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ABEL : Advanced Boolean Expression Language; a software compiler language for
SPLD
programming; a type of hardware description language (HDL)
Adder : A digital circuit which forms the sum and carry of two or more numbers.
address : The location of a given storage cell or group of cells in a memory; a unique
memory
location containing one byte.
address bus
:
Generally, a one-way group of conductors from the microprocessor to memory,
containing the address information.
Analog : A signal which is continuously variable and, unlike a digital signal, does not
have
discrete levels. (A slide rule is analog in function.)
ABEL : Advanced Boolean Expression Language; a software compiler language for
SPLD
programming; a type of hardware description language (HDL)
Adder : A digital circuit which forms the sum and carry of two or more numbers.
address : The location of a given storage cell or group of cells in a memory; a unique
memory
location containing one byte.
address bus
:
Generally, a one-way group of conductors from the microprocessor to memory,
containing the address information.
Analog : A signal which is continuously variable and, unlike a digital signal, does not
have
discrete levels. (A slide rule is analog in function.)
Binary
Coded
Decimal :
A coding system in which each decimal digit from 0 to 9 is represented by four bits.
Bit : A single digit of a binary number. A bit is either a one represented by a voltage or a
zero represented by no voltage. The number 5 represented in 4 and 8 bit binary would
be 0101 and 00000101 respectively. http://vustudents.ning.com/

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Boolean
Algebra :
The algebra of logic named for George Boole. Similar in form to ordinary algebra,
but with classes, propositions, yes/no criteria, etc for variables rather than numeric
quantities. It includes the operators AND, OR, NOT, IF, EXCEPT, THEN.
cascade : To connect 'end-to-end' as when several counters are connected from the
terminal
count output of one counter to the enable input of the next counter.
Clock : The device in a digital system which provides the continuous train of pulses used
to
synchronize the transfer of data. Sometimes referred to as "the heartbeat."
CMOS : (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) An advanced IC manufacturing
process technology characterized by high integration, low cost, low power and high
performance. CMOS is the preferred process for today's high density ICs.
Combinational
Logic :
Logic circuits whose outputs depend only on the present logic inputs.
comparator
:
A digital circuit that compares the magnitudes of two quantities and produces an
output indicating the relationship of the quantities.
counter : A digital circuit capable of counting electronic events, such as pulses, by
progressing
through a sequence of binary states.
data selector
:
A circuit that selects data from several inputs one at a sequence and places them on
the output: also called a multiplexer.
Decoder : A logic function that uses a binary value, or address, to select between a
number of
outputs and to assert the selected output by placing it in its active state.
Digital
System :
A system in which information is transmitted in a series of pulses. The source is
periodically sampled, analyzed, and converted or coded into numerical values and
transmitted. Digital transmissions typically use the binary coding used by computers
so most data is in appropriate form, but verbal and visual communication must be
converted. Many satellite transmissions use digital formats because noise will not
interfere with the quality of the end product, producing clear and higher-resolution
imagery.
emitter : One of the three regions in a bipolar junction transistor.

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encoder : A digital circuit(device) that converts information to a coded form.
even parity : The condition of having an even number of 1s in every group of bits.
exponent : The part of floating point number that represents the number of places that
the
decimal point (or binary point) is to be moved.
fan in : The number of logic inputs into a logic gate.
fan out : The number of logic inputs that can be driven by the output of a logic gate.
flip-flop : A basic digital building block that, at its simplest, uses two gates cross-coupled
so
that the output of one gate serves as the input of the other. It is capable of changing
from one state to another on application of a control signal, but can remain in that
state after the signal is removed. It thus serves as a basic storage element. Most flipflops
contain additional features to make them more versatile. Many digital circuits,
such as registers and counters, are a number of flipflops connected together.
GAL : Generic array logic; an SPLD with a reprogrammable AND array, a fixed OR
array,
and programmable output logic macrocells.
Gate : The control terminal of a MOSFET, or alternately a basic digital logic element, for
example an AND Gate, See also, OR, NAND, NOR.
Gate Array
:
An integrated circuit made up of digital logic gates that are not yet connected.
Typically gate arrays are fabricated up to the metal layers and then a custom metal
mask is designed for a customer and used to connect the gates into a customer
specific circuit.
Gray code : The mirror image of the binary counting code which changes one bit at a
time when
increasing or decreasing by one. http://vustudents.ning.com/
half-adder : A digital circuit that adds two bits and produces a sum and output carry. It
cannot
handle input carries.

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High : A digital logic state corresponding to a binary "l."
High logic : In digital logic, the more positive of the two logic levels in a binary system.
Normally, a high logic level is used to represent a binary 1 or true condition.
IC : (Integrated Circuit) A single piece of silicon on which thousands or millions of
transistors are combined. ICs are the major building blocks of modern electronic
systems.
Inverter : In logic, a digital circuit which inverts the input signal, as for example,
changing a 1
to a 0. This is equivalent logically to the NOT function. An inverter may also serve as
a buffer amplifier.
JK flip-flop
:
A type of flip-flop that can operate in the SET, RESET, no-change, and toggle
modes.
Karnaugh
map :
An arrangement of cells representing the combinations of literals in a Boolean
expression and used for a systematic simplification of the expression.
latch : A bistable digital circuit used for storing a bit.
LED : Light-Emitting Diode (component) Abbreviated LED. A semiconductor diode,
generally made from gallium arsenide, that can serve as an infrared or visible light
source when voltage is applied continuously or in pulses.
Logic : One of the three major classes of ICs in most digital electronic systems:
microprocessors, memory, and logic. Logic is used for data manipulation and control
functions that require higher speed than a microprocessor can provide
Low : A logic state corresponding to a binary "0". Satellite imagery is displayed on a
computer monitor by a combination of highs and lows.

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Low logic : In digital logic, the more negative of the two logic levels in a binary system.
In
positive logic, a low-logic level is used to represent a logic 0, or a not-true, condition.
mantissa : The magnitude of a floating-point number.
MSI : Medium-scale integration' a level of fixed-function IC complexity in which there
are
12 to 99 equivalent gates per chip.
Multiplexer
:
An electronic device normally used to scan a number of input terminals and receive
data from, or send data to, the same. Multiplexers are normally one of two types:
1. The cyclic type which continually and sequentially looks at each input for a
request to send or receive data.
2. The random type which waits in a "rest" position until other circuitry notifies
it of a request to receive or send data. http://vustudents.ning.com/
NAND gate
:
A logic circuit in which a LOW output occurs only if all the inputs are HIGH.
NOR gate : A logic circuit which performs the OR function and then inverts the result. A
NOTOR
gate.
NOT : The logical operator having that property which if P is a statement, then the not of
P
(P) is true if P is false, and the not of P (P) is false if P is true.
octal : Describes a number system with a base of eight.
odd parity : The condition of having an odd number of 1s in every group of bits.
OR gate : A multiple-input gate circuit whose output is energized when any one or more
of the
inputs is in a prescribed state. Used in digital logic

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overflow : The condition that occurs when the number of bits in a sum exceeds the
number of
bits in each of the numbers added.
PAL : Programmable array logic; an SPLD with a programmable AND array and a fixed
OR array with programmable output logic.
parity : In relation to binary codes, the condition of evenness or oddness of the number
of 1s
in a code group. http://vustudents.ning.com/
parity bit : A bit attached to each group of information bits to make the total number of
1s in a
code group.
PLA : Plogrammable logic array; an SPLD with programmable AND and OR arrays.
queue : A high-speed memory that stores instructions or data.
register : A digital circuit capable of storing and shifting binary information; typically
used as
a temporary storage device.
Shift : To move information serially right or left in a register(s). Information shifted out
of a
register may be lost, or it may be re-entered at the other end of the register.
Shift
register :
A shift register is an electronic device which can contain several bits of information.
Shift registers are normally used to collect variable input data and send this data out
in a predetermined pattern.
Sign bit : Computers generally indicate whether a number is positive or negative by a
sign bit,
which is usually located adjacent to the most significant numerical digit. Usually zero
(0) is used for positive (+) and one (1) for negative (-).

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Significant
digit :
A digit that contributes to the preciseness of a number. The number of significant
digits is counted beginning with the digit contributing the most value, called the most
significant digit, and ending with the one contributing the least value, called the least
significant digit.
toggle : The action of flip-flop when it changes state on each clock pulse.
Truth Table
:
A table that defines a logic function by listing all combinations of input values, and
indicating for each combination the true output values.
TTL : Transistor-transistor logic; a class of integrated logic circuits that uses bipolar
junction transistors.
universal
gate :
Either a NAND or a NOR gate; The term universal refers to the property of a gate
that permits any logic function to be implemented by that gate or by a combination of
gates of that kind.
up/down
counter :
A counter that can progress in either direction through a certain sequence.
VLSI : Very large-scale integration; a level of IC complexity in which there are 10,000 to
99,000 equivalent gates per chip.
volatile : A term that describes a memory that loses stored data when the power is
removed.
weight : The value of digit in a number based on its position in the number.
Question: How can a D flip-flop can be made to toggle?
Answer: A D flip-flop can be made to toggle by connecting Q' to D.
Question: What is the difference between a counter and shift register ?
Answer: A counter has a specified sequence of states, but a shift register does not.
Question: How many outputs and inputs GAL22V10 have?

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Answer: The GAL22V10 has 22 inputs and 10 outputs.
Question: What is an equivalent representation for the Boolean expression A' + 1 ?
Answer: From the Boolean property A + 1 = 1, let A = A'.
Question: What is K-map and why we used it?
Answer: A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of grouping together expressions
with
common factors and therefore eliminating unwanted variables. The Karnaugh map
can also be described as a special arrangement of a truth table.
Question: Each stage in a shift register represents how much storage capacity?
Answer: one bit
Question: what are PLD's?How are they classified.
Answer: The programmable logic devices (PLD's) are used in a lot of applications, and
replace
SSI and MSI circuits, due the space saving and reduce the number of devices in a
certain design. A PLD is made of a matrix of AND and OR gates, that can be
programmed to obtain certain logic functions. There are four types of devices that
can be clasified as PLD's: a)The Programmable Read-Only Memory, PROM. b)The
Programmable Logic Array , PLA. c)The Programmable Array Logic, PAL. d)The
Generic Array Logic, GAL. http://vustudents.ning.com/
Question: What are Flip-flops?
Answer: The memory elements in a sequential circuit are called flip-flops. A flip-flop
circuit
has two outputs, one for the normal value and one for the complement value of the
stored bit.
Question: If an S-R latch has a 0 on the S input and a 1 on the R input and then the R
input goes
to 0, then what the latch will be?
Answer: The latch wil be in reset condition.
Question: In a 4-bit Johnson counter sequence there are a total of how many states, or bit
patterns?
Answer: 8
Question: Explain the truth table and timing diagram of Gated S-R latch and Gated D
latch in

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detail.
Answer: The logic symbol for the S-R flip-flop is shown here and its operation outlined
in
Table below.
Now we examine the output waveforms from the S-R flip-flop given
the inputs. Assume that Q is HIGH initially.

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The logic symbol for the D flip-flop is also shown below and its
operation outlined in the Table. Notice that this flip-flop only has
one input in addition to the clock called the D-input. Note that
whatever is on the D-input when the trigger occurs is output at Q.

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Notice that a D flip flop can be made from a S-R flip flop by ensuring that the S
and R outputs are the complement of each other at all times.
Question: What is the difference between asynchoronous and synchorous counters?
Answer: Synchronous refers to the situation when all the interrelated devices has some
commen and fixed time relationship. Whereas in Asynchronous refers to the situation
when the situation is opposite.
In Synchronous counters all the filp-flops have same clock pulse and in
Asynchronous counters flip-flops does not change state at the exaclty same time
becasue they don't have common clock pulse.
Question: What is meant by D in gated D latch and what is the fuction of this D input.
What is
the basic difference between latchs and flip-flops?
Answer: The 'D' in 'Gated D Latch' stands for 'Data'.
Unlike 'S-R Latch' Gated D Latch has only one input ,which is D(data) Input. Whcih
will give the output of the latch depending on the 'EN' (enable) state of the latch.
To understand latches and flip-flops lets consider a basic fact about the whole DLD
In the same way that gates are the building blocks of combinatorial circuits, latches
and flip-flops are the building blocks of sequential circuits. While gates had to be
built directly from transistors, latches can be built from gates, and flip-flops can be
built from latches.
Both latches and flip-flops are circuit elements whose output depends not only on the
current inputs, but also on previous inputs and outputs. The difference between a
latch and a flip-flop is that
a latch does not have a clock signal, whereas a flip-flop always does
Latches are asynchronous, which means that the output changes very soon after the
input changes. A flip-flop is a synchronous version of the latch.
Question: I cannot understand the timing diagram for the master slave flip flop.
Answer: A master-slave flip-flop is constructed from two separate flip-flops. One circuit
serves as a master and the other as a slave. The logic diagram of an SR flip-flop is
shown here. The master flip-flop is enabled on the positive edge of the clock pulse
CP and the slave flip-flop is disabled by the inverter. The information at the external
R and S inputs is transmitted to the master flip-flop. When the pulse returns to 0, the
master flip-flop is disabled and the slave flip-flop is enabled. The slave flip-flop then
goes to the same state as the master flip-flop.

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Logic diagram of a master-slave flip-flop
The timing relationship is also shown here and is assumed that the flip-flop is in the
clear state prior to the occurrence of the clock pulse. The output state of the masterslave
flip-flop occurs on the negative transition of the clock pulse. Some master-slave
flip-flops change output state on the positive transition of the clock pulse by having
an additional inverter between the CP terminal and the input of the master.
Timing relationship in a master slave flip-flop.
Question: I am not able to understand the truth table and timing diagram of " S-R Edge-
trigged
flip-flop, D edge-trigged flip-flop and J-K edge-trigged flip-flop kindly explain it in
detail. http://vustudents.ning.com/
Answer: An edge-triggered flip-flop changes states either at the positive edge (rising
edge) or at
the negative edge (falling edge) of the clock pulse on the control input.
The S-R, J-K and D inputs are called synchronous inputs because data on these inputs
are transferred to the flip-flop's output only on the triggering edge of the clock pulse. On
the other hand, the direct set (SET) and clear (CLR) inputs are called asynchronous
inputs, as they are inputs that affect the state of the flip-flop independent of the clock.
For the synchronous operations to work properly, these asynchronous inputs must both
be kept LOW.

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The basic operation of Edge-triggered S-R flip-flop is illustrated below, along with the
truth table for this type of flip-flop. The operation and truth table for a negative
edgetriggered
flip-flop are the same as those for a positive except that the falling edge of the
clock pulse is the triggering edge.
Note that the S and R inputs can be changed at any time when the clock input is LOW or
HIGH (except for a very short interval around the triggering transition of the clock)
without affecting the output. This is illustrated in the timing diagram below:
While an Edge-triggered J-K flip-flop works very similar to S-R flip-flop. The only
difference is that this flip-flop has NO invalid state. The outputs toggle (change to the
opposite state) when both J and K inputs are HIGH. The truth table is shown below.

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The operations of an Edge-triggered D flip-flop is much more simpler. It has only one
input addition to the clock. It is very useful when a single data bit (0 or 1) is to be stored.
If there is a HIGH on the D input when a clock pulse is applied, the flip-flop SETs and
stores a 1. If there is a LOW on the D input when a clock pulse is applied, the flip-flop
RESETs and stores a 0. The truth table below summarize the operations of the positive
edge-triggered D flip-flop. As before, the negative edge-triggered flip-flop works the
same except that the falling edge of the clock pulse is the triggering edge.
Question: What is Multiplexer and what are its applications and expression
simplification using
Multiplexer?
Answer: Multiplexer is a digital circuit with multiple signal inputs, one of which is
selected by
separate address inputs to be sent to the single output. The multiplexer circuit is
typically used to combine two or more digital signals onto a single line, by placing
them there at different times. Technically, this is known as time-division
multiplexing.
Input A is the addressing input, which controls which of the two data inputs, X0 or
X1, will be transmitted to the output. If the A input switches back and forth at a
frequency more than double the frequency of either digital signal, both signals will be
accurately reproduced, and can be separated again by a demultiplexer circuit
synchronized to the multiplexer.
This is not as difficult as it may seem at first glance; the telephone network combines
multiple audio signals onto a single pair of wires using exactly this technique, and is
readily able to separate many telephone conversations so that everyone's voice goes
only to the intended recipient. With the growth of the Internet and the World Wide
Web, most people have heard about T1 telephone lines. A T1 line can transmit up to

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24 individual telephone conversations by multiplexing them in this manner.
A very common application for this type of circuit is found in computers, where
dynamic memory uses the same address lines for both row and column addressing. A
set of multiplexers is used to first select the row address to the memory, then switch
to the column address. This scheme allows large amounts of memory to be
incorporated into the computer while limiting the number of copper traces required to
connect that memory to the rest of the computer circuitry. In such an application, this
circuit is commonly called a data selector. Multiplexers are not limited to two data
inputs. If we use two addressing inputs, we can multiplex up to four data signals.
With three addressing inputs, we can multiplex eight signals.
Question: Explain S-R Latch? what do you mean by bistable devices?
Answer: A bistable multivibrator has two stable states, as indicated by the prefix bi in its
name. Typically, one state is referred to as set and the other as reset. The simplest
bistable device, therefore, is known as a set-reset, or S-R, latch.
The Q and not-Q outputs are supposed to be in opposite states. I say "supposed to"
because making both the S and R inputs equal to 1 results in both Q and not-Q being
0. For this reason, having both S and R equal to 1 is called an invalid or illegal state
for the S-R multivibrator. Otherwise, making S=1 and R=0 "sets" the multivibrator so
that Q=1 and not-Q=0. Conversely, making R=1 and S=0 "resets" the multivibrator in
the opposite state. When S and R are both equal to 0, the multivibrator's outputs
"latch" in their prior states.
By definition, a condition of Q=1 and not-Q=0 is set. A condition of Q=0 and not-
Q=1 is reset. These terms are universal in describing the output states of any
multivibrator circuit. So A bistable multivibrator is one with two stable output states.
In a bistable multivibrator, the condition of Q=1 and not-Q=0 is defined as set. A
condition of Q=0 and not-Q=1 is conversely defined as reset. If Q and not-Q happen
to be forced to the same state (both 0 or both 1), that state is referred to as invalid. In
an S-R latch, activation of the S input sets the circuit, while activation of the R input
resets the circuit. If both S and R inputs are activated simultaneously, the circuit will
be in an invalid condition. A race condition is a state in a sequential system where
two mutually-exclusive events are simultaneously initiated by a single cause.
Question: What is ment by triggering or triggering edge of clock pulse and synchronous?
also
what is triggling trasition of clock?
Answer: Generally the term 'synchronous' means "Moving or changing at the same
time".
In our senario this term also holds the same meaning.
Here the two things which will change at the same time will be "Clock (CLK or C )"
and the "output of the device". Means changes in the output occur with

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synchronization with clock.
Edge-Triggered devices changes staes either at the positive edge(rising edge) or the
negative edge (falling edge) of the clock pulse and is sensative to its inputs only at
the these two (negative or positive) edges,which in technical terms is called
'Transition of the clock'.
By examining the picture below you will understand it completly.
Question: How to up and down the clock in J K flops plz explain the example?
Answer: In J-K filp-flops the clock moves normaly as in other cases no difference.The
clock
pulse will change its state after the specified intervals(usually defined in 'nano
seconds'(ns) ) to either UP i.e '1' or DOWN i.e '0'.
Question: For BCD numbers that add up to an invalid BCD number or generate a carry
the
number 6 (0110) is added to the invalid number, why ?
Answer: These binary numbers are not allowed in the BCD code: 1010, 1011, 1100,
1101,
1110, 1111
Then, if the addition produces a carry and/or creates an invalid BCD number, an
adjustment is required to correct the sum. The correction method is to add 6 to the
sum in any digit position that has caused an error.The correction method is to add 6
to the sum in any digit position that has caused an error.
For example,
15 + 9 = 24
0001 0101 = 15
+ 0000 1001 = 9
____________________
0001 1110 = 1? (invalid 1110)

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0001 1110 = 1? (invalid)
+ 0000 0110 = 6 (adjustment)
___________________
0010 0100 = 24
Question: Why do we use +0V and +5V instead of +0V and +1V in DLD, when it is
always '0'
and '1' ?
Answer: In DLD, the circuits of logic gates (embedded in IC's) are operated with +5
Volts
input. That is why we refer to +5 V for these logic inputs. It is considered as binary 1
when the +5V are applied to the logic gate, and binary 0 when 0 V are applied to the
logic gate.
Question: What is BCD and how do we write them?
Answer: BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) is a system for encoding Decimal Numbers in
binary
form to avoid rounding and conversion errors. In BCD coding, each digit of a
decimal number is coded separately as a binary numeral. Each of the decimal digits 0
through 9 is coded in four bits, and for ease of reading, each group of four bits is
separated by a space. This format, also called 8-4-2-1 after the weights of the four bit
positions, uses the following codes:
0000 = 0
0001 = 1
0010 = 2
0011 = 3
0100 = 4
0101 = 5
0110 = 6
0111 = 7
1000 = 8
1001 = 9
Thus, the decimal number 12 is 0001 0010 in binary-coded decimal notation.
Question: Where do we use Caveman Number System ?
Answer: Caveman Number System was introduced in old ages as symbolic
representation of
decimal number system. You do not need to study it in detail, as it is also mentioned
that this system is not used anywhere now a days.
Question: What is Gray Code and how do we write them?
Answer: Gray Code is a binary sequence with the property that an ordering of 2n binary
numbers such that only one bit changes from one entry to the next. Gray codes are

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useful in mechanical encoders since a slight change in location only affects one bit.
Using a typical binary code, up to n bits could change, and slight misalignments
between reading elements could cause wildly incorrect readings.
It is a number code where consecutive numbers are represented by binary patterns
that differ in one bit position only.
Here you can see , for each number, there is a difference of 1 (addition or elimination
of 1)
0000 =0
0001 =1
0011 =2 ,1 is added
0010 =3 , again change of 1, elimination of 1
0110 =4 ,addition of 1
0111 =5 ,again addition of 1
0101 =6 ,elimination of 1
0100 =7 ,elimination of 1
1100 =8 ,addition of 1
1101 =9 ,addition of 1
One way to construct a Gray code for n bits is to take a Gray code for n-1 bits with
each code prefixed by 0 (for the first half of the code) and append the n-1 Gray code
reversed with each code prefixed by 1 (for the second half). This is called a
"binaryreflected
Gray code". Here is an example of creating a 3-bit Gray code from a 2-bit
Gray code. 00 01 11 10
A Gray code for 2 bits
000 001 011 010 the 2-bit code with "0" prefixes
10 11 01 00 the 2-bit code in reverse order
110 111 101 100 the reversed code with "1" prefixes
000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100 A Gray code for 3 bits