11.4.2 Forms of Marriage
11.4.3 Rules of Marriage
11.4.4 Mate Selection Process
11.5 Incest Taboo
11.6 Kinship System
11.6.1 Distinction among kin types
11.6.2 Descent
11.7 Let Us Sum up
11.9 Answers to check your progress

l discuss the different perspectives of family.
l know the meaning, characteristics, forms and rules of marriage
l know what is incest taboo
l discuss the kinship system
11.2 INTRODUCTION
Many sociologists said that family is the basic unit of social

organisation. Though some variation exists on the basis of its composition
Family, Marriage and Kinship Unit 11
but family has been one of the universal social phenomena and has been
an inevitable part of human society. Individuals are generally born into a
family and after a certain age individuals get married. Thus, birth and
marriage are two important aspects in an individual’s life. They determine
and defines one’s relation with some ‘significant’ others. In common day
parlance they are known as relatives. The complex system defining the
relation between individuals and the significant others related by birth or
through marriage is known as the kinship system. In this unit we shall learn
about these three aspects of human society that is, family, marriage and
the kinship system.
11.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF FAMILY
Some important definitons of family as given by Sociologists are as

follows -
According to Maclver and Page, “Family is a group defined by sex
relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation
and upbringing of children.”
According to K. Davis, ”Family is a group of persons whose
relations to one another are based upon consanguinity and who are therefore
kin to one another.”
Gerald Leslie has defined family as, a group of two adults who
belong to the opposite sex, live in a socially approved sex relationship. These
two adults of opposite sex along with their biological or adopted children
comprise a family.
According to G.P Murdock, a family is a social group which is
characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and
reproduction.
11.3.1 Family- the Functionalist perspective
The functionalist perspective is based on the assumption

that every society has certain ‘requirements’. These requirements
need to be fulfilled by its parts for its survival. Therefore, it views
every aspect/part of the society from the function it plays in
Unit 11 Family, Marriage and Kinship
maintaining the whole (society). Accordingly the functionalists, while

analysing family, concentrate on the function it plays in society.
Therefore, while analysing family the functionalist perspective takes
the following aspects in to consideration:
Ø Functions performed by family in society: This aspect
concentrates on the contributions made by family in fulfilling the
requirements of a society.
Ø The relationship between family and other aspects of the social
system: The functionalist perspective tries to locate the
interdependence of family with other aspects of the social
system like the economic or the political system.
Ø Function of a family towards the individuals: This aspects tries
to locate how family can stabilize personalties.
Let us discuss how two important functionalist have analysed
family.
George Peter Murdock: After examining 250 societies
George Peter Murdock has stated that a family’s multi-sided utility
makes it inevitable for all societies. According to him, family performs
four basic functions in all societies. Therefore, he calls them the
universal functions and they are: sexual, reproductive , economic
and educational functions. Each function is essential for maintaining
order in society. First of all, without sexual and reproductive function
there would not be any members in the society. The rules of sexual
activity within the family prohibit the adversive effects upon the social
order. It serves the interests of the individuals by not only providing
sexual gratification but also strengthening emotional bond between
individuals. Secondly, a family plays economic function by providing/
procuring and preparing food. In this context he had referred to the
division of labour existing within a family whereby a husband takes
care of one aspect of the economic activity and the wife looks into
the other aspect of economic activity. It also plays the role of
socialising or educating the younger generation, which forms the
basis of a culture.
Talcott Parsons: While analysing family, Parsons had

primarily discussed the two basic function of family. One is family
as the primary agent in the socialisation of children and the other is
the ‘stabilisation of the adult personalities of the population of the
society’. Family is considered the primary socialising agent because
the socialisation during the early years of an individual takes place
within his or her family. Socialisation through other agencies like,
neighbourhood, school etc. starts a little later after the child has
acquired certain basic social traits from the family. Parsons has
argued that primary socialisation involves two basic processes and
they are:
¦ internalising society’s culture
¦ structuring the personality of the individuals.
According to Parsons, if the culture of a society is not
internalised by the individuals then that society will cease to exist.
This is because without shared values and norms which are the
components of a culture cooperation among individuals would be
difficult and thereby social life would not persist. Thus, culture is an
inevitable aspect of a society and it is not only learned but also
internalised by the individuals. Once it is internalised by an individual
it becomes a part of his or her personality structure. A family moulds
the personality (by various dos and don’ts) of the child on the basis
of the central values of the culture. Parsons had cited the example
of American society to illustrate this fact. In American culture,
independence and achievement is highly valued so families try to
make their children more independent and achievement oriented.
He said that families ‘are factories which produce human
personality’. Family also provides an environment consisting of
warmth, security and mutual support which makes the primary or
the basic socialisation process effective.
Secondly, the personality which is shaped is also required
to be kept stable. This, according to Parson is yet another important
function of a family. Here comes the significance of another institution
which is marriage. A marriage relationship is supposed to provide

the emotional security to the individuals. This relationship acts as a
counterbalance against the stress and strain experienced in
everyday life which otherwise possess the potential to destabilise
the individuals. This is particularly true in case of industrial societies
where the pace of life is very fast and the families (which often
nuclear) are secluded from the broader kin group. Since families
are separated from the kin group or the extended family it does not
receive the security (physical, financial or emotional) as before.
Therefore often the couples are dependent on one another
particularly for emotional support. This improves the bond between
the couples who in turn help one another to remain stable. Here we
can see that one institution is dependent on the other for its survival
as claimed by the functionalists.
However the functionalist view of a family has been criticised
by many as it portrays a picture of only an ‘ideal’ family comprising
well-adjusted children and understanding spouses caring for each
other’s needs. Secondly it portrays only the American middle-class
family and therefore this analogy cannot be considered ‘general’.
So let us discuss other perspectives regarding family.
11.3.2 THE MAXIAN PESPECTIVE OF FAMILY
Marxian sociologists use Marx’s theory of Dialectical

Materialism to understand other aspects of society and family is
one of them. According to Marx in every society a small section
owns the means of production (it is their private property) they are
knowns as the haves. The other, who are in majority, donot own the
means of production and they are known as the have nots. Since
the have nots do not own the means of the production they are
forced to work for the haves. Since the have nots are employed by
the haves, the have nots are dependent on the haves and this
dependence becomes the source of exploitation of the have nots
by the haves. This understanding became the basic premise for

the analysis of society and family is one of those aspects. Friedrich

Engles, a close associate of Marx had written an important work
about the origin and evolution of family in his book, ‘The Origin of the
Family, Private Property and State’.
According to Engles, during the early stages of human
history, the forces of production were communally owned. During
that time the concept of a separate family did not exist, the society
itself was the family. Accordingly there were no rules regarding sexual
relationship. Thus, this stage of human history was characterised
by promiscuity. He speculated that from promiscuity, marriage and
family had evolved through certain stages. In each successive stage
increasing restrictions were imposed on the number of mates
obtainable for each individual. Once the concept of private property
emerged, the concept of monogamous family too emerged. This
form of family had emerged to solve the problem of inheritance of
property. In order to ensure that the property owned is transferred to
the ‘legitimate’ heirs, restrictions were laid on the sexuality of woman
to avoid the confusion regarding the paternity of the child.
11.3.3 FEMINIST ANALYSIS OF FAMILY
Several feminist have employed the Marxian theorising to

analyse family in the capitalist world. According to feminists like
Margaret Benston, family in the modern capitalist world has become
a unit of production which produces ‘labour’ which is one of the
basic commodities of capitalism.This production is done in a much
cheap rate as capitalists are not required to pay for the production
and upkeep of children (future labour). This is particularly true in
case of the women who are considered as ‘housewives’. These
woman who work at home relentlessly as unpaid labourers to
produce and rear children and also take care of the husband inorder
to ensure latter’s good performance at work. The emotional support
provided by the wife acts as an avenue for absorption of the
frustrations accumulated by the husband in the process of working
in the exploitative capitalist system.As rightly pointed by Ansley,

‘When wives play their traditional role as takers of shit, they often
absorb their husband’s legitimate anger and frustration at their own
powerlessness and oppression. With every worker provided with a
sponge to soak up his possibly revolutionary ire, the bosses rest
more secure’.
This is profitable for the capitalists as they are not required
to pay women for the work they do at home. To pay the women for
the amount of work they do at home would require a massive
redistribution of wealth. Again, due to the fact that the husband must
pay for the production and upkeep of the future labour, he keeps
himself disciplined at work despite exploitation and he refrains from
any bargain at work.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: a) Who is the author of the book, ‘The Origin

of the Family, Private Property and Society’?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
b) Mention two function of family.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
11.4 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MARRIAGE
According to Malinowski, marriage is a “contract for production and

maintenance of children”
According to Edward Westermarck marriage is a ‘more or less
durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act
of propagation till after the birth of offspring”.

11.4.1 Characteristics of Marriage
Ø Universal: One of the major chaacteristics of the institution of

marraige is that it is universal. This means that though its form may
vary but it exists in all societies from the most primitive ones to the
most modern societies.
Ø Marriage involves performing civil or religious ceremonies:
Since marriage is considered a sacred bond between two
individuals, some kind of religious rituals and ceremonies are
observed during marriages.
Ø Marriage requires social approval: Marriage is different from
cohabitation in the sense that cohabitation only requires the consent
of two individuals but marriage requires the consent of society. This
consent is expressed through the presence of a large gathering in a
ceremony to mark the marriage of two individuals. Nowadays, social
approval can be achieved through legal procedures which do not
require a gathering of a large number of people.
Ø Marriage defines social obligations: Marriage between two
individuals is different from other sexual relationship on the ground
that marriage defines the rights and duties of the individuals towards
each other. In this context the social approval becomes crucial
because society becomes the ‘witness’ of the consent given by the
individuals to each other. In case of the violation of the obligations,
the society imposes sanctions on the individuals.
Ø Marriage forms the basis of family: In the previous section
we have read that family is the basic unit of organisation in every
society. But it is the marriage between two individuals which gives
rise to a family.
11.4.2 FORMS OF MARRIAGE
There are three major forms of marriage which are discussed

below::
Ø Monogamy: It is the most widely practised form of marriage. It
is a form of marriage where one man marries one woman. In

some societiesi individuals are permitted to remarry only after

the death of one spouse or after divorce. This is known as serial
monogamy. However in some societies remarriage is not at all
encouraged. This is known as straight monogamy. For example,
many women belonging to higher castes in India are not allowed
to remarry even after the death of their spouse. However, these
restrictions are not imposed on the male members and they
can remarry after the dealth of their wives.
Ø Polygamy: This is that form of marriage where an individual is
married to more than one mate. This form of marriage is of two
types and they are polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is that
form of marriage where an individual has more than one wife at
a time, whereas polyandry is a form of marriage where one
woman has several husbands at a time. In some polyandrous
societies like among the Khasas of Uttaranchal fraternal
polyandry is observed. This implies that all brothers in a family
marry one woman. This kind of marriage is generally found in
those societies which exist in harsh environmental and thereby
difficult economic condition. The harsh economic condition
makes it difficult for a single male to support and upkeep a
separate and individual family.
Ø Group Marriage: This implies marriage of two or more women
with two or more men. Here each individual is the spouse of the
each opposite sex in the group. In other words, husbands are
common husbands and wives are common wives. The children
born out of this kind of marriage alliance are considered the
children of the whole group.This kind of marriage is generally
rare and almost in the verge of extinction.
11.4.3 Rules of Marriage:
Every society follows certain rules regarding the selection

of the mates. Thus, every society has some definite rules regarding
who one should marry. Some of those rules are discussed below:
Ø Endogamy is the rule related to marriage which requires an

individual to marry within a particular specified group. That group
may be class, caste, tribe, religion, community etc. For example,
we often hear that among some communities in India marriage
alliances are formed between individuals belonging one caste
only.
Ø Exogamy is a rule related to marriage which requires individuals
to marry outside certain specified group. That group can be gotra
or clan, pravara, pinda or village. For example, within a tribe
there are several clans. Among the Mishing tribe of Assam there
are several clans bearing different surnames like Pegu, Doley,
Patir etc. Now marriage between two Mishing individuals is
preferred (which is the practice of endogamy). But a boy whose
surname is Pegu cannot marry a girl whose surname is also
Pegu even though they are not blood relatives. This is the practise
of exogamy. This is because there is a belief that even though
they are not direct blood relatives but may be distant relatives
and in that way they are considered as brother and sister. Again,
in some villages the boys and the girls residing and growing up
together are considered brothers and sisters. Therefore, marital
alliance between the individuals residing in the same village is
not accepted.
11.4.4 MATE SELECTION PROCESS:
We have already come to know that marriage is a social

process and it involves the following of certain socially defined rules.
In this context selection of mate is an important aspect. On the
basis of the process of selecting one spouse or mate we can classify
the marriage and they are:
Ø Arranged marriage: In some societies like among the Hindus
it is generally an obligation on the part of the parents of the
individuals to select the correct partner, mate or spouse for their
son or daughter. In such marraiges individuals do not have much
say about their preference, likes or dislikes regarding their

prospective partners. This kind of marriage still exists among
many communities in India.
Ø Love Marriage: In most of the societies as individuals become
adults, they are supposed to choose the individuals they would
like to marry. Individuals generally spend a time period of
courtship to understand each others feelings and temperament.
After taking the decision to marry one another, the individuals
seek social approval. This form of marriage is popularly known
a love marriage in India. However instances of this kind of
marriage in India are found in ancient literature as Gandhava
Vivaha.
Besides these major types there are other mate selecting process
which is specially observed among some tribes. Some of those are:
Ø Mate selection through service: Among some of the tribes a
practise is prevalent that a prospective groom must provide
service to the bride’s family for certain period of time as decided.
If the bride’s father is satisfied with the service then the consent
for marriage is granted.
Ø Marriage by capture: Among certain communities seeking the
social consent for marriage requires capturing a prospective
bride by the prospective groom is required. However among most
of the tribes this capture is ceremonial or prearranged.
Ø Marriage by trial: In this form of marriage, an individual before
asking a girl’s hands for marriage must prove his strength. Among
the Bhils during the community festivals, several games are
conducted where young man are provided with the avenues to
showcase their prowess.
Ø Marriage by intrusion: In this kind of marriage, a girl desirous
of marrying a particular boy thrusts herself in his house. She
performs all the household chores and even bears all the abuses
and humiliations meted out to her by the boy’s family members
till the boy gives his consent for marriage.
Ø Marriage by probation: In his kind of marriage, before marrying

two individuals cohabit with one another to check one another’s
compatibility and then they decide whether they would marry or
not.
11.5 INCEST TABOO
Every society follows some rules regarding whom one or a family

can choose as a prospective bride or groom. In some societies these,
rules are rigid and in some societies these rules are flexible. However, one
rule is common in most of the societies and that prohibition of marriage or
sexual relation among blood relatives. For example, sexual relation between
father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister is called incest and
it is a taboo in almost all the societies.
11.6 KINSHIP SYSTEM
Human societies consist of different social groups and we have

already read that family is the basic group in any society. Now, Kinship
system is one of the basic organising principles in every human society.
This system establishes relationship between an individual and the groups.
In other words it refers to the set of rules which define how individuals are
related to one another. For example, in a family children are related to parents
by blood but a husband and wife in a family are related to one another
through marriage alliance. So individuals are either related to one another
by the virtue of blood relationship called consanguinity, or by the virtue of
marriage relationship known as affinity. So, we attain some relatives by
birth. We cannot choose them but marriage alliances provide some amount
choice to select our relatives. So we are related to our consaguinal kin by
blood. The kinship system determines who will inherit the family property.
11.6.1 Distinction among Kin Types
We all have different types of kin or relatives and in most of the

societies there are different terms to refer to the different kins. This

reduces a lot of confusion. According to Harry M Johnson there are

six most important disctinctions among the kin types and they are:
Ø Sex: The terms ‘brother’ or ‘sister’ indicate the sex of the kin
referred to.
Ø Generation: The terms like ‘mother’ and ‘daughter’ indicates
difference in generation but the term cousin indicates sameness
of the generation.
Ø Affinity: In some societies different terms are used to indicate
affinal kin and consanguinal kin. For example in most of the
northern regions of India maternal grandfather is called Nana
and paternal grandfather is called dada.
Ø Collaterality: An individual’s collateral relatives include one’s own
siblings, all the siblings of one’s lineal relations (example of lineal
relatives may be grandfather, father, son, grandson etc) and all
the descendants of the above mentioned two groups.
Ø Bifurcation: Sometimes the kinship terms fail to indicate the sex
of the relative through whom the individual or the ego is related.
For example, the word ‘niece’ does not specify whether one is
referring to brother’s or sister’s daughter. In Assamese, the term
‘Aita’ does not specify whether one is referring to mother’s mother
or father’s mother.
Ø Linkage: This aspect is important when a term fails to specify
whether the affinal kin is linked to the ego through another affinal
relative or through a consaguinal relative. For example the term
sister-in-law does not specify the ‘intervening’ relative (brother,
wife or husband)
LET US KNOW
In anthropology ego refers to the individual from whom

the networks of kinship and family relationship is
traced.

11.6.2 Descent
There is a set of principles by which an individual’s (the word

ego is used for individual) affiliation and probability to become a
successor of the family property is determined. It is known as
‘descent’. In certain societies a child is considered a descendant of
only the father’s family. This system is known as patrilineal descent
and in some societies children are considered to be the descendant
of the mother’s family and, therefore, such societies are known to
be following matrilineal descent. This two systems are also known
as Unilineal descent system. Again, in the some societies children
are considered to be a descendent of both the father’s and mother’s
family. Such societies are known as bilateral or cognatic. So, there
are three main rules of descent and they are: patrilineal, matrilineal
and bilateral. In patrilineal societies or the societies following patrilineal
descent, the father is identified as the sole procreator while the
mother is considered just as the carrier of the progeny. In the
patrilineal descent system, inheritance of family property is passed
from father to son and authority/decision making power is rested on
the hands of the senior male members. In such societies, daughters
are considered merely guests for a few years in the natal house.
The folk culture and the folk songs of those societies often refer to
this fact. However, it is seen that even after marriage daughters
continue to have strong emotional, material and ritual relationship
with the natal group. For example in many societies in India the
maternal uncle or the mama plays an important role in several rituals
like in the Annaprasana where the presence of the maternal uncle
is important. On the other hand in societies following matrilineal
descent, the family property is passed either from mother to daughter
or from mother’s brother to sister’s son. For example earlier the
Nayar community in Kerala was matrilineal and had a matrilocal
residence system. The families consisted of the sisters, sister’s
children and sister’s daughter’s children. They all resided in one

house known as the taravad. The husbands ‘visited’ the wives in

their wives’ taravad. Again, among the Khasis of Meghalaya, the
matrilineal descent system is followed. In Khasi society the youngest
daughter inherits the family property. However the decision making
power regarding the family property resides on the hands of the
maternal uncle. The elder daughters generally move out of the family
house and build separate nuclear families along with their husbands.
The Garos of Meghalaya also follow the matrilineal descent system.
After marriage the husband resides in the wives house but the
husband becomes the head of family (after the death of the wifes’
father) and the manager of the wifes’ family property.
ACTIVITY 1
Recall a crises situation in your family and discuss

the kind of support (emotional, financial, physical) you
and your family has received from your relatives.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.2: a) Mention the different types of descent

system.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
b) Name a matrilineal society/tribe.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
11.7 LET US SUM UP
l Family is the basic unit of a social organisation.

l The functionalists concentrate on the contributions made by family
in fulfilling the requirements of a society.

l The functionalist perspective tries to locate the interdependence of

family with other aspects of the social system like the economic or
the political system.
l Marriage forms the basis of family.
l Marriage is a social institution which involves granting consent to
two adult individuals to form a family and procreate.
l Kinship system is one of the basic organising principles in every
human society. This system establishes relationship between an
individual and the groups.
l Kinship system refers to the set of rules which define how individuals
are related to one another.
11.8 FURTHER READINGS
M.Franscis Abraham. 2017. Contemporary Sociology: An introduction to

concepts and theories.
Johnson, Harvy M. 1966. Sociology : A Systermatic Introduction. New Delhi
: Allied Publishers.
11.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOU

PROGRESS
Ans. to Q.1: a) Friedrich Engles

b) Reproductive function and economic function
Ans. to Q.1: a) Patrilineal descent system and matrilineal descent system
b) Khasi
Short Questions (Answer within 150 words)

Q1: a) What is meant by taravad ?
b) What is meant by incest ?

Long Question (Answer within 350-500 words)

Q1: Discuss the significance of family, marriage and kinship in
contemporary society.
Q2: Define family. Critically compare the functionalist and Marxist
perspective of family.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 12: RELIGION
UNIT STRUCTURE

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Definitions of Religion
12.4 Origin of Religion
12.5 Forms of Religion
12.6 Theories on Religion
12.7 Social Role of Religion
12.8 Religion and Globalization
12.9 Let Us Sum Up

l understanding the meaning and definitions of religion.
l learn about the origin and forms of religion.
l know about the theories of religion.
l understanding the social role of religion.
l discuss the relationship between religion and globalization.
12.2 INTRODUCTION
Religion is an important aspect of every society. The word ‘religion’

is derived from the Latin word ‘religare’, which means ‘to bind together’ or
from the word ‘religere’, which meant ‘to rehearse, to execute painstakingly’
suggesting both group identity and ritual (Yinger, 1957:13). Religion refers
to a deep faith in a super natural power and parhaps it may be the chief
reason to recognize religion as a prime agent of social control. India is a
diversified country, diversified in the sense of multidimensional social

Unit 12 Religion
aspects. Religion is one such an aspect where diversification is visible. As

we know, Constitution declares as India a secular republic country. It simply
means that India does not promote any particular religion as a national
religion unlike many other countries in the world. India makes equal treatment
to all the religion practised within its geographical boundary.
Man is a social animal and religion is man’s vital concern. Man has
biological, economic and social needs, but also has what is known as a
religious need. Religion, as a component of human behavior, had interested,
fascinated, confused and confounded the scientists from an early period.
Religious experience is associated with emotions, especially with
the emotions of fear, awe, or reverence. It is closely associated with morality
and has elaborate rules of conduct. Some of the major world religions are
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In
this unit we will learn about religion in detail.
12.3 DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION
Different scholars explain their views regarding religion. The different

definitions of religion are mentioned below.
Durkheim, in his book The Elementary Forms of the Religious life
he, defines religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.”
James G. Frazer, in his work, Golden Bough considered religion to
be a belief in “powers superior to man which are believed to direct
and control the course of nature and of human life.”
Edward Sapir, an American anthropologist, says that “the essence
of religion consists in man’s never-ceasing attempt to discover a road
to spiritual serenity across the perplexities and dangers of daily life.”
Maciver and Page have said, “Religion as we understand the term
implies a relationship not merely between man and man but also
between man and some higher power.”
According to Ogburn, “Religion is an attitude towards superhuman powers.”
Max Muller defines religion as “a mental faculty or disposition which
enables man to apprehend the infinite”.

Religion Unit 12
Thomas F. O’Dea, a functional theorist, defines religion as “the

manipulation of non-empirical or supra-empirical means for non-
empirical or super-empirical ends”. He further adds, “Religion offers
what is felt to be a way of entering into a relationship with the supra-
empirical aspects of reality, be they conceived as God, gods, or
otherwise”.
12.4 ORIGIN OF RELIGION
Sociologists and anthropologists believe that the primitive man’s

imagination was born out of fear and that insecurity, mode of worship, beliefs
and liturgy are instrumental in the development of modern organized religion.
In the hunting and food-gathering stages, primitive man’s life was full of
uncertainties. Will he get the hunt? Will he be able to collect food? He also
had to face the cruelty of nature in the form of rain, floods, thunder and
storms. Dreams, illness and death were mysterious for him. He did not
understand the causes of these natural phenomena. Therefore, in order to
cope with the unknown, the primitive man developed certain beliefs about
good and bad men as well as the benevolent and harmful aspects of Nature.
At this stage, man’s life has two dimensions. The first dimension
was of feeling and seeing. Therefore, primitive man tried to define human
nature and animal behavior by means of his capacity to see, hear and
understand. For him, death, epidemics, rain, storms and floods etc., were
the disasters he was exposed to and the helplessness, uncertainty and
defenselessness gave rise to human speculations, beliefs and practices.
These in turn gradually generated the development of modern organized
religion.
The mental, social and geographical horizon of the primitive man
was limited. His/her life was limited to the basic needs. It was in the effort to
fulfill these needs that the primitive man/woman very partially developed
his/her system of beliefs and religious practices.
Tylor and Spencer held that religion originated in the life of the
primitive man/woman because of the concept of spirit. They believe that
the primitive man/woman came to believe in the existence of soul through
Unit 12 Religion
his/her speculation about death and dreams. According to Tylor, the primitive
man believed that soul resides in the human body and it goes out when
man/woman sleeps. When he/she wakes up it returns to the body. When
the soul does not return to the body, it is the lifeless state or death. The
primitive man/woman kept the dead body of his dear ones in the hope that
soul would come back and enter the body.
During the stages of hunting and food collection, primitive man/
woman made certain achievements but he/she also faced lot of
disappointments. He/she believed that his/her happiness depended on the
happiness and satisfaction of the soul of his/her dead relatives and ancestors.
If some of their ancestor do not rest in peace their life will be miserable.
Thus, concept of the soul of the dead generated faith in the life of primitive
man/woman and the efforts made to satisfy souls of the ancestors created
liturgy and rituals.
Spencer believes that the origin of belief in the life of the primitive
man/woman was due to dreams. The primitive man/woman associated
dreams with the souls of ancestors and ghosts, which gave rise to belief in
supernatural power. Spencer on the basis of this logic discusses the growth
of religion in various societies. The idea of the origin of religion propounded
by Spencer and Tylor is called theory of ‘animism’ or ‘ancestor worship’.
Frazer holds that the primitive man/woman was in a state of
continuous struggle with Nature. Sometimes he/she succeeded in
controlling Nature and sometimes Nature defeated him/her. The changing
practices developed by the primitive man/woman to control. Nature is called
‘magic’. When defeated by Nature primitive man/woman worshipped Nature
to propitiate or please it. Religion originated from the worship of Nature.
Frazer’s these ideas have been called the theory of ‘Naturalism’.
Durkheim criticizes these theories of the origin as religion. According
to Durkheim these theories project primitive man/woman as philosophers
whereas Durkheim felt that their ideas and social life were too simple.
Secondly these theories stress on psychological aspects but for Durkheim
religious beliefs are totally social. He criticized the earlier sociologist and
anthropologists on the grounds that their explanation for religion is
Religion Unit 12
psychological, and that they made religion an illusion whereas nothing so

universal and important in human society could be illusory. Durkheim argues
that in all societies a distinction is made between ‘sacred’ and ‘profane’
objects. Religion is related to sacred objects. Individuals performing at
religious rituals and festival strengthen their solidarity and their solidarity
fills them with a social spirit.
Later anthropologists particularly Malinowski and Radcliff Brown have
conducted studies to know how religion used to functions in primitive
societies. According to them, religion maintains social harmony and controls
individual’s behavior.
l Animism
According to animism, the idea of the soul (anima) is central to
religion. Hence, the name is animism. According to E.B. Tylor, primitive
man/woman hit upon the idea of soul because of an error. In his/her dreams,
he/she walked about various places engaged in various types of activities
and met his dead ancestors even while his/her body remained in one place.
He/she deduced from this experience that each individual has a double or
another self, which has the power of leaving the body and traveling to distant
place. This double is distinguished from the person in several respects. “It
is more malleable and plastic; for it to leave the body, it must pass out by its
apertures especially the mouth and nose. It is represented as made of
matter, but of a matter much more subtle and ethereal than any which we
know empirically. This double is the soul.”
Thus they questioned, how did the soul attain the status of a
disembodied spirit? An answer to this question is provided by another error
supposed to have been made by primitive men/women. They thought of
death as a prolonged sleep as a result of which the body disintegrated and
ceased walking. The soul consequently became disembodied and free
and roamed around those who were living. Gradually, the population of
spirit souls grew. It was thought that these spirits had the needs, passions,
and interests of living men/women and were inclined either to aid or to
injure their erstwhile living companions. Being ethereal and fluid, these spirits
could enter into the bodies of living beings and cause either all sorts of
Unit 12 Religion
disorder or increase the strength and vitality of the bodies. It was assumed
that an evil spirit caused the disorders but benign spirit increased the
strength and vitality of the body and brought about other wholesome
changes. Primitive men thus found an explanation for all kinds of happenings
that varied from the ordinary in terms of the activities of spirits. Illness or
some such misfortune was ascribed to the work of evil spirits while good
things of life were attributed to the work of benign spirits. The next step
was, therefore, an attempt to conciliate and appease the spirits in order to
ensure that they did not harm the living beings. The modus of appeasement
took the form of prayers, offerings, sacrifices and other practices. Thus
deity was created from a simple conception of a ‘double’ in a human body.
Since death brought about this apotheosis, “It was to the dead, to the souls
of the ancestors that the first cult known to humanity was addressed. Thus,
the first rites were funeral rites; the first sacrifices were food offering destined
to satisfy the needs of the departed; the first altars were tombs”.
Tylor explained animism by formulating the theory that early men
could not distinguish the animate from inanimate objects. He endowed all
things, even the inanimate objects, with human characteristics and, hence,
with souls. It was held that the souls governed the affairs of men. Likewise,
it was also held that the soul of other things, including those of trees and
animals, governed the external world – “the flow of rivers, the movement of
stars, the germination of plants, the reproduction of animals etc.” Early
men were more attracted by these cosmic spirits than by those of his/her
ancestors because the external things inhabited by spirits were more real
to them than the ancestors who existed only in their imagination. They,
therefore, implored the assistance of these spirits with offerings and prayers.
Thus came into being a completely animistic view of the world. The ancestor
cult was supplemented by a nature worshipping cult.
l Naturism
The theory of naturism is associated with the name of Max Muller.
He accepted Taylor’s theory of the origin of the conception of soul with
exception that he placed greater emphasis on death as the source rather
than on dreams. This development was, however, considered by Max Muller
Religion Unit 12
as secondary in importance. The source of religious inspiration was to be

sought, according to him, in the deep influence exercised by nature in all its
varied aspects upon the mind of early man/woman. He actually defined
nature. In the words of Max Muller, “At first sight, nothing seemed less natural
than nature. Nature was the greatest surprise, a terror, a marvel, a standing
miracle, and was only on account of their permanence, constancy and
regular recurrence that certain features of that standing miracle were called
natural in the sense of foreseen, common, intelligible… It was that vast
domain of surprise, of terror, of marvel, of miracle, the unknown, as
distinguished from the known, or as I like to express it, the infinite, as distinct
from the finite, which supplied from the earliest times the impulse to religions
thought and language.” Max Muller maintained that an attitude of awe of
love and reverence towards objects of nature was born as a result of a
‘diseased’ mind which invested lifeless things with life and all the power
that is associated with life. This was brought about by early man’s/woman’s
stupidity again – this time his/her linguistic confusion. Such linguistic errors
as the sun rises and sets, or thunder sends rain or that trees bears flowers
and fruits, gave rise to belief in some power inherent in the sun, thunder
and the trees, etc. “Hence a spirit had to be attributed to the objects in order
to account for the acts which were confounded with them in their names.
Language thus superimposed upon the material world as revealed to be
the senses; a new world composed of spiritual beings created out of nothing
and felt to be the causes of physical events. Once invented the vocabulary
representing this spirit world was capable of indefinite expansion, so that a
pantheon, a hierarchy of deities would be created. The idea of man’s own
soul was a secondary growth and the religion of ancestor worship was a
reflection of the more important nature worship.”
l Manaism
The assumption that the people have a conception of the soul has
been criticized by some anthropologists. According to them, the entire
religious life of the primitive people was born out of their belief in the existence
of a certain supernatural power or spirit in an object animate and inanimate.

Unit 12 Religion
They did not distinguish between the animate and objects inanimate
because in their view such distinctions were a later development. It is
therefore, wrong to assume that the primitive people became aware, in the
first instance, of a soul in man and subsequently conceived of the soul in
lower animals and inanimate objects. Marett characterized such idea of
spirit or supernatural power among primitive people as ‘non-personalized’
concept of spirit’, and he called such a set of beliefs animatism or manaism
after ‘mana’ used by Melanesians to designate force. Some North American
tribes called this power orenda or maniton.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Name a thinker who is associated with

Naturism.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q.2: Who authoured the book, ‘Goldern Bough’?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
12.5 FORMS OF RELIGION
Religion seeks to interpret and control man’s relations to the forces

of his physical and social environment. These forces are thought to be
under the control of some supernatural power. The attempt to inter prêt
man’s relations to these forces led to several forms of religion like
superstition, animism, totemism, magic, ceremonialism, and fetishism. A
brief explanation of these forms is necessary in order to clarify the concept
of religion.
l Superstition: Superstition is the conviction that something shall happen
owing to the causes utterly disproportionate to the event. For example, the
belief that there would be some trouble in the journey if a cat has crossed
the path, or that there will come some calamity because a star has fallen

Religion Unit 12
from the sky, or that Saturday is not a good day for sending a women to her
husband’s house. The Hindu religion is full of such superstitions.
l Animism: Animism propounds the existence of some supra physical
being within the body of every living being. This supra physical being is
believed to survive the death of the physical body in which it is contained.
After the death of a person the supra physical being is freed from the physical
limitations and can wander irrespective of time and space. Thus animism
is a belief in the spirits of the dead. It is a name given to the theory of spirits
which are supposed to be dwelling in certain places or things so that they
can communicate with men. Very commonly the view is held that spirit
visits a man in sleep. Sometimes a man is said to have heard the spirit
speak from a corner of the house. To feed the ancestors, a fifteen day ritual
called ‘shradh’ is observed among Hindus. According to Tylor animism lies
at the basis of all religion.
l Magic: Magic is a system of manipulation by which an effect is sought
through the action of unseen powers. The magician attempts to control the
powers by magical practices not validated by scientific knowledge, such
as rubbing a stone on the diseased part of the body to make it get well,
walking on fire without being burnt, eating glass pieces without shedding
any blood, turning a piece of charcoal into a rupee, making a body disappear,
getting a purse out of the pocket of a man without going near or about him.
Ø Two kinds of magic: Frazer in his book Golden Bough distinguished
between two kinds of magic, imitative and contagious. In imitative magic an
individual imitates what he wishes to happen. Thus an Austan who wants
rain to fall, fills his mouth with water and squirts it out in different directions.
Again many children are made to put on a mascot to save themselve from
an evil spirit.
Ø Difference between Magic and religion: Some authors believe that
magic is a form of religion but others choose not to characterize magic as
religion. According to Malinowski, magic practices are distinguished from
the religious ones by the fact that magic always has a definite end in view,
which is intermediate, practical and usually private. They are intended to
produce a definite effect. Religion on the other hand, has no definite end. It
Unit 12 Religion
is always an end in itself. In the case of religion, the attitude is humble, the
worshipper seeks to obtain something from God through prayer. Magic, on
the other hand seeks to attain the thing directly by the use of disproportionate
means. The intellectual content of magic is narrowed by its highly utilitarian
purpose. A magic seeks to get things by threatening or intimidating gods
while a worshipper seeks them by praying and petitioning to gods. A magical
behavior is a commercial transaction in which trickery and deceit become
possible. Religion establishes a bond between man and God but in magic
such a bond is absent. Magic diverges most from religion when it is used to
accomplish aims not sanctioned by the group. It may be employed to achieve
vengeance, to acquire property illegally, to steal another man’s wife or a
woman’s husband etc. Selby says, “Magic is now, and for a long time has
been regarded with some moral reprobation. If it comes under the head of
religion at all it is religion of an illicit and degrading kind”.
l Totemism: Totemism is a form of religion where a tribe is supposed to
be related to an object mainly animal or plant towards which they behave in
a reverent manner by adopting its name and offering sacrifices or adoring
it. A totem is generally an animal, rarely a plant or any object to which a clan
is assosiated. The relation of the clan and that particular animal/plant/object
is explained by bonds of descent. The people of the clan do not kill or eat or
harm that animal/plant/object with whose name they are linked to. They
attach to it super empirical meaning. In Ruanda, for example the Buffalo
people will not eat buffalo.
l Ceremonialism: Ceremonialism is a collective practice usually
associated with religion. Thus, praying, feasting, dancing, singing, kneeling
are examples of ceremonialism or ritualism. All religions provide frequent
ritual contact with other communicants which is a form of group intra-
simulation. In this sense ritual ceremonial may be called the external side
of religion. Like the belief itself sacredness is attached to it.
Some thinkers have believed ritual to be more important than
religious belief itself in maintaining religious attitudes. Ritual helps to remind
individual of holy realm, to revive and strengthen his/her faith in this realm.
The survival of Judaism has been attributed to the insistence of the
Religion Unit 12
Pharisees that almost every act should be ritualized. Similar is the case
with Hinduism which lays great stress on rituals. At the time of birth, marriage
and death in a Hindu family many ritual ceremonies are observed. In a
church congregation one observes several rituals. On cue one rises, bows,
kneels, and comes forward, and so on. Many ceremonies sometimes seem
incredibly intricate. However some of these ceremonies must have been
invented by the primitive people with a purpose in mind which has now lost
that purpose due to the advancement of scientific knowledge. Behind
ceremonies there is definitely logic, if no other logic than the logic of emotional
satisfaction might be there. For social cohesion satisfaction of emotional
feelings is necessary and if a ceremony serves that purpose then it a
sufficient ground for its observance.
We may here note the distinction between belief and ritual. Belief is
an attitude towards sacred things. It is based upon faith rather than upon
evidence. It is the cognitive aspect of religion. Some consider a cow as a
sacred thing. This attitude is based upon faith. There is nothing to distinguish
a sacred cow from any other cow, except the faith or belief of those who
regard it is as sacred.
Ritual, as we have already noted, is a religious practices. It is a
behavior with reference to sacred objects. The sacredness of behavior
comes from the attitude taken towards the sacred objects.
l Fetishism: Fetishism is probably the most elementary from of religion.
It is the adoration of material things because of their mysterious power. The
word ‘fetishes’ come from the Portuguese explorers, who first applied it to
wooden images of the west African Negroes. But the essential thing is not
that they are artificial. A leaf or stone of unusual shape may be adored in the
same way as a carved figure. The essence of a fetish is that it has attributed
to it a mysterious power for good or evil which some preliterate people call
‘mana’. The fetish is adored or insulted according to whether it fulfils or
does not fulfill its processor’s wishes.
From the above description it may be concluded that in primitive
times the world was thought to be populated with spirits and ghosts of
helpful or harmful nature. To propitiate these hosts various methods were
Unit 12 Religion
employed which gave birth to animism, totemism, ceremonialism and

fetishism.
12.6 THEORIES ON RELIGION
Malinowaski and Radcliffe Brown have given functional explanations

of primitive religion. Malinowski points out, with reference to the Trobriand
islanders, that religion is intimately connected with various emotional states,
which are states of tension. For example, quite a few of their magical and
religious practices centre round the fishing expeditions. These are the
outcome of the state of fear which a possible disaster on the seas gives
rise. Similarly, hate, greed, anger, love etc, may arise due to various
situations in a man’s/woman’s life. These situations create stress and strain
and, if permitted to exist over a long period of time can, frustrate one’s
action. A human being has to be an acting individual; and normal action is
not possible in an emotionally upset state of existence. Religion serves its
purpose in such a situation as a tool of adaptation; its purpose is to purge
the human mind of its stress and strain, i.e., it is cathartic in it action. In
other words, religion has the function of bringing about a readjustment
between man and the supernatural in upset states of existence. It is a device
to secure mental and psychical stability in an individual’s life.
Radcliffe-Brown takes a different stand. The function of religion, he
says, is not to purge fear and other emotional strains from the human mind,
but to instill a sense of dependence in it. He says that, ultimately, the survival
of the group is more important than throat of the individual; and if the latter
has to make some sacrifices it is in his own interest to do so, because
without social survival individual survival is not possible. However, the
individual does not seek to realize this always, and he/she seeks to chart
out an individual course of action. If each individual were to do this there
would be utter confusion and chaos and no organized activity would be
possible. Adherence to a norm of behaviour is essential in terms of social
survival; and it is the fear of supernatural control and punishment, as also
the anticipation of support in the case of socially approved conduct, that
brings this adherence. Therefore, the function of religion is to create a twofold
Religion Unit 12
feeling of dependence on society and thereby obtain the individual’s

concurrence with the social norms because the ultimate aim of being social
is to perpetuate society.
Here again, we may say, that the truth lies in a conjunction of the
views of Malinowski and Radcliffe- Brown. Their view points might appear
opposed, but they are not; they have to be taken as complementary. The
individual is as important to society just as society is to the individual.
Radcliffe-Brown’s and Malinowaski’s sociological explanations are
derived, in part from Durkheim’s theory of religion which we will discuss in
the next section.
l Emile Drukheim on religion
Emile Durkheim developed the sociological theory of religion, which
was published in his book ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life’. In this
book Durkheim presented what is probably the most influential interpretation
of religion from a functionalist perspective. Durkheim argues that all societies
divide the world into two categories; ‘the sacred’ and ‘the profane’. More
simply this means the distinction between the sacred and the non-sacred.
Religion, according to him, is based on this distinction. It is ‘a unified system
of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say, things set
apart and forbidden’’. He insists that ‘sacred things’ do not simply mean
those personal things which are called gods or spirits. Anything can be
‘sacred’ such as a pebble, a piece of wood, a rock etc. This is not the
particular quality of the pebble or the wood which makes it sacred. Sacred
things are considered to be sacred simply because they are symbols of
something. Durkheim, therefore, says that to understand the role of religion
in society, the relationship between these symbols and that which they
represent must be established. He argues that if one can study the most
rudimentary forms of social existence and the thought forms which
accompany them, then perhaps one can understand the relationship or
connection between the symbol (i.e. collective existence) and that which
the symbol represents (i.e. collective representations). It is for this reason
that the various primitive groups of Australia and North America form the
basis of his study.
Unit 12 Religion
Durkheim considers the religion of Australian aborigines, which he

calls totemism, as the simplest and most basic of religions. The totemic
object among these people is connected not only with religion but also with
clan membership. Aboriginal society is divided into several clans. A clan is
like a large extended family with its members sharing certain duties and
obligations. Each clan has a totem, usually an animal or a plant. The totem
is a symbol. It is the emblem of the clan. ‘‘It is its flag; it is the sign by which
each clan distinguishes itself from all others’’. The totem is, however, more
than this. It is a sacred symbol. The totem is the outward expression of the
totemic principle or god.
Totem thus being a religious or sacred object, inspires respect and
awe. It is especially true when the otherwise scattered parts of the clan
come together periodically on a ceremonial occasion. It is then that an
excitement is bred which lifts the individual out of himself. It is minor case
of creative synthesis. The totem is only an object; yet it is symbolic of a
reality unseen. The ‘images of the totemic beings are more sacred than the
beings themselves.’ This fact makes it evident that the totem has a special
symbolic significance. Because it symbolizes the moral unity of the clan as
a whole, it is sacred and eventually transforms itself into a divinity. Durkheim
argues that if the totem ‘is at once the symbol of the god and of the society,
is that not because the god and the society are only one’? Thus, he suggests
that in worshipping god, men are in fact worshipping society. Society is the
real object of religious veneration.
How does man come to worship society? Durkheim argues;
‘primitive man comes to view society as something sacred because he is
utterly dependent on it’. Society is more important and powerful than the
individual. But why does man/woman not simply worship society itself?
Why does he/she invent a sacred symbol like a totem? By way of explanation,
Durkheim argues; ‘it is easier for him to visualize and direct his feelings of
awe toward a symbol than towards so complex a thing as a clan’. He sees
this as a situation in which religion ‘ceases to be an inexplicable hallucination
and takers a good hold in reality’. In fact, we can say that the believer is not
deceived when he/she believes in the existence of a moral power upon
Religion Unit 12
which he/she depends and from which he/she receives all that is best in
himself/herself.
Among the Australian tribes studied by Durkheim, the totem is
represented in various ways. Each totem has its emblem or blazon. In
almost all clans. There are objects such as pieces of wood, stones, etc.
which bear a figurative representation of the totem. Ordinary objects which
are referred to as churning are transfigured once they bear the emblem of
the totem. They share the sacred quality that is associated with the totem,
a phenomenon which we can easily understand by observing ourselves. In
modern societies, the flag may be regarded as the equivalent to the churinga
of Australian aborigines. The flag of a collectivity shares the sacred quality
which we attribute to the native land. Totemic objects bearing the emblem
of the totem give rise to behaviour typically of the religious order, i.e., either
proscriptive or prescriptive practices. The members of the clan must abstain
from eating or touching the totem or the objects which share the sacred
quality of totem. Or, they must display with regard to the totem some explicit
form of respect. In this way, the tribes in Australian societies are division
into two fundamental categories of the whole of reality; the sacred and the
profane.
For Durkheim, the ‘sacred and the profane have always and
everywhere been conceived by the human mind as two distinct classes,
as two worlds between which there is nothing in common’. There is a logical
chasm between the two domains and it is precisely the totality of sacred
beliefs and practices which constitutes a religion. Religion is a group
phenomenon, for it is a group which gives a religion its specific character
and unity. Moreover, religion unifies the group, literally, it binds people together.
In this way, Durkheim emphasizes his general thesis that religious ideas
sare derived from society and serve to bind the members of a society
together. This essential and positive function of religion- viz. solidifying a
society- explains why it is a ubiquitous and permanent institution.

Unit 12 Religion
l Karl Marx on religion

Kari Marx viewed religions as an illusion which is necessary for the
alleviation of sufferings of the people in a capitalist society. In the words of
Marx; ‘Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature; the sentiment of a
heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the
people’. He believed, religion would completely disappear in a communist
society where there would no more be division of people into classes, the
oppressor and the oppressed, the exploiter and the exploited. In other words,
communism would usher in a situation in which the social conditions would
make to religion to disappear.
According to Marx the ways in which religion can mitigate the pain
of oppression may be briefly noted. First, it promises a life of eternal bliss in
the afterlife, i.e., life after death. Accordingly, pain becomes bearable when
people have something better to look forward to. Second, there are religions
which extol the virtues of poverty and ever of suffering produced by
oppression. The well-known biblical quotation brings this out dramatically;
‘It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich
man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven’. The implication is clear. Those who
would bear the deprivations of life with dignity and humility will be rewarded
for their virtue. Third, religious teachings persuade men to hope for
supernatural intervention to solve the problems on earth. Fourth, religion
often teach man to bear with injustice and accept the social order, however
iniquitous it may be. In Hinduism and in many other religions, the social
order is represented as a handiwork of the creator and, as such, social
stratification is an inevitable concomitant. Thus, it is interpreted that, the
social order is immutable and unchangeable. The people have therefore,
no other alternative but to accept their position in the social order.
From a Marxian point of view, religion not only serves to create a
series of myths which justify and rationalize the social order based on
injustifice and exploitation, but it also serves as an instrument of oppression.
Historically, all organized religions have received patronage from the ruling
class and in exchange these religious leaders have diverted the attention
of their followers from the real source of their oppression and thereby have
helped the ruling class to remain in positions of powers.

Religion Unit 12
There is ample evidence to establish many of the changes levelled

by the Marxists against organized religion. But will religion completely
disappear in situation where there would be no exploitation of one class by
another? There are many aspects of life which are unpredictable and
uncertain. Death, for example, creates void which no amount of logic can
diminish. In such situations, people naturally raise questions about the
meaning of life. Religion gives them the required emotional support and
security. During the Second World War, Russian men and women in
thousands thronged in and around the churches to say prayers for the well-
being of the near and dear ones who were in the thick of the battle. It has,
therefore, been very aptly said that ‘‘these examples suggest that there is
more to religion than a set of beliefs and practices which develop in societies
based on the private ownership of the forces of production.
It should be borne in mind, however, that the dysfunctional aspects
of religion relate to institutionalized religion. Instead of strengthening social
solidarity, organized religions have served throughout historical period as
divisive forces, encouraging directly and indirectly religious feuds of varying
dimensions.
The functions and dysfunctions of religion with respect both to society
and to individuals may be examined with reference to the most outstanding
social and cultural development of the last several centuries; namely, the
secularization of culture. In primitive and traditional societies, religion was
all pervasive in the sense that religion ordained everything from birth to
cremation or burial, including ever mundane matters, such as occupational
groupings. In short, religion determined the world-view of the believers. These
characteristics are applicable to religious people in modern societies also.
But a subtle difference has crept in. With regards to theology, people are
gradually moving away from mythical interpretation to a more rational one.
The ‘rationalization of thinking in general’. Secularization of culture involved
not simply an increase in rationality in the thinking of men/women, but also
‘a diminution of the sacred’ which is often characterized as ‘‘desacralisation’’
(some sociologists term it as ‘‘desacrilisation’’ of the attitude toward persons
and things). Desacralisation (or desacrilisation) actually means ‘‘the
Unit 12 Religion
withdrawal of the kind of emotional involvement which is to be found in the

religious response, in the response to the sacred’’. Thus, ‘‘the secularization
of culture, combining both desacralisation and rationalization, means that
a religious world-view is no longer the basic reference for thought. Another
view of the world as being no longer sacred and composed of things to be
manipulated has come into existence.
l Max Weber’s view on Religion
Max Weber’s interpretation of industrial society provides one of the
earliest statements of the desacralisation theme. According to him, the
industrial society is characterized by rationalization and intellectualization
and, above all, by the “disenchantment of the world”. The world is no longer
charged with mystery and magic; the supernatural has been banished from
society. The meanings and motives which direct action are now rational. A
number of sociologists have accepted Weber’s interpretation of the basis
of action in industrial society. In his book Religion in a Secular Society.
Bryan Wilson observes; “Religious thinking is perhaps the area which
evidences most conspicuous change. Men act less and less in response
to religious motivation; they assess the world in empirical and ration terms.”
Wilson identifies the following factors which were mainly responsible for
the development of rational thinking and a rational world-view. First, ‘worldly
asceticism’ of Protestantism ‘created an ethic which was pragmatic,
rational, controlled and anti-emotional’. Second, in an industrial society
people are involved in organizations which are based on rational behaviour
upon them. Third, modern knowledge is based on reason rather than on
faith. “Science”, say Wilson, “not only explained many facets of life and the
material environment in a way more satisfactory – (then religion), but it also
provided confirmation of its explanation in practical results”. Fourth, the
development of ideologies such as communism and organizations such
as trade unions offer practical solutions to problems. By comparison,
religious solutions, such as the promise of justice and reward in the afterlife,
do not produce practical and observable results.

Religion Unit 12
12.7 SOCIAL ROLE OF RELIGION
Organized religion has a significant place in the life of an individual.

It fulfills the spiritual, social and psychological needs of individual. As a
systems of thought religion gives a comprehensive philosophy of ‘creation-
destruction’, ‘life-death’, ‘social-individual ideals’ and ‘this-worldly and other
worldly’ purposes.
Parsons has considered the role of religion in the processes of
socialization and social control. He holds that the ‘value-patterns’ of religion
help in social control. Religious assumptions enable one to distinguish
between desirable and undesirable actions, and controls what is
undesirable. Religion gives rise to spirit of brotherhood and unity. The role
of religion has been quite significant in organizing, planning and directing
social life. Religion also regulates the material aspect through marriage
and rules of family. Durkheim argues that religion strengthens social
solidarity.
One of the important contributions of organized religion is that it
preserves social order and strengthens social control. In traditional as well
as in modern times religion controls the attitudes and behavior of the
individual as well as group. It uses scriptures, teaching of priests, meetings
and conventions to achieve these goals. Conventions and practices as
components of religion play significant role in social control also. Religion
helps the process of social control through following ways:
Firstly, it nationalizes and makes individual suffering bearable in the
known world.
Secondly, it enhances self – importance;
Thirdly, it helps to knit the social values of a society into a cohesive
whole. Let us discuss them in detail.
l Religion explains individual suffering: Man/woman does not live
by knowledge alone. He is an emotional creature as well. Religion
serves to soothe the emotions of man/woman in times of his/her
suffering and disappointments and contributes to the integration of
his personality. In this world man/woman often suffers disappointment

Unit 12 Religion
and frustration even in the midst of all hopes and achievements. The
things for which he/she strives are in some measure always denied
to him/her. When human hopes are blighted, when all that was
planned and striven for has been swept away, man/woman naturally
seeks something to console. With the fortitude and equanimity
provided by religion people are known to endure the most colossal
misfortune and suffering. This constitutes one of the principal exhibits
of the power of religious beliefs and practices. When a son dies a
man/woman seeks to assuage his/her grief in ritualistic exchanges
of condolence. On God he/she puts faith and entertains the belief that
some unseen power moves in mysterious ways to make even his/
her loss meaningful. Faith in God compensates him/her and sustains
his/her interest in life and makes it bearable. In this way religion gives
release from sorrow and fear. It helps man/woman to bear his/her
frustration and integrate his/her personality.
l Enhances self-importance: Religion expands one’s self to infinite
proportions. Man/woman unites himself/herself with the infinite and
feels ennobled. Through unity with the infinite the self is made majestic
and triumphant. Society also gains from the self-flattery provided by
religious beliefs. Religious assurance drains of much discontent and
members are encouraged to continue to play their part in society.
l A source of social cohesion: Religion is the ultimate source of
cohesion. The primary requirement of society is the common
possession of social values by which an individual controls the actions
of self and others and through which society is perpetuated. These
social values are never scientifically demonstrated but they emanate
from religious faith. Religion is the foundation upon which these values
rest. Science and technology cannot create these values. As a matter
of fact, these values are more effective if they are not examined.
Children should obey their parents, should not tell a lie or cheat, people
should be honest and virtuous are some of the social values which
maintain social cohesion. It is religion that asks man/woman to
renounce unsocial activities and requires him/her to accept limitations
Religion Unit 12
upon his wants and desires. Love and service are two great teachings
of religion. All religions have preached them. Religion has always
generated a sense of belonging in society. Blackmar and Gillin have
strongly defended religion emphasizing its great socializing value and
its value as a means of control in society, primitive as well as civilized.
Perhaps the most important function of religion was disciplinary. It
was religion alone which was responsible for subordinating barbaric
anarchy and for teaching reverence and obedience.
Besides this, religion shapes domestic, economic and political
institutions. Religious rites are performed on many occasions as “birth,
initiation, marriage, sickness, death, hunting, animal husbandry and so on;
and they are intimately concerned with family and kinship interest and with
political institutions.” Religion is the central element in the life of civilization.
“The impulse that makes civilization is a king of spiritual restlessness
seeking to design the structure of life that will satisfy the craving”.
l Social welfare: Religion has also performed some other services to
humanity among which Summer and Keller included the provision of
work, the accumulation of capital and the creation of a leisure class.
The priesthood often associated to art and culture. Many priests laid
the foundations of medicine. The priests also fulfilled the functions of
scholars and scientists. Magic supplies the roots of observation and
experimentation from which science developed. Religion has
served humanity through the spreading of education. The scriptures
are great literary works and storehouse of knowledge. It has also
emphasized benevolence and forbearance. It also created the habit
of charity among the people and many charitable institutions like
hospitals, rest-houses, temples etc have been opened to help the
needy and the poor.
l Agency of social control: Religions emphasize, in one form or
another, the consequences resulting from behavior. Rewards or
punishments follow approved or disapproved actions. Religions
support the folkways and customs by placing the powerful sanctions
of the supernatural behind them. Religion considers certain acts as
Unit 12 Religion
offences not only against society but also against God. In its positive
form religion provides a model for living. ; It upholds certain ideals and
values. The believer imbibes these ideals and values in his life. Religion
can help our youth to become moral, disciplined and socialized citizens
of society.
l Religion controls and effects economic life also: Max Weber was
of the view that religion also influences the economic system of the
believers. Thus, according to him, capitalism grew in the protestant
nations like U.S.A., and Holland. It did not grow in Italy and Spain where
the people are Catholics. Since the Hindus lay great be stress on
spiritual progress than on material progress. Hence materialism could
not grow in India.
l Promotion of literature: Besides, religion has also contributed to
the growth of literature, art and music. The desire to laud and please
gods has led people to extol them in song, sculpture, painting and
architecture. Some of the world’s most beautiful monuments are
buildings erected for the glory of the gods. The temples, mosques,
cathedrals and artistic images express man’s desire to portray his
conceptions of the supernatural in aesthetic and inspiring ways. The
sacred writings stimulate an appreciation for beautiful prose and poetry.
Religious themes are the inspiration for some of man’s finest paintings
and the desire to sing praises has led to the creation of some of the
world’s fine it music.
l Friendship Function: Religion also provides a good opportunity for
relationship. The religious congregations serve as a place for men to
find their mates and for friendly association. This friendship function
of religion is a vital service to adults and youth as well.
l Dysfunctions of religion. Religion is the supremely integrating and

unifying force in human society. But at the same time it has also proved
to be a catastrophic force. Marx called religion “the opium of the
masses” which has kept them in degrading subjection. The masses
are taught to submit to their poor lot in life and remain in that station of

Religion Unit 12
life in which God wanted them to be. The history of religion is mostly
the history of persecution. Wars have been fought in its name. Often
progress has been stopped in the name of religion. It has degenerated
in dogmatism and bigotism denying freedom of thought. It has favored
war and poverty, exploitation and fatalism, prostitution and idleness
and advocated such practices as cannibalism, suicide, slavery,
untouchability and incest. There is hardly a vice which religion has
not at one time or another actively supported. Blackmar and Gillin
wrote that “religion, ever conservative and dogmatic, has tried time
and again to crush the spirit of earnest men seeking to discover the
truth and to prevent them from revealing newly discovered facts. It
retarded the advance of science; it interfered with the free inquiry of
scholars; it suppressed the democratic aspirations of the common
people.” In India the country was partitioned in the name of religion
and even today religion in the garb of communalism stands to threaten
the national solidarity. The Ayodhya issue has revived the memories
of 1947. The Mandir-masjid dispute has once again engulfed the nation
into communal riots. The political parties are exploiting the religious
card to create vote-banks. The sane leaders have surrendered to
religious militancy. Genuine religion has disappeared. It has been
commercialized and politicized. Sectarian organizations have come
up which flourish by preaching hatred for ‘others’. Religious leaders
also have entered the play-field of politics.
12.8 RELIGION AND GLOBALIZATION
Globalization is a complex phenomenon, shaping the economic,

cultural and religious environment of India and its huge population.
Globalization is not a remote experience or removed from the life of the
average person living in India. According to C. T. Kurian, “Globalization is a
concept used as a short form to convey a wide variety of processes,
possibilities, and positions. It is, therefore, capable of different kinds of
interpretations. Hence to say anything meaningful about globalization,
including how to respond to it, there is a need to know as clearly as possible
Unit 12 Religion
what it is all about.” In Kurian’s judgment, how one respond to the effects of
globalization cannot be articulated until the concept is defined.
The response to globalization in India has been both positive and
negative. For those whom “the way things used to be” or “preserving India’s
heritage” is a central concern, globalization poses a threat. Those who
hold a negative view of globalization in India are fuelled by such effects of
globalization as the decentralized and diminished power of government,
the growing percentage of unemployed, overstressed urban areas, the
increasing rates of crime, the increasing influence of the West, the
destruction of the environment and the escalation of religious violence. On
the other hand. On the other hand certain effects of globalization has been
positive for India. Liberalization of India’s economy is encouraging its
interaction with the world and increasing economic prosperity. The traditional
family structure has changed so that mobility is possible and women have
begun to occupy non-traditional roles. Increased availability of technology
has given India’s population access to more information. Between these
positive and negative perceptions, globalization as a major force in India is
inevitable, controversial and multifaceted.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QB1: Who is the author of the book, ‘The

Elementary forms of Religious life’?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
QB2: Who said, ‘Religion is the opium of the mosses’?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

Religion Unit 12
12.9 LET US SUM UP
l From this unit we have learned about the basic meaning and
definitions of religion.
l We learn about the theories of culture.
l Understand the origin of religion.
l From this unit we have learned about the role of religion in society.
Bellah, R. 1973. E. Durkheim: On Morality and Society. Edited with an

Introduction by Bellah. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
D’Souze Leela. 2005. The Sociolgy of Religion. New Delhi, Rawat
Publication.
Madan, T. N. 1991. Religion in India. Delhi, Oxford University Press.
Scharf, B.R. 1970. The Sociological Study of Religion. London, Hutchinson
University Library
Weber, M. 1990/1958. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Trans. T. Parsons. Foreword R.H. Tawney. London, Georg, Allen and
Unwin Ltd.
Yinger, M.J. 1957. Religion, Society and the Individual: An Introduction to
the Sociology of Religion. New York, Macmillan Publishing Co.
12.11 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Answr to QA 1: Max Muller.

Answr to QA 2: James G Frazer.

Unit 12 Religion
Answr to QB 1: Emile Durkheim.

Answr to QB 2: Karl Marx.
(A) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: Write the meaning and definitions of religion.
Q2: Briefly discussed the forms of religion.
(B) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q1: Discussed the origin of religion.
Q2: Discussed the theories of religion.
Q3: Explain the social role of religion.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 13: POLITY AND ECONOMY
UNIT STRUCTURE

13.2 Introduction
13.3 Polity or Political Institution
13.3.2 Meaning and Characteristics of State
13.3.3 Functions of State
13.3.4 Meaning of Government
13.3.5 Forms of Government
13.4 Economy as a Social Institution
13.4.1 Economy in Simple societies
13.4.2 Economy in Complex societies
13.5 Let Us Sum Up

l understand the meaning of Political Institution
l know about the nature of political Authority in Simple and Complex
Societies
l explain the meaning and Function of State
l understand the meaning and forms of government
l discuss the nature of economy in Simple societies
l understand the nature of economy in Complex Societies.
13.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two units we have learned why social institutions

like family, marriage, kinship and religion are significant in society and how

Unit 13 Polity and Economy
certain important functions of the society are fulfilled by these institutions.

Each of these institutions comprises certain sets of norms and values that
guide the behaviour of the people. The institutions are also interrelated and
interdependent. In this unit we will learn about the meaning and nature of
two other very important Institutions of Society, namely, Polity and Economic.
We will also try to understand how the nature of these two institutions differ
in simple and complex societies.
13.3 POLITY OR POLITICAL INSTITUTION
No study of social institution will be complete without studying the

political institutions. According John Beattie, the term ‘political’
implies:
Ø the maintenance of ordered relations between different
categories and groups of people,
Ø It covers a social field much wider than that which is implied
by each component categories separately. This wider social field
is society or a social aggregate. Thus, the term political
encompasses all the various aspects of society as family,
marriage, economy, health, and even religion in many societies.
Ø In includes relations between separate societies, whether
tribal groups, nations or states.
Ø It has a political authority. It implies that certain statuses, as
category or categories of persons, are given the right by the
society to exercise power in the society in order to maintain social
order by making decisions, issuing orders and applying sanctions
in matters of direct or indirect concern to the maintaining of social
order.
In some simple societies, as the Nuer of Southern Sudan
and the tribes of Andaman Islands, there are hardly any specialized
or organized political authorities. Political authority in such simple
societies is widely diffused. It may be located among the heads of
Polity and Economy Unit 13
lineages, or families, etc. It may be backed by religious or magical

sanctions rather than by physical force. There may hardly be anything
visibly political. The other institutions in their integrated functioning
in society perform the function of maintaining social order. Thus,
these societies have political functions.
The difference among societies lies in the fact that different
means are adopted to achieve the goal of internal order and external
relations.
In complex societies, with differentiation and specialization,
existence of many secondary groups, it becomes necessary for a
definite and formal political authority, a territorial demarcation, norms
and values to maintain social order within the territorially defined
society. In such societies, the maintenance of social order cuts
across all the institutions, norms and groups in ways as recognized
by the people. It also requires the maintenance of relation with other
societies as well. Such societies take a special form which is called
State and may comprise multitudes of societies and cultures bound
together by some formal means and collective affiliation. As for
example, the state of India is a result of collective recognition by the
Indians in India and given definite shape by the Constitution of India. Constitution is a
The other States in the world also have recognized this social formal body of
arrangement. The functions of the State are run by the Government. principles according to
The Government changes but the State is more or less permanent. which a state or
organization is
State and government are the political institutions in
governed.
complex human society. In today’s world, government is an important
element in our lives from birth to death.
13.3.2 Meaning and Characteristics of State
The State has generally been defined as a politically organized

association. According to W. Wilson, the state is a people organized
for law within a given territory. According to Harold Laski, it is a
“territorial society divided into government and subjects, claiming
within its allotted physical area a supremacy over all other social
institutions” Ogburn says “the state is an organization which rules

by means of supreme government over a definite territory”.
The State is a political institution. It is an arrangement that
consists of people who exercise an effective monopoly in the use of
physical coercion within a given territory. Sociologically speaking,
the state is a form of human association based on the allocation of
power of control, usually in accordance with a system of shared
beliefs, ideas, tradition. In modern societies such ideals are
embodied in constitutions and bills of rights. It must be remembered
that the state is not same as community or society. The state is
created by the society with some specific, limited functions and
purposes.
Sovereignty is
supremacy of the State has four basic components:
State in all matters l Territory
recognized, both l People
internal and external.
l Government
l Sovereignty
13.3.3 Functions of State
The scope or the field which the State should cover depends on the
functions which the State is more suited to undertake. MacIver has
classified the various functions of the state in the following way:
Ø Functions peculiar to the State: These are the functions which
the State alone can perform. These include an effective order in
society on the Principle of Justice.
Ø Functions for which the State is well-adapted: This includes
the conservation of national resources, laying down units of
measurements, currency among others.
Ø Functions for which the state is ill-adapted: To this category
belong the broader cultural interests including the religions. The
State is not much adapted to sponsor the more intimate and
personal interests.

Ø Functions which the State is incapable of performing: The

State cannot completely control public opinions .Similarly, the
State cannot set moral standards.
According to the Functionalists the four primary functions of the
State are:
FOUR PRIMARY FUCTIONS OF STATE :
Ø Planning and direction: As contemporary society gets complex,
the informal modes become insufficient to provide guidelines to
the people. Formal norms as laws become necessary. Again, a
co-ordination of the various aspects of complex life also
becomes necessary. The State comes to play this role in co-
coordinating, planning and giving direction to the people of the
State.
Ø Enforcement of norms: To enforce formal laws and norms,
formal means are necessary. The State ensures law and order
by enforcing legal norms.
Ø Arbitration of conflicting interests: A complex society
necessitates the formal mechanism of arbitration of conflicting
interests. This function is performed by the State.
Ø Protection against other societies: To perpetuate the entity
of the society under the State it becomes imperative to provide
external security from the interests of and aggression from other
such societies and States.
The Welfare State: The Welfare State may be defined as a State
which takes upon itself to provide social services for the nation, to
bring under public ownership of some important industries or
enterprises, placing certain controls on private enterprise and to
organize democratic planning on national scale.
13.3.4 Meaning of Government
Government is the organized system of functions through

which the authority of the State is applied to given situations. In this

sense, the government is not a form of association but it is more of

an arrangement of function in relation to the purpose of the State.
Government functions in social organization by providing a
structure within which and through which numerous activities of a
society can be carried on. The components of the structure of
Government are laws (enacted by legislature), means of law
enforcement (the executive), and protective devices (the judiciary).
Legislature, Executive and the Judiciary are the three organs of
the Government. The machinery of the Government is becoming
more and more complex with the increasing complexity of society.
13.3.5 Forms of Government
Forms of Government have been classified by different scholars in

different ways. But very simply we can classify actually existing
Governments as below.
Ø In the first places there are the despotic type (i.e. under one
man’s absolute rule) and
In Parliamentary
Ø Democratic type (Governments in which people are sovereign).
form of government the
executive is part of the Democratic type Governments are further classified into
legislature and also Republican on the one hand and limited Monarchy on the other.
accountable to it as in In Republican form the Head of the State is elected by the citizens,
India. while in limited Monarchy, the post of the head of the State is
In Federal system hereditary, but the monarch is a titular head and runs the office
power is shared between as per the Constitution of the State. Both the systems may be
the central and regional either of unitary type or Federal type which may be further be
government as in U.S.A either Parliamentary or Non-Parliamentary.
It is Unitary form of The specific type and organization of Government may vary
government when all from time to time within a State. For example, the government in
powers of administration Germany before World War II was dictatorial i.e. autocratic. After
is concentrated in the the War it became democratic.
central government as in Thus, we can sum up that the State is a political institution.
U.K. It is one of the associations of society and is not co-extensive with
the society. It is established to perform certain functions through
which the authority of the State is applied. The forms of Government

may vary from time to time within the same State and from State to
State.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: What are the three organs of the Government?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: What are the four basic components of State?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
13.4 ECONOMY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Economic activities are central to human existence and are

fundamental to the history of mankind. For our survival, even in the modern
technological age, we spend most of our time in economic pursuit. The
economy is responsible for managing how a society produces and
distributes its goods, services and resources. Conceptualizing and
explaining the relationship between economy and human behaviour has
been one of the fundamental themes of major theorists in sociological
tradition. Economy being a major determinant of our life and it being closely
related to other aspects of social life, it arouses the inquisitiveness in
sociologists to understand and analyse economic institution. Since it is an
integral part of the social system, no study of the society and social
institutions would be complete without referring to the economic institution.
Therefore the study of the economic institution is very vital in Sociology.
Sociologists makes attempt to understand and analyse the
intercoonesctions between the economy, political system, social structures,
ideological system and culture. In the following paragraphs we shall learn
about the various classifications of economic systems as outlined by various
thinkers.

Ø Gross has given an evolutionary scheme of development of the

economy.He has elaborately explained the evolution of society from
the Collective stage followed by Cultural Nomadic,Settled
Village,Town, and Metropolitan stage.
Ø Hildebrand classified economic systems of the basis of barter,
money and credit.
Ø Adam Smith talked of hunters, pastoralists, agriculturalists,
handicrafts and industrialists.
Ø Herskovits gives five-fold division of economic systems- Collection,
Hunting, Fishing, Cultivation and Stock-raising
The classical sociologists Marx, Durkheim, and Weber were the
first to explore the relationship between the economy and society in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are each developed differing
viewpoints based on their respective theoretical positions
Marx identified five stages of human history on the basis of modes
of production: primitive communism, ancient slave production, feudalism,
and capitalism and to the final culmination in the classless society of
socialism, the fifth and final stage in human history. In Marx’s view, economy
is the infrastrucure of every society based on which superstructure
comprising legal and political and other institutions are built. In other words
he advovated that Economy determines all other aspects of society. In his
view, Man in every society, irrespective of his will, must work to fulfil his/her
basic needs and enter into social relations which impose themselves on
the individuals independent of their preferences. The relations are shaped
and determined by the economy i.e – he economy structures social relations
between classes, producing corresponding forms of social consciousness.
Thus the class structure and institutional arrangements as well as cultural
values, beliefs, religious dogmas and other ideal systems are ultimately a
reflection of the economic base of a society.
Weber in contradiction to Marx’ provided a completely different perdpective
on economy. He, unlike Marx, saw economy as being a product of religious
practices. He, in his work Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism
explained how religious ideology can influence the economic structure and
how religious practices contributed to the growth of Capitalism. Thus,

according to him, religion forms the base or the infrastructure and the
economy is the superstructure.
Unlike Marx, Durkheim considers economy to be one of many
contributing factors that make up a society. The economy has no privileged
position in relation to the social superstructure, but it is one social fact
among others. Dukheim pointed out the social functions of division of labour
particularly referring to social integration. He discussed systems based on
simple division of labour resulting into mechanical solidarity (features of
simple society) and complex division of labour resulting into organic
solidarity (features of complex society or economic systems). He argued
that Simple societies characterised by little division of labour are bound
together by resemblance in sentiments and ideas of its members. While
Complex societies characterised by extensive division of labour are
connected together by the unavoidable interdepence among the members
which he called Organic Solidarity.Thus, in a nutshell we can say that he
made an attempt to understand the relationship between economy and
community life and how economy shapes the relationship among the
members of a community.
13.4.1 Economy in Simple Societies
Simple societies are those having no specialized economic

organization, less productive skills and low division of labour.
Economy in simple society can be classified into the following types:
Ø Hunting and Gathering: In these types of society, men secure
of their food by gathering vegetation, by hunting wild animals. Their
nature of economy compel them to move from one place to another
in search of animals, fruits,and other etable vegetations. Some of
the food gatherer tribes in India are: Kadars, Jarwas, Birhore, Maria
Gonds, etc.
Ø Pastoral Domestication: Pastoral Domestication of animals
is the main feature of pastoral communities. Their way of life is
surrounded by domestication of animals. They domesticate animals
for their food supply. Along with domestication of animals, some of

them also depend on agriculture. They too move from one pace to
another in search of water and pastoral ground for their animals. In
India, the important pastoral communities include- the Todas (the
buffalo herders of Nilgiri Hills), the Gujars (Cattle and buffalo herders)
and the Bakerwals (Sheep and goat herders of Jammu and Kashmir)
Ø Shifting Cultivation: Also widely known as Jhum cultivation,
Shifting cultivation is a system of agriculture where a ground is
cleared for cultivation and then after some years of cultivation, that
plot of land is abandoned for its natural regrowrth. People following
this practice also moves from one place to another in search of
new grounds for cultivation. Baiga, Saora, Konwas, and many tribes
of Arunachal Pradesh practise shifting cultivation.
Ø Settled Cultivation: Settled cultivation implies cultivating in
the same plot of land every year. This a stable method of cultivation
practiced by majority of people in simple societies even though their
technology and method of cultivation is not modern. Settled cultivation
makes way for permanent village settlement.
Ø Types of Exchange: There are multiple ways in which economic
goods are exchanged in simple societies. However not all exchanges
are purely economic in nature. Sometimes it confers prestige to the
donor as well as the reciever of goods. While in some other cases,
occaisions of gift giving are also ceremonial in nature to institutionalise
relationship among people. Exchages of goods and gifts also takes
place to develop amicable relationship and prevent conflicts. Let
us now discuss some of the different kinds of exchange that takes
place in simple societies.
¦ Barter: It is a direct form of exchange in absence of money.
Money is not the medium of exchange here, rather goods are
exchanged for goods or services.
¦ Silent Traders: In this interesting system of exchange where
the parties involved are strangers, who are not known to each other
personally. The goods of exchange were placed at a specific place
and the other party picked it up. In return then other party also has to
place some goods of equal value.
¦ Jajmani System: Oscar Lewis has defined jajmani system as
that under which each caste group within a village is expected to
give certain standardized services to the families of other castes. In
simple words, Jajmani system is a mutual give and take form of
relationship in which one family is hereditarily entitled to supply goods
and render services to the other in exchange of the same. It is
system of economic and social relationship existing among various
castes in villages. The service castes are paid not in cash but in
kind. Sometimes they are also given some other facilities like free
food, clothing, free house etc. Jajamani system operates in the form
of patron client relationship where the patron is known as jajman
and the service castes are known as kamin.
¦ Ceremonial Exchange: Ceremonial exchange implies an
exchange system where gifts are given to friends and relatives on
various occaissions. The main idea is to establish cordial relations
among the various social groups. In this type of exchange goods
are given to relatives and friend on festive occasions, the value of
goods is not very important and immediately reciprocity is not
expected. This was mainly to established closeness, as it stimulated
social relations. Two most important examples of ceremonial
exchange are Kula and Potlatch.
a. KULA:
Malinowski describes Kula as ‘not a surreptitious and precarious
form of exchange. It is, quite on the contrary, rooted in myth, backed
by traditional law, and surrounded with magical rites. All its main
transactions are public and ceremonial, and carried out according
to definite rules. It is not done on the spur of the moment, but happens
periodically, at dates settled in advance and it is carried on along
definite trade routes, which must lead to fixed trysting places. From
the description of Kula given by Malinowski, we can simply say that
Kula is a ceremonial exchange participated in by the inhabitants of
a closed circle of Trobriand Island. Objects given and taken in Kula

are never subjected to any bargaining.
Ceremonial exchange of the two articles is the main and the
fundamental aspect of the Kula. The system of exchange is
regulated in a kind of ring with two directional movements. In clock
-wise direction, the red shell necklaces (called saulave) circulation
and in anti clock-wise circulation the white shells (known as Mwali)
circulate among the members of the Kula ring. We can also find a
great number of secondary activities and features which take place
alsongside the Kula. Thus, side by side with the ritual exchange of
arm-shells and necklaces, the natives carry on ordinary trade,
bartering from one island to another a great number of utilities, often
unprocurable in the district to which they are imported, and which
are indispensable there.
b. POTLATCH-
The potlach ceremony among the North West Coast American Indian
is also a form of ceremonial exchange. It is meant as a public
distribution of goods made to establish certain claims of the giver
and the recipients. The Kwakiutl organise large scale feast on such
occasions, not only are enormous qualities of food consumed and
gift given to guest. But many articles (considered valuable bye them)
are also destroyed. These conspicuous consumption and deliberate
destruction of expensive items among Kwakiutl are meant to reflect
their claims to a higher social status. It is based on the principle of
reciprocity. Through this system the host declares his status to
others.
13.4.2 ECONOMY IN COMPLEX SOCIETIES
Economy in Complex Society is characterised by

Industrialisation, Capitalism, Division of Labour, Private property,
Market so on and So forth. Let us now discuss some of the important
features of the nature of economy in Complex Societies:

Division Of Labour: An important aspect of Modern Industrial

Economy is Division of Labour and Specialisation. It denotes any
stable organization, co-ordinating individuals, or groups carrying out
different but integrated activities. Modern industrial economy being
profit oriented, strongly emphasises on division of labour in order to
accelerate production. According to Adam Smith, division of labour
greatly increases the wealth-creating capacity of a society.
Durkeim and Marx gave a detailed elaboration on division of labour
and its consequences. According to Durkheim division of labour is
an important feature of modern industrial societies.. For him it
implied the occupational structure which also includes Organic
Solidarity, a new form of solidarity, that integrates the members of
industrial societies in contrast to Mechanical solidarity of traditional
society. However, Durkheim saw organic solidarity as weaker and
more fragile than the mechanical solidarity of traditional societies.
According to him division of labour would inevitably lead to the growth
of individualism and the result is anomie- a state of normlessness
in both the society and the individual. Further he described how
forced division of labour of modern society would eventually lead to
Class formations and inequalities in society.
According to Marx, division of labour is an important feature
of capitalist economy and it causes alienation of labour. He argued
that division of labour produces class ineqquality, exploitation, private
property and alienation. Capitalist System, according to Marx,
destroys all the interesting and creative aspects of work, leaving
only boring and repetitive operations.
Market: Complex Societies are characterised by Market economy.
Here the law of supply and demand governs the market. The most
important feature of market is that goods and services are being
sold at money price which are determined by impersonal forces of
supply and demand. Both the production and distribution is
determined by the market forces to ensure competition and

efficiency. Expansion of markets has increased the volume of trade

and commerce facilitating the integration of the country.
Rise of Capitalism: Capitalism, also referred to as Free Market
economy, has been predominant in the Western world since the
decline of serfdom or feudalism. Its emergence was spearheaded
by the growth of the English cloth industry during the 16th, 17th, and
18th centuries. Thus capitalism as an institution was the product of
Industrial Revolution. It implies an economic system of production
which is characterized by Private ownership of means of production,
free market, higly profit oriented, and absence of government
intrusion. This has brought major classes in social structure of
society, the notion of private property, classes and economic
stratification has come into picture.
Non Economic Determinants of Economic Behaviour:
Economic behaviour of man is also guided by several non
economic determinants. Let us briefly discuss some of them.
Ø Religious Values: In the famous work of Weber “Protestant
Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism”, clear illustration of the
influence of religion on economic activity has been depicted. He
has shown how ‘this worldly asceticism’ of Protestanism
(especially Calvinism) and religious practices led to the
development of Cpitalism in the West. Thus we have instances
where religious values and practices develops in man a rational
attitude and shape their even their economic behaviour.
Ø Ideology: Another important factor which affects economic
behaviour is ideology. Ideology refers to a set of asserted beliefs
about the nature of persons and society the beliefs that also carry
implications for how people ought to behave and how society ought
to be organized. Ideology can give legitimacy or can oppose a
specific kind of economic behaviour and environment.
Ø Political Variables: Political variables also influence economic
behaviour to a considerable extent. Governmental policies and
programmes govern economic behaviour of man to a great
extent.
Ø Caste System: Caste system also shapes economic behaviour

of man to a great extent, particularly in Indian Society. Castes
traditionally being occupational groups determined the choice
of of occupation of different caste groups. However in the modern
day context such practice or influence of caste has diminished
to a great extent especially in urban areas.Apart from castes,
family, education, techonology etc too shape and govern
economic behaviour of man.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: State the meaning of Shifting Cultivation.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: Who participates in the Kula Exchange?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
13.5 LET US SUM UP
l Political institution maintains social order and provides for distribution

of power.
l In some simple societies, as the Nuer of Southern Sudan and the
tribes of Andaman Islands, there are hardly any specialized or
organized political authorities.
l State and Government are the political institutions in complex human
society.
l The state is a form of human association based on the allocation of
power of control, usually in accordance with a system of shared
beliefs, ideas, tradition
l Government is the organized system of functions through which
the authority of the State is applied to given situations

l The forms of Government may vary from time to time within the
same State and from State to State.
l The economy is responsible for managing how a society produces
and distributes its goods, services and resources.
l In Marx view, economy is the infrastrucure of any society based
on which superstructure comprising legal and political and other
institutions are built. In other words he advovated that Economy
determines all other aspects of society.
l Durkheim considers economy to be one of many contributing
factors that make up a society. The economy has no privileged
position in relation to the social superstructure, but is one social
fact among others
l Simple societies have no specialized economic organization. Their
economy is characterised by less productive skills, low level
technology and low division of labour.
l Exchanges in simple societies are also not purely economic in
nature.
l Economy in Complex societies are characterised by Industrialisation,
Capitalism, Division of Labour, and Predominance of Markets.
l Excahnges are monetary in nature in complex societies.
T.B. Bottomore.1962. Sociology: A guide to Problems and Literature. Oxon:

Routledge.
Gisbert. P. 2010. Fundamentals of Sociology. New Delhi: Orient Black Swan.
Marshall, Gordon.1994. Dictionary od Sociology”. New Delhi: OUP
Ritzr, George. 2009. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Vol III,
Australia: Blackwell Publishing.


PROGRESS
Answer to Q1: Territory, people, government, sovereignty.

Answer to Q2: Legislature, executive, judiciary are the three organs of the
State.
Answer to Q3: Shifting cultivation is a system of agriculture where a ground
is cleared for cultivation and then after some years of cultivation, that
plot of land is abandoned for its natural regrowrth.
Answer to Q4: Inhabitants of Trobriand Islands participates in the Kula
Exchange.
A)Short Questions (Answer within 150 words)

Q1: What do you mean by political institution?
Q2: How is the nature of political authority in simple society different from
complex societies?
Q3: What is Government? What are its various forms?
Q4: How is Shifting cultivation different from Settled cultivation?.
B) Long Questions (Answer within 350-500 words)

Q1: What is State? Describe the functions of State?
Q2: Discuss the nature of economy in Simple societies.
Q3: Discuss the nature of economy in Complex societies.
*** ***** ***

REFERENCES (FOR ALL UNITS)
Bottomore, T.B. 1978. Sociology : A Guide to problems and Literature India

: Blackie and Son Ltd.
Bellah, R. 1973. E. Durkheim: On Morality and Society. Edited with an
Introduction by Bellah. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Gisbert. P. 2010. Fundamentals of Sociology. New Delhi: Orient Black Swan.
Johnson, Harry M. 1966. Sociology : A Systematic Introduction, Allied
Publisher.
Johnson, Harvy M. 1966. Sociology : A Systermatic Introduction. New Delhi
: Allied Publishers.
M.Franscis Abraham. 2017. Contemporary Sociology: An introduction to
concepts and theories.
Marsh, Ian, M. Keating, A Eyre, R. Campbell and J. Mc kenzie. 1996. Making
sense of society : In Introduction to Sociology.
Madan, T. N. 1991. Religion in India. Delhi, Oxford University Press.
Marshall, Gordon.1994. Dictionary od Sociology”. New Delhi: OUP
Park, Robert, et. al. 1921. Introduction to the Science of Sociology,
Chicago University press.
Rawat, H.K. 2007. Sociology: Basic Concepts. Jaipur: Rawat Publication.
Ritzr, George. 2009. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Vol III,
Australia: Blackwell Publishing.
Scharf, B.R. 1970. The Sociological Study of Religion. London, Hutchinson
University Library
T.B. Bottomore.1962. Sociology: A guide to Problems and Literature. Oxon:
Routledge.
Weber, M. 1990/1958. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Trans. T. Parsons. Foreword R.H. Tawney. London, Georg, Allen and
Unwin Ltd.

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PGSO S1 02

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

1. Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central University.

Course Co-ordinator : Gargi Gayan, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Sociology, KKHSOU

SLM Preparation Team

Content Editor : Rabin Deka, Associate Professor, Dept. of Sociology, Tezpur

Language Editor : Rtd. Professor Robin Goswami, Cotton College, Guwahati

Structure, Format & Graphics : Gargi Gayan, Assistant Professor, KKHSOU

First Edition : April, 2018

ISBN : ISBN : 978-93-87940-07-9

Headquarter : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati - 781017

UNIT 8: Social Control Pages : 119-133

UNIT 9: Social Processes Pages : 134-149

Cooperation, Competition, Conflict and Accommodation

UNIT 10: Social Mobility Pages : 150-161

Concept and Types

UNIT 11: Family, Marriage, Kinship Pages : 162-178

Meaning, Characteristics, Importance of each as Social

UNIT 12: Religion Pages : 179-204

Meaning, Religion as a Social Institution, Its Importance and

UNIT 13: Polity and Economy Pages : 205-221

Concept, Polity and Economy as Social Institutions, their Role

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

People in society do not act in isolation and, hence, there is a need

Introductory Sociology 119

8.3 SOCIAL CONTROL

Social control, or processes which ensures conformity, can mainly

and through law, conformity to expectations; a retail trade organisation (an

these patterned behaviours maintain the social organisation. Paul B. Horton

122 Introductory Sociology

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: According to MacIver and Page, what are the

Characteristics of Social Control

8.4 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

According to T.B. Bottomore, agencies refer to the means of carrying

Introductory Sociology 123

The primary way through which social order is produced is

Haralambos says that socialisation is the process whereby

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.3: What are the agents of socialisation?

Introductory Sociology 125

Customs are very much a part of our lives so much that we

126 Introductory Sociology

laws are more effective in modern industrial societies. MacIver and

may be designed to encourage the performance of a favourable

Education is the medium of transmitting knowledge to new

knowledge, the application of science to production, and the

8.5 TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Informal and Formal Social Control

Introductory Sociology 129

especially in times of war through rationing, regulation of the use of materials

130 Introductory Sociology

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: Give examples of informal and formal social

8.6 IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Two important reasons are vital for implementing social control.

Introductory Sociology 131

* * *