PGSO S1 03 (Block 1) PDF

PGSO S1 03
Sociology of India
SEMESTER - I
SOCIOLOGY
PAPER - 03
BLOCK - 1
KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Subject Experts
1. Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central University.

2. Dr. Sanjay Borbora, Dean, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Tata Institute Of Social
Sciences, Guwahati.
Course Co-ordinator : Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU
SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
1 Kritanjali Jaiswal, GIMT, Guwahati
2, 4, 5 Denim Deka, Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankaradeva Viswavidyalaya, Nagaon
Mr. Udayan Hazarika, Columnist
3 Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU
6, 8 Sonali Singha, Tezpur University
7 Dr. Upala Barua, Cotton University
Editorial Team
Content Editor : Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central

University.
Language Editor : Prithwa Deb, Debraj Roy College
Structure, Format & Graphics : Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU
Murchana Kaushik, KKHSOU
First Edition : April, 2018
ISBN : 978-93-87940-14-7
This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License
(international): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University.
Headquarter : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati - 781017

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The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.
SOCIOLOGY OF INDIA
FIRST SEMESTER
BLOCK - 1
DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT 1: Development of Sociology of India Pages : 7-19

Emergence of sociology in India,Development of sociology in India,
Foundation of sociology in India, Development of sociology in the
pre-independence period, Development of sociology in the post-
independence period, Recent trends of sociology in India.
UNIT 2: Indological Approach to the study of Indian society Pages : 20-32
G.S. Ghurye: Early Life, Indological Perspective, The Vedic period
from 1500 BC to 600 BC, The post-Vedic period 600 BC extending to
300 BC, The period of Dharma-shastras from 300 BC to 11th century,
The modern period from 11th century to the beginning of 19th century
UNIT 3: Structural Functional Perspective to the study of Indian Society Pages : 33-45
Structural Functional Perspective : An Overview; M.N. Srinivas
and his approach, S.C. Dube and his approach
UNIT 4: Marxist Approach to the study of Indian society Pages : 46-57
Marxist Perspective: Meaning and Definition, Scholars of Marxist
Perspective, D.P. Mukherjee : His life sketch and methodological
approach M, A.R. Desai: His life sketch and methodological approach,
R.K. Mukherjee: His life sketch and methodological approach
UNIT 5: Subaltern Approach to the study of Indian society Pages : 58-69
Subaltern Approach: An Overview, Ranajit Guha and His Subaltern
Approach, David Hardiman and His Subaltern Approach,
B.R.Ambedkar and His Subaltern Approach
UNIT 6: The Caste System in India Pages : 70-87
The Caste System: Meaning, Characteristics and Origin, Meaning
of Varna, Varna and Jati, Meaning of Dominant Caste, Mobility in the
Caste System, Constitutional provisions, Jajmani System
UNIT 7: Class System in India Pages : 88-108
Concept of Social Class: An overview , Definition and Meaning,
Characterisctics of Class, Factors for Class Determination,
Classification of Social Class, Comparision between Caste and Class,
Class in India: An overview, Agrarian classes, Non-agrarian classes,
Emergence of the Middle Class in India
UNIT 8: Tribe Pages :109-124
Meaning, definition and characteristics, Tribe-Caste interaction,
Regional variation in tribe-caste interaction, Constitutional
Provisions.
4 Sociology of India
COURSE INTRODUCTION:
The course ‘Sociology of India’ offered in the first semester of M.A Sociology Programme of Krishna
Kanta Handiqui State Open University introduces to the learners the various sociological perspectives to
understand Indian Society. Apart from that, this course will also discuss about the key aspects of Indian
society like caste, class, tribe so on and so forth.
The course comprises of 15 units. Unit 1 of the course discusses about the emergence and
growth of sociology as a discipline in India. The Unit 2 intends to familiarise the learners with the indological
approach or perspective to understand Indian Society. Here discussions have been made on the
contributions of G.S Ghurye to Understanding Indian Society from the Indological Perspective.Unit 3
discusses the Functionalist perspective to understand society by illustrating the works of M.N Srinivas
and S.C Dube. Unit 4 explains the Marxist Appoach to understand society where discussions have been
made on works of D.P Mukherjee, R.K. Mukherjee and A.R. Desai Unit 5 is about the Subaltern apporoach
to understand society where works of Ranjit Guha, B.R. Ambedkar and David Hardiman are explained.
Unit 6 explains one of the key aspects of India society i.e the Caste System. Unit 7 talks about the class
system in India. Unit 8 discusses about Tribes in India, and also about the Tribe-Caste Interaction which
is another very unique aspect of Indian Society. Unit 9 explains the different problems of the Tribal people.
Unit 10 discusses about another three very imporant institutions i.e Family, Marraige and Kinship system
of India. Unit 11 explains the Education and Economy of India. Unit 12 talks about the Major Religions in
India. Unit 13 discusses about Social movements in India, its causes and consequences. Unit 14
discusses about National Integration in India. Unit 15 discusses about Communalism, its causes and
consequences for Indian Society.
Sociology of India 5
BLOCK INTRODUCTION:
This is the first block of the paper titled ‘Sociology of India’ offered in the MA 1st Semester
Sociology programme of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. This block intends to provide
the learners a basic understanding regarding the different perspectives to study Indian Society and
also about its key institutions i.e Caste, Class and Tribe. Unit 1 of this block discusses about how
sociology as a discipline started in India. Unit 2 discusses the indological approach to study/understand
Indian Society. This unit focuses on the works of G.S.Ghurye Unit 3 discusses the Functionalist perspective
to understand society where works and methodological approach of M.N Srinivas and S.C Dube are
explained. Unit 4 explains the Marxist Appoach to understand society by illustrating the works of D.P
Mukherjee, R.K. Mukherjee and A.R. Desai Unit 5 explains the Subaltern apporoach to understand society
where works of Ranjit Guha, B.R. Ambedkar and David Hardiman are illustrated. Unit 6 explains one of
the key aspects of India society i.e the Caste System. Unit 7 talks about the class system in India and the
different classes found in Indian Society. Unit 8 discusses about Tribes in India, meaning and
characterisctics of tribe and also about the regional variations in tribe-caste interaction in India.
In order to make the text more interesting and informative, a section called LET US KNOW has been
provided in all the units. This section try to provide some additional information regarding the content of the unit.
Further, in order to enable the learners to continuously check their progress regarding the content, some
questions has been put at the end of various sections of a unit with the heading CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
The answers to the questions of CHECK YOUR PROGRESS section has been provided at the end of each
unit. In the end of each unit, few Model Question of long and short type is provided in order to provide an idea of
the question ‘pattern’ to be expected in the examinations by the learners.
UNIT 1: DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Emergence of Sociology in India
1.4 Development of sociology in India
1.4.1 Foundation of sociology in India
1.4.2 Development of sociology in the pre-independence period
1.4.3 Development of sociology in the post-independence
period
1.5 Recent trends of sociology in India
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Answers to Check your Progress
1.9 Model Questions
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to –

l describe the history and development of sociology in India
l explain the contributions of the pioneers of Indian sociology
l discuss the Indian Sociological Traditions
l discuss how sociology came to be established as a discipline in
India.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Sociology is relatively a new and very young discipline in social

science. The emergence of sociology is confronted with several critical
phases of history, both in India and in the West. Sociology and Social
Anthropology were brought to India from outside, particularly from Britain.
British Scholars who lived in India and later Indian scholars who were trained
in Britain and U.S.A.played a major role in the development of these two
Unit 1 Development of Sociology in India
disciplines in India. Sociology, as a discipline, came much after the

contributions made by social thinkers, philosophers, administrators who
worked at understanding the Indian society, in general, as well as studying
some specific aspects of Indian society, such as law, family, religion, caste
system and so on.
Moreover, the contributions of the indologists such as Henry Maine,
Alfred Lyelt, etc. helped the development of sociology in India. They gave
more emphasise to preserve the indigenous social institutions in Indian
society rather than demolishing them and imposing colonial life style on
Indian people. They recognised the past glory of Indian cultural and literary
tradition.
Besides the indologists, we cannot deny the contribution of the British
administrators who made extensive study of Indian people, their races and
cultures. Most of these studies helped to generate a body of knowledge,
preserved in the Census Reports, Imperial Gazetteers, District Gazetters,
etc. as well as in books and monographs which are referred by social
anthropologists and sociologists even today.
In this unit, we shall discuss about the development of sociology in
India in its three phases. First is impact of colonial ruler and administrators,
Second is Early Indian Thinkers and third one is Post Independence Indian
Scholars.
1.3 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA
Sociology in India, as a formal discipline, came in the year 1919.It

was the decade when Gandhi had already returned from South Africa and
the trauma of First World War (1914-1917) had engulfed mankind. During
this period Gandhi’s presence not only encouraged the freedom movement
but also inspired several pioneering sociologists to devote themselves to
the cause and study of the common man.
Though sociology does not have a long history but it does have a
long past. Sociological research in India started long before the arrival of
formal sociology by British administrators.The lack of a proper grasp and
appreciation of Indian social realities, the inadequate, and often inaccurate,
Development of Sociology in India Unit 1
understanding of local customs and traditions, and misinterpretations about

different institutional arrangements led the colonial administrators to make
use of sociology and social anthropology to smoothly run the colonial
administration. To quoteYogendra Singh,
“The contribution of the British administrators-cum-sociologists
was quite substantial. Related to studies of the various aspects
of Indian social structure, customs and traditions it was not
without ideological biases in the selection of themes and
sociological paradigms. The conceptual problems of caste, tribe
and village community, reflected in their observations served
consciously or unconsciously to exaggerate the elements of
segmentary cleavages in Indian society to the exclusion of the
principles of organic linkage and societal unity. This bias was
rooted in various ideological positions that Western sociologists
and scholars held while analysing Indian social reality. The
“Missionaries” derived their paradigm from their own version of
the normative principles of Christianity and judged most Indian
social and cultural institutions negatively. Their solution to India’s
problem was, therefore, its Christianization. The view of social
reality that it offered was mechanistic, segmentary and
instrumental in nature.It constituted a typical “colonial paradigm”
for social analysis and offered a deeply fractured picture of Indian
society and as such of Indianreality.
A vast difference could be seen between the Western and Indian
intellectual development. ‘Religion’ had a great impact on the mind-set of
western and modern intellectuals, whereas in India, the thinkers paid more
emphasis on ‘secularism’. Although, at the same time Indian sociologists
were positively influenced by the Western traditions of the philosophy of
rationalism, positivism, and historical materialism.Moreover, the pioneers
of Indian sociology drew their value premises and perspective on studying
Indian society from the nationalist reformation leadership of the nineteenth
century.
The early pioneers of Indian sociology always believed in indological

approach which is based on Indian society and culture. According to them,
the Indian society and culture are very unique and that this “contextual”
specificity of Indian social realities could be perceived better through “texts.”
The use of the Indological approach during the early formative years of
Indian sociology and social anthropology may well be observed in the works
of S.V. Ketkar, B.N. Seal, B.K. Sarkar, and G.S. Ghurye.
1.4 DEVELPOMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA
Sociology emerged as a separate academic discipline in Indian

universities in the 1st half of 20th century. At the beginning it was associated
with Anthropology. However according to Srinivas and Panini, the
development and growth of sociology in India can be divided into
three phases:
l The first, covering the period between 1773-1900 AD, when their
foundations were laid;
l The second, 1901-1950 AD, when they become professionalized;
l The third, the post-independence years, when a complex of forces,
including the undertaking of planned development by the government,
the increased exposure of Indian scholars to the work of their foreign
colleagues, and the availability of funds, resulted in considerable
research activity.
1.4.1 FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA:
During the period of colonialism, the British administrators

realised the importance to acquire knowledge of the Indian society
and culture for smooth administration. To collect the revenues they
also required the knowledge of Indian family system, tradition and
customs. Hence, the laws and customs prevailing in indian society
needed to be recorded accurately in detail. This prompted the origin
of sociology in India. During this phase, the British officials had
conducted many surveys on Indian people. In this regard, in 1769,
the first attempt was made by Henry Verelst, then Governor of Bihar
and Bengal. In 1774, William Jones founded the Royal Asiatic Society
of Bengal, the aim of which was to study ‘nature and man’ in India.
Francis Buchanan carried out a survey of people in Bengal in 1807.
A French missionary in Mysore, Abbe Dubots wrote the famous book
titled “Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies” in 1816, in which
he describes the characteristics of caste system and the interaction
between castes. In such way, many British scholars had started to
write on the Indian society.
All these works of British scholars had helped for more
systematic study of Indian society which was done in the second
half of the nineteenth century. During this period, the need for census
was felt and the British government conducted the first all India
Census in 1871. Thus the census became an valuable source of
information for data on population, society and cultural life of India.
The colonial rulers also showed their keen interest on Indian
classical literature. Therefore with the help of Sanskrit scholars a
book on Hindu law was prepared in English in 1776 for the British
judges. This discussed about the religious practices, customs and
laws of Hindu society. In nineteenth century, Max Muller, a German
scholar translated several classical Indian texts into German and
later translated into English. Further, in the last decade of nineteenth
century, many other western scholars were also influenced by the
writings on India.
Thus this period witnessed several studies being made and
several books being published on Indian Society and its people even
though it was mostly for colonial interests.
1.4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE PRE-

INDEPENDENCE PERIOD:
Sociology as an academic discipline, had its beginning in

two cities, Bombay and Calcutta. In 1917 at Calcutta
University, Sociology had its formal beginning with the efforts of B.N.
Seal and later on, the subject was handled by Radhakamal Mukerjee
and B.N. Sarkar. But unfortunately, it did not get any progression at
Calcutta. Thus it moved to western India i.e. Bombay, and the first
department of Sociology was started at Bombay University in 1919
under the leadership of G.S.Ghurye followed by the University of
Lucknow in 1920s with Radhakamal Mukerjee as its head.
Whereas, in South India,the efforts of B.N. Seal and A.F.
Wadia brought tremendous achievement to establish department
of Sociology at Mysore University in 1928. Simultaneously, Sociology
was also introduced in Osmania University and Poona University in
the late 1930s with Irawati Karve as the head.
Initially sociology initially had a subordinate position in the
organizational structure of Indian Universities. Most departments of
Sociology, in their premature phases began their journey under the
aegis of other established departments for eg, in Bombay and
Lucknow, sociology was taught along with economics. Whereas, in
Calcutta, it was taught along with anthropology, and in Mysore it
was under social philosophy.
During this phase, the tremendous efforts could be seen in
the works of many prominent scholars who contributed to the growth
of sociological research in India. B.N. Seal, K.M. Kapadia, Irawati
Karve, S.V. Karandikar, M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai, I.P. Desai, M.S.
Gore and Y.B. Damle are some of those who shaped the future of
Sociology in the country.However, their intellectual interests, methods
of data collection, and their interpretations of the Indian social system
and social institutions were strongly influenced by the ethnographic
works produced by scholar-administrators throughout the colonial
period. Studies on caste, family, marriage and kinship, social
stratification, tribal communities, rural and urban society figured
prominently in this period.
The main reason for sociology not being accepted in Indian
universities before Independence was the result of a prejudice
derived from the country’s association with Britain. To British
academics, sociology was a foreign subject’, its origins were in
Europe, and it was also associated with socialism.The Indian elite,

educated in British universities, accepted these prejudices as a
matter of course. It is significant that in Britain, Sociology was first
established as an academic discipline in the London School of
Economics (LSE), founded by the Fabians, Sidney and Beatrice
Webb, and Bernard Shaw. The first professor of sociology in the
LSE was Edward Westermarck, a Finn.
1.4.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE POST

INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
The next phase of expansion and development of sociology

started in 1952 with the factors that are responsible for its growth.
The policy makers of Independent India pursued objectives of
economic regeneration and social development, and they recognized
the role of the social sciences in attaining the objectives of national
reconstruction and development. They defined the new task of
Sociology as social engineering and social policy science. It meant
increased participation by social scientists, particularly economists
and sociologists, in research and social and economic development.
At the same time the Indian sociologists got the opportunity
to undertake research in the field of development because of heavy
funding from the Ford Foundation to save India from sliding into the
revolutionary communist path of development.The development of
research activity also meant the enlargement of the employment
opportunities at all levels.
There were many reasons for the popularity of Sociology
during this phase. The main reason for this was the beginning of
planned development.In the meantime, the Bombay sociology
department was flourished under the leadership of G.S. Ghurye,
who supervised students from different parts of India, to carry out
fieldwork in his or her region. In this way, he was able to construct a
huge amount of writings on Indian communities. Thus, he founded
the Indian Sociological Society in 1951 and started its journal entitled,
“Sociological Bulletin”. Besides, in 1969, the Indian Council of Social

Science Research (ICSSR) was established which also led to the
expansion of Sociology.
During this phase many sociologists had undertaken village
studies which resulted in several village monographs. Some of these
are McKim Marriott’s “Village India”(1955), S.C.Dube’s”
IndianVillage”(1956) and M.N.Srinivas’s edited volume “India’s
Village”(1956). In addition, several Indian communities, castes,
tribes, all were also included in the sociological studies.
Another credit for the growth of sociology in the post-
independence period goes to the Constitution of India, which
declared the practice of untouchability in any form as an offence,
and with the introduction of reservation for Scheduled Castes and
Tribes (SCsand STs) in the legislatures, and jobs in the government
and the public sector, a new field of study was opened up to
sociologists, though very few were aware of this fact.
However, during the period of industrialisation Indian society
moved from agriculture to industry which led to the growth of many
internal inequalities in Indian social structure. Such situation led to
interest group oriented Sociology, such as black sociology, gender
sociology, Dalit sociology, Tribal sociology, Hindu or Islamic
sociology, etc. Moreover,this situation brought the concept of middle
class social base, growth in professional and services sectors, the
Green Revolution, and the widening of the base of the commercial
and industrial entrepreneurship, etc. But the basic problems have
remained unresolved. Nearly half of the total population was still
illiterate and the rate of population growth continued to rise which
led to the high poverty, at about 40 percent of the total population,
and the number of urban poor was increasing at a very rapid rate
due to migration from villages. This process led to multiplication of
urban slums. The larger the city, the larger is the problem of urban
poverty and its ghettoization. Urban slum dwellers faced miserable
condition. Thus, the Indian sociologists had to take up all these social
issues and proceed into a new direction.
1.5 RECENT TRENDS IN SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA
Recent trends in the field of Sociology are inclusion of Sociology of

Development and then the Sociology of Globalization. Besides, some new
academic branches of Sociology have also been included such as Sexuality
and Reproductive health, Social Theory, Collective actions in Urban Area.
Before independence, the views of Indian thinkers such as Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
and Phule were not understood; they were not even recognised as social
thinkers. But after independence a tremendous development can be seen
in the field of sociology. Today, people have understood their point of view
and these social thinkers are recognised as the social thinkers in the Dalit
study which is a part of sociology developed by Indian sociologists.
In contemporary society, Indian sociologists have given more
emphasis on regional language. In India the language problem can be seen
in each and every state and society. Sociologists are either working in
regional languages and suffer from scantiness of vernacular journals or
even if they are writing their reports in English there is very little chance of
getting them published, particularly in limited English language journals.
Therefore, to overcome from this problem, the Indian Sociological Society
(ISS) has taken concrete steps to support regional associations by
organizing special symposia on regional issues and in this way it encourages
the sociologists from different parts of India. The contemporary young
sociologists are still working to understand the new trends like social
exclusion, ethnicity, and culture in the broader context of social justice.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: In how many phases can you divide the growth

of sociology?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: When and where was the first department of sociology founded?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: What do you mean by Indology?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Which professional society did G.S.Ghurye found in 1951?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: Who is the author of “Indian Village”?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q6: In which year ICSSR was formed?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
1.6 LET US SUM UP
l Within the context of history, colonialism, and its impact on the

intellectual and cultural traditions in India, of which sociology and
other social sciences are at a certain level of manifestations, provides
an important historical backdrop for its theoretical, ideological and
professional evaluation.
l The emergence of sociology in India as a formal discipline coincided
with several critical phases of history, both in India and in the West.
l There are mainly three phases of development of sociology in India.
These are the first period is between1773-1900 AD,The second
phase is 1901-1950 AD and the third period is the post -independence
years.
l Sociology appears in India formally in 1919 and the first department
of sociology was started at Bombay University in 1919.
l The tremendous efforts could be seen in the works of many
prominent scholars who contributed to the promotion of sociology
and research in India. Some of those are B.N. Seal, K.M. Kapadia,
Irawati Karve, S.V. Karandikar, M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai, I.P. Desai,
M.S. Gore and Y.B. Damle who shaped the future of sociology in the
country.
l After independence, the number of sociology departments has
increased which brought a number of research projects in India.
l Since the independence of India, diversity of sociological studies
could be seen in the works of many sociologists. Village studies
began in India. Several Indian communities, caste, tribe all were
also included in the sociological studies.
1.7 FURTHER READING
1) B.Paigude, V. S. (2013). http://www.onlinethinker.org/Artical_7_

Lashkar% 20Sociology.html. Retrieved 2017
2) Dhanagre, D.N. 1993. Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology.
Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
3) Emergence and Development of Sociology. (n.d.). Retrieved june 2017,
from download.nos.org/.../L-2%20EMERGENCE% 20AND%
20DEVELOPMENT%20OF%..
4) Modi, I. (2009, Mar 23). Retrieved june 2017, from www.ios.sinica.edu.tw/
cna/download/4b_Modi_2.pdf.
5) Mondal, P. (n.d.). Development of Sociology in India. Retrieved june
2017, from www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/development-of-
sociology-in-india/35016/.
6) Mukherjee, Ramakrishna. 1977b. Trends in Indian Sociology, Current
Sociology, 25(3).
7) Mukherjee, ParthaNath. 2006. Rethinking Sociology in an Era of
Transformatory Changes, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 55, No.2.
8) Singh, Yogendra. 2000. Culture Change in India: Identity and
Globalization. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
9) Srinivas, M.N. 1994. Sociology in India and its Future, Sociological

Bulletin, Vol. 43, No.1.
10) Vinayak Subhash Lashkar And Dhananjay B. Paigude. (2013, february
1). Development of Sociology in India . Retrieved june 2017, from http:/
/www.onlinethinker.org/Artical_7_Lashkar%20Sociology.html.
1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Growth of sociology in India can be divided into three

phases:
l The first is covering the period between 1773-1900 AD, when their
foundations were laid;
l The second is 1901-1950 AD, when they become profession-alized;
l The third is the post-independence years, when a complex of forces,
including the undertaking of planned development by the government,
the increased exposure of Indian scholars to the work of their foreign
colleagues, and the availability of funds, resulted in considerable
research activity.
Ans to Q No 2:The first department of sociology was started at Bombay
University in 1919.
Ans to Q No 3: Indology is the academic study of the history and cultures,
languages and literature of India.
Ans to Q No 4: G.S.Ghurey founded the Indian Sociological Society (ISS)
in 1951.
Ans to Q No 5: S.C.Dube is the author of “IndianVillage”.
Ans to Q No 6: Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was
established in 1969.
1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: Mention in brief about different phases of development of sociology
in India.
Q2: What were the major contributions of sociology after independence?
B) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q1: Briefly explain the recent trends in Sociology in India.
Q2: Explain the Development of Sociology in the pre-independance period
in India.
Q3: Discuss the history behind the emergence of sociology in India.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 2: INDOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE
STUDY OF INDIAN SOCIETY
UNIT STRUCTURE

2.2 Introduction
2.3 G.S. Ghurye: Early Life
2.3.1 Indological Perspective
2.3.2 The Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC
2.3.3 The post-Vedic period from 600 BC extending to 300
BC
2.3.4 The period of Dharma-shastras from 300 BC to 11th
century
2.3.5 The modern period from 11th century to the beginning of
19th century
2.4 Let us Sum Up
2.5 Further Reading
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.7 Model Questions

l know about the life of G.S.Ghurye
l understand the Indological perspective
l develop an interest in explaining the periods of Indian History .
2.2 INTRODUCTION
We are aware of the resources available to study any discipline or

enhance our knowledge on the same with the help of literature and books.
In the same way, in order to study Indian society in specific, the help of
Indological approach can be taken. It is regarded as the science of Indian
society. The Indian society is said to be understood through the concepts,
Indological Approaches to The Study of Indian Society Unit 2
frameworks and theories that are closely associated with Indian civilisation.
It also serves as an independent discipline or branch of study that takes
Indian society as the subject matter. Both as an approach and discipline,
‘’Indology consists of studying language, beliefs, ideas, customs, taboos,
codes, institutions, rituals, ceremonies and other related components of
culture. Indology demands inter-disciplinary, multi-disciplinary and cross-
disciplinary approach’’. Indology basically relies on book view i.e. Indology
makes use of ancient texts and scriptures of India thereby helping
sociologists to understand the social and cultural life of India. G.S.Ghurye
was an Indian sociologist who had profound knowledge of Sanskrit literature
and sacred texts with the help of which he emphasized the socio-cultural
life of the Indian society. In the previous unit we have discussed about the
emergence of Sociology in India. In this unit we shall discuss the Indological
Approach to understand Indian Society.
2.3 G.S.GHURYE: EARLY LIFE
Ghurye was born on 12th December, 1893 in a Brahmin family in

Malavan, Maharashtra. Since early days Ghurye had an interest for Sanskrit.
Sociology was not his subject in school or college. He admitted himself to
Elphinstone College, Bombay, after his matriculation. He graduated with
first class second position and was awarded the Bahu Dazi prize-the blue
ribbon of Sanskrit competence. He post-graduated in English and Sanskrit
with first class first position and was awarded the chancellor’s gold medal.
Holding a strong background of Sanskrit, Ghurye finally came in contact
with Sociology, which immensely influenced Ghurye’s later writings and
the course of research made in the field of Sociology under his guidance.
Ghurye submitted an essay entitled “Bombay as an urban centre”
to Patrick Geddes while the former was still teaching at Elphinstone College.
The essay was highly appreciated which won him a foreign scholarship.
Ghurye worked with L.T.Hobhouse in the London school of Economics. In
1923, Ghurye completed his doctoral work on caste and race in India under
A.C.Haden. His PhD work was published by Routledge and Kegan Paul in
1923 in C.K.Odgen’s History of Civilisation Series. This has been a
Unit 2 Indological Approaches to The Study of Indian Society
remarkable feat for Ghurye which established Ghurye’s position in the

academic field.
G.S.Ghurye had been instrumental in the formation of Indian
Sociological Society in 1952 and in the publication of his masterpiece,
Sociological Journal in India. The Indian Journal of Sociology was started in
January, 1920, under the editorship of Alban G. Widgery of Baroda College
in Baroda. Indian society presents a long historical process of growth and
constitutes a culture held by values, religion and norms of Hinduism. Ghurye,
as a sociologist, felt the need to explore the Indian society with its
uniqueness.
The reality of diffusionist approach of British social anthropology
initially influenced Ghurye but later on he shifted to the studies of Indian
society from indological and anthropological perspectives. He focused on
indological approach in the study of social and cultural life in India and
elsewhere.
2.3.1 Indological Perspective
Indology in the tradition of Max Muller is commonly

understood as a discipline that studies traditional Indian-mostly
Hindu-ideology, values, institutions and cultural norms and practices
through careful examination of classical sacred texts. Indology refers
to the study of India and her culture from the early Sanskrit works
on Indian civilizations and philosophical traditions such as Vedas,
Dharma Shastras, Epics and other manuscripts and archaeological
artifacts. Nature of society, law and customary practices, science,
technology, etc is studied with the help of those manuscripts. The
most prominent sociologists to use Indological approach in
understanding Indian society are G.S.Ghurye, Radhakamal
Mukherjee and B.K.Sarkar.
G.S.Ghurye was one of the pioneers to employ the indological
approach in the study of Hindu society and its emergence in India.
He had the advantage of his profound knowledge in Sanskrit in
examining the Indological sources such as Vedas, Dharma Shastras
and epics to provide an explanation to the emergence of the unique

institution of caste and caste system in India. In one of his most
celebrated works Caste and Race in India, Ghurye has examined
the emergence of ‘caste through the ages’ capturing every detail
possible to give a picture of Hindu caste society as it was functioning
before modern ideas affected its course, drawn from the Indological
sources such as Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas, Dharma-
Shastras and Mahabharata. For the convenience of historical
reconstruction of Indian society through ages, he breaks history of
India into 4 periods:
a) The Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC
b) The post Vedic period from 600 BC extending to 300 BC
c) The period of Dharma-Shastras from 300 BC to 11th century
d) The modern period from 11th century to the beginning of 19th
century
Almost all the literary accounts on the nature of society in
India during the first three phases, from 1500 BC to 11th century
A.D, especially from the Indological resources of Vedas and Dharma-
Shastras, point out to the predominance of the four orders of the
society, viz. Brahmana, Vaishya, Kshatriya and Shudra from which
the numerous castes/ Jatis have emerged in due course.
2.3.2 The Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC
According to Ghurye, the Rigveda- the earliest work of the

Vedic period initially mentions about the two fold division of society
during early Vedic period differentiating the Arya Varna- the fair
conquerors, with those of Dasa varna-the indigenous dark people.
The initial usage of the word ‘varna’ here referred to the fair and dark
colors of Arya and Dasa respectively. There is also the description
of the three fold division of society in terms of Brahmana, Kshatriya
and Vaishya along with their occupations of poet-priest, warrior chief
and commoners respectively. It is only in the later hymns of
Purushasukta that the emergence of four-fold division of society-
the Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra-has been described

as spreading out during the sacrifice of the Primeval Being, in that
order from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet of the Creator.
The emergence of the Shudras from the feet probably indicates
their low position in society of that time. Similarly, the Brahmanas
are declared to be occupying the highest position because they were
created from the mouth and assigned to be priests and teachers.
Next are the Kshatriyas to rule and protect the society as kings and
warriors since they were created from shoulders and arms. The
Vaishyas were assigned to supply food and collect taxes and they
formed the common masses. Being created from the feet, the
Shudras were assigned to transport people and commodities. The
Satpata Brahmana uses the term varna to describe the four divisions
or classes. Varna means color and initially it was used to differentiate
color of Arya from Dasa, but the later use of the term referred to
occupational differences. The earlier distinction of Arya and Dasa
later appears as Dvija or twice born and Akaja or once born. Also
the first three varnas need to go through initiation ceremony which
signifies rebirth. But this honor is not entitled to the Shudras.
By the end of Vedic period (1500 BC to 600 BC) Hindu society
had clearly defined varna system in terms of distinct religious and
occupational duties besides marriage practices. However there
were certain flexibilities in occupational restrictions that a Kshatriya
could achieve Brahmana status or a Brahmana could change into
Kshatriya varna by acquiring skills in warfare. The example of
Vishvamitra, a Kshatriya by birth, achieved the status of Brahmana
and was officiated as a priest. Parashurama, a Brahman by birth,
excelled Kshatriya through his military prowess. Though marriage
of an upper varna female with the male from a lower varna
(-pratiloma-) was prohibited, marriage of upper varna male with a
woman from a lower varna- (anuloma-) was tolerated.
2.3.3 The post-Vedic period 600 BC extending to 300 BC
The post-Vedic period (600 BC – 300 BC) is significant for

the consolidation of the four varnas and the Nishads. The sacred
laws of Aryas defined duties of four varans under ‘varna-dharma’.
The first part dealt with ‘ashrmas’ –the four stages of life and duties
associated with them. The second part describes laws such as
‘dharma of Brahmanas’, ‘dharma of Kshatriyas’ and ‘dharma of
Vaishyas’. There is no mention of ‘dharma of Shudras’ in detailed
manner in these texts since they are outside the ‘dvija’ fold. Shudra
was denied to perform sacrifice and recite Vedic texts. Later texts
like Mahabharata says that the Shudra can have no absolute poverty
because his wealth can be appropriated by his master at will. Shudra
trying to listen to Vedic texts shall have his ears filled with molten tin
or lac. Shudra committing adultery with women of the first three
varnas shall suffer capital punishment. Shudras thus had civil or
religious rights. Though theoretically the position of Shudras was
very low there is evidence to show that many of them were well to
do. Some of them succeeded in marrying daughters of royal families.
In Ramayana, for example, Sumitra- one of the four wives of
Dasaratha- was a Shudra. Emperor Chandragupta was a Shudra.
Patanjali mentioned about Abhiras who ruled over Deccan was
neither a Kshatriya nor Shudra but in between the two. It is Patanjali
(around 200 BC – 150 BC) who uses the term ‘jati’ for the first time
to identify numerous groups other than varnas. Mention has also
been made on the presence of other occupational groups such as
Blacksmith, Goldsmith, Leather worker, Barber, Physician, Merchant
and Chariot-builder. The Bhagavad Gita mentions that its religious
doctrines can lead even the Vaishyas and Shudras to salvation. By
the time of Bhagavad Gita there is emphasis on performance of
duty according to the varna dharma which shall lead to individual
salvation.
2.3.4 The period of Dharma-shastras from 300 BC to 11th

century
In his Dharmasutra, law giver Gautama mentioned that the

jati (caste) has to follow the duties as prescribed and will be born
again in excellent countries, castes, families and endowed with
beauty, wealth, long life, right to learn Vedas and wisdom. According
to Apastamba, sinful persons are born in low jati, even as animals.
However, towards the end of post-vedic period, the Brahmins
had strongly entrenched themselves subduing the Kshatriyas. The
Kshatriyas break away from the fold and revolt against the Brahmanic
supremacy. Both Jainism and Buddhism are movements started
by Kshatriya asserting social superiority of the Kshatriya over the
Brahmanas. Ghurye observes that Buddha and Buddhism do not
advocate abolition of caste distinctions or annihilation of caste though
they opposed the supremacy of Brahmanas.
Among the Dharmashastras, Manu’s laws (Manusmriti)
(dated sometime between 200 BC-200 AD), mentioned the supreme
position of Brahmanas through whom people can communicate and
reach the divine with their prayers. He provided the rules of religious
and secular behavior, punishments, right to property etc. Kautilya
not only provided rules of governance and justice but also suppressed
the position of women, Shudras and the Panchama denying them
the rights and privilages of ‘Dvija’.
According to Ghurye, with functional differentiation in society
there came into being separate occupational groups with distinct
interests. Right from ancient and medieval times the occupation of
each group tended to become customarily hereditary among its
members. The tendencies of groups and spirit of solidarity and
community feeling in every group emerged since there was no
uniform standard of law and custom enforced by any ruler during
the ancient and medieval times. Manu, in one of his Smritis,
mentioned that the number of new groups, formed by unions
between the members of four varnas, and by further intermarriages

within these groups and so on, is no longer the limited number that
it was in the earlier period. With all this multiplicity, each group was
ascribed some definite occupation. Thus, Ghurye concludes that
the fission of the four varnas from the Vedic times, owing to the
violation of the rule of endogamy and occupational segmentation
has led to the emergence of numerous castes and sub-castes,
numbering nearly 200 and 2000 respectively, found in different
cultural and linguistic regions of India.
2.3.5 The modern period from 11th century to the

beginning of 19th century
The eleventh and twelfth centuries were characterized by

Bhakti movements either of Vishnu or Shiva worshippers. The Bhakti
movement undermined the Brahmanic hold and provided
opportunities to all persons belonging to all castes to worship and
realize divine blessings without the medilation of Brahmin priests.
Ghurye, quoting the instance of religious upheaval in Maharastra
during the thirteenth century, mentions that the Shudra castes have
a considerable appreciation of their religious position by becoming
an integral part of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Though born in low
castes, Namdev and Tukaram achieved saintly status owing to their
outstanding spiritual personalities. In Bengal, Ramai opened up the
initiation ceremony for the thirty six castes like Dom which were
denied initiation.
The Islamic rule had limited impact on caste system only in
some parts of India, where there has been direct contact, where
the system has rigidified further unity as a contradictory faith. When
the British colonized India, they saw the caste system well
established especially among the large masses living in
communities. According to Ghurye, castes were well defined with
at least six important characteristics listed below:
Ø Segmental division of Society

Castes are groups with well developed life and culture of
their own. Membership in any caste is exclusively through birth. A
person is born a Brahmin, Maratha, Rajput, Mahar or Mang with
predetermined vocation and remains so till death. A Brahmin general
and a Maratha general in the Military may be of equal rank but they
belong to different status-groups in their private life that there could
be not be any social intercourse between them on equal basis. Each
caste has its governing body called Caste Panchayat, to maintain
and uphold boundaries of the caste and regulate the behaviour of
its members in eating, marrying and every aspect of life in
accordance with the traditional and customary practices of the caste.
Ø Hierarchy:
Caste groups are unequal in their religious and social
statuses and are hierarchically arranged one above or below the
other. Brahmin caste is on the top of the hierarchy and the
untouchable castes are at the bottom of the hierarchy. All other castes
are hierarchically located between the two. Along with castes their
respective vocations too are hierarchically arranged on the basis of
pure and impure occupations. The priestly vocation of a Brahmin
caste is pure and superior to the impure vocation of a Chamar or
Holeya who deals with hides and provides footwear to members of
all castes groups. Except for the caste in the middle region of the
hierarchy, the positions of most of the upper and lower castes are
clearly defined.
Ø Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse:
There are minute rules as to what sort of food or drink can
be accepted by a person and from what caste. Though practices
may vary from one place to another, the members of higher or upper
castes are not allowed to accept any food cooked with water
(Kachcha food) from member belonging to lower castes in the
hierarchy. Certain type of food cooked with ghee (Pakka) is acceptable
to the members belonging to the upper caste from some of the
lower castes.
The idea of power of certain castes to convey pollution by

touch or shadow is commonly found in most parts of the country,
varying only by degree of pollution. It is more pronounced in South
and central India and the upper caste (Dvija) members are often
polluted by the touch of lower caste members and pollution
communicated is highest if upper caste members are touched by
the members of the untouchable castes. In Kerela, a Nayar (Shudra
caste) may approach a Numbuthiri but must not touch, while a Tiyan
must keep himself at a distance of thirty-six steps from the Brahmin.
Ø Civil and religious disabilities and privileges:
Segregation of a different caste in a village is the most
obvious mark of civil privileges and disabilities. Different quarters of
a village are occupied by different caste groups, each forming its
own cluster. The untouchable caste has their living quarters on south
eastern of the periphery of village. In Maharastra, the untouchable
caste of Mahar had to carry earthen pot around their neck for spitting
so that their spitting does not pollute the upper caste members.
Lower caste members are denied the permission to build certain
type of houses and houses are called by different names depending
on the caste of the person. The village well is out of reach for all
untouchable castes. Similarly, entry into houses of upper castes,
temples, eating places, is denied to the members of the lower castes,
especially the untouchables.
Ø Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation:
Generally a caste is associated with a hereditary occupation
from which the members are restricted from changing some other
occupation even if it is more lucrative. Since occupations are ranked
along with the caste associated with it, to pursue occupation of a
lower caste is defiling and that of upper caste is denied. No caste
will allow its members to take any calling which was either degrading
or impure. The vocation of priesthood is not allowed for any purpose
not born a Brahmin.
Ø Restrictions on marriage:
An important feature of caste is its restrictions from marrying
a person from outside. In other words, principle of strict endogamy
is a dominant aspect of caste society so much so that endogamy
has been regarded as the ‘essence of caste system’. Violation of
the rule of endogamy is met with punishments ranging from
excommunication to penalty for committing the offence.
The caste thus emerged from the Vedic times still exist in
India today, forming a unique system of social stratification. Efforts
of social reformers and the Indian Constitutional mandate have only
partially overcome the inequalities among the castes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: Define Indology.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: What was the name of Ghurye’s essay that won him a foreign
scholarship?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: Name some sociologist, who used the Indological approach.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Mention the periods into which India society is divided by G.S
Ghurye.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: Why endogamy is regarded as the essence of caste system?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2.4 LET US SUM UP
l Indology makes use of ancient texts and scriptures of India thereby

helping sociologist to understand the social and cultural life of India.
l G.S.Ghurye focused on indological approach in the study of social
and cultural life in India and elsewhere.
l Ghurye in ‘Caste and Race in India’, has examined the emergence
of ‘caste through the ages’ capturing every detail possible to give a
picture of Hindu caste society.
l According to Ghurye, the Rigveda mentions about the two fold
division of society during early Vedic period which distinguishes the
Arya Varna- the fair conquerors, with those of Dasa varna-the
indigenous dark people.
l The earlier distinction of Arya and Dasa later appears as Dvija or
twice born and Akaja or once born.
l The sacred laws of Aryas defined duties of four varans (Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) under ‘varna-dharma’.
l According to Ghurye, functional differentiation in society brought
separate occupational groups with more less distinct interests.
l The Bhakti movement undermined the Brahmanic hold and provided
opportunities to all persons belonging to all caste to worship and
realize divine blessings without the mediation of Brahmin priests.
2.5 FURTHER READING
1) Ghurye, G.S. Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,

2004.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Indology refers to the study of India and her culture from the
early Sanskrit works on Indian civilizations and philosophical traditions
such as Vedas, Dharma Shastras, Epics and other manuscripts and
archaeological artifacts.
Ans to Q No 2: Bombay as an urban centre.
Ans to Q No 3: G.S.Ghurye, Radhakamal Mukherjee and B.K.Sarkar.
Ans to Q No 4: a) The Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC
b) The post Vedic period from 600 BC extending to 300 BC
c) The period of Dharma-Shastras from 300 BC to 11th century
d) The modern period from 11th century to the beginning of 19th
century
Ans to Q No 5: Endogamy is regarded as the essence of caste system
because violation of the rule of endogamy is met with punishments
ranging from excommunication to penalty for committing the offence.
2.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: Write a short life sketch on G.S.Ghurye.
Q2: Explain briefly the Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC
Q1: Elaborate four characteristics of the caste system as given by
G.S.Ghurye.
Q2: Describe the period of Dharma-shastras from 300 BC to 11th century
in your own words.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 3: STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL
PERSPECTIVE TO THE STUDY OF INDIAN
SOCIETY
UNIT STRUCTURE

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Structural Functional Perspective: An Overview
3.4 M.N Srinivas and his Approach
3.5 S.C Dube and his Approach
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Further Reading
3.8 Answers to check your progress
3.9 Model Questions

l know about the basics of Structural Functional Perspective
l understand M.N Srinivas’s approach to study Indian Society
l explain S.C Dube and his Approach
3.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have learned about how sociology has emerged as
a discipline in India and how the indologists’ study and analyse Indian Society.
By now we have also known that there are several other perspectives on
Indian Society apart from the Indological Perspective. All of these
perspectives present different views and understandings of the Indian
Society. They give us an idea about the different approaches through which
we can examine and understand Indian Society. In this unit we shall discuss
about one of them i.e the Structural Functional Perspective to study Indian
Society. The Structural Functional Approach talks about Order, Stability,
Harmony of society, and in India, the key advocates of this perspective or
Unit 3 Structural Functional Perspective to the study of Indian Society
approach are M.N Srinivas and S.C Dube. In this unit we shall try not only
to understand the theoretical and methodological perspective of each of
these thinkers but also to gain knowledge of the different concepts developed
by each of them.
3.2 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: AN

OVERVIEW
In the paper on Sociological Perspectives and Theories, we all have

learned in details about the Functionalist Perspective. The Functionalist
perspective views society as a composite functional whole; comprising of
various interrelated and interdependent parts, each having their own
functions to play for sustaining the society and maintaining Social order
and Harmony. This approach was initiated originally in biological sciences
and was borrowed later on by the social scientists to examine society. The
central focus of this perspective is order, equilibrium and consistency in
society and it emphasises on the understanding of the ‘order’ and ‘patterning’
of the social world. Its basic proposition is that behaviour of individuals in
society is structured and their relationships with the other members of the
society are governed by certain norms and values and hence social
behaviour and social relationships are organized in society in conformity to
certain societal rules and norms and are therefore patterned and recurrent.
This in turns gives stability and consistency to the larger social structure.
Thus the functionalists assume society to be a stable, integrated and
persistent system. Conflict and contradictions finds no space in their
understanding of society. The key thinkers of this school of thought are:
Radcliffe Brown, Durkheim, R.K. Merton, Davis and Moore, Talcott Parsons
etc.
As we have mentioned above, there are many Indian Sociologist
who have used this perspective to examine and analyse Indian society.
The significance of this perspective lies in its field view approach to
understanding social reality. This perspective puts stress on fieldwork and
hence is of enormous importance in comprehending the reality at the
grassroots. This perspective aims at:
Structural Functional Perspective to the study of Indian Society Unit 3
l Understanding the functional unity of the different parts of the society

l Understanding the patterning of social relationships and social
institutions and their functional role in maintaining the larger social
structure.
l It focuses on analysing and understanding the significance or
functional importance of particular social phenomena within the
larger social context.
l It laid stress on fieldwork and thereby relied more and empirical and
contextual understanding of Indian society.
l It also gave importance on comparative understanding of the different
social institutions and taking into consideration various variations
and their implications on wider society.
M.N Srinivas can be said to be the pioneer in introducing the
structural-functional analysis in sociological and social anthropological
research in India. He developed some very important concepts to understand
Indian Society which we will be learning about in this unit. Thinkers like S.C
Dube, have also used this perspective to analyse Indian Society. Let us
now discuss about each one of them in the following sections.
3.4 M.N SRINIVAS AND HIS APPROACH
Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1916–1999) was a renowned

Indian sociologist. A PhD holder from Bombay and DPhil from Oxford, M.N
Srinivas was Professor of Sociology at M.S. University, Baroda and
University of Delhi. He was the student of a world-renowned sociologist
G.S Ghurye. M.N Srinivas, apart from being an earnest and passionate
researcher, was also an institution builder. He was the man behind the
development of Department of Sociology, M.S University, Baroda and had
also made significant contribution to the setting up of Department of
Sociology at Delhi University.
M.N Srinivas has been credited for his immense contribution to Indian
Sociology with his works on caste and caste system, social mobility, social
stratification so on and so forth. His works have covered a wide array of
themes from caste, religion to social change. He was mainly engrossed
with issues of caste, its various forms; dimensions and its changing patterns.
He had developed several important concepts like Sanskritisation, Dominant
Caste etc. for understanding Indian society. He made a remarkable
contribution to the intellectual domain with his highly significant and
applauded books like Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South
India, Caste in Modern India, The Remembered Village, Village, Caste,
Gender and Method, Social Change in Modern India, The Dominant Caste
and Other Essays (ed.) amongst many others. His structural functionalism
was a blend of approaches used by Radcliffe Brown and Evans Pritchard.
He used theoretical structural functionalism of Brown and field view of
Pritchard. He blended theoretical structural functionalism with empirical work
The gem of Srinivas’s essays is his rich empirical facts combined with
theoretical analysis. Blending of theory and practice enriched his writings and
hence considered remarkable. His field view approach and thrust on empirical
findings enabled him to portray a nuanced picture of how social institutions
functioned in various societal contexts. His view on caste was shaped by
inferences from innumerable field studies. Though textual narratives of caste
also helped in shaping his understanding of caste but it was the operational
dynamics of caste that formed the core of his thought and arguments. Thus
the striking feature of his approach was the linking or amalgamation of theory
and practice. The use of direct observation method while studying the Coorgs
of Mysore also testifies ethnographical initiative in his works.
Srinivas like other functionalists viewed Indian society as a system
and analysed it in terms of the patterns of social relationships and social
institutions and how their functions contribute to sustenance of the society.
He examined and interpreted social phenomenon like – caste, family, religion
etc in their functional terms within a larger context of Indian society. However
Srinivas was not only concerned with order and stability but also change.
While he viewed order in terms of caste, village, religion etc.. he also
portrayed with his empirical evidences, how social change was taking place
in Indian society. He emphasized upon understanding cultural changes,
leading to change in Indian society. He tried to analyse how micro level
changes like Sanskritisation could lead to greater changes.
l Srinivas’s views on Religion and Society:

“Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India” is a
work having strong theoretical framework in the line proposed by Radcliff–
Brown i.e. the structural functionalism. The concept of structural
functionalism originated with Radcliff Brown and was further elaborated
and developed by Evans-Pritchard. According to this concept, a society is
an organism. It is a system of parts, all of which serve a function together
for the overall effectiveness and efficiency of society. It sees society as
built-upon order, and interrelation and balance among parts as a means of
maintaining the smooth functioning of the whole. Structural Functionalism
views that shared norms and values are the basis of society; it focuses on
social order based on tacit agreement between groups and organizations,
and it views social change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion.
Functionalists acknowledge that change is sometimes necessary to correct
social dysfunction, but that it must occur slowly so that people and
institutions can adapt without rapid disorder.
Srinivas, in his book has shown the complex interrelationship of
ritual and social solidarity as a part of the social system, and discussed the
crucial notions of purity and pollution as a basis for the organization of social
life. With details he showed that although religion is virtually reduced to life-
cycle rituals, yet it played its role and contributed to the maintenance of the
social order.
l Srinivas’s views on Caste:
As mentioned above, insights from field studies rather than only
textual elements had a greater influence on Srinivas’s understanding of
caste. His view was shaped from the operation of caste in various societal
contexts. For Srinivas Caste is a segmentary system with each caste being
divided into a number of sub castes. The sub castes according to him are
Endogamous units and Units of social and ritual life. Members of a particular
sub caste have common occupation, common culture and are being
governed by same authoritative body. Apart from these the other important
attributes of caste according to him are hierarchical structure, Restrictions
on commensality, Notions of Purity and Pollution, and Caste panchayats.
This attributes determine the rank or the position of a particular caste and
also determine the nature of inter caste relations.
Now let us understand some of the concepts developed by him in
details:
Sanskritisation: All of us know that Caste system is hierarchical
i.e. not all castes are accorded the same position. Some castes, on the
basis of the notion of purity and pollution are accorded a superior position
in the caste hierarchy and some others an inferior position. Those caste
groups placed at the bottom of the caste hierarchy tries to emulate the life-
style of the upper caste in order to elevate their social status. Srinivas termed
this process as Sanskritisation and according to him “Sanskritization is a
process by which a “low” Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its
customs, ritual, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high, and
frequently, a “twice” born caste. It is followed by a claim to a higher position
in the caste hierarchy than traditionally concealed to the claimant caste by
the local community. Such claims are made over a period of time, sometimes
a generation or two before they are conceded.” We shall discuss in details
about Sanskritisation when we talk about Mobility in Caste System in Unit 6
Dominant Caste: Village is one of the key aspects of Srinivas study.
It was Radcliffe Brown, his mentor, from whom he got the idea that Village
can be an interesting area of exploration. His study on village was conducted
in Rampura, a village in Mysore, the findings of which has been elaborately
documented in his book The Remembered Village. Here he discusses the
social and political changes that have taken place in Rampura. The idea of
Dominant caste emerged from his study of Rampura and he developed it
fully in his paper “Dominant caste in Rampura”, published in the American
Journal “American Anthropologists” (Vol: 61 No 1). His long association
with the village Rampura by way of fieldwork provided him the idea that one
basic feature of the rural life in many parts of India is the existence of a
dominant land owning caste. For a caste to be dominant, it should own a
sizable amount of arable land locally available, have strength of numbers,
and occupy a high place in the local hierarchy. In his words, “A caste may
be said to be dominant when it preponderates numerically over other castes
and when it also wields preponderant economic and political power. A large
and powerful caste group can be more easily dominant if its position in the
local caste hierarchy is not too low. Thus according to him a caste becomes
a dominant caste in a village when it is economically stronger, politically
powerful and also numerically stronger.
3.5 S.C Dube and his Approach
We have already mentioned above that S.C Dube is one of the key
advocates of Structural-Functionalism like M.N Srinivas. In this section we
shall discuss his methodological approach as well as his works. But prior
to that let us first have a brief idea about his academic journey and
accomplishments.
S.C Dube, a noted anthropologists and sociologists has made
significant contribution to the study of Indian Society. With his remarkable
professional career, Professor S. C. Dube has made a distinct place for
himself in the academia. He was a Masters in Political Science from Nagpur
University and pursued research thereafter on the Kamar’s— A tribe of
Madhya Pradesh engaged in Shifting Cultivation. He began his teaching
career at Bishop College, Nagpur, Maharashtra. From there he went to
Lucknow University where he taught Political Science and later he joined
Osmania University, Hyderabad as a Reader in the Department of Sociology.
He was also the Deputy Director in Anthropological Survey of India at Nagpur.
Further he was the Vice-Chancellor of Jammu University from 1978-1980.
Apart from that he held several other significant positions like Director of
Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla, President of Indian Sociological
Society, and Chairman of Madhya Pradesh University Grants Commission
so on and so forth.
Let us now try to understand S.C Dube’s theoretical and
methodological approach..
S.C Dube focused on the changing nature of Indian Villages. He
viewed Indian Village as changing and evolving rather than being static and
changeless. He regarded Indian Villages as semi-autonomous rather than
independent and completely autonomous. For him, Village is just one unit
in a wider social system and is a part of an organized political society.
Having a multidisciplinary orientation, Dube, emphasised on the importance
of interdisciplinarity. He stressed upon analysing social reality from different
interdisciplinary perspectives. Since Indian society is a mix of different
cultures, therefore he suggested that in order to have a comprehensive
and holistic understanding of Indian society, we need to have a more
comprehensive frame of reference to study the complex cultures of India.
He applied deductive-positivistic rather than inductive inferential-approach,
based on null situations, like no change in modern India, or India’s unchanging
villages. His work titled Indian Village, where he has given a detailed
description of the rural social-structure and institutions, is a reflection of
the descriptive and exploratory nature of research. Dhanagare while opining
about Dube’s work, mentioned that, as his work was descriptive in nature,
it did not contain analytical insights. Dube too did any alternative conceptual
framework for understanding Indian rural Society.
Dube’s Structural Functional approach to understand Indian society
is clearly manifested in his work on Indian Village. In this book, where he
has given a comprehensive description of life in an Indian village named
Shamirpet in Hyderabad, his key argument was that to have an accurate
and holistic understanding of Indian Village it is necessary to examine and
analyse the different units which comprise a village and through which the
village community is organized. To acquire an integrated understanding of
the village and its different socio-economic dimensions, he collected the
field data from various perspectives which include historical, geographical,
political and sociological perspectives. This work is a clear testimony of his
interdisciplinary as well as structural-functional approach where he has
depicted the functioning of the different institutions in the village and how it
contributes to the smooth operation of the Village.
Having explored the different facets of Indian society, Dube wrote
extensively on the varied dimensions of Indian society and culture. His works
covered multiple themes which include tribes, rural social structure, rural
life, community development, modernization so on and so forth. He has
immensely contributed to the body of knowledge on Indian society by writing

number of books, articles and research papers. All his writings reflect
multidisciplinary approach. Some of his significant works are as follows—
l The Kamar, Indian Village (1955)
l India’s Changing Villages (1958)
l Institution Building for Community Development (1968)
l Contemporary India and its Modernization (1974)
l Tribal Heritage of India (1977)
l Understanding Society (1977)
l Modernization and Development (1988)
l Tradition and Development (1990)
l Understanding Change (1990)
l Indian Society (1990)
By looking at the names of the works mentioned above, we can
clearly understand that the key interest and the prime focus of S.C Dube’s
works was the changing nature of Indian society particularly Indian Rural
Society. Here it is worth mentioning that though S.C. Dube belongs to the
functional school of thought which stresses on order, stability and harmony,
S.C Dube’s approach was slightly different. Even though like the other
structural functionalists he too was interested in social structures and social
institutions he looked at it not solely from the perspective of order and stability
but also from the perspective of change.
Thus to summarise Dube’s Theoretical and Methodological
Approach it can be said that he emphasised on interdisciplinary approach
to understand social reality. He focused both on structure and change of
Indian society. Further he followed the Deductive-Positivistic Method and
examined the different dimensions of Indian Society to derive a holistic
understanding about it. He too, like M.N Srinivas, stressed upon field
investigations and most of his works reflect a descriptive and exploratory
approach.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: Define Hierarchy?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: Which theoretical framework is predominant in M.N Srinivas’s
work titled ‘Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South
India’?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: When was Srinivas’s work “The Remembered Village”
published?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Where did Srinivas conduct his doctoral field study?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: Fill in the blanks:
a. The concept of dominant caste was first fully developed by
__________________
b. The concept of dominant caste was developed in the
published work entitled __________________________.
Q6: State whether the following is true or false:
a. Secularisation is a process whereby things which were
previously regarded as religious now cease to be so.
b. The process of westernization in India has been the result
of the British rule in India.
3.6 LET US SUM UP
l Srinivas’ major contribution was the concept of Sanskritisation, which

enables us to explain the process of social change in a caste based
social structure.
l It also explains how the tribal communities seek to emulate the

cultural patterns of the higher castes, and in the process acquire a
new identity for themselves, with an amalgamation of the tribal and
caste culture patterns.
l Srinivas have discussed the complex interrelationship of ritual and
social solidarity as a part of the social system, and discussed the
crucial notions of purity and pollution as a basis for the organization
of social life.
l Westernization refers to the changes brought about in the Indian
society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule.
l Through the concept of westernization, Srinivas referred to the
impact of the British rule in India.
l Secularisation means absence of any religious domination.
l Srinivas believes that the British rule brought with it a process of
secularization of Indian social life and culture.
l The process of Secularisation was strengthened after independence
when the Constitution of India declared India as a secular nation
providing equality of all citizens before the law.
l For a caste to be dominant, it should own a sizable amount of arable
land locally available, have strength of numbers, and occupy a high
place in the local hierarchy.
l S.C Dube focused on the changing nature of Indian Villages.
l For him, Village is just one unit in a wider social system and is a
part of an organized political society
l Having a multidisciplinary orientation, Dube, emphasised on the
importance of interdisciplinarity.
l He focused both on structure and change of Indian society.
l He followed the Deductive-Positivistic Method and examined the
different dimensions of Indian Society to derive a holistic
understanding about it.
3.7 FURTHER READING
1) Srinivas, M.N. (1966). Social Change in Modern India, Berkeley,

California University Press
2) Nagla, B.K. (2008). Indian Sociological Thought. New Delhi. Rawat
Publications

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Hierarchy refers to the vertical arrangement of caste groups

in order of their rank.
Ans to Q No 2: Structural Functionalism was the predominant theoretical
framework is in M.N Srinivas’s work titled ‘Religion and Society
among the Coorgs of South India’
Ans to Q No 3: Srinivas’s work ‘The Remembered Village’ was published
in 1976
Ans to Q No 4: Srinivas conducted his doctoral field study among the Coorgs
of Mysore
Ans to Q No 5: (a) M.N. Srinivas (b) Dominant Caste in Rampura
Ans to Q No 6: (a) True (b) True
3.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: What do you understand by Sanskritisation?
Q2: Distinguish between Sanskritisation and Westernisation.
Q3: How can a Caste become dominant?
Q4: What is meant by Secularisation?
Q5: How did M.N Srinivas characterise the Indian Caste System.

Q1: What are the major contributions of M.N.Srinivas to the study of Indian
society?
Q2: Discuss S.C Dube’s approach to study Indian Society.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 4: MARXIST APPROACHES TO THE STUDY
OF INDIAN SOCIETY
UNIT STRUCTURE

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Marxist Perspective: Meaning and Definition
4.3.1 Scholars of Marxist Perspective
4.3.2 D.P. Mukherjee : His life sketch and methodological
approach
4.3.3 R.K. Mukherjee: His life sketch and methodological
approach
4.3.4 A.R. Desai: His life sketch and methodological approach
4.4 Let Us Sum Up
4.5 Further Reading
4.7 Model Questions

l know about the life of the three important Marxist scholars of India
l understand their methodological approaches
l develop an interest in explaining their contribution to Marxist
approach.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The Marxist approach has been based on the theories of German

philosopher Karl Marx. According to Karl Marx, the foundation of every social
system rest on two structures- namely infrastructure which include the
real economic relations and Superstructure which include culture, politics,
religion, ideology etc. Marx believed that superstructures were built on top
of the infrastructure thereby emphasizing the importance of the
infrastructure. As human beings and social actors, we share various
Marxist Approaches to The Study of Indian Society Unit 4
relations with other members of the society. These relations are carried out
in order to survive and also to maintain cohesion in the society. According
to Marx, it is the mode of production which determines the social relations
among the members of a society. The Marxist thinkers examine and analyse
social relation in the light of the Mode of Production that prevails in a particular
society. This is the Marxist approach which has been identified as one of
the best method by various Indian Scholars to study the Indian society and
its various social institutions. The Marxist approach can help us to study
and analyze social reality through the mode of production. The Marxists
were of the opinion that a society could retain the solidarity among its
members by the system of production which involves members of the
society in the production process of materials. The means and relations of
production gave rise to new stages of societal development where people
made new discovery with the resources for producing something new.
In the previous unit we have discussed the Functionalist Approach
to understand Indian Society which emphasises an order, stability and
harmony in society. In the unit we shall discuss about the Marxist Approach
to understand Indian society which focues on conflict and change in society.
4.3 MARXIST PERSPECTIVE: OVERVIEW
Marxism aims at providing a scientific study of society from the class

structure. The Marxist thinkers in India believe that the emergence of Indian
society and her unique institutions could be best examined from the Marxian
perspective than any other approach since the only reality is that of material
phenomenon that determines everything else. The material mode of
production forms the basic structure of any society and the socio-cultural
domain comprising of social relationships and institutions form the
‘superstructure’. D.D.Kosambi was one of the well known Marxist historians
who tried to employ the Marxian dialectical method to analyze ‘materialism’
of Indian social system. He argued that human beings cannot live without
‘bread’ or food. An aggregate of human beings become society only when
the people develop the most essential relations, viz. the relations developed
through production and mutual exchange of commodities.
Unit 4 Marxist Approaches to The Study of Indian Society
The nature of interaction of people with natural surroundings

depends on the technique of production. Surplus depends on the means of
production and the distribution of surplus among various members is a
matter for the relations of production. What matters is who owns the tools
of production and controls the distribution of surplus. Marxist believes that
society is held together by bonds of production. For Kosambi, history is the
‘presentation in chronological order of successive developments in the
means and relations of production’. He argued that materialistic analysis
provides a systematic understanding of Indian culture and society.
In the Marxian approach, the main task is to identify the successive
developments in the means and relations of production that truly mirror the
life of people at any stage in history. Kosambi proposed a general theory of
history founded on dialectical materialism and undertook what he called
‘purely materialistic reconstruction of history and stages of societal
development’ in India. Study of religion, superstition, rituals and myths may
be undertaken to examine the underlying means and relations of production,
for they form ideological superstructure. Study of superstructure sometimes
reveals the changes occurring in the base. However, he emphasized that
economic considerations are important even in the explanation of religions.
He argued that the productive base as a source of explanation rather than
emphasizing on the superstructure to understand the social reality.
4.3.1 Scholars of Marxist perspective
There are many scholars like M.N.Dutta, D.D.Kosambi, P.C.Joshi

and others who have studied the Indian society from the Marxian
perspective. But the work of scholars likes D.P. Mukherjee,
R.K.Mukherjee and A.R.Desai are considered significant who have
adopted the dialectical-historical approach for studying Indian society.
4.3.2 D.P.Mukherjee: His Life Sketch and Methodological

Approach
Ø Life sketch:
Dhurjati Prasad Mukherjee or D.P. Mukherjee was one of
those who laid the foundation of Sociology in India and to have made
an attempt to analyze Indian history from the dialectical perspective

of Karl Marx. He was born on 5th October, 1894 in a middle class
Bengali Brahmin family with a long tradition of involvement in higher
education. He joined the University of Lucknow as a lecturer in
Economics and Sociology in 1924. He came to sociology via history
and economics, and retained an active interest in a wide variety of
subjects ranging across literature, music, film, western and Indian
philosophy, Marxism, political economy and development planning.
His reputation as a teacher was highly acknowledged in those times.
He wrote many books in English and Bengali.
Ø Methodological Approach:
D.P. Mukherjee was deeply interested in understanding the
nature and meaning of Indian social reality in the Indian tradition. He
followed Marxism as a method of analysis. His dialectical analysis
of Indian history suggested that tradition and modernity, colonialism
and nationalism, individualism and collectivism could be seen as
dialectically interacting with each other in contemporary India. He
preferred to call himself ‘Marxologist’ rather than ‘Marxist’ and
attempted a dialectical interpretation of the encounter between the
Indian tradition and Modernity which unleashed many forces of
cultural contradiction during the colonial era.
According to D.P. Mukherjee, to understand individual in
social science theories is a narrow concept. So it is better to
understand individual through a holistic approach or through psycho-
sociological approach. So the ‘synthesis of the double process of
individuality and the socialization of the uniqueness of individual life,
this perfect unity is called as personality.
D.P.Mukherjee was of the opinion that India is born out of the
union of various culture, elements etc and that the British rule in
India has been a turning point for the Indian society. He believed
modernization as a process can never be achieved by mere imitation
but can be achieved through the process of expansion, elevation,
revitalization of traditional values and cultural patterns. He also
discussed about Tradition and classified the Indian tradition into three
types viz. Primary Tradition (Traditions which are primitive and
authentic to Indian culture), Secondary Tradition (which emerged
with the arrival of Muslims in India) and Tertiary Tradition (which
reflected the differences among various traditions in India). He was
of the opinion that Indian culture is very flexible in nature which can
blend various cultures within it; thereby Indian would not vanish like
the primitive tribes as a result of western culture.
Mukherjee’s ideas on tradition and modernity reflect a
dialectical relation between the two which ends in two ways i.e.
conflict and synthesis. Thus the Indian society in his opinion is the
outcome of the interaction between tradition and modernity. While
discussing the history of India, he emphasized on two points i.e.
‘specificity’ and ‘crisis’. Specificity points to the importance of the
encounter of traditions and Crisis to its consequences. Again while
talking about the process of modernization, Mukherjee emphasized
the role of self-consciousness which individuals need to have in
order to accept the change in the traditional values and embrace
the new ones. Even to study the historical process of the relation
between tradition and modernity, D.P.Mukherjee focused first on
tradition and then on the change.
4.3.3 R.K.Mukherjee: His Life Sketch and Methodological

Approach
Ø Life Sketch:
Radhakamal Mukherjee or R.K.Mukherjee was born on 7
December, 1889 in Berhampur (Murshidabad) to a Bengali Brahmin
family. Study of history greatly interested him. Having his early
education in Berhampur, he later got into Presidency College,
Calcutta, through an academic scholarship where he came in
contact with distinguished scholars like M.Ghosh, H.M.Percival and
Harinath De. He was deeply inspired by the works of Comte, Herbert
Spencer, Hobbhouse, Giddings and others. The patriotic feeling and
eagerness to help the suffering masses was caused by the

Renaissance and partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon. This ultimately
drove him to choose Economics and Sociology over history. He
was awarded the Premchand Raychand scholarship in 1915 and
PhD degree in 1920 by Calcutta University for his study on ‘’Socio-
Economic Changes in the Indian Rural Community’.
R.K.Mukherjee put forward each order of reality from physical
to metaphysical, a unified triadic principle of dialectical interaction
which links one level of reality with other and which also gives one
level of concepts or categories significant and meaningful to other
levels. According to him, dialectics is a process more prominent of
harmony and freedom which links one level of reality with another.
He differs from Marxist notion of dialectics. According to him,
dialectic is the capacity of man to exceed through interplay of
opposite forces to higher and higher planes of ethical and cognitive
awareness. This transcendence is mediated by the society. He said,
“It is the nature of man to transcend himself because of the
immanence in him of the not-self, the neighbor, the whole universe’’.
He draws from Hegel, Vedanta, Buddhism and Taoism to form his
notion of dialectics. To maintain the societal modes of solidarity,
Mukherjee suggests the principle of individual freedom and dignity
of common man from the liberal ideology and excess to societal
resources and sharing in it by the working classes, as advocated
by Marxism.
To study the society, R.K.Mukherjee focused on interdisciplinary
or trans disciplinary approach towards the understanding of human
life. He emphasized on developing a general theory of society which
could be achieved by first breaking the barriers between physical or
natural sciences and sciences relating to man’s social and
psychological aspects and secondly by constant interaction among
the social sciences like Sociology, Psychology and Economics. To
appreciate the multi dimensions of human personality and its
interaction with the natural and social environment, mutual exchange

of ideas between physical and natural sciences is important.
Commenting on personality of an individual, he saw it as an
agent who takes decision, make choices and seeks value-fulfillment.
Man makes choices and act accordingly in terms of self, other and
the cosmos. Individuals are influenced by many aspects like nature,
environment, biological needs and man’s psychological impulses.
Added to it, man is also influenced by the pressure and activities of
the society.
4.3.4 A.R. Desai: His Life Sketch and Methodological

Approach
Ø Life Sketch:
A.R.Desai, born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad, Gujrat, may be
regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist
approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and
field research. He studied the works of Marx, Engels and Trotsky.
He advocated and applied dialectical-historical model in his
sociological studies. He rejected the interpretation of tradition with
reference to religions, rituals and festivals which are a secular
phenomena and it finds its place in family, village and other social
institutions. He does not find the origin of tradition in western culture.
He considers the emerging contradictions in the Indian process of
social transformation arise mainly from the growing nexus among
the capitalist bourgeoisie, the rural petty-bourgeoisie and a state
apparatus all drawn from similar social roots.
A.R.Desai was one of the students of Dr.G.S.Ghurye at the
Bombay University who was later privileged to serve as the Professor
and Head of the Department of Sociology. Desai was one of the
founding members of the ‘’Indian Sociological Society’’ and also a
life member.
A.R.Desai in his sociology studied the macro and meso
Capitalism, nationalism, classes, agrarian structure, the state and
peasant movements among other things. Desai in his Marxist
sociology used the historical method to give the specific meaning
to the Marxist notion of structure and the various elements in its
constitution in India such as capitalism, feudalism, the relationship
between class and nation, peasants and working class, the post
colonial state and the rights of the deprived . He framed an
interdisciplinary sociology where he used the method of participant
observation and fieldwork to understand the structural pattern and
processes of change of the Indian society.
The British conquest in India resulted in the transformation of
Indian society from feudal economy to capitalist economy. Old
economic system and old land relations in India ceased to function
with the introduction of new economic system and modern land
relations and industries. With the shift in economic system, new
class group emerged which included agricultural laborers, tenants,
merchants etc. With the introduction of new land revenue system,
commercialization of agriculture; fragmentation of land etc
transformed the Indian village. This followed poverty, exploitation of
classes by land owners in rural areas and in urban society, there
were capitalist industrial working class, petty traders, lawyers etc.
In short the changes and infrastructural development during the reign
of British led to the development of Indian nationalism which
ultimately led to nationalist freedom movement.
A.R.Desai had studied various movements of Indian society
like rural and urban, caste and class structure, social mobility and
others through Marxist approach in general and the historical-
dialectical materialism in particular. He had also discussed that the
traditional background of Indian Nationalism was the by-product of
material conditions created by the British through the process of
industrialization and modernization and this did not exist in pre-British
India. Desai holds the view that the consequent changes in the
traditions come up if the economic relations are closely associated
with the traditions which also bring change in economic conditions.
So there was also the disintegration in traditional caste system of
Indian society due to the new social and material conditions like
industries, economic growth, education etc. according to Desai,
and the state formed in post-Independence period is a capitalist
state where the administration plays the dual role of protecting the
propertied classes and suppressing the struggles of the exploited
classes.
Desai views the Marxist paradigm as the most relevant
framework that can help in understanding the changes taking place
in Indian society and its various sub-systems. Marxist approach helps
to raise questions to conduct the researches in right direction and
assists to evolve proper concepts etc. According to Marx, ‘’men can
be distinguished from other animals by consciousness, by religion,
or by anything one likes’’. Men begin to distinguish themselves when
they produce the means of subsistence. Because in producing the
means of subsistence they produce the material life.
The Marxist approach demands to understand social reality,
nature of means of production, the techno-economic division of labor
and social relations of production. It considers property relations as
crucial for they shape the purpose, nature, direction and objectives
underlying the production. Marxist approach also calls for studying
a specific society as a changing system comprised of contradictory
forces some of which sustain and others which alter the society.
Thus, Marxist approach gives central importance to property
structure in analyzing our society. It provides historical location and
specification of all social phenomena. Unlike other approaches,
Marxist approach gives central emphasis on the ‘mode of production
of material life’.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: How the Marxist approaches can help us?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: What is the aim of Marxism?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: Who was D.D. Kosambi?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Name the important Marxist scholars from India.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: In the opinion of Marxist, how can the solidarity of a society be
maintained?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
4.4 LET US SUM UP
l The Marxist approach has been based on the theories of German

philosopher Karl Marx.
l According to Karl Marx, the foundation of every social system rest
on two structures- namely Base and Superstructure.
l The relations developed through production and mutual exchange
of commodities makes the aggregate of human beings into a society.
l The main task in the Marxian approach is to identify the successive
developments in the means and relations of production that truly
mirror the life of people at any stage in history.
l According to D.P.Mukherjee, the perfect unity of the synthesis of the

double process of individuality and the socialization of the uniqueness
of individual life is called as personality.
l According to R.K.Mukherjee, dialectic is the capacity of man to
exceed through interplay of opposite forces to higher and higher
planes of ethical and cognitive awareness.
l R.K.Mukherjee saw the personality of an individual as an agent who
takes decision, make choices and seeks value-fulfillment.
l A.R.Desai used the method of participant observation and fieldwork
to understand the structural pattern and processes of change of
the Indian society.
l A.R.Desai focused on subjects like the macro and meso Capitalism,
nationalism, classes, agrarian structure, and the state and peasant
movements among other things.
4.5 FURTHER READING
1) Singh, Yogendra. Ideology, Theory and Methods in Indian Sociology

(1952-1977)

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: The Marxist approach can help us to study and analyze

social reality through the means of production.
Ans to Q No 2: Marxism aims at providing a scientific study of society from
a class angle.
Ans to Q No 3: D.D.Kosambi was one of the well known Marxist historians
who tried to employ the Marxian dialectical method to analyze
‘materialism’ of Indian social system.
Ans to Q No 4: Mukherjee, R.K.Mukherjee and A.R.Desai are considered
significant who have adopted the dialectical-historical approach for
studying Indian society.
Ans to Q No 5: The Marxists were of the opinion that a society could retain
the solidarity among its members by the system of production which
involves members of the society in the production process of materials.
4.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: How did R.K.Mukherjee study the society?
Q2: What do you understand by the Marxist perspective?

Q1: Write briefly on the life sketch of D.P.Mukherjee and elaborate his
methodological approach.
Q2: Write briefly on the life sketch of A.R.Desai and elaborate his
methodological approach.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 5: SUBALTERN APPROACH TO THE STUDY
OF INDIAN SOCIETY

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Subaltern Approach
5.3.1 Ranajit Guha and His Subaltern Approach
5.3.2 B.R.Ambedkar and His Subaltern Approach
5.3.3 David Hardiman and His Subaltern Approach
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Further Reading
5.7 Model Questions

l understand the subaltern approach to study society
l explain the subaltern perspective of Ranajit Guha, B.R.Ambedkar
and David Hardiman
l discuss the differences of the perspective given by the three
scholars.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
You will observe that the rich, powerful and elite section of the society
mostly get an opportunity to stay in the limelight. But when it comes to the
lower classes or the subordinate masses, it may not be the same always.
We have a tendency to ignore the contributions made by the lower sections
of the society either being a natural way or simply because it does not
catch our attention. In contrast to this ordinary view, the subaltern studies
or perspective has been an important initiative to reanalyze history taking
into account the role of the subordinate. This approach under the main
aegis of Ranajit Guha, stood as a critique to Colonialist, Nationalist, Marxists
Subaltern Approach to The Study of Indian Society Unit 5
interpretation of history and it wanted to ‘’rectify the elitist bias characteristic

of academic work’’ in Indian studies and therefore make way for new studies
and discussion of subaltern themes. Guha pointed out that the subalterns
acted ‘’on their own, independently of the elites’’, trying to show how the
efforts of the subalterns had been denied by elite perspectives. Guha and
other subaltern studies gave a different representation of Indian history based
on people’s consciousness, giving us the possibility to hear their voices,
even if Indian peasants have left no written sources or documents from
which their own voice can be heard. In the previous unit we have discussed
the Marxist Approach to study Indian Society. In this unit we shall discuss
about the Subaltern approach to understand Indian Society. Here
contributions of Ranajit Guha, B.R. Ambedkar and David Hardiman shall be
discussed.
5.3 SUBALTERN APPROACH
Subaltern approach gave a new analysis to Indian nationalism. To

restore a balance, the subaltern approach highlights the role of politics of
the people as against elite politics played in Indian history. Thus, ‘elite’ and
‘people’ are viewed as binary domains to constitute a structural dichotomy
or opposites. Supporters of this approach state that the role played by
elites in building Indian nationalism has always been highlighted but the
contributions made by the people (masses) on their own and independently
of the elites, have failed to get acknowledged. Parallel to the elite politics,
there has always existed throughout colonial period another domain of people
namely the ‘subaltern’ classes and masses of the laboring population.
Subaltern historiography regards ‘people’ (subalternity) as an autonomous
domain that originates neither from elite politics nor depends on them.
Therefore, the mobilization in elite politics is achieved vertically whereas in
subaltern politics it is achieved horizontally.
Historians who use the term ‘subaltern’, has taken the word from
Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist and Communist who was imprisoned
for a long time by Mussolini’s police until his death. In prison, Gramsci wrote
notebooks on politics, history and philosophy. He declared that the subaltern
Unit 5 Subaltern Approach to The Study of Indian Society
was the subjected underclass in a society on whom the dominant power

exerts its hegemonic influence. The word ‘subaltern’ generally means
subordination, an inferior status or rank which can be in the field of caste,
class, age, gender or any other way. Thus the subordinate people submit
themselves to the people above them. The subalterns are rendered
voiceless by oppression. The whole thrust of subaltern historiography is on
reconstruction of the other history, i.e. history of people’s politics and
movements and attempts to make their own history. Subaltern approach
conveys ‘view from below’, i.e. a view or understanding from the bottom of
society or the flow of knowledge from below.
This is an important approach to study tribal peasant movement.
The subaltern scholars have claimed that they unfolded the incapacity of
nationalist and elitist historiography to incorporate the voices of the weak
into the project of history re-writing. Subalternists focused their attention on
the circle of elite politics and have emphasized the insurrectionary activities
and potential of the ‘subaltern’ classes (artisans, poor peasants, landless
labourers, tribals, etc) to help themselves possess self-consciousness and
develop the quality of resistance directed against the rich peasants and
urban traders. The noted proponents of this subaltern approach in India are
Ranajit Guha, B.R. Ambedkar, David Hardiman, Kapil Kumar and others.
5.3.1 Ranajit Guha and His Subaltern Approach
Ranajit Guha, while analyzing the tribal and peasant

insurgencies in colonial India and also the social movements, made
use of the tradition of scientific Marxism in his study. Guha believes
that the task of historiography (the writing of history, the study of
history-writing) is to interpret the past in order to change the present
world and that such a change involves a radical transformation of
consciousness. He therefore warns social scientists and activists
not to view peasant or tribal insurgents merely as ‘object’ of history
but to treat them as ‘makers’ of their own history- endowed with a
transformative consciousness of their own. Guha was interested
on those peasant studies i.e. on peasant movements including
revolts or insurgencies which have emphasized ‘organization’,

‘leadership’ and ‘ideology’ as the key elements in the formation of
rebels’ consciousness and have tended to treat the insurgencies
as ‘pre-political’ phenomena.
Guha insisted mostly the writings of historians mostly
focused on the Indian National Movement and it is seen mostly from
the notion or perspective of the leaders of the movement. According
to him, the history of our society was either left untouched or not
examined enough or examined only as an addition of the national
movement. Guha was in support of the subaltern perspective which
was needed to study the society from the notion or view of the
downtrodden.
Guha’s main objective in studying insurgencies of the colonial
period is to show how patterns of subordination and insubordination
has run on parallel tracks throughout the colonial history of India,
and how affirmation of domination or resistance, or insurgency and
counterinsurgency have strengthened each other. Guha used
subaltern historiography as a method for his study of peasant
insurgency. Guha has given some common forms and ideas in the
rebel’s consciousness. They are the following: negation, ambiguity,
modality, solidarity, transmission and territoriality.
The first form of peasant or insurgent tribal consciousness
is ‘negation’ which implies formation of negative identity. Negation
results in selective violence only against the perceived enemies.
The peasants learn to recognize him not by the properties and
attributes of his own social being but by the diminition and negation
of those of his superiors. Guha seems to assume that the principles
of a highly structured mode of domination and subordination has
been internalized at the elite and subaltern levels of Indian society.
These principles were devised by the ruling groups and imposed
upon the subalterns. Negation also governs the insurgent practice
of inversion, of turning the world upside down. The peasants, passive
because of the dead hand of ruling class’s culture and values,
reverse the codes which make for their passivity when they embark
on insurgency .
The second form of peasant consciousness is ‘ambiguity’
which in Guha’s scheme draws on the basic difference between
‘crime’ and ‘insurgency’, although the two have often been used
synonymously in colonial historiography. To Guha, crime tends to
be an individualistic or small group-oriented, but secretive or
conspiratorial action. In contrast, insurgency has a mass character
which manifest publicly. The two acts derive from two different codes
of violence, but since in the overt form the acted violence may be
similar, there is an ambiguity in violence as an internal or external
part of insurgency.
The next aspect of peasant character or tribal insurgencies
is ‘modality’. During the phase of Deccan riots (1875) and Santhal
hool (1855), Guha has shown how the insurgents have searched
for an alternative source of authority by electing ‘rebel-nawabs’ and
the like. Also in the act of mobilization during insurgency, sentiments
of kinship or ethnic community ties and feelings do play a significant
part. It is also to be noted that rebel activity takes place in many
forms where motive of economic gain is no exception. Instances
like plunder of goods and looting of cash by the Kols in Chotanagpur
has a reference to the point of economic gain. Tribal or peasant
insurgents do not simply aim at destroying the cultural insignia (sign)
and symbols of power but they also care for economic gains if and
when opportunities come their way.
‘Solidarity’- the next form in which the peasant or tribal
insurgent’s self-consciousness manifests itself- signifies separation
of his own identity from that of his enemies. Although this form
overlaps with negativity considerably, Guha made two important
points here. First, the quality of ‘collective consciousness’ varies
from one phase of insurgency to another. Secondly, class ‘solidarity’
or solidarities (i.e. those emerging from ethnic, religious, caste ties)
are not mutually exclusive, they overlap. Guha characterizes the
duple character of insurgency in which sometimes class and religion

are intertwined (e.g., as in the Moplah uprisings) and sometimes
ethnicity and class identities get fused (e.g., Birsa Munda Movement).
In ‘transmission’ as a form/aspect of peasant or tribal
insurgency, Guha deals essentially with the pattern of spread of
insurgency. Through iconic and symbolic signs or even rumors,
other subaltern sections/groups are also contacted and drawn with
uprising. Whether the rebels organized prayer meetings, beat their
drums, flutes or horns, distribute branches of Sal trees, or a fiery
torch, or whether they distribute chapattis, oil or sindur (vermillion
powder), all these were the most effective instruments of this
transmission in the Kol, the Santhal and the Birsaite movements, in
the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, and also in the Moplah rebellion of 1921.
Lastly, ‘territoriality’ acts as the aspect of peasant/tribal
consciousness. The insurgents gets together by blood ties
(consanguinity) on the one hand and by local bond (contiguity) on
the other. A sense of belongingness to a common lineage and to a
shared habitat overlaps with one another which implies that ethnic
space and physical space as constituents of territoriality.
5.3.2 B.R.Ambedkar and His Subaltern Approach
B.R.Ambedkar was instrumental in paving way for changes

in the lives of Dalits. Being a byproduct of the Ambedkar movement,
Dalit indicates a social and political awareness. The Ambedkar
movement was to free or emancipate the dalits from their
dehumaised position in the society. The word Dalit is commonly
used for the untouchables who are regarded as the downtrodden
and oppressed class of the society or occupying their position at
the bottom of the hierarchical ladder of Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya
,Shudra and dalit or untouchables. Dalit includes all those persons
who are poor and exploited at the hands of the other sections of the
society. It does not restrict itself merely to economic exploitation in
terms of appropriation of surplus. It is also related to the suppression
of one’s (Dalit) culture, way of life, value systems and more

importantly Dalits are denied the dignity to lead a life. It emerged as
a political category and changes in the structure of the society is
called for to give a space to the Dalits. The word Dalit indicates
struggle for an egalitarian order.
B.R.Ambedkar wanted to liberate the Dalits from the social
scenario oppressing their honor and status and thus create an equal
social order. But he was also aware that it was not possible within
the fold of Hinduism which lowered the position of Dalits to the
bottom. He thereby asserted that the Dalits should come forward
and fight for their own cause; otherwise no one would be able to
lessen their problems and grievances. The slogan or mantra given
by Ambedkar to the Dalits was- ‘educate, organize and agitate’. The
Dalits themselves should be aware of their plight and have to garner
the potential to tackle their own state of affairs. He believed the quality
of self-awakening would give the necessary strength and help the
downtrodden section to fight the evils of the society. “Ambedkar
(started) exercising the spirit of despair from the minds of dumb
millions who had been forced to live the life of sub-human beings.
Here was a liberator preaching them the grand universal law that
liberty is received neither as a gift; it has to be fought for. Self-elevation
is not achieved by the blessing of others but only by one’s own
struggle and deed. Those inert dormant masses lacked courage
and needed a vision and a mission. Ambedkar was inspiring them
to do battle for their human rights. He was driving them to action by
acting himself….. Ambedkar was displaying energy by his own
action; arousing their faith by showing faith’’. (Keer, 1971)
Amebdkar’s subaltern perspective brought the face of the
Shastras to limelight which was against the downtrodden. He also
realized that caste and Brahminic Hinduism strengthen each other
to differentiate the lower sections from the mainstream Hinduism.
In his view, the Vedas, Smritis and Shastras were all instruments of
torture used by Hinduism against the untouchables. He also
emphasized the fact that Srimitis and Shastras were not the symbol
of religion rather they played a role in depriving the untouchables of
their rights and needs in the society. He did not hesitate to say that
Hinduism as a religion has no right for its existence and should be
destroyed for it looks down upon its own people as untouchables
and deny equal status.
Ambedkar wanted to safeguard the rights of the Dalits or
the untouchables and see them prosper on their own will as against
the other castes. Another approach of his subaltern approach resides
in formation of the Indian nationalism as opposed to the dominant
discourse of Hindu nationalism of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, B.G.Tilak
and others. Ambedkar wanted to empower the downtrodden, free
them from the clutches of caste discrimination and encouraged them
to destroy the evils which were obstructing their struggle to assert
their identity as human beings.
5.3.3 David Hardiman and His Subaltern Approach
David Hardiman in his study has shown that the Devi

movement was a response to the impact of the colonial rule on
tribal society. The Adivasis were peasants and practiced shifting
cultivation. The Adivasis led an isolated life but there was the impact
of non-tribal moneylenders and Shaukars on the life of the tribals.
The subaltern perspective was used by David Hardiman in
his study ‘The Coming of Devi’. The Devi Movement took place in
South Gujarat i.e. in the western Maharashtra region. It was a
movement among the adivasis of western India who wanted a
change in the established way of life. It was led by the adivasi people
themselves and was directed towards bringing a social reform
among the life of the tribals. The adivasis were lured by the rural
elite section and Bhajan-Mandal groups of the village to consume
liquor which was a highly taxed commodity. Cost of liquor was rising
high and being unavoidable for the tribals, they were falling to drinking
debts. They were slowly exploited and were landing in a state of
pauperization. In an effort to reform their life by abstaining from

drinking habit and also to fight against the domination of Parsi liquor
vendors, landlords and moneylenders (Shaukars) with whom they
were brought to face debts and burden, the adivasi people involved
themselves in a social reform movement.
The adivasis of western India were to be commanded by a
goddess or Devi who was supposed to have come from the
mountains to Kanpur village of the adivasis in the year 1922. The
Devi Salabai gave a call to change their life as to refrain from drinking
liquor, to boycott the Parsis who were running the liquor trade,
advised men and women to take bath regularly etc. The Devi was
accompanied by a collective of people holding red clothes in their
hand and later the Devi, who was a girl, was offered coins and gifts
as a mark of respect. This gathering of adivasi people before the
Devi had immense influence on the former and a sense of
consciousness was awakened. It encouraged the adivasi people to
divert their way from the clutches of Parsis and the moneylenders
and ultimately it inspired them to raise their living standards.
But this movement to drift away from the Parsis,
moneylenders or landlords did not result in complete success. The
domination of the Parsis was replaced by the hegemonic domination
of the elite among the adivasis. Therefore what started as a religious
movement with respect to the commands of the Devi, turned into a
struggle for adivasi assertion. The adivasis were placed before the
increasing capitalist invasions in the hands of the colonial
government but they have managed to retain their self control and
dignity.
The Devi managed to rule for a couple of years. The tribals
resorted to drinking again but the realization to bring a change by
their own efforts has influenced them which were later encouraged
by Gandhiji, Kishan Sabhas etc.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: How are elite and people viewed?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: How subaltern historiography treats people?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: Who is Antonio Gramsci?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Who are the noted proponents of subaltern approach in India?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: What is the task of Historiography according to Ranajit Guha?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
5.4 LET US SUM UP
l Guha pointed that the subalterns acted ‘’on their own, independently
of the elites’’, trying to show how the efforts of the subalterns had
been denied by elite perspectives.
l Subaltern approach highlights the role of politics of the people as
against elite politics played in Indian history.
l Guha was interested on those peasant studies which have
emphasized ‘organization’, ‘leadership’ and ‘ideology’ as the key
elements in the formation of rebels’ consciousness.
l The forms of peasant consciousness in Ranajit Guha’s studies are
negation, ambiguity, modality, solidarity, transmission and
territoriality.
l The Ambedkar movement led by B.R. Ambedkar was to free or

emancipate the dalits from their dehumaised position in the society.
l B.R Ambedkar wanted that the Dalits themselves should be aware
of their plight and have to garner the potential to tackle their own
state of affairs.
l David Hardiman’s famous work was ‘The Coming of Devi’, where
he emphasized the adivasi consciousness awakened by the Devi
to free them from the moneylenders and Parsis.
5.5 FURTHER READING
1. Dhanagare, D.N, “Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology”, Rawat

Publications, 1993

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: ‘Elite’ and ‘People’ are viewed as binary domains to constitute

a structural dichotomy or opposites.
Ans to Q No 2: Subaltern historiography regards ‘people’ (subalternity) as
an autonomous domain that originates neither from elite politics nor
depends on them.
Ans to Q No 3: Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist and Communist who
was imprisoned for a long time by Mussolini’s police until his Gramsci’s
death.
Ans to Q No 4: The noted proponents of the subaltern approach in India
are Ranajit Guha, B.R. Ambedkar, David Hardiman, Kapil Kumar and
others.
Ans to Q No 5: Guha believes that the task of historiography (the writing of
history, the study of history-writing) is to interpret the past in order to
change the present world and that such a change involves a radical
transformation of consciousness.
5.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: Write a short life note on the subaltern approach.
Q2: Explain briefly the Devi movement as given by David Hardiman.

Q1: Elaborate the four forms of consciousness given by Ranajit Guha.
Q2: Describe the plight of the Dalits and B.R.Ambedkar’s Subaltern
Perspective.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 6: THE CASTE SYSTEM
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 The Caste System: Meaning, Characteristics and Origin
6.3.1 Meaning of Varna
6.3.2 Varna and Jati
6.3.3 Meaning of Dominant Caste
6.3.4 Mobility in the Caste System
6.3.5 Jajmani System
6.3.6 Constitutional provisions
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 Further Reading
6.8 Model Questions

l understand the caste system of India
l explain origin of caste system and its characteristics
l learn different concepts like varna, jati and dominant caste
l examine the changes that occurred in the caste system with the
passage of time.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
The caste system is a form of social stratification that characterizes

the unique social structure of India. It has been reported that similar
institutions like “caste”, which govern the culture, tradition and lifestyle of
the individuals, also exist in countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and
others where Indians have migrated in large numbers. The caste system in
The Caste System Unit 6
India has been traced to be existed from the ancient times. And since then,
it has sustained the constant changes occurring in the society. With the
advent of forces such as industrialization, modernization, western influence,
education, secularism and so on, it too has started experiencing and
accepting the changes relatively fast. These forces, however, could not
erase the system, the traditions and customs of which most have critiqued
as being utterly superstitious and derogatory. Despite rigorous attempts by
social reformers, the inequality generated by the caste system still persists
in a large scale. In fact, the system has now succumbed to new roles
which have led to the emergence of complex modes of propagating
inequality. These complexities are such that even the scholars, both Indian
and western, who have been discussing and debating on these issues, still
find it hard to grapple with the concept of the system in its entirety.
The previous units of this course discussed the different approaches
to study or understand Indian Society. This unit shall focus on one of the
important and unique aspect of Indian Society i.e its caste system. Here
we shall not only discuss about meaning and characteristics of Indian Caste
System but also about its other aspects like mobility in caste system, Jajmani
system, constitutional provisions so on and so forth.
6.3 THE CASTE SYSTEM: MEANING,

CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGING
Every society is stratified. An unstratified society, with complete

equality among its members, has never been discovered in the history of
mankind. The forms and proportions may vary, but the essence is
permanent. Stratification, in general, is the ranking of members of a society
according to the unequal distribution of desirable rewards, such as wealth,
prestige and power. This stratification may be economic (class) or social
(caste). The civilized, industrialized and literate societies of the world today
are basically stratified in terms of caste and class. The caste or a class of
an individual determines his/her position in a society. Earlier, the terms ‘caste’
and ‘class’ were used synonymously; in the sense that since one is born in
a particular caste, one’s class/ economic status too will remain the same
for generations later. For example if a person’s parents work as laborer and
Unit 6 The Caste System
are poor, their children will also have to earn their livelihood in the same
way. This means that caste is a social structure in which classes are
determined by heredity. Caste as a system of stratification has been viewed
in two ways. Some sociologists have treated caste as a cultural
phenomenon. Therefore, they treat caste as a system of ideas, values and
beliefs. On the other hand, others have considered caste as a structural
form. They, thus treat caste as a system of roles and status.
Caste is an essential ingredient of rural social structure. However,
due to its complexity its scholars find it difficult to define. Nevertheless, a
few definitions given below can be taken in to consideration to understand
the concept.
According to Ketkar, “A caste is a group having two characteristics, i).
membership is confined to those who are born of members and includes
all persons so born, ii). the members are forbidden by an inexorable social
law to marry outside the group.
D.N. Mazumdar and T. N. Madan have said that caste is a ‘closed group’.
C. H. Cooley: “When a class is somewhat hereditary, we may call it a
caste.”
A. W. Green: “Class is a system of stratification in which mobility up and
down the status ladder, at least ideally does not occur.”
MacIver and Page: “When status is wholly predetermined, so that men
are born in their lot without any hope of changing it, then class takes the
extreme form of caste.”
Sir Herbert Risley: “Class is a collection of families, bearing a common
name, common descent from a mythical ancestor, human and divine,
professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who
are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogenous
community.”
M. N. Srinivas: “Caste is a hereditary, endogamous, usually localized group,
having a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position
in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between castes are governed,
among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity and generally,
maximum commensality occurs within the caste.”
Andre Beteille: “caste may be defined as a small and named group of

persons characterized by endogamy, hereditary membership and a specific
style which sometimes includes the pursuit, by tradition, of a particular
occupation and is usually associated with a more or less distinct ritual status
in a hierarchical system based on concepts of purity and pollution.”
Many more thinkers and scholars of sociology have tried to define the caste
system. However, due to its complex nature, they have failed in those
attempts.
l CHARACTERISTICS
G.S. Ghurye, in his book Caste and Race in India, holds that the caste
system is basically characterized by six different aspects. These aspects
are the main traditional features of the caste system. Even though we have
learned about these characteristics in Unit 2, a discussion about the same
here will enable us to gain more clarity. Hence they are elaborately described
below:
Ø Segmental division of society: A society is most often heterogeneous
in nature. So is a Hindu society, which is divided in a number of segments
called castes. Each of these castes is a well-developed social group. The
memberships in these groups are determined by birth and not by selection
or by accomplishments. This means that a child is born with a caste of his/
her parents. The caste status that an individual possesses after birth,
remains unchangeable and untransferable. In fact, no amount of power,
prestige or wealth can alter his/her membership in the caste group.
Moreover, each of these caste groups have their own customs, traditions
and rituals. It is generally believed that there is no social mobility. However,
M. N. Srinivas had pointed out that with changes in society, a low-caste has
been able to raise itself upwards in the social ladder by acquiring wealth,
power and by adopting the Brahmanical customs and traditions.
Ø Hierarchical division of society: As already mentioned, a Hindu society
is divided into a number of segments called castes and sub-castes. The
caste system in a Hindu society believes in ranking and gradation between
the castes. Hence, the sense of superiority and inferiority is associated
with this gradation, forming a hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy are the
Brahmins, who are regarded as ‘pure, supreme or superior’. The

Untouchables are placed at the bottom of this hierarchical ladder and they
are considered to be polluted, inferior and degraded. They are also called
Harijans or Dalit. In between lies the intermediary castes, whose relative
positions are not always clear. As such, disputes among the members of
these castes over the social precedence of their respective castes are
quite common.
Ø Restrictions on food and social intercourse: Certain restrictions
have been imposed on the members of a caste with respect to what kind of
food they must consume and how. These restrictions differ from caste to
caste. A Brahmin consumes “kaccha” food (prepared with the use of water)
only from their own caste i.e, Brahmin or any caste ritually higher than their
own. . On the other hand, a Brahmin can accept “pakka’ food (cooked in
ghee) also from the lower castes. While there are restrictions on Brahmins
accepting food from lower castes, any kind of food prepared by a Brahmin
is acceptable to all other castes.
The caste system put restrictions on the range of social relations
too. There exists the concept of pollution and purity within this system,
where the upper castes are considered to be pure and the lower castes,
especially the Untouchables, to be polluted. The upper castes stay away
from the touch or even the shadow of the Untouchables, lest it pollutes or
defiles them. There are many examples around the country of how an
Untouchable carries pieces of wood and claps it on his way to a public
place, in order to make the upper castes aware of his presence. The upper
caste distances themselves at the sound of the wood pieces. If, in any
case, an upper caste touches an untouchable, he/she has to undergo a
strict parikrama and immediately take a bath to purify themselves again.
Ø Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of different sections:
In the traditional caste society, people belonging to lower castes, especially
the Harijans, suffered from a set of civil, social and religious disabilities.
They are generally made to live in the outskirts of the village. They are
forbidden to make use of public wells, roads, hotels, schools or cremation
grounds. In the early days, even the public lecture halls, temples and theatres
were not kept open for the lower castes. Beside these, legal rights and
political representation were also denied to them for a long time. These
restrictions vary from region to region. In south India, the lower caste people
were allowed to construct only a particular type of houses. There were
limitations with regard to ornamentation also. Again, in Malabar the lower
castes were not allowed to milk cows, to wear gold ornaments and to carry
umbrellas. They also had to bow down to the upper castes even if they see
the latter from far away.In all, since these castes are at the lowest stratum,
they are made to suffer all kinds of disabilities in order to remind them time
and again of their unprivileged state.
While the lower castes are restricted from a number of things, a
higher caste, especially a Brahmin, enjoys all the privileges that exist in the
society. They were given the liberty to move freely, anywhere they want.
They were also given educational facilities and legal rights. Most of the
teachers and the political representatives in the early days were from the
higher castes. Not only did they enjoy social, religious and political rights,
but were saluted and worshipped by the lower castes as gods. It was said
that the Brahmins did not even bow down to the deities of the lower caste
people. The greatest privilege of the Brahmins was that they were allowed
to chant the Vedic mantras, which amplified their godly status in the society.
All these privileges were bestowed on the upper caste because they were
believed to be born pure and superior.
Ø Restrictions on occupational choice: The caste system is gradational
or divided on the basis of ranking and this ranking is made with respect to
the occupational service an individual offers to the society. Each member
of a caste is depended on others for occupational services. However, they
maintained an amount of distance from each other because they believed
that certain occupations were superior and sacred and others were inferior
and degraded. Each caste had its own specific occupation. The occupations
were almost hereditary, as they were expected to continue the same for
generations. This means that the occupations were fixed.
Sweeping, shoe-making, washing clothes, barbering, pottery,
weaving, oil-grinding, etc. were considered to be inferior and degrading. On
the other hand, teaching and priesthood were considered to be prestigious

professions, pursued mainly by the Brahmins. Individual talents, aptitudes
and interests were not taken into consideration. However, occupations like
military services, farming or trade were open to all castes.
Ø Restrictions on marriage: There are certain restrictions with regard to
marriage in the caste system. Endogamy, which refers to marriage within
the caste, is the essence of the caste system. All members of a caste or a
sub-caste were supposed to marry someone of their own caste. Inter-caste
marriages were strictly prohibited and anyone found violating the rule was
severely punished by being ostracized and losing his/her caste. Even today,
the concept of inter-caste marriages is not easily accepted by the members.
This has led to close in-breeding. It has been believed that the rule of
endogamy has been strictly followed because the members, especially the
upper castes, sought to maintain their purity.
However, the caste system also follows exogamy on three
exceptions. Exogamy means marriage outside the caste, clan or group. In
the Hindu caste system, there exists the Sapinda, Sagotra and Sapravara.
According to Sapinda, two individuals of the same pinda cannot marry each
other because they are believed to have the same parents. Pinda means
common parentage and according to Brahaspati, offspring from five maternal
and seven paternal generations constitute Sapinda. Therefore they have to
marry someone outside the pinda. However, this rule is not followed
unanimously throughout the country.
An individual also cannot marry someone from the same gotra. Since
individuals of one gotra are believed to have the same blood, they are
restricted from intermarrying. Sagotra exogamy is mostly prevalent among
the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas.
Again, the Brahmins follow Sapravara exogamy. A pravara is a sort
of religious or spiritual bond and the people who utter the name of the
common saint at religious ceremonies are said to belong to the same
pravara. Therefore those Brahmins who belong to the same pravara are
prohibited from marrying each other.
Besides these characteristics, the caste system is also

characterized by other aspects. Firstly, each caste has a distinct tradition,
culture and customs of their own which distinguish them from the other
castes. The food habits and way of life of each caste is unique on their
own. Secondly, the caste system also consists of a panchayat or a council
which deals with matters related to the norms and regulations of castes
such as killings of cows, non-payment of debts, adultery, illicit relations
with other castes, etc. the infringement of any norm leads to punishment of
some kind. Thirdly, the caste system is a closed group. Exogamy, fixity of
occupation, hereditary and unique culture makes it so.
l ORIGIN OF CASTE
Many Scholars have given different views regarding the etymology of caste.
Of them all, S. V. Ketkar’s views seem the most authentic. He considers
the word ‘caste’ to have been attributed to the Spanish or the Portuguese
origin. The Spanish word ‘casta’ means lineage or race. The word ‘casta’is
again derived from the Latin word ‘castus’, which means pure. However, it
was the Portuguese who employed the term in the primary modern sense.
They applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary social groups
which they encountered upon their arrival in India in 1498.
It has been estimated that there are more than 2800 castes and
sub-castes, each having its own respective characteristics. Caste system
existed and still exists in various religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism,
Jainism, Christianity, etc. The rigidity, usage and prevalence of the system
varies but the most renowned one is that which still exists in Hinduism.
The origin of caste system lacks any substantial historical backing.
There are religious, biological and historical theories which vary in many
respects. According to the Bhakti school, castes were originally created by
Krishna based on the three modes of the natural, material and work. With
respect to these modes, the four divisions in the Hindu society were created.
Another theory states that the caste system originated from the Indian deity
named Brahma. He is the creator of the world and it has been theorized
that the different categories in the Hindu caste system were created out of
the different parts of His body. Hence, all divisions are supposed to maintain
an amount of distance between each other, failing which they commit a

grave crime.
A number of factors have endorsed the growth and the prevalence
of the Caste system in India. Firstly, the Indian peninsula has remained a
geographically isolated region for a long time. Hence, the age-old customs,
beliefs, superstitions and traditions that the people followed, fostered the
growth of the rigid system. Secondly, since each race or category intended
to maintain its purity, they established more stringent laws which
disassociated the ‘other’. Thirdly, religious beliefs in the doctrine of
reincarnation and karma, further facilitated the existence of the system.
Fourthly, the unchanging rural social structure of our country has also led
to its persistence. Along with these factors, the most important is the lack
of education which has made the people orthodox. The people implicitly
and unloathingly accept all norms imposed by caste, so much so that all
beliefs have now been internalized as the natural way of life.
6.3.1 Meaning of Varna
The term ‘varna’ originated from the Sanskrit word varna,

which means “to cover, to envelop, count, classify, consider,
describe or choose”. The word appears in the Rigveda, where it
means “color, appearance, exterior form, figure or shape”. In the
Mahabharata, it means color, tint, dye or pigment. The word, however,
contextually means race, tribe, species or nature of an object or
people in some Vedic and medieval texts. Brahminical books like
the Manusmriti includes the term Varna with respect to the four social
classes already discussed above.
The caste system in India divides the Hindus into four main
categories- Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. Many
believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of
creation. The Brahmins are at the top of the hierarchy. They are
mainly teachers and intellectuals because they are believed to have
come from Brahma’s head. The Kshatriyas are in the second
position. They are warriors and rulers and they supposedly came
from his arms. In the third position comes the Vaishyas, who are
traders and are created from his thighs. The Shudras, who are the
lowest category, supposedly came from Brahma’s feet and are
laborers and service providers. Besides these categories, there
exists another category which remains outside the Hindu caste
system. They are the Dalits or the untouchables, also known as
achhoots. As consigned by the Hindu hierarchy to the lowest
occupation, these people remained segregated from the main
village.The concept of ‘purity’ and ‘pollution’ hold a great significance
in the caste system. The upper castes who sought to maintain the
purity of their caste, laid down certain restrictions to be followed by
the untouchables. Since they were considered to be polluted, they
were not allowed to draw water from the public wells, not allowed to
enter temples, any public hall or theatre and refrained from
educational facilities. They were also supposed to stay far away
from the higher castes lest even the former’s shadow fall on the
latter and pollute them. This hierarchal arrangement has been
followed since centuries and it has dictated almost every aspect of
Hindu religious and social life. Hence, a lot of privileges have been
bestowed on those who are at the top of this hierarchal order.
6.3.2 Varna and Jati
It can be said thatVarna is the appropriate term to understand

the peculiarity of caste system in India, and it is not to be confused
with the much more nuanced Jati or the European term “caste”.
This is so because both the terms varna (theoretical classification
based on the division of labor) and jati (sub-caste) are two distinct
concepts. Both the words are important while understanding Indian
social system and they both play an important role in the life of a
Hindu.
Though the word varna, when translated into Hindi, literally
meant color, it had nothing to do with the color of the skin of an
individual. As mentioned earlier, it was used to signify the
classifications based on a person’s attributes and economic or social

contribution to the society. With time, however, the system got
debauched by the evils of caste system as witnessed in the modern
times. As a result, the varna of a person was decided on the basis
of his birth rather than his attributes or qualities Inequality, corruption
and hegemony of the higher castes procreated from the constant
practice of caste related customs and beliefs.
The term ‘jati’ has been derived from the Sanskrit word ‘jata’,
which means ‘born into existence’. It was a subdivision of
communities in the Indian social order which was broadly divided
into four varnas. This meant that a jati is a sub-caste within the
varna system. The need for an authentic or specific identity brought
about the development of the Jati. It helped in identification of an
individual within a varna. It was used to reflect the trade or profession
of a particular community. For example, there are various kinds of
traders within the Vaishya caste. One of them is the jati named
Gandhi, who deals in perfumes. They have been named so because
Gandhi comes from the word ‘gandha’, which means smell. This
system of classification continued till the modern times. It is on the
decline now due to occupational mobility and various socio-political
and economic changes.
6.3.3 Meaning of Dominant caste
It was M. N.Srinivas who first defined the term ‘dominant

caste’. The term refers to the caste in a village which is numerically
strong and also wields the greatest economic and political power.
In simple terms, in order to be dominant in a region, a caste should
possess a sizeable amount of arable land, should be a majority in
number and occupy a higher place in the caste hierarchy. At present,
with the onset of modernization, new factors have contributed to
the dominance of a caste group, overshadowing the old ones. They
are- western education, jobs in administration or urban sources of
income and political involvement. Presence of these factors in a
caste group give them legal administrative, social and political

powers which will automatically raise their position in the locality
and make them dominant. By being dominant, a caste group
exercises control in all fields of social life. The members of the
dominant caste enjoy certain privileges too. Therefore, the lower
castes hold them in reverence and try to imitate their beliefs, customs
and way of life. In this way, the dominant castes play an important
role in cultural transmission and social mobility in an area.
6.3.4 Mobility in a Caste system
By definition, caste is a closed social group with a unique

culture of its own which follows a certain kind of code of conduct
and restrictions on food, marriage, social intercourse and occupation
to maintain its purity and to distinguish them from the other castes.
Caste system has been always known to be rigid and only those
members in the upper caste have been enjoying the privileges of
being in a higher status. However, from 21st century onwards, with
modernization, industrialization, urbanization, spread of education,
social movements and enactment of legislative measures, the caste
system could not remain as rigid as before. A process of social
mobility has been witnessed. Mobility in caste system is generally a
vertical movement either upwards or downwards. M. N. Srinivas
had explained the process of mobility in the system through the
concept of ‘sanskritisation’ and ‘westernisation’. He was of the view
that a low caste could raise, in a generation or two, to a higher
hierarchical position by imitating the rituals, customs, beliefs etc. of
the upper castes and giving up their own. This process was termed
by Srinivas as Sanskritisation. Lynch and Barnett termed this
process as ‘elite emulation’ and ‘kingly model’ of emulation
respectively. Srinivas however states that the untouchables cannot
emulate themselves above the Shudras.
Sanskritisation is a two-way process in the sense that a caste
not only takes from the upper caste but in turn also gives something
to it. A mere adoption of Brahmanic customs, beliefs and change in
occupation does not necessarily lead to mobility. The process

involves certain factors such as awareness of industrialization,
science and technology, spread of education, giving up of evil
customs and social practices and so on.
Along with sanskritisation, the process of westernization has
also led to mobility. According to this process, a higher caste imitates
or adopts the ideology, values, institutions and lifestyle of the western
society. Srinivas introduced the term westernization to explain the
changes that have taken place in Indian society and culture due to
the western influence since British rule. Therefore, in simple terms,
westernization primarily meant British impact. It has accelerated
the process of sanskritisation. With the increase in westernization
of the Brahmins, the number of lower castes getting sanskritised is
also increasing. This means that while the lower castes are taking
up Brahmanical customs and traditions, the Brahmins themselves
are discarding them. However, it should be noted that while
sanskritisation implies mobility within the framework of caste,
westernization implies the same outside.
6.3.5 Jajmani System
The term Jajmani comes from the Sanskrit word ‘yajman’

which means the patron who holds the yajna or yagya or fire of
worship i.e the Brahmin. The Jajmani system is a system of traditional
occupational obligations present in rural India. it is essentially based
on the caste system. According to the system, the lower castes
had to provide services and products to the higher castes. In return,
the lower castes were either paid in cash or in kind such as grains,
fodder, clothes, milk, butter and other animal products. The castes
who were served are called jajmans. They were mainly the food
producing families who owned large plots of land. The servicing
castes are called kamins. In some parts of the country, they are
also called Parjan, Pardhan, Balutedar, etc. Nais (Barbers), Kumhars
(potters), Lohars (blacksmiths), Dhobis (washermen), etc. were
some of the kamins. The jajmani system can be defined as a jajman-

praja relation, which has rendered the Indian village as a self-sufficient
community.
6.3.6 Constitutional Provisions
The existence of caste system in India has led to a large scale

discrimination of the lower castes, i.e the Shudras and the
Untouchables. They were denied all kinds of rights. Therefore the
drafting members of the Indian Constitution sought to protect and
uplift the weaker section of the society by providing them certain
privileges. On a political basis, the lower caste groups are usually
termed as Scheduled Castes or Backward classes. The Constitution
has not exactly defined the term Backward classes, but it is
understood that whoever is inadequately represented in the state
can be called Backward class.
Ø According to Article 15 (4), nothing shall prevent the state from
making any provisions for the advancement of any socially and
economically backward classes of citizens or for SCs and STs.
Ø Art. 15 (5): This clause allows the state to make provisions for
backward classes or SCs and STs for admissions in private
educational institutions, aided or unaided.
Ø Art. 16 (4): this clause allows the state to reserve vacancies in
public service for any backward classes of the state that are not
adequately represented in the public services.
Ø Art. 14 (4A): This allows the state to implement reservation in
the matter of promotion for SCs and STs.
Ø Art. 16 (4B): This allows the state to consider unfilled vacancies
reserved for backward classes as a separate class of vacancies
not subject to a limit of 50% reservation. ‘
Ø Art. 17: This clause abolishes untouchability and its practice in
any form.
Ø Art. 19 (5): It allows the state to impose restriction on the
freedom of movement or of residence in the benefit of STs.
Ø Art. 40: This provides reservation in 1/3 seats in Panchayat to

SC/ST.
Ø Art. 330/332: This allows reservation of seats for SC/ST in the
parliament as well as in state legislatures.
Ø Art. 335: This clause allows relaxation in qualifying marks for
admission in educational institutions or promotion of SCs/STs.
Ø Art. 338/338A: This establishes a National Commission of SCs
and STs.
Ø Art. 339: This allows the central govt. to direct states to
implement and execute plans for betterment of SCs/STs.
Ø Art. 340: This allows the President to appoint a commission to
investigate the condition of socially and economically backward
classes and table the report in the parliament.
6.4.1 Conclusion
The prevalence of the caste system can be seen to be

thriving even today, in fact in a much more complex form. Though
modernism brought a lot of changes in the society, instead of erasing
its existence or its ill effects, it has intensified further. The use of
caste in various social activities has only contributed to violence,
cruelty and inequality among the people. There are numerous
examples of inter-caste honor killings every day. Some societies
still hold on to the rigid codes and customs of caste. Even today,
the Dalits are avoided and discriminated against from various civil
and social privileges. Moreover, the existence of the caste system
has given large scope for new instruments of corruption. Various
political parties use caste to generate vote banks by favoring certain
communities more than the others. All these prove the irrelevance
of the caste system. However, it still strives in the country for all the
wrong reasons. The only solution to eliminate the ill effects of the
caste system, that have been afflicting the society since time
immemorial, is by changing the mindset of the people and making it
free from all the prejudices notions about divisions among people.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: Who first coined the term “dominant caste”?

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: What do you understand by the term “dominant caste’?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: Into how many Varnas are the Hindus divided? What are they?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: Under the Jajmani system, who are the Jajmans and who are
the Kamins?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: Who first came up with the concepts of “Sanskritization” and
“Westernization”?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
6.5 LET US SUM UP
l Caste is a social structure in which classes are determined by

heredity.
l M. N. Srinivas: “Caste is a hereditary, endogamous, usually localized
group, having a traditional association with an occupation and a
particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. Relations between
castes are governed, among other things, by the concepts of
pollution and purity and generally, maximum commensality occurs
within the caste.”
l The characteristics of the caste system are: segmental division of

society, hierarchical division of society, restrictions on social
intercourse and food habits, civil and political disabilities and
privileges, etc.
l Varna is theoretical classification based on the division of labor and
Jati is the sub-castes or the sub division of communities in the Indian
social order.
l In order to be dominant in a region, a caste should possess a sizeable
amount of arable land, a majority in number and occupy a high place
in the caste hierarchy. At present, with the onset of modernization,
new factors have contributed in the dominance of a caste group,
overshadowing the old ones. They are- western education, jobs in
administration or urban sources of income and political involvement.
l When a low caste raises, in a generation or two, to a higher
hierarchical position by imitating the rituals, customs, beliefs etc. of
the upper castes and giving up their own, the process is termed as
Sanskritisation.
l When a higher caste imitates or adopts the ideology, values,
institutions and lifestyle of the western society, it is termed as
Westernization.
6.6 FURTHER READING
1) Rao, C. N. Shankar.Sociology of Indian Society. S. Chand Publishing,

2004, Print.
2) Rao, C. N. Shankar.Principles of Sociology. S. Chand Publishing, 2007,
Print.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: M. N. Srinivas
Ans to Q No 2: The term “dominant caste” refers to the caste in a village

which is numerically strong and also wields the greatest economic
and political power.
Ans to Q No 3: The caste system divides the Hindus into four Varnas.
They are: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Ans to Q No 4: The castes that were provided with services were called
the Jajmans. They usually were the Brahmins. The service providers
were known as the kamins. They were usually the Dhobis, Kamars,
Lohars and so on.
Ans to Q No 5: M.N. Srinivas
6.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: Explain the Concept of Varna.
Q2: What is meant by Dominant Caste?
B) Long Question (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q1: Write a note on the characteristics of the caste system. Give a
humanistic approach on the discrimination of the untouchables from
the right to a decent life.
Q2: Write down the provisions laid out by the Constitution in the name of
the welfare of the weaker sections of the society, particularly Dalits.
With respect to the present scenario, give your opinions as to how
those provisions worked, if at all it did.
Q3: Give a detailed discussion on the process of mobility involved in the
caste system.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 7 CLASS IN INDIA
UNIT STRUCTURE

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Concept of Social Class: An overview
7.3.1 Definition and Meaning
7.3.2 Characteristics of class
7.3.3 Factors or Conditions for Determination of Class
7.3.4 Classification of Social Class
7.4 Comparison between Caste and Class
7.5 Class in India: An overview
7.5.1 Agrarian classes
7.5.2 Non-agrarian classes
7.6 Emergence of the Middle Class in India
7.7. Dominant caste
7.8 Let Us Sum Up
7.9 Further Reading
7.11 Model Questions
After going through this Unit, you will be able to –

l define class and identify its characteristics
l understand the factors that determine class
l delineate the agrarian class from the non-agrarian class in India
l explain the emergence of the middle class in India and its spread in
the society
l elucidate the nature of dominant caste and its relation with class
characteristics
Class in India Unit 7
7.2 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6, we have discussed about a type of stratification called

caste system, which is the characteristic feature of Indian society. In this
Unit, we will begin with the concept of another form of social stratification
called class. In reality, class and caste are the two broad categories of
social stratification found in human societies. In so-called non-stratified
societies or acephalous societies, there is no concept of social class, power,
or hierarchy, beyond temporary or limited social statuses. In such societies,
every individual has a roughly equal social standing in most situations.
Each and every society can be divided into different types of groups
and categories, based on age, sex, kinship, race, territorial proximity and
such other criteria. This arrangement is called social differentiation. It
separates people into distinctive categories or groups on the basis of similar
and dissimilar characteristics. In simple societies, these different groups
are considered as more or less equal to each other. But as societies became
more complex, people tend to arrange these different groups and individuals
into various layers having high and low status or positions. This is social
stratification.
The word stratification has originally been derived from geology, which
studies different layers or strata of the earth. Social stratification stands for
the placement of individuals and groups in strata, in a ranked order/ hierarchy.
The basis of such hierarchy is social differences in income, occupation,
status, and kinship, among others. In different societies, the emphasis is
on different bases.
7.3 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CLASS: AN OVERVIEW
Class and caste are the two main types of social stratification. We
have already studied about caste. Here we will deal with Class in some
details.
Unit 7 Class in India
7.3.1 DEFINITION AND MEANING
The word class is used in different situations in different ways. In

sociology, however, the word social class has its special meaning.
Definitions of social class: Let us now consider a few definitions of
social class given by different scholars.
Ø Ogburn and Nimkoff : A social class is the aggregate of persons
having the same social status in a given society.
Ø MacIver and Page : A social class is any portion of the community
marked off from the rest by social status.
Ø Max Weber : Social classes are aggregates of human beings
“who have the same opportunity of acquiring goods, the same
exhibited standard of living”.
Ø For Marx, class involves two criteria: The members share a set
of long-term economic interests, especially ownership or non-
ownership of the means of production. The members must have
some perception of their similarity and common interest. Marx
termed this Class consciousness. A class’s consciousness is
not, in general, objectively accurate, but Marx considered it an
important determinant of the class’s actions.
Ø Anthony Giddens: Class can be defined as “a large large-scale
grouping of people who share common economic resources,
which strongly influence their life style they are able to lead.”
It is clear that social class is a segment of society with all the
members of all ages and both the sexes who share the same general
status. MacIver says, “whenever social intercourse is limited by the
consideration of social status by distinctions between higher and
lower, there exists social class.”
7.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS
Ø Class is based on status. It is basically a status group. Different

statuses arise in society because people are engaged in different
activities and vocations. When we consider class as a status
group, it becomes easy to be applied to any society having social

stratification.
Ø It is based mainly on achieved status. In case of class system,
status is achieved status and not ascribed status. In this case,
status is not fixed at birth. There is scope for an individual to
improve one’s class position in society through one’s
performance.
Ø Income, occupation, wealth, education, “life-style” are some
of the factors that determine class.
Ø Class is found in most of the human societies. It is a
phenomenon that is absent only in the smallest and simplest
societies. At the present times, all societies have some or the
other form of social class.
Ø Modes of feelings: In a class system three modes or types of
feelings may be observed. These are as follows:
¦ There is a feeling of equality in relation to the members of
one’s own class.
¦ There is feeling of inferiority in relation to those who occupy
the higher status in the socio-economic hierarchy,
¦ There is a feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy
the lower status in the hierarchy. Such kinds of feelings lead
to class consciousness and finally results in class solidarity.
Ø Class system is hierarchical in nature. Classes are arranged
in the order of high and low.
Ø Prestige elements: We have seen that each class has its own
status in society, and status is generally associated with prestige.
In the society, the relative position of a class arises from the
degree of prestige attached to status. In this way, the status or
the prestige enjoyed by the ruling or the wealthy classes is
superior to those of the common or poor people. This is true for
all societies. Now let us know how prestige is determined.
Prestige is measured by our evaluations on the basis of
knowledge, race or descent, religion, wealth, heroism, bravery
and such other qualities. Those qualities which are considered
desirable by the society have a high degree of prestige. The

more are the desirables, the higher is the prestige. It must be
remembered that these qualities vary from society to society
and from time to time.
Ø Stability: A social group is more or less a stable group. Unlike a
crowd or a mob it is not transitory and unstable. Status, in a
class system may change from time to time, yet it is relatively
quite stable over the time.
Ø Life style or mode of living: A social class is distinguished
from others by its culture or customary modes of behaviour.
This is referred to as life style of a particular class. Now what
constitutes a person’s life style? One’s life style include such
matters as the mode of dress, the type of house and
neighbourhood, means of recreation, books, magazines and TV
programme to which one is exposed, one’s friends, mode of
traveling, and communication, and ways of spending money,
and so on. Special preferences, tastes and values of a class
are reflected in their life style. Each class has a sub-culture.
Ø Social classes are open group: Social classes represent an
open social system. Vertical social mobility is possible in case
of open class system. As class status is achieved, there are
very little or no restriction on the part of an individual to move
upward in the class hierarchy through one’s own effort.
Ø Social classes are based mainly on economic criteria. But the
importance of other factors should not be ignored. There are
two types of criteria: Subjective criteria and Objective criteria.
Subjective criteria include class consciousness, class solidarity
and class identification, while objective criteria include such
elements as wealth, property, income, education, occupation
Ø Class Consciousness: As we have just noted, class
consciousness is associated with class system. Class
consciousness implies the sentiment of togetherness that
characterizes the relations of men towards the members of their
own and other classes.
LET US KNOW
Lloyd Warner shows how class distinctions contribute

to social stability. Veblen analyzed the consumption
pattern of the rich class by the concept of conspicuous
consumption.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: Answer the following:

a) Define class.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
b) What is class consciousness?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Q2: Choose the correct option:
c) Class is based on ascribed/ achieved status.
d) A class is a close/ open group.
e) The class system is egalitarian/ hierarchical.
7.3.3 FACTORS OR CONDITIONS FOR CLASS

DETERMINATION
In this section let us discuss the factors of class determination. We

have already seen that social classes are determined either on
subjective or objective criterion, or both.
Ø Subjective criteria include class conscious, class solidarity
and class identification. Such subjective criteria are basically
psychological. The members who have common interests and
attributes have a sense of in-group solidarity. They feel that
their socio-economic opportunities are almost equal.
Warner and Lunt have made a study on the American class system
and have observed that subjective elements are quite important
factors for class determination According to them, such important

subjective elements include:
¦ belonging to the right family
¦ doing the right things
¦ knowing how to act properly
¦ associating with the right people
¦ living in the right section of the town
¦ one’s beliefs and feelings concerning certain things
All these have their impact on the status of individuals according to
which their class is determined. They also observed that mere
possession of wealth by itself is not a sufficient qualification for being
admitted to the upper class.
Ø Objective criteria : Objective criteria include the following:
¦ wealth, property or income
¦ family or kinship
¦ location of residence
¦ occupation
¦ level of education
¦ physical features such as skin colour, height, etc.
Many sociologists put more emphasis on the objective criteria, as
these could be clearly observed and recorded. Karl Marx has placed
premium on the objective characters, particularly the economic
ones.
Thus, in societies where classes exist, one’s class is
determined largely by the objective criteria of personal or household
per capita income or wealth / net worth, including the ownership of
land, property, means of production, etc. occupation, education and
qualifications, and family background .
Those who can attain a position of power in a society will often
adopt distinctive lifestyles to emphasize their prestige and to
further rank themselves within the powerful class. Often the adoption
of these stylistic traits (which are often referred to as cultural capital)
is as important as one’s wealth in determining class status, at least

at the higher levels:
¦ costume and grooming
¦ manners and cultural refinement. For example, Bourdieu
suggests a notion of high and low classes with a distinction
between bourgeois tastes and sensitivities and the working class
tastes and sensitivities.
¦ political standing vis-à-vis the church, government, and/or social
clubs, as well as the use of honorary titles
¦ reputation of honor or disgrace
¦ language, the distinction between elaborate code, which is seen
as a criterion for “upper-class”, and the restricted code, which
is associated with “lower classes” .
These are reflective of the class status of individuals. When we
come across someone, we subconsciously tend to identify the class
status of a person. We may not immediately be able to figure out
the occupation and wealth, the educational attainments, income
level, etc. of the person. Still, we can assume the class status by
taking recourse to the easily visible criteria, as the dress, manners,
style of speech, use of transport, etc., which immediately enables
us to have an idea of the person’s class status.
LET US KNOW
Elaborate code is the type of language usage which is

complete and full of detail, such that even an outsider
of the group can understand it. Restricted code is shortened,
and condensed and require prior information to understand the
meanings. Basil Bernstein, a sociolinguist from Britain,
introduced the above mentioned typology of language codes.
Based on his research, he concluded that the upper class use
elaborate codes, while the working class uses the restricted
code. The middle class uses both the codes.
As the working class has confined, close-knit communities, with

low social mobility, the members share common experiences.
As such, due to shared understanding, the assumptions become
understandable to the members of the group (restricted code).
On the other hand, the middle class has higher social mobility,
diversity of experiences and much more individualistic. As such,
assumptions do not become understandable to all. These need
to be specified and elaborated upon (elaborate code).
7.3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL CLASS
Different scholars have tried to classify social classes in

different ways. Sociologists have given a three-fold classification of
classes which consists of - upper class, middle class and lower
class.
Ø Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class stratification -
they are economic, political and occupational classes.
Ø Warner has classified classes into six types- upper-upper class,
upper-middle class, upper-lower class, lower-upper class, the
lower middle class and lower class.
Ø Anthony Giddens’s three class model is the upper, middle and
lower (working) class. Thus, we may say that most sociologists
have used a three fold classification with sub classes under
each class.
Ø Karl Marx, however spoke only about two major social classes -
the haves and the have-nots or the rich and the poor, or the
capitalist and the workers, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
7.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN CASTE AND CLASS
Caste and class are the two main forms of social stratification. Let
us now discuss the points where they differ.
l Caste system with all its peculiarities is unique to India. It is not
universal.
On the other hand Class system is universal. It is found almost

in all societies of the world.
l Caste status of an individual is ascribed at birth. Birth, not
achievement is the criterion of caste. Status can neither be
changed nor be improved.
However, in case of class system, status is achieved by the
individuals. There is scope for achieving higher status. Hence,
in class system, status can be changed or improved.
l It must be remembered that caste is a closed system; it restricts
social mobility (movement) from one social status to the other.
By contrast, class is an open system. It provides opportunity to
improve one’s social status (which is called mobility) Individual
can, move from lower to a higher class by dint of their
achievement.
l Caste system is not secular like the class system. It is believed
that caste system had a divine origin. It is closely linked up with
Hinduism, although caste is found among some other religious
groups.
On the other hand class system is secular. It has no significant
connection with any religion.
l The concept of purity and impurity (pollution) is ingrained in the
caste system. Some castes are pure or clean while some other
castes are unclean, impure or even untouchables.
In case of class system, although there is a feeling of disparity
between different classes, the question of purity and pollution
does not arise. Hence, there is no untouchable group in class
system.
l Caste system regulates the activities and relations of its
members to a great extent. It fixes the role of a man in society.
The class system on the other hand limits the range of contact
and communications of its members. Individuals are freer in a
class. It also regulates the daily activities of its members.
l Comparatively greater social distance is kept between different

caste groups, while there is less social distance between different
classes. Members of a class are more tolerant than others.
l Caste system tends to become more conservative, orthodox,
and reactionary. On the other hand, social classes are more
tolerant and progressive than the caste system. It allows its
members to achieve higher status or great mobility.
l Caste is an endogamous group. As we all know, it means caste
members have to choose their marriage partners from within
the group.
It is not the case with class system. Classes are not
endogamous.
l Caste system is a complex system. The fact that more than
2800 castes and sub castes are found in India shows how
complex it is.
On the other hand class is its simplicity. Broadly speaking, there
are only three classes namely, the upper, middle and the lower
class. Therefore the class system is not as complex as that of
castes.
l In a democratic country like India caste consciousness is more
dangerous than class consciousness. Casteism has been a
great hindrance to national integration.
On the other hand class system never restricts the spirit of
democracy.
In the Indian society, both castes and class exists side by side. At
times, they also overlap.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
a) Is class solidarity an objective criterion? ……..............……

b) Mention two objective criteria of class. ……………………….
Q4: State whether the following is true or false:

c) A caste is an open system…………………………
d) Class system does not allow mobility from one class to
another…………………
e) Class is a secular structure………………….
7.5 CLASS IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW
Villages in India has nearly 74 percent of the Indian population. The

nature of social stratification in Indian villages reveals the manner in which
the caste and class affiliations tend to overlap. Let us now discuss the
nature of this overlapping.
l Generally, we find that the members of the higher castes tend to
belong to the propertied class wielding power. This has been amply
pointed out by the anthropologist Miriam Sharma. According to her,
“Large landholders who employ hired labour are overwhelmingly from
the upper castes, while the agricultural workers themselves come
from the ranks of the lowest—predominantly untouchable—castes.”
l She also points out that household-labor-using proprietors come
from the ranks of the middle agricultural castes.
l Distribution of other resources and access to political control follow
the same pattern of caste-cum-class distinctions.
l In an analysis of class formation in India, anthropologist Harold A.
Gould points out that a three-level system of stratification is taking
shape across rural India. He calls the three levels as:
o Forward Classes (higher castes),
o Backward Classes (middle and lower castes), and
o Harijans (very low castes)
Members of these groups stand in approximately the same
relationship to land and production—that is, they are large-scale
farmers, small-scale farmers, and landless laborers respectively.
l As the caste groups share common economic concerns, they
develop a consciousness of belonging to a similar socio-economic-
political standing. These caste groups may have different ritual

positions, but they cooperate to further their common class interests.
The spectrum of the higher castes is broad enough. Different castes
have different relative ritual ranking, but they all belong to the higher
strata of the caste hierarchy. Some of these different caste groups
are drawing together, within regions, across caste lines in order to
work for political power and access to desirable resources. For
example, since the late 1960s, some of the middle-ranking cultivating
castes of northern India have increasingly cooperated in the political
arena in order to advance their common agrarian and market-
oriented interests. Their efforts have been spurred (driven) by
competition with higher-caste landed elites. This shows that common
economic concerns have brought different caste groups under a
common class banner.
l However, as class is based on economic forces and power
equations rather than the ritual positions. Therefore, there is a
tendency for class formation to occur independent of caste,
especially in the cities. With marketable economy and the spread of
modern means of production, modern class system has become a
social reality even in rural India.
In cities, other groups having vested interests crosscut caste
boundaries, suggesting the possibility of forming classes in the future. These
groups include prosperous industrialists and entrepreneurs, who have made
successful efforts to push the central government toward, a pro-business
stance; bureaucrats, who depend upon higher education rather than land
to preserve their positions as civil servants; political officeholders, who enjoy
good salaries and requisites of all kinds; and the military, who constitute
one of the most powerful armed forces in the developing world
Economically far below such groups are members of the menial
underclass, which is taking shape in both villages and urban areas. As the
privileged elites move ahead, low-ranking menial workers remain
economically insecure. Were they to join together to mobilize politically
across lines of class and religion in recognition of their common interests,
Gould observes, they might find power in their sheer numbers.
7.5.1 AGRARIAN CLASSES
The term Agrarian class structure refers to the type of class structure
that prevails in an agricultural society or set up. Scholars have stated
that the agrarian classes did exist in pre-independent India. The
agrarian social structure consists of agrarian classes which
represent different social groups in rural India. An analysis of the
post independent rural set up reveals the existence of four classes.
They are:
o land owners
o tenants
o labourers
o non-agriculturists
According to A.R.Desai, land owners constitute about 22%, tenants
about 27% agricultural labourers about 31% and non-agriculturists
about 20%in rural India.
Ø Daniel Thorner had classified rural classes into three
categories. These are:
¦ Maliks or land owners: The maliks are of two types; namely
the absentee landlords and the rich resident landlord. Absentee
land lords do not stay in the village, but in a far away town or city.
They get the cultivation through the managers or supervisors.
These land lords who have their rights over lands spread over
several villages. The Rich Resident land owners reside in the
village in which they own land. These people also do not work in
the land personally, but get the work done by others.
¦ Kissans or working peasants Kissans or working peasants
occupy the intermediate position in the three tier agrarian class
structure. This class consists of small land owners. They own
land which is considerably smaller in size than that of the maliks.
Unlike the maliks, the kissan and his family members actually
take part in the cultivation work in the field. They very rarely use
outside labourers as their income level is quite low.

¦ Majdoors: The Majdoors or the labourer constitutes the major

component of agrarian class system in India today. The term
‘majdoor’ refers, in the rural context, to the landless villagers
who work as labourer on wage basis. The class of majdoor may
consist of poor tenants, share croppers, and landless labourers.
The landless labourers receive wages in cash and sometimes
in kind also. When they fail to get work they have to migrate to
other villages or districts or towns and cities in search of
livelihood. Sometimes they become construction or industrial
workers. Some of them even turn out to be petty traders in the
informal sector. In this way they come outside the agrarian class
structure. They become integrated into the non-agrarian class
stratification.
LET US KNOW
Sharecropping is a system of agriculture or agricultural

production in which a landowner allows a tenant to
use the land in return for a share of the crop produced
on the land (e.g., 50 percent of the crop).
7.5.2 NON- AGRARIAN CLASSES
As the term suggests, this class structure is based in a non-agrarian

system of production. Manufacturing and service sector related
economic activities create a social structure that is different from
that of an agrarian structure. Accordingly, the class system also
differs.
The non-agrarian class system is characteristically a feature of the
urban society. But, with non-agrarian productive system coming up
in the rural areas, non-agrarian classes have emerged in the rural
areas as well.
As we have already discussed, class structure has three basic
classes: the upper/higher, middle and the lower.

¦ In India, the members of the non agrarian upper class,

constituting around 1 percent of the population include the
industrialists, former maharajas, and top executives. They are
the owners of large properties, members of exclusive clubs,
and vacationers in foreign lands. Their counterpart in the agrarian
structure is the rich landlord class.
¦ Below the upper class is the middle class. The middle class is
bracketed on either side by the upper and lower echelons. They
constitute around a third of the population. They are the trades
people, artisans, workers, and includes a wide variety of
professional people in the non agrarian structure. In the agrarian
structure, the middle class is represented by the peasants.
¦ At the bottom of the economic scale are the poor, who comprise
the lower class, estimated at 320 million, some 45 percent of
the population in 1988, who live in inadequate homes without
adequate food, work for pittances, have undereducated and often
sickly children, and are the victims of numerous social inequities.
The agricultural labourers constitute the agrarian counterpart of
the lower class.
7.6 EMERGENCE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS IN INDIA
In about the 1770s, when the term “social class” first entered the
English lexicon/vocabulary, the concept of a “middle class” within that
structure was also becoming important. The Industrial Revolution was
allowing a much greater portion of the population to have time for the kind of
education and cultural pursuits once restricted to the upper class sections
of the European feudal division which comprised of aristocracy, bourgeoisie,
and peasantry (which in that period would have included what later became
the industrial proletarians of the towns and cities).
l FEATURES
India’s rapidly expanding economy has provided the basis for a
fundamental change, and that is the emergence of a new class. This new
class is increasingly dictating India’s political and economic direction. This
group is India’s new middle class—mobile, driven, consumer-oriented, and,

to some extent, forward-looking. It is hard to define the Indian middle class
precisely. It is not a single stratum of society. But it spreads across towns
and countryside, making its presence felt everywhere. It encompasses
prosperous farmers, white-collar workers, business people, military
personnel, and a lot of others, all actively working toward a prosperous life.
Ownership of cars, televisions, and other consumer goods, reasonable
earnings, substantial savings, and educated children (often fluent in English)
typify this diverse group. Many have ties to kinsmen living abroad who have
done very well.
l GROWTH
There is no single set of criteria defining the middle class, and
estimates of its numbers vary widely. However, it may be stated that the
new middle class is booming, at least partially, in response to a doubling of
the salaries of some 4 million central government employees in 1986,
followed by similar increases for state and district officers. Unprecedented
liberalization and opening up of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s have
been responsible for the growth of part of the picture.
The middle class appears to be increasing rapidly. It has spread
across different religious and ethno-linguistic groups. Once, it was
constituted by primarily urban Hindu and aristocratic families. At present,
the phenomenon of the consuming middle class is burgeoning among
Muslims and prosperous villagers as well. According to V.A. Pai Panandikar,
director of the Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, cited by Dubey, by
the end of the twentieth century, 30 percent—some 300 million—of India’s
population will be middle class.
LET US KNOW
In August 1990, Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap

(V.P.) Singh announced his intention to enforce the
recommendations of the Backward Classes Commission issued

in December 1980 and largely ignored for a decade. The report,

which urged special advantages for obtaining civil service positions
and admission to higher education for the Backward Classes,
resulted in riots and self-immolations and contributed to the fall of
the prime minister.
7.7 DOMINANT CASTE
The concept of dominant caste presents the interplay of economic,

political and other social factors in determining the dominance of a caste
group in an area. In this, we see the interplay of caste and class. The
dominant caste, like any other caste has a ritual hierarchical position in the
caste structure. But, its dominance in an area over other castes is influenced
by factors that determine class status.
This concept given by M.N Srinivas holds that a caste is dominant
when it is numerically higher than the other castes. In the Mysore village he
described that the peasant Okkalinga composed of nearly half of the
population made up of nineteen jati group. The Okkalinga were the biggest
land owner. Besides numerical strength, there are some other criteria of
domination as well. The chief criteria of a caste being dominant are:
l Economic strength
l Political power
l Ritual purity
l Numerical strength
The dominant caste also wields economic and political power over
the other caste groups. Numerical strength becomes the basis of power in
the region. The dominant caste may not be ritually high, but enjoy high
status because of wealth, political power and numerical strength. The
presence of educated persons and high occupation rate also play an
important role in deciding its dominance over other caste groupings.
Sometimes, a single clan of dominant caste controls a number of villages
in an area. The dominant caste settles dispute between persons belonging
to their own and other jati/caste groups. The power of the dominant caste

is supported by a norm discouraging village from seeking justice from area,

government official, court or police located outside the village. The members
of the dominant caste, particularly those from the wealthy and powerful
families, are representatives of their village in dealing with the officials.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q5: Fill in the blanks :

According to Daniel Thorner:
a) The absentee landlords and the rich resident landlords
belong to the class of …………………………………………
b) The small landowners belong to the class of
……………………. or ………………………………………
c) Poor tenants, share croppers, and landless labourers belong
to the class called ……………………………………….
d) The dominant caste always has a high ritual status in the
caste hierarchy. Is this statement True or False?
………………………….
7.8 LET US SUM UP
l In the non stratified societies, there is hardly any concept of social

class. Social hierarchy is limited, and is usually based on ascribed
qualities.
l In complex societies, where the distribution of power, property and
prestige is unequal, class structure becomes an evident aspect of
social structure.
l One’s position in a class is dependent on achieved qualities like as
education, income, vocation, wealth and property, power, and family
standing and influence. The latter determines one’s access to power
in the society. These aspects shape the lifestyle of the members of
the class.
l Each class has a relative position of superiority and inferiority in relation

to other classes. The more of the desirable qualities that a class
possesses, the higher is its position over the classes which possess
less of the social desirables.
l The members of the same class have an equal position in reference
to the class and they share a class consciousness.
l In India, we have both agrarian and non agrarian class.
l In India, class and caste overlap and interplay.
l A caste which is economically rich and wiled power on account of its
wealth, influence or numerical strength becomes the dominant caste
in their area.
7.9 FURTHER READING
1) N. Jayapalan : Indian Society and Social Institutions (Volume I), Atlantic,

New Delhi
2) K.L.Sarma: Social Stratification in India, Sage, Delhi.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No1: a) A class is a large large-scale grouping of people who

share common economic resources, which strongly
influence their life style they are able to lead.
b) It implies the sentiment of togetherness that characterizes
the relations of men towards the members of their own and
other classes.
Ans to Q No 2: a) Achieved b) open c) hierarchical
Ans to Q No 3: a) No b) wealth and income
Ans to Q No 4: a) False d) False
e) True

Ans to Q No 5: a) Malik b) kissan, peasant c) Majdoors

Ans to Q No 6: a) False
7.11 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: Define and discuss the meaning of class.
Q2: Who are the Kisans?
B) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q1: Discuss the characteristics of class. Classify social class.
Q2: What are the factors of class determination?
Q3: What are the distinctions between class and caste?
Q4: Elucidate the class structure of Indian society.
Q5: Explain how caste and class affiliations overlap.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 8: TRIBE
UNIT STRUCTURE

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Tribe: Meaning, definition and characteristics
8.3.1 Tribe-Caste Interaction
8.3.2 Regional variation in tribe-caste interaction
8.4 Conclusion
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.6 Further Reading
8.8 Model Questions

l understanding the meaning of ‘tribe’ and its characteristics.
l explain the interaction between tribe and castes and how their
interaction varies from region to region.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
India is the homestead of a numerous indigenous tribes. Most of

these tribes are socially and economically backward. Though some of them
have been influenced by urbanization, spread of education and other effects
of modernization, most of them still have a primitive way of living and earning
for their daily subsistence like hunting, food gathering, fishing etc. Tribal
communities are at different levels of social, economic and educational
development. While some tribals communities have adopted the mainstream
way of life. At the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled
Tribes who are still characterized by pre-agricultural level of technology,
stagnant or declining population, extremely low literacy and subsistence

Unit 8 Tribe
level of economy. Therefore theyare considered to be the poorest section

of the society. Some of the tribal communities of India are Bhils, Khasis,
Gonds, Ao, Angami, Apatani, Adivasis, etc. In this unit we shall learn about
the meaning and definition of tribe, tribe-caste interaction and also about
the constitutional provisions for the Scheduled Tribes of India.
8.3 TRIBE
l Meaning
The tribals, who are said to be the original inhabitants of India, are
spread over the length and breadth of the country. India constitutes the
second largest population of tribals next to Africa. Many of them still continue
with a primitive stage of living and are far from the effects of modern
civilization. The tribals are an important social group of the country and
they are recognized by the term, given by the constitution, ‘Scheduled Tribes’.
This term was introduced in the Constitution by the chairman of the drafting
committee of the Indian Constituiton, i.e. B.R. Ambedkar. He preferred the
term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ rather than the other terms such as ‘primitives’,
‘adivasis’, ‘vanavasis’, etc. which are used to refer to the tribals. Article 366
(25) of the constitution defines scheduled tribes as “such tribes or tribal
communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for
the purposes of the Constitution”. The Scheduled Tribes come under the
backwards classes. Therefore the constitution has provided them with certain
provisions for the welfare of their community. It has also provided them with
certain rights in order to protect their tribal culture and also themselves
from any kind of discrimination based on their race, color or socio-economic
status. Tribals in India originally come from two racial groups- the Dravidians
and the Mongoloids.
The Scheduled Tribes are notified in 30 States/Union Territories and
the number of individual ethnic groups notified as Scheduled Tribes constitute
around 705 in number. According to the 2001 census, the tribals constituted
10.43 crore, which accounts to 8.6% of the total population of the country.
Out of the total tribal population, 89.9% live in rural areas and the rest 10.3%
in urban areas. From 2001 census to 2011, the decadal population growth
Tribe Unit 8
of the tribals has been 23.66% against 17.69% of the entire population.
Moreover the sex ratio of the STs is 990 females per thousand males against
940 females per thousand males of the over population. The Scheduled
Tribes broadly inhabit two distinct geographical areas of India, vis a vis, the
Central India and the North-eastern India. More than half of the Scheduled
Tribe population is concentrated in Central India. Madhya Pradesh
constitutes 14. 69%, Chhattisgarh 7.5%, Jharkhand 8.29%, Andhra Pradesh
5.7%,Maharastra 10.08%, Orissa 9.2%, Gujarat 8.55% and Rajasthan
8.86%. The other distinct tribal belt is the North-eastern part of India which
constitutes the states of Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh. The region has 27% indigenous (ST) people in its
population. The literacy rate in different states is variable. Of all the states,
Mizoram has the highest literacy rate with 93% of its total population being
enumerated as literate.
l Definitions
The term ‘tribe’ has variable definitions. No proper definition has
been found in the constitution for the term ‘tribe’. In general sense too,
different sections of people have different views regarding the meaning of
the term. For a lay man, the term ‘tribe’ denotes the simple folk living in the
hills amidst forest and far from the influence of modernization. To those
who are a little informed, the term brings to mind a colorful (with respect to
their attire) section of the society, who has a rich culture of their own with
folk dance and songs. Similarly, to an administrator, tribes signify a particular
section of the society who is given special rights for their protection against
discrimination and special provisions for the welfare of their communities.
And to an anthropologist, tribes become a field of study of a social
phenomenon. All these definitions and assumptions are correct in their own
way but they do not provide for a single all-encompassing definition for the
term. In fact, these different assumptions have only led to the use injudicious
use of terms to refer to those communities. Verrier Elwin has been found to
have used the term ‘aboriginals’ in most of his research work on the tribes
of North-east India. A census officer, Sir Bians, called them the “hill tribes”.
G.S. Ghurye used the term ‘Backward Hindus’. The International Labor
Unit 8 Tribe
organization (ILO) used the term ‘indigenous people’ to refer to the tribal
communities. M. K. Gandhi used the term ‘girijans’ and the Constitution of
India has accepted the term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ to signify those communities
which are economically backward. Along with these terms, the tribal
communities are sometimes also known as Vanavasis, aranya vasis and
so on.
According to the Backward Classes Commission, “the Scheduled
Tribes lead a separate excluded existence and are not fully assimilated in
the main body of the people. Scheduled tribes may not belong to any religion.
They are listed as Scheduled Tribes because of the kind of life led by them”.
In this definition, the peculiarity of the tribal way of life is given more emphasis.
As already mentioned above, the Constitution of India has defined the
“Scheduled Tribes” in Art. 366 (25) but not the term ‘tribe’. Therefore in
order to understand the sociological meaning, definition and characteristics
of the term ‘tribe’, let us examine the attempts made by the various
anthropologists and sociologists.
D. N. Mazumdar defines a tribe as “a collection of families bearing a
common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak the
same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession
or occupation and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity
and mutuality of obligation.”
Imperial Gazetteer of India: A tribe is a collection of families bearing a
common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to
occupy a common territory, and is not usually endogamous, though originally
it might have been so.
S. C. Dube: A tribe is “an ethnic category, defined by real or putative descent
and characterized by a corporate identity, and a wide range of commonly
shared traits of culture.”
Gillin and Gillin: A tribe is a group of local communities, which lives in a
common area, speaks a common dialect and follows a common culture.”
W. J. Perry: A tribe can be defined as “a group speaking a common dialect
and inhabiting a common territory.”

Tribe Unit 8
Andre Beteille: “We have described the tribe as a society with a political,
linguistic and somewhat vaguely defined cultural boundary; further as a
society based upon kinship, where social stratification is absent.”
l Characteristics
A few of the characteristics of a tribe have already been pointed out
in the definitions mentioned above. Nevertheless let us elaborate on the
characteristics of the tribal community, including the tribals in India.
Ø Common territory: The tribal community is known to have a unique
feature of residing in a definite territory. The members of a particular
tribe settle down together in a common territory. In India, it is found
that the Ao, Angami, Rengma, Sema and other sub-groups of the
Naga tribe are seen to reside in the state of Nagaland. Similarly, the
Bhils are found in Madhya Pradesh, Garos and Khasis in Meghalaya,
Todas in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamilnadu, Adivasis in Jharkhand,
Chattisgarh, etc. The lack of a common but definite territory will
lead the tribal communities to lose other characteristics of a tribal
life, such as common language, community sentiment, etc.
Ø Common name: All tribes possess a common name by which they
are known to others. The name itself represents the distinct culture,
language or way of life of the particular tribe, which distinguishes
them from the others.
Ø Collection of families: As the Imperial Gazetteer of India describes,
a tribe is “a collection of families bearing a common name…” These
families usually have blood ties among themselves. They may have
various sizes and could be either patriarchal or matriarchal in nature.
Ø Common language:The tribal communities have a common
language of their own. The different tribal groups have different
languages. The presence of a common language develops the
community feeling among them. However, the absence of a script
of most of these languages has made the access of education quite
problematic for them. In many respects, the languages spoken by
most of the tribal communities are not even considered to be
languages. The speech used by them for communication is mostly
Unit 8 Tribe
referred to as dialects. There has been a long standing debate about

which of them are languages and which are dialects. And it is now
accepted by many that those that have been nationally recognized
(mentioned in the Constitution, in case of India), can be considered
as languages and the rest are dialects. In most cases it might not
be true because there may be a language which have not been
recognized nationally (therefore called a dialect) but is spoken by a
large chunk of the majority in a particular region.
Ø Common ancestor: The tribals, who are bound by kinship bonds,
claim that they have a common ancestor. The presence of a
common ancestor means that they are bound by blood ties and this
brings a feeling of unity among them.
Ø Common religion: With a common ancestor, the tribals usually
worship or muse on them before/on every auspicious occasion.
Along with it, nature also plays an important role in their lives,
therefore they worship nature too. Other such religions followed by
them are fetishism, animism and totemism. Based on the religion
they follow, the political and social organizations also function. The
participation in these religious proceedings brings the community
together. Now-a-days, there has been a widespread conversion of
the tribals to Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism and other religions
due to the proselytization.
Ø Prevalence of dormitories: Dormitories or common sleeping
chambers are an important aspect of the tribal way of life. The young
girls and boys of a community maintain a dormitory where they
engage in various activities like folk dance, songs, paintings and so
on. They attempt to preserve these and also their legends and seek
to educate the others on this regard. They maintain a kind of secrecy
about their matters and these members reside together in one
dormitory until they get married. They are expected to strictly follow
the rules and regulations of the dormitory.
Ø Organization of clans: A clan is a kin-group which includes all
relatives, fathers or mothers and children of the same ancestor.
Tribe Unit 8
They are considered to be bound by blood relationship, therefore

they can trace their origin to one ancestor. The descendants of a
clan can be either matrilineal or patrilineal. There exists mutual
helpfulness among these clans. Thus, it becomes an important part
of a tribal organization.
Ø Simple and self-sufficient life: The tribals of the earlier days were
self-sufficient and their lives were simple in nature. Their daily
subsistence depended only on hunting, fishing and gather of food
like honey, tubers, fruits, nuts, berries, milk and various other forest
products. They were neither depended on the civilized world nor
desired for the comfort and the facilities of that world. They were
not interested in education nor wanted to raise their standard of
living. They were self-satisfied and contented with the life they led.
However, due to the gradual increase in population, they can no
longer depend on the primitive way of life. They are now more
depended on the influences of modernization and have started to
ask the government for more and more assistance. Their economic
interests have now changed and many of them have even shed
their tribal way of life completely.
Ø Endogamous group: The tribals are a largely endogamous group.
They are not allowed to marry outside the tribe. The reason for
practicing an endogamous marriage is because they seek to keep
the purity of their blood, cultural peculiarities and in order to preserve
the property within the tribe. However, due to influences from the
other (civilized) societies, they too have started practicing exogamy
outside the tribe. The tribals also practice exogamy, when it is about
a clan. Clans are kin-groups who have the same ancestor. This
means that they are of the same blood and thus have kinship bonds.
Therefore the members of the same clan are not allowed to marry
each other. They have to marry individuals of other clans. In this
way they practice exogamy too.

Unit 8 Tribe
8.3.1 Tribe-Caste interaction
The questions relating to tribe and caste have differed among

scholars. As we have already discussed, caste originated on the
basis of division of labor. Tribe, on the other hand, evolved on the
basis of community feeling among its members inhabiting in a definite
geographical territory. The various differences between tribe and
caste have been known and distinguished. However, the tribe-caste
interaction has been witnessed with a gradual change in society. A
tribe can enter the Hindu society by adopting the clan and name of
a caste.Some tribes even managed to settle down at the peripheries
of villages and accepted menial jobs from caste Hindus. Then they
eventually got into the Hindu fold. Members of the tribal groups may
also adopt the surname or gotra of a caste and marry into the caste.
Some rich tribal people managed to enroll themselves in high caste
with the help of caste priests. Tribes when enter the caste fold, lose
their identity.
We can better understand the tribe-caste interaction by
looking at the similarities and differences, as pointed out by the
sociologists. It has been noticed that the basic features of the tribe
and the caste do not differ much.
Ø N. K. Bose was of the view that the customs between tribes
and castes are quite similar. In both cases, they practice
endogamy, but within the clan or gotra they practice exogamy.
Ø Ghurye is of the view that tribal people are backward Hindus
differing only in degrees from the other segments of Hindu
society.
Ø Both the tribes and the castes for cremation or burial for the
disposal of the dead body.
In contrast to the above views,
Ø Andre Beteille regards that there are certain common differences
between tribes and castes. She argues that while a caste society
is hierarchical, the tribal society is egalitarian.

Tribe Unit 8
Ø Max Weber says that a tribe is a local group because its

significance lies mainly on its territory. On the other hand, when
a tribe loses its territorial existence, it becomes a caste. In that
way, a caste is a social group.
Ø According to Bailey, the caste members have a definite
profession because their functions are already determined by
the society, whereas the members of a tribe can take up any
profession that they wish to. Their occupation is not fixed.
Ø D.N. Majumdar holds that while the Hindu rituals are quite
unfamiliar to the tribals, they are a necessary part of religion in
the caste system.
The tribals and the caste Hindus have been in constant
contact for years. This contact has had an influence on both the
communities. But the extent of contact and the nature of participation
of both the groups have been different in different regions. In most
cases, it is the tribals who have been more influenced because
ethnographic records have established that most of the lower caste
Hindus now, are converts from the tribal strata. Most of them have
been found to completely assimilate into the caste system.
The tribes and the castes do not form the two different ends
of the interaction because there is a considerable overlapping in
between the two.
8.3.2 Regional variation in tribe-caste interaction
The tribe-caste interaction varies in different regions. Many

tribes adopted certain traits of the regional Hindus into their traditional
cultures in order to assimilate into the Hindu caste system. But
despite this practice of assimilation, they have failed to occupy any
rank in the hierarchy. However, some others have integrated into
the system and have been accepted as a member of the lower
caste. In some cases, the tribes have also been accepted among
the twice born castes. For example, the two tribes of the Central
Himalayan, i.e. Tharu and Khasa, have been accepted as
Kshatriyas. They have continued to practice the ways of life and

Unit 8 Tribe
culture based on the Rajputs and the Brahmins living in the nearby
areas. They have not only had long and continuous social
connections with the regional Hindu castes of the plains, but have
also adopted Hindu names. Thus, they have been gradually given
the status of Rajput castes.
Many tribes are also seen to enter into jajmani relationships.
For example, the Oraons of Chhota Nagpur are the aboriginal tribes
of the region. They call themselves Kurukh and speak a Dravidian
language similar to Gondi. Like the Hindu castes, the Oraons also
follow a significant social-economic relationship with other tribes.
The Oraons, are in need of the servicing castes or the kamins.
Therefore, the Julahas and Turis supply them clothes and
earthenware pots and tiles for roofing, the Lohars supply and repair
the iron implements and the Ahirs tend their cattle. Many other tribes
such as the Mahlis, the Koras, the Banjaras, the Baigas, etc. serve
the tribes and casts of Chhota Nagpur and have jajmani relations
with them. Such kind of jajmani relations also existed between the
tribals of the Nilgiri Hills. This shows that there exists a considerable
interaction between the tribes and the castes, however the nature
and extent of tribe-caste interaction varies from region to region.
During the British rule, the administration was only concerned

with the revenue and regulation of land in the tribal areas. They tribals
were otherwise left to live in isolation. It was only after Independence
that the government initiated various welfare measures for the
development of these people. Since equality and justice are the ideals
of the Indian Constitution, it has sought to protect the weaker sections
of the society, especially the backward classes like the Scheduled
tribes, from any kind of discrimination based on race, color, place of
birth or religion. Therefore, the Constitution provided them with certain
special provisions which are intended to aid them in their
development and welfare. The protective rights provided by the Indian
Constitution can be classified under the following heads.

Tribe Unit 8
Ø Educational and Cultural Rights [Articles 15 (4), 29, 46 and 350]

¦ Art. 15(4): This allows the state to make special laws for
relaxation of minimum qualifying marks for admission of
SCs/STs.
¦ Art. 29: This clause gives the right to any section of the
citizens residing in any part of the country, to preserve and
practice their own language, culture or script through
educational institutions.
¦ Art. 46: it empowers the state to promote education and
economic interest of the weaker sections of the society,
especially the SCs/STs, with special care. It also protects
them from social injustices and all forms of exploitation.
¦ Art. 350: This gives every person the right to submit a
representation for the redressal of grievance to any officer
or authority of the Union or State in any of the languages
used in the Union or in the States as the case may be.
Ø Social Rights (Articles 23 and 24)
¦ Art. 23: This prohibits the system of bonded labor.
¦ Art. 24: It prohibits employment of children below 14 years
of age in any hazardous services or factories.
Ø Economic Rights (Articles 244 and 275)
¦ Art. 244: It deals with the administration of Scheduled Areas
or Tribal Areas.
¦ Art. 275: It empowers the parliament to make special grants
given to the states which undertakes schemes of
development for the purpose of promoting the welfare of
the scheduled tribes or raising the level of administration of
the schedules areas.
Ø Political Rights [Articles 164 (1), 243, 330, 334 and 371]
¦ Art. 164 (1): This gives the power to the State to establish a
special ministry for Scheduled Tribes in the States like
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, etc.

Unit 8 Tribe
¦ Articles 243, 330 and 334: These deal with the reservation
of seats in the Loksabha and the Panchayats for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
¦ Art. 371: This deals with the special provisions with respect
to the North-eastern States.
In a significant Judgement, a five judge bench of the
Supreme Court held that a person belonging to ST/SC, bearing the
same nomenclature (name) in two states, is entitled to the rights,
privileges and benefits only in the state of his origin but not entitled
to those rights and benefits in other states though they are specified
in the SC/ST list of the State (Articles. 341 and 342).
Ø Employment Rights of the Tribals [Articles 15 (4), 16 (4, 4A)]
¦ Art. 15 (4): This provides reservations to the STs in
educational institutions.
¦ Art. 16 (4 and 4A): This provides reservations to the STs in
employment and also in promotions.
Along with these, the Fifth and the Sixth Schedule of the
Indian Constitution also deals with provisions provided for the welfare
of the SCs/STs. The fifth schedule of the Indian Constitution contains
the provisions relating to the administration and control of the
Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State, other than
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Accordingly, under the
Sixth schedule, the provisions relating to the administration of the
tribal areas in the state of Assam, is present. It also provides for the
provision of forming autonomous districts and regions. Again,
according to Art. 244 (A), the Parliament has the power to form an
autonomous region in the State of Assam which comprises of tribal
areas. It also has the power to create local legislatures or Council
of Ministers for such States.
With the 89th Amendment of the Constitution in 2003, a new
Article (338 A) has been added to Art. 338. According to the amended
Article, a national Commission for the STs was established. The
Commission consists a Chairman, a Vice-Chairman and three other
Tribe Unit 8
members. All of them are appointed by the President. The duty of

the Commission is to investigate and evaluate the matters relating
to the safeguards of STs under the Constitution. They are supposed
to check whether the safeguards are working properly or not. They
also have to present a report to the President upon the workings of
the safeguard, annually or at such other times when the Commission
deems fit. It is the duty of the Commission to inquire into the
complaints of the STs with respect to the deprivation of their rights
or safeguards. They also make recommendations on the measures
that can be taken by the Centre or the States for the effective
implementation of those safeguards. Other measure for the
protection, welfare and socio-economic development of the STs can
also be recommended by the Commission. According to Art. 339
(1), the President may, at any time, and shall at the expiration of ten
years from the commencement of the Constitution, appoint a
Commission to report on the administration of Scheduled areas
and Scheduled Tribes in the State.
8.4 CONCLUSION
The list of provisions provided for the tribals signify that the
government, both state and Central, have taken ample interest in the welfare
programs and schemes, but very mediocre result has been received out of
those attempts. Most of the tribal communities still remain in the periphery
with respect to all the facilities of a civilized world like access to improved
technology, education and so on. Despite various plans and programs, they
still have not achieved a socially and economically improved status in the
society. Even the Sixth Five Year Plan document notes that “three decades
of development have not had the desired impact on the socially, economically
and educationally handicapped section.”In fact, till the recent Plan too, things
have not improved radically. The reason for such an ineffective result is
due to lack of trained management, lack of preparedness for large
investments, procedural delays, deficiency in accounting systems, lack of
proper monitoring and evaluation and inadequacy in administrative
machinery. In order to get better results out of the schemes implemented,
Unit 8 Tribe
there has to be a strong political will and bureaucratic commitment in the

administrators. Moreover, instead of using political policies while preparing
the list of Scheduled Tribes, the economic, social, cultural criteria must be
considered. Unless and until the political interference is minimized, these
welfare programs and policies will never procure satisfactory results. A
detailed study on the individual problems of the tribal communities also
should be done so that it brings out long standing solutions. The objective
of these studies should be not only to bring a panacea to these issues but
also to help the tribal communities maintain their cultural ethos.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q1: Name a few tribes found in India.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q2: Write one similarity between a tribe and a caste.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q3: Write one different between a tribe and a caste.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q4: According to 2001 census, what was the percentage of tribes in
india, of its total population?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Q5: Write one of the definitions of tribe.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
8.5 LET US SUM UP
l India is the homestead of a numerous indigenous tribes. Most of

these tribes are socially and economically backward.
Tribe Unit 8
l While some tribal communities have adopted the mainstream way

of life, at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled
Tribes who are still characterized by pre-agricultural level of
technology, stagnant or declining population, extremely low literacy
and subsistence level of economy.
l Article 366 (25) of the constitution defines scheduled tribes as “such
tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be
Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of the Constitution”.
l The Scheduled Tribes are notified in 30 States/Union Territories and
the number of individual ethnic groups notified as Scheduled Tribes
constitute around 705 in number.
l Since the Seheduled Tribes have lot of socio-economic problems,
therefore the constitution has provided them with certain provisions
for the welfare of their community.
8.6 FURTHER READING
1. Bhushan, Vidya and D.R. Sachdeva. An Introduction toSociology. Kitab

Mahal, 2014, Print.
2. “Sociology Guide-A Student’s Guide to Sociology”, 2017, Web.http://
www.sociologyguide.com/tribal-society/tribal-caste-continuum.php.
3. Kumar, B.B. “Tribe-Caste Continumm”, Dialogue: A Quarterly Journal
of Asha Bharati1.1(July-Sep. 1999). Web. http://www.asthabharati.org/
Dia_July99/bbk.htm.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Bhils, Khasis, Gonds, Ao, Angami, Apatani, Adivasis, , etc

Ans to Q No 2: Both tribes and castes practice endogamy, but within the
clan or gotra they practice exogamy.
Ans to Q No 3: A caste society is hierarchical, but the tribal society is
egalitarian.
Unit 8 Tribe
Ans to Q No 4: Ans: 8.6%

Ans to Q No 5: D. N. Mazumdar defines a tribe as “a collection of families
bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same
territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos
regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a
well assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”
8.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q1: Mention the important constitutional provisions laid out for the welfare
of the tribal population.

Q1: What do you understand by the term “tribe”? Give a brief description
of its characteristics.
Q2: Do you think the process of social mobility in a caste system also
affected the tribals? If so, how?

REFERENCES (FOR ALL UNITS)
1) B.Paigude, V. S. (2013). http://www.onlinethinker.org/Artical_7_

Lashkar% 20Sociology.html. Retrieved 2017
2) Bhushan, Vidya and D.R. Sachdeva. An Introduction toSociology. Kitab
Mahal, 2014, Print.
3) Dhanagre, D.N. 1993. Themes and Perspectives in Indian Sociology.
Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
4) Emergence and Development of Sociology. (n.d.). Retrieved june 2017,
from download.nos.org/.../L-2%20EMERGENCE% 20AND%
20DEVELOPMENT%20OF%..
5) Ghurye, G.S. Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
2004.
6) K.L.Sarma: Social Stratification in India, Sage, Delhi.
7) Kumar, B.B. “Tribe-Caste Continumm”, Dialogue: A Quarterly Journal
of Asha Bharati1.1(July-Sep. 1999). Web. http://www.asthabharati.org/
Dia_July99/bbk.htm.
8) Modi, I. (2009, Mar 23). Retrieved june 2017, from www. ios. sinica.
edu.tw/cna/download/4b_Modi_2.pdf.
9) Mondal, P. (n.d.). Development of Sociology in India. Retrieved june
2017, from www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/development-of-
sociology-in-india/35016/.
10) Mukherjee, Ramakrishna. 1977b. Trends in Indian Sociology, Current
Sociology, 25(3).
11) Mukherjee, Partha Nath. 2006. Rethinking Sociology in an Era of
Transformatory Changes, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 55, No.2.
12) Srinivas, M.N. (1966). Social Change in Modern India, Berkeley,
California University Press
13) N. Jayapalan : Indian Society and Social Institutions (Volume I), Atlantic,
New Delhi
14) Nagla, B.K. (2008). Indian Sociological Thought. New Delhi. Rawat
Publications
15) Rao, C. N. Shankar.Sociology of Indian Society. S. Chand Publishing,
2004, Print.
16) Rao, C. N. Shankar.Principles of Sociology. S. Chand Publishing, 2007,
Print.
17) Singh, Yogendra. 2000. Culture Change in India: Identity and
Globalization. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
18) Srinivas, M.N. 1994. Sociology in India and its Future, Sociological
Bulletin, Vol. 43, No.1.
19) Singh, Yogendra. Ideology, Theory and Methods in Indian Sociology
(1952-1977)
20) “Sociology Guide-A Student’s Guide to Sociology”, 2017, Web.http://
www.sociologyguide.com/tribal-society/tribal-caste-continuum.php.
21) Vinayak Subhash Lashkar And Dhananjay B. Paigude. (2013, february
1). Development of Sociology in India . Retrieved june 2017, from http:/
/www.onlinethinker.org/Artical_7_Lashkar%20Sociology.html.

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KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

1. Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central University.

Course Co-ordinator : Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU

SLM Preparation Team

Content Editor : Professor Chandan Kumar Sharma, Tezpur Central

Language Editor : Prithwa Deb, Debraj Roy College

Structure, Format & Graphics : Dola Borkataki, KKHSOU

Murchana Kaushik, KKHSOU

First Edition : April, 2018

Headquarter : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati - 781017

UNIT 1: Development of Sociology of India Pages : 7-19

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to –

Sociology is relatively a new and very young discipline in social

disciplines in India. Sociology, as a discipline, came much after the

1.3 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA

Sociology in India, as a formal discipline, came in the year 1919.It

understanding of local customs and traditions, and misinterpretations about

The early pioneers of Indian sociology always believed in indological

1.4 DEVELPOMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA

Sociology emerged as a separate academic discipline in Indian

1.4.1 FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA:

During the period of colonialism, the British administrators

1.4.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE PRE-

Sociology as an academic discipline, had its beginning in

Europe, and it was also associated with socialism.The Indian elite,

1.4.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE POST

The next phase of expansion and development of sociology

“Sociological Bulletin”. Besides, in 1969, the Indian Council of Social

1.5 RECENT TRENDS IN SOCIOLOGY IN INDIA

Recent trends in the field of Sociology are inclusion of Sociology of

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q1: In how many phases can you divide the growth

1.6 LET US SUM UP

l Within the context of history, colonialism, and its impact on the

1.7 FURTHER READING

1) B.Paigude, V. S. (2013). http://www.onlinethinker.org/Artical_7_

9) Srinivas, M.N. 1994. Sociology in India and its Future, Sociological

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

Ans to Q No 1: Growth of sociology in India can be divided into three

1.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

B) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

*** ***** ***

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to –

We are aware of the resources available to study any discipline or

2.3 G.S.GHURYE: EARLY LIFE

Ghurye was born on 12th December, 1893 in a Brahmin family in

remarkable feat for Ghurye which established Ghurye’s position in the

2.3.1 Indological Perspective

Indology in the tradition of Max Muller is commonly

and epics to provide an explanation to the emergence of the unique

2.3.2 The Vedic period from 1500 BC to 600 BC

According to Ghurye, the Rigveda- the earliest work of the

the Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra-has been described

* * *

* * *

* * *