Differential Equations

Differential Equation
An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to one
or more independent variables
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐴 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐵
𝑑𝑥
∗ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ; 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ; 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

Derivative Notations
Leibniz Notation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
; ; ; ; ;
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Prime Notation
𝑦 ;𝑦 ;𝑦 ; 𝑦( ) ; 𝑦( ) ; 𝑦( )

Newton’s Dot/Flyspeck Notation

 Used to denote derivatives with respect to time 𝑡
.. ... .
𝑥̇ ; 𝑥̈ ; 𝑥⃛ ; 𝑥.. ; 𝑥 ; 𝑥
Subscript Notation
 Used to denote partial derivatives
𝜕𝑥
=𝑦 ; 𝑦 ; 𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑓
𝑓 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

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Differential Equations

Classification of Differential Equations

By type
a. Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE)
 Contains only ordinary derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to a
single independent variable
b. Partial Differential Equation (PDE)
 Involves partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more
independent variables
By order and degree
 The order of a differential equation is the order of highest-order derivative in the equation
 The degree of a differential equation is the power/exponent of the highest-order derivative
in the equation
By linearity
 An nth-order ODE is said to be linear if:
a. The dependent variable and all its derivatives are of the first degree
b. The coefficients of the dependent variable and its derivatives must be a constant
and/or an explicit function of the independent variable
c. The dependent variable and its derivatives must not be inside trigonometric,
logarithmic, exponential, etc. functions

Solution of a Differential Equation

A function that satisfies a given differential equation for all 𝑥 on an interval 𝐼

n-Parameter Family of Solutions

A solution of an nth-order differential equation that consists of n arbitrary constants

Particular Solution of a Differential Equation

A solution of a differential equation that is free of arbitrary constants

Singular Solution of a Differential Equation

A solution of a differential equation that is not a member of a family of solutions of the
equation

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Differential Equations

Examples: Linearity and Solution of a Differential Equation

1. Determine whether the equation is linear or nonlinear.
a. (1 − 𝑥) 𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 = cos 𝑥 linear
b. 𝑡 𝑦 ( ) − 𝑡 𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0 linear

c. = 1+ nonlinear

d. (sin 𝜃) 𝑦 − (cos 𝜃) 𝑦 = 2 linear

e. (𝑦 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
In y: (𝑦 − 1) + 𝑥𝑦 = 0 nonlinear
In x: (𝑦 − 1) 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 linear
2. Find values of m so that the function 𝑦 = 𝑒 is a solution of the given differential equation.
a. 𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑦=𝑒 ; 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑚𝑒 + 2𝑒 =0
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 :𝑚+2=0
𝑚 = −2
b. 𝑦 − 5𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0
𝑦=𝑒 ; 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑒 ; 𝑦 =𝑚 𝑒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑚 𝑒 − 5𝑚𝑒 + 6𝑒 =0
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑒 : 𝑚 − 5𝑚 + 6 = 0
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: (𝑚 − 3)(𝑚 − 2) = 0
𝑚 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 2

Arbitrary Constant
A symbol to which various values may be assigned but remains unaffected by the changes in
the values of the variables of the equation
When eliminating arbitrary constants, convert the equation into the following differential
equations:
 Equation with 1 constant  1st-order differential equation
 Equation with 2 constants  2nd-order differential equation
 Equation with 3 constants  3rd-order differential equation
 And so on…

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Differential Equations

Examples: Elimination of Arbitrary Constants

a. By substitution: (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥: 2(𝑥 − 𝑐) + 2𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 2: 𝑥 − 𝑐 + 𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠: 𝑐 = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦′
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (𝑥 − [𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 ]) + 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 )
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑦 (𝑦 ) + 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦 (𝑦 )

𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒: 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑦′ = 0

b. By isolation: (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑥: = 2𝑐
𝑥
𝑥(2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦′) − (𝑥 + 𝑦 )
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥: =0
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦 = 0

c. By elimination: 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 eq. 1
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 𝑦 = −2𝑐 𝑒 + 3𝑐 𝑒 eq. 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 𝑦′′ = 4𝑐 𝑒 + 9𝑐 𝑒 eq. 3
(𝑒𝑞. 2) + 2(𝑒𝑞. 1): 𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 5𝑐 𝑒 eq. 4
(𝑒𝑞. 3) − 4(𝑒𝑞. 1): 𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 5𝑐 𝑒 eq. 5
(𝑒𝑞. 5) − (𝑒𝑞. 4): 𝑦 − 𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 0

d. By determinant: 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 𝑦 = −2𝑐 𝑒 + 3𝑐 𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 𝑦′′ = 4𝑐 𝑒 + 9𝑐 𝑒
𝑦−𝑐 𝑒 −𝑐 𝑒 =0
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒: 𝑦 + 2𝑐 𝑒 − 3𝑐 𝑒 = 0  
𝑦 − 4𝑐 𝑒 − 9𝑐 𝑒 = 0
𝑦 −1 −1
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥: 𝑦′ 2 −3 = 0
𝑦′′ −4 −9
𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡: − 18𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 12𝑦 − 9𝑦 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠: 5𝑦 − 5𝑦 − 30𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 5: 𝑦 − 𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 0

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Differential Equations

Examples: Family of Curves

1. Family of straight lines that pass through the origin
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑞. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, (𝑦 − 0) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0) → 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
∆
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑚 = = -
∆

𝑠𝑜, 𝑦 = 𝑥

∴ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0

2. Family of straight lines that pass through the fixed point (ℎ, 𝑘), where ℎ and 𝑘 are parameters
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑞. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑚(𝑥 − ℎ) → 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
∆
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑚 = =
∆

𝑠𝑜, 𝑦 − 𝑘 = (𝑥 − ℎ)

∴ (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑑𝑦 − (𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑑𝑥 = 0

3. Family of straight lines with the algebraic sum of the intercepts fixed as 𝑘
𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑓. 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏  
𝑘 = 𝑎+𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑚𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑦 𝑏 = 𝑦 − 𝑚𝑥
𝑎= =𝑥−
𝑚 𝑚
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑚 = = 𝑦′
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑚 = = 𝑦′ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑏 = 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦′
∴𝑎=𝑥−

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏: 𝑘 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 − + (𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦′)

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑦 : 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥(𝑦 )
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 (1 − 𝑦 ) − 𝑦(1 − 𝑦′)
∴ 𝑘𝑦 = (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦)(1 − 𝑦′)

4. Family of circles with center on the 𝑥-axis

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑒𝑞. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒: (𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑘 = 0
𝑠𝑜, (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑦 = 𝑟
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 2(𝑥 − ℎ) + 2𝑦𝑦′ = 0 → 𝑥 − ℎ + 𝑦𝑦 = 0

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 1 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑦 = 0 → 𝑦𝑦 + (𝑦 ) + 1 = 0

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Differential Equations

5. Family of parabolas with vertex on the 𝑦-axis and pass through the origin
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑓. 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 4𝑝
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥: 2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦′ → 𝑐 = 2𝑥/𝑦
2𝑥
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞. 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞. : 𝑥 = 𝑦 → 𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑦
𝑦
6. Family of parabolas with axis parallel to the 𝑥-axis and open to the right
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑓. 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑐(𝑥 − ℎ) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 = 4𝑝
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 2(𝑦 − 𝑘)𝑦 = 𝑐 → 2𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑘𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑦 + (𝑦 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 2𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑦 − 2𝑘𝑦 = 0 → 𝑘 =
𝑦′′
𝑦 (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑦 ) − (𝑦𝑦 + (𝑦 ) )𝑦′′′
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥): 0 =
(𝑦 )
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔: 3𝑦′(𝑦 ) − (𝑦 ) 𝑦 =0

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑦 : 3(𝑦 ) − 𝑦 𝑦 =0→ 𝑦 𝑦 − 3(𝑦 ) = 0

Separable Differential Equation

A first-order differential equation of the form
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
ℎ(𝑦)

Examples: Separable Differential Equation

1. = sin 5𝑥 2. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = sin 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑦 = sin 5𝑥 (5𝑑𝑥)
5 1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 (−3𝑑𝑥)
1 3
𝑦 = − cos 5𝑥 + 𝐶
5 1
𝑦= 𝑒 +𝐶
3

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Differential Equations

3. 𝑥 = 4𝑦 7. 𝑦 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
=4 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 1
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
ln|𝑦| = 4 ln|𝑥| + 𝐶 1
| | | | 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦+2+ 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 =𝑒 𝑦
𝑦=𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒 = 𝐶 1 1 1
𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 2𝑦 + ln|𝑦| + 𝐶
3 9 2
𝑦=𝐶 𝑥
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 − ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
4. = 𝑘𝑠 8. csc 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑠 csc 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = − sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=𝑘 𝑑𝑟
𝑠
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
ln|𝑠| = 𝑘𝑟 + 𝐶
𝑒 | |
=𝑒 1
(1 + cos 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑠=𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒 = 𝐶
1 1
𝑠=𝐶 𝑒 4 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶 = cos 𝑦
2 4
5. =𝑥 1−𝑦 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + 4𝐶 = 4 cos 𝑦 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 4𝐶 = 𝐶

𝑑𝑦 4 cos 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑦 9. (𝑒 + 1) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑒 + 1) 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = 0
1 (𝑒 + 1) 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = −(𝑒 + 1) 𝑒 𝑑𝑦
arcsin 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
(𝑒 + 1) (𝑒 𝑑𝑥) = − (𝑒 + 1) (𝑒 𝑑𝑦)
1
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 (𝑒 + 1) (𝑒 + 1)
2 +𝐶 =−
6. =𝑒 −2 −1
−(𝑒 + 1) + 2𝐶 = 2(𝑒 + 1) ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑦
=𝑒 ∙𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2(𝑒 + 1) = −(𝑒 + 1) +𝐶

𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

1 1
− 𝑒 (−2𝑑𝑦) = 𝑒 (3𝑑𝑥)
2 3
1 1
6 − 𝑒 = 𝑒 +𝐶
2 3
−3𝑒 = 2𝑒 + 6𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 6𝐶 = 𝐶
−3𝑒 = 2𝑒 +𝐶

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10. = 4(𝑥 + 1) ; 𝑥 =1 11. 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 ; 𝑦(−1) = −1

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=4 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑦(1 − 𝑥)
𝑥 +1 𝑑𝑥
arctan 𝑥 = 4𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝑦 𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 1: arctan 1 = 4 +𝐶
4 4 𝑥
ln|𝑦| = − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
3𝜋 −1
∴ 𝐶 = arctan 1 − 𝜋 = −
4 1
ln|𝑦| = − − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
3𝜋 𝑥
arctan 𝑥 = 4𝑡 −
4 1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦(−1) = −1: ln|−1| = − − ln|−1| + 𝐶
3𝜋 −1
𝑥 = tan 4𝑡 −
4 ∴ 𝐶 = −1
1
ln|𝑦| = − − ln|𝑥| − 1
𝑥
1
ln|𝑥𝑦| = − − 1
𝑥
| |
𝑒 =𝑒

𝑥𝑦 = 𝑒

Homogeneous Differential Equation

A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous of degree 𝑛 if the function possesses the
property:
𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
A differential equation of the form:
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
is homogeneous if and only if:
𝑀(𝜆𝑥,
  𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
In solving a homogeneous DE, it must be converted into a separable DE through either of the
following substitutions:
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑢
Once the differential equation has been integrated, back-substitution must be performed in
order to express the solution in terms of the original variables

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Examples: Homogeneous Differential Equation

1. (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 2. 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 − (𝑥 + 3𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (−𝑥 − 3𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑀(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑥 − 2𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆(𝑥 − 2𝑦) 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 2𝜆𝑥 + 𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆(2𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑀(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑥𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆 (𝑥𝑦)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑢 𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = −𝜆 𝑥 − 3𝜆 𝑦 = 𝜆 (−𝑥 − 3𝑦 )
(𝑥 − 2𝑢𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥)(𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑢) = 0 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢
𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑢𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑢𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑢𝑦 (𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢) + (−𝑢 𝑦 − 3𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
=0 𝑢 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥(1 + 𝑢 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 (2 + 𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢 − 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2+𝑢 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑢𝑑𝑢 − 3 = 0
𝑥 1+𝑢 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 1 2𝑢𝑑𝑢 1
+2 + = 0 𝑢 − 3 ln|𝑦| = 𝐶
𝑥 1+𝑢 2 1+𝑢 2
1 𝑢 − 6 ln|𝑦| = 2𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶
ln|𝑥| + 2 arctan 𝑢 + ln|1 + 𝑢 | = 𝐶
2 𝑥
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 → 𝑢 =
2 ln|𝑥| + 4 arctan 𝑢 + ln|1 + 𝑢 | = 2𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑦
ln|𝑥 (1 + 𝑢 )| + 4 arctan 𝑢 = 𝐶 𝑥
𝑦 − ln|𝑦 | = 𝐶
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 → 𝑢 = 𝑦
𝑥
𝑦 𝑦
ln 𝑥 1+ + 4 arctan =𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦
ln|𝑥 + 𝑦 | + 4 arctan =𝐶
𝑥

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3. 3(3𝑥 + 𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0 4. −𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0

(9𝑥 + 3𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: 𝑀(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = −𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆(−𝑦)
𝑀(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 9𝜆 𝑥 + 3𝜆 𝑦 = 𝜆 (9𝑥 + 3𝑦 ) 𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑥 + 𝜆𝑥𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦
𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = −2𝜆𝑥𝜆𝑦 = 𝜆 (−2𝑥𝑦) 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑢
−𝑦(𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢) + 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
(9𝑥 + 3𝑢 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑢𝑥 (𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑢) = 0
−𝑢𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑢𝑦𝑑𝑦 + √𝑢𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
9𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 (9 + 𝑢 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 0 − = 0
√𝑢 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2𝑢
− 𝑑𝑢 = 0 2√𝑢 − ln|𝑦| = 𝐶
𝑥 9+𝑢
𝑥
ln|𝑥| − ln|9 + 𝑢 | = 𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = ln|𝐶 | 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 → 𝑢 =
𝑦
𝑥
ln = ln|𝐶 |
9+𝑢 𝑥
𝑥 2 − ln|𝑦| = 𝐶
𝑦
=𝐶
9+𝑢
𝑦 𝑥
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 → 𝑢 = 2 = ln|𝑦| + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥
=𝐶
9+ 4𝑥 = 𝑦(ln|𝑦| + 𝐶)

𝑥
=𝐶
9𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝐶 (9𝑥 + 𝑦 )

5. 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:

𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
+ + (𝑢 − 1) 𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑀(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑥 = 𝜆(𝑥) 𝑦 𝑢−1

𝑁(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑦 − 2𝜆𝑥 = 𝜆(𝑦 − 2𝑥) ln|𝑦| + ln|𝑢 − 1| − (𝑢 − 1) =𝐶

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢 ln|𝑦(𝑢 − 1)| − (𝑢 − 1) =𝐶

𝑥
𝑢𝑦(𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑢) + (𝑦 − 2𝑢𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 → 𝑢 =
𝑦
𝑢 𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑢𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦(𝑢 − 2𝑢 − 1)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦 𝑑𝑢 = 0 ln 𝑦 −1 − −1 =𝐶
𝑦 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑢 𝑦
+ 𝑑𝑢 = 0 ln|𝑥 − 𝑦| − =𝐶
𝑦 (𝑢 − 1) 𝑥−𝑦

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Differential Equations

Examples: Substitution Suggested by the Equation

1. =
–
3. =1+𝑒 –

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 → = −1 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 5 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥 → = +1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1−𝑢 𝑑𝑢
−1= +1=1+𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑒 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
−𝑒 =𝑥+𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑢 =𝑦−𝑥+5
1 ( – )
𝑢 =𝑥+𝐶 −𝑒 =𝑥+𝐶
2
–
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 2𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶 −𝑒 =𝑥+𝐶

𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑢 =𝑥+𝑦 4. (3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3)𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑦 → 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2𝑥 + 𝐶
1
2. = sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = (3𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢)
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 → = −1 (𝑢 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑢 + 3) (3𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 2𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑢 + 9𝑑𝑥 − 3𝑑𝑢 = 0
− 1 = sin 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 (5𝑢 + 11)𝑑𝑥 − (𝑢 + 3)𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑢 𝑢+3
= sin 𝑢 + 1 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑑𝑥 5𝑢 + 11
𝑑𝑢 1 − sin 𝑢 1 4 𝑑𝑢
∙ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢 − = 0
1 + sin 𝑢 1 − sin 𝑢 5 5 5𝑢 + 11
1 − sin 𝑢 1 4
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑢 − ln|5𝑢 + 11| = 𝐶
1 − sin 𝑢 5 25
1 sin 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 − 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 25𝑥 − 5𝑢 − 4 ln|5𝑢 + 11| = 25𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 25𝐶 = 𝐶
cos 𝑢 cos 𝑢
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 2𝑦
sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 − sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
25𝑥 − 5(3𝑥 − 2𝑦) − 4 ln|5(3𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 11| = 𝐶
tan 𝑢 − sec 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 25𝑥 − 15𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 4 ln|15𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 11| = 𝐶
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑢 =𝑥+𝑦 1
10𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 4 ln|15𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 11| = 𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐶 =𝐶
2
tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) − sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝐶
5(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 2 ln|15𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 11| = 𝐶

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Differential Equations

5. sin 𝑦 (𝑥 + sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 3 ln|𝑥| + 2 ln|𝑣| − 2 ln|3 + 𝑣| = 2𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = sin 𝑦 ; 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑣

ln =𝐶
(3 + 𝑣)
𝑢(𝑥 + 𝑢)𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝑢𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑥 𝑣
=𝑒 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒 =𝐶
(3 + 𝑣)
𝑢 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑢 = 0 𝑢
𝑥 𝑥 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑣=
𝑥
𝑢
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = ; 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣
𝑥 𝑥
=𝐶
𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
3+
(𝑣 + 3𝑣)𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 =𝐶
+ = 0 (3𝑥 + 𝑢)
2𝑥 𝑣 + 3𝑣
1 1 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑢 = sin 𝑦
ln|𝑥| + ln|𝑣| − ln|3 + 𝑣| = 𝐶
2 3 3 𝑥 (sin 𝑦)
=𝐶
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 [3𝑥 + (sin 𝑦)]

𝑥 sin 𝑦 = 𝐶 (3𝑥 + sin 𝑦)

Integration by Inspection
A method of integration that involves finding specific terms in a differential equation that are
equivalent to the derivative of certain functions:
𝑑(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑 =
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑑 =
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑑 arctan =
𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
𝑦 𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑑 arctan =
𝑥 𝑥 +𝑦

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Differential Equations

Examples: Integration by Inspection

1. 𝑦(2𝑥𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 4. 2𝑡𝑑𝑠 + 𝑠(2 + 𝑠 𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0
2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 2𝑡𝑑𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑑𝑡 + 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 2(𝑠𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡𝑑𝑠) + 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 0
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + =0
𝑦 2(𝑠𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡𝑑𝑠) 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 + =0
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 𝑠 𝑡 𝑡
𝑦
𝑥 2 (𝑠𝑡) 𝑑(𝑠𝑡) + 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑥 + =𝐶
𝑦 −(𝑠𝑡) −𝑡 =𝐶
𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑦 1 1
+ = −𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 − 𝐶 = 𝐶
𝑠 𝑡 𝑡
2. 𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 0
1+𝑠 𝑡
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0 =𝐶
𝑠 𝑡
𝑦 (𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥) + 𝑥(𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥) = 0
1+𝑠 𝑡 =𝐶 𝑠 𝑡
𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦
(𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥) − =0 5. 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑(𝑥𝑦) − 𝑑 = 0
𝑦 𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦 )(𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦) + (𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥) = 0
𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑥
(𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦) + =0
𝑥𝑦 − =𝐶 𝑥 +𝑦
2
𝑦
𝑥 𝑑(𝑥𝑦) + 𝑑 arctan = 0
2𝑥𝑦 − = 2𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 2𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑥
𝑦
𝑦
2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 + arctan =𝐶
𝑥
3. (𝑥 𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 𝑦 (𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥𝑦) 𝑑(𝑥𝑦) + = 0
𝑥
(𝑥𝑦)
+ ln|𝑥| = 𝐶
3
𝑥 𝑦 + ln|𝑥 | = 3𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 3𝐶 = 𝐶

𝑥 𝑦 + ln|𝑥 | = 𝐶

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6. What is the equation of the curve passing through the point (3, −2) and having a slope at any

point (𝑥, 𝑦) equal to ?

𝑑𝑦 𝑥 +𝑦
𝑚= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(2𝑦𝑑𝑦) + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑(𝑥𝑦 )

1 1
𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶
4 3
𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (3, −2):
1 1
(−2) − (3) = (3)(−2) + 𝐶
4 3
∴ 𝐶 = −17
1 1
𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 − 17
4 3
3𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 12𝑥𝑦 + 204 = 0

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Differential Equations

Linear Differential Equation

The standard form of a linear differential equation is:
𝑦′ + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)

Integrating Factor
Let 𝑢 be function of 𝑥: (𝑢 can also be a function of 𝑦 or 𝑥 and 𝑦, but the derivation will be
slightly different)
𝑑
(𝑢𝑦) = 𝑢𝑦′ + 𝑢′𝑦
𝑑𝑥
The goal is to make (𝑢𝑦) look like the left hand side of the standard form of a linear DE; thus,

an integrating factor 𝑢 must be introduced

𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑢𝑄(𝑥)
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑢′
𝑢
𝑃(𝑥) =
𝑢
𝑢
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑢

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑢|

( ) | |
𝑒∫ =𝑒
( )
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑒∫
To solve a linear differential equation in standard form
𝑦 + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑢𝑦′ + 𝑢𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑄(𝑥)
𝑢𝑦′ + 𝑢′ 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑
(𝑢𝑦) = 𝑢𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

1
∴𝑦= 𝑢𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑢

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Examples: Linear Differential Equation

1. cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 𝑦 = 1 4. 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)𝑦 = 𝑒

𝑥+2 𝑒
𝑦′ + tan 𝑥 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦=
𝑥 𝑥
| |
𝑢 = 𝑒∫ =𝑒 = sec 𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑒∫ = 𝑒∫ =𝑒 | |
1
𝑦= (sec 𝑥)(sec 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
sec 𝑥 𝑢 =𝑒 ∙𝑒 =𝑒 𝑥
1 𝑒
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦= (𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 + 𝐶) 1
𝑦= 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
1 1
2. 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑦= 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑒 𝑥 2
1
𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑦= 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝐶𝑥 𝑒
2
∫ | |
𝑢=𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 𝑥
5. 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − 4(𝑥 + 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
1
𝑦= (𝑥 )(𝑥 sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑥 − 4(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) = 0
𝑥
4
𝑥 − 𝑥 = 4𝑦
𝑦=𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑥(− cos 𝑥 + 𝐶) ∫ | |
𝑢=𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑦
𝑦 = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 1
𝑥= (𝑦 )(4𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦
3. (𝑥 + 1) 𝑦 + (𝑥 + 2) 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒
𝑥+2 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥=𝑦 4𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑦 + 𝑦=
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥 = 𝑦 (2𝑦 + 𝐶)
∫ ∫ | |
𝑢=𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒
𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦
| |
𝑢 =𝑒 ∙𝑒 = 𝑒 (𝑥 + 1)
6. + 𝑟 sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
1 2𝑥𝑒
𝑦= 𝑒 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1 𝑢 = 𝑒∫ =𝑒 | |
= sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃
1 1
𝑦= 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑟= (sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃)(cos 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝑒 (𝑥 + 1) sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃
𝑥 +𝐶 1
𝑦= 𝑟= (1 + sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝑒 (𝑥 + 1) sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃
𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑟=
sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃

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Differential Equations

7. 𝑦 − (sin 𝑥)𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑥 ; 𝑦 =1

𝑢=𝑒 ∫ =𝑒
1
𝑦= (𝑒 )(2 sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒
1
𝑦= (−2𝑒 + 𝐶)
𝑒
𝑦 = −2 + 𝐶𝑒
𝜋
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 1: 1 = −2 + 𝐶𝑒
2
∴𝐶=3
𝑦 = −2 + 3𝑒

Bernoulli’s Equation
The standard form of a Bernoulli differential equation is:
𝑦 + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑦
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝐸
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝐸
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≠ 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝐷𝐸
To solve a Bernoulli DE in standard form, convert it to the form:
𝑐𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
Perform the following substitution:
𝑣 = 𝑦 ; 𝑣 = 𝑛𝑦 𝑦′
Convert the resulting equation into the standard form of a linear differential equation, then
solve as you would with a linear DE and perform back-substitution

Examples: Bernoulli’s Equation

1. 𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑒 𝑢=𝑒 ∫ =𝑒
𝑦 + (−1)𝑦 = (−𝑥𝑒 )𝑦 1
𝑣= (𝑒 )(2𝑥𝑒 )𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦 = −𝑥𝑒 𝑒

1 𝑣=𝑒 2𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑦 ; 𝑣 = −2𝑦 𝑦 → − 𝑣 =𝑦 𝑦
2
1 𝑣=𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝐶)
− 𝑣 − 𝑣 = −𝑥𝑒
2 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑣=𝑦
𝑣 + 2𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑒
𝑦 =𝑥 𝑒 + 𝐶𝑒

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Differential Equations

2. 𝑡 + 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑦 3. 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑦 ; 𝑦(1) =
1 1 2 3
𝑦 + − 𝑦= − 𝑦 𝑦 + − 𝑦= 𝑦
𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦 −𝑡 𝑦 = −𝑡 𝑦 𝑦 − 2𝑥 𝑦 = 3𝑥
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑦 ; 𝑣 = −𝑦 𝑦 → −𝑣 = 𝑦 𝑦 1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑦 ; 𝑣 = −3𝑦 𝑦 → − 𝑣 =𝑦 𝑦
3
−𝑣′ − 𝑡 𝑣 = −𝑡
1
𝑣 +𝑡 𝑣=𝑡 − 𝑣′ − 2𝑥 𝑣 = 3𝑥
3
𝑢 = 𝑒∫ = 𝑒 | |
=𝑡 𝑣 + 6𝑥 𝑣 = −9𝑥
1 ∫ | |
𝑣= (𝑡)(𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 𝑢=𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑥
𝑡
1
1 𝑑𝑡 𝑣= (𝑥 )(−9𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑣= 𝑥
𝑡 𝑡
1 𝑣=𝑥 −9𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = (ln|𝑡| + 𝐶)
𝑡
9
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑣=𝑦 𝑣=𝑥 − 𝑥 +𝐶
5
𝑡𝑦 = ln|𝑡| + 𝐶 ; 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐶 = ln|𝐶 | 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑣=𝑦
𝑒 /
=𝐶 𝑡 9
𝑦 =− 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
5
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦(1) = ∶
2
1 9
= − (1) + 𝐶(1)
2 5
49
∴𝐶=
5
9 49
𝑦 =− 𝑥 + 𝑥
5 5
5𝑦 = −9𝑥 + 49𝑥

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Differential Equations

Exact Differential Equation

A linear differential equation of the form:
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
is said to be exact if and only if:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
For an exact differential equation, there exists a function 𝑧 that satisfies the equation:

𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶

∗ 𝑁(𝑦) 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥

∗ 𝑀(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑦

Derivation:
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑧, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥,
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒: 𝑁(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

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Differential Equations

Examples: Exact Differential Equation

1. (𝑦 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 ) + (sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 1)𝑦 = 0 4. 𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 − 𝑦 + 6𝑥
(𝑦 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 )𝑑𝑥 + (sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0
(2𝑥𝑒 − 𝑦 + 6𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 = cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 = −1 = −1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑧= (𝑦 cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 )𝑑𝑥 + (−1) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶 (2𝑥𝑒 − 𝑦 + 6𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + (0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑧=

𝑧 = 𝑦 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑒 − 2𝑒 − 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝐶
2. (2𝑥 + 3) + (2𝑦 − 2)𝑦 = 0 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑒 − 2𝑒 − 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 𝐶

(2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = 0 5. (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − (3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (−3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
=0 =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= −3𝑦 + 2𝑦 sin 𝑥 = −3𝑦 + 2𝑦 sin 𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑧= (2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑧= (𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 𝐶
1
3. (3𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑥 + (6𝑦 − 𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝐶
2
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: 1
𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = 𝐶
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 2
= −2𝑥 = −2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑧= (3𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑥 + (6𝑦 + 3)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶

𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑦 = 𝐶

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Differential Equations

Almost Exact Differential Equation

When a differential equation is almost exact, a special integrating factor can be used to
make it exact:
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 (𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡)
𝑢𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 (𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡)

If is a function of 𝑥 alone:

𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫

If is a function of 𝑦 alone:

𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑒 ∫
Derivation:
𝜕 𝜕
𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡: (𝑢𝑀) = (𝑢𝑁)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
[ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑀 ] = [ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑁 ] [ 𝑢(𝑦)𝑀 ] = [ 𝑢(𝑦)𝑁 ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑁𝑢 (𝑥) 𝑢(𝑦) + 𝑀𝑢 (𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
𝑢(𝑥) − = 𝑁𝑢 (𝑥) 𝑀𝑢 (𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑦) −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

− 𝑢 (𝑥) 𝑢 (𝑦) −
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑁 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢(𝑦) 𝑀

− −
𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑢(𝑥)| ln|𝑢(𝑦)| = 𝑑𝑦
𝑁 𝑀

𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑒 ∫

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Differential Equations

Examples: Almost Exact Differential Equation

1. 4 sin 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 cos 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 3. 6𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 + 9𝑥 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 = 6𝑥 = 18𝑥
= 4 cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∫ ∫
∫ ∫ 𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑒 =𝑒
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 =𝑒
| | ∫ | |
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑥 𝑢(𝑦) = 𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑦
(4𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 6𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 cos 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 6𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 + 9𝑥 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑧= (4𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 6𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + (0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑧= (6𝑥𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶

𝑧 = 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑧 = 3𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑧 = 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 𝐶

2. (3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 ) + (𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦)𝑦′ = 0
(3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
[ ] [ ]
∫ ∫ [
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 =𝑒 ]

| |
𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 =𝑥
(3𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

𝑧= (3𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 )𝑑𝑥 + (0)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐶

1
𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑦+ 𝑥 𝑦 +𝐶 = 𝐶
2
1
𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑦+ 𝑥 𝑦 =𝐶
2

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Differential Equations

Second-Order Auxiliary Equation

Consider the homogeneous second-order differential equation:
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0
Suppose:
𝑦=𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑦 =𝑚 𝑒
Substituting:
𝑎𝑚 𝑒 + 𝑏𝑚𝑒 + 𝑐𝑒 =0
𝑒 (𝑎𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐) = 0
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝐸
Case I: Distinct Real Roots
𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒
Case II: Repeated Real Roots
𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒
Case III: Conjugate Complex Roots
𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑒( )
+ 𝑐 𝑒( )

𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑒 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑥

Higher-Order Auxiliary Equation

𝑎 𝑚 +𝑎 𝑚 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑎 = 0
Case I: Distinct Real Roots
𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 +⋯+ 𝑐 𝑒
Case II: Repeated Real Roots
𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒 + ⋯+ 𝑐 𝑥 𝑒

Examples: Auxiliary Equation

1. 4𝑦 + 𝑦 = 0 2. 𝑦 − 𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 0
4𝑚 + 𝑚 = 0 𝑚 −𝑚−6=0
𝑚(4𝑚 + 1) = 0 (𝑚 + 2)(𝑚 − 3) = 0
1 𝑚 = −2 𝑚 =3
𝑚 =0 𝑚 =−
4
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒
∴ 𝑦 =𝑐 +𝑐 𝑒

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Differential Equations

3. 𝑦 + 8𝑦 + 16𝑦 = 0 9. + − 2𝑢 = 0
𝑚 + 8𝑚 + 16 = 0
𝑚 +𝑚 −2=0
(𝑚 + 4) = 0
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚:
𝑚 = −4
(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 + 2𝑚 + 2) = 0
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒 𝑚=1
4. 12𝑦 − 5𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
12𝑚 − 5𝑚 − 2 = 0 𝑚 = −1 ± 𝑖
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: ∴ 𝑢 =𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 cos 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑒 sin 𝑡
2 1
𝑚 = 𝑚 =− 10. 3𝑦 + 5𝑦 + 10𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 0
3 4
/ /
3𝑚 + 5𝑦 + 10𝑦 − 4 = 0
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚:
5. 𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 0
1
𝑚 +9=0 𝑚− (3𝑚 + 6𝑚 + 12) = 0
3
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 1
𝑚=
𝑚 = ±3𝑖 3
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 3𝑥
𝑚 = −1 ± 𝑖√3
6. 𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 5𝑦 = 0
𝑚 − 4𝑚 + 5 = 0 ∴ 𝑦 =𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 cos √3 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑒 sin √3 𝑥
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 11. 𝑦 − 4𝑦 − 5𝑦 = 0
𝑚 =2±𝑖 𝑚 − 4𝑚 − 5𝑚 = 0
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑚(𝑚 − 4𝑚 − 5) = 0

7. 3𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 𝑦 = 0 𝑚(𝑚 − 5)(𝑚 + 1) = 0

3𝑚 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 𝑚 =0 𝑚 =5 𝑚 = −1

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: ∴ 𝑦 =𝑐 +𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒

−1 ± 𝑖√2 12. 𝑦 − 5𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 0
𝑚=
3 𝑚 − 5𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 9 = 0
√2 √2 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚:
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 cos 𝑥+𝑐 𝑒 𝑥
3 3 (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 − 6𝑚 + 9) = 0
8. 𝑦 ( )
+ 2𝑦 + 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 − 3) = 0
𝑚 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 𝑚 = −1 𝑚 =3
(𝑚 + 1) = 0
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎: 𝑚 = ±𝑖
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 sin 𝑥

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13. 𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:

𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 1 = 0 −1 ± 𝑖√3
𝑚=
(𝑚 + 1) = 0 2

𝑚 = −1 √3 √3
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐 +𝑐 𝑥+𝑐 𝑒 cos 𝑥+𝑐 𝑒 sin 𝑥
2 2
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒 +𝑐 𝑥 𝑒
15. 16𝑦 ( ) + 24𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 0
14. 𝑦 ( ) + 𝑦 +𝑦 =0
16𝑚 + 24𝑚 + 9 = 0
𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚 =0
(4𝑚 + 3) = 0
𝑚 (𝑚 + 𝑚 + 1) = 0
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
𝑚=0
𝑖√3
𝑚=±
2
√3 √3 √3 √3
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 sin 𝑥
2 2 2 2

Deducing the Auxiliary Equation from the Solution

𝑦 𝑚 𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑐 0 𝑚
𝑥 0, 0 𝑚
𝑥 0, 0, 0 𝑚
𝑒 𝑐 (𝑚 − 𝑐)
𝑥𝑒 𝑐, 𝑐 (𝑚 − 𝑐)
𝑥 𝑒 𝑐, 𝑐, 𝑐 (𝑚 − 𝑐)
sin 𝑐𝑥 or cos 𝑐𝑥 ±𝑐𝑖 (𝑚 + 𝑐 )
𝑒 sin 𝑐 𝑥 or 𝑒 cos 𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 ±𝑐 𝑖 [(𝑚 − 𝑐 ) + (𝑐 ) ]

Examples: Deducing the Auxiliary Equation from the Solution

1. 𝑦 = 4𝑒 + 3𝑒 2. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 𝑒
𝑚 = 2, −1 𝑚 = 0, 0, 4
(𝑚 − 2)(𝑚 + 1) 𝑦 = 0
𝑚 (𝑚 − 4) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 − 𝑚 − 2) 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 − 4𝑚 ) 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 − 𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 0 𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 0

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3. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5 sin 3𝑥 7. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 + 4𝑥
𝑚 = 0, 0, 0, ±3𝑖 𝑚 = 2, 2, 0, 0
𝑚 (𝑚 + 3 ) 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 − 2) (𝑚 ) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 + 9𝑚 ) 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 − 4𝑚 + 4𝑚 ) 𝑦 = 0

𝑦 ( ) + 9𝑦 =0 𝑦 ( ) − 4𝑦 + 4𝑦 = 0

4. 𝑦 = 7 − 2𝑥 + 𝑒 8. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑒 + 4𝑒

𝑚 = 0, 0, 0, 4 𝑚 = −1, −1, −1, 1

(𝑚 + 1) (𝑚 − 1) 𝑦 = 0
𝑚(𝑚 )(𝑚 − 4) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 − 4𝑚 ) 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 − 1) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 + 2𝑚 − 2𝑚 − 1) 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 ( ) − 4𝑦 =0
𝑦 ( ) + 2𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 𝑦 = 0
5. 𝑦 = 2𝑒 cos 3𝑥
𝑚 = 1 ± 3𝑖 9. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 sin 2𝑥 + 3𝑒 cos 2𝑥

[(𝑚 − 1) + 3 ] 𝑦 = 0 𝑚 = −1 ± 2𝑖, −1 ± 2𝑖
[(𝑚 + 1) + 2 ] 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 − 2𝑚 + 10) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 + 2𝑚 + 5) 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 10𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 + 4𝑚 + 14𝑚 + 20𝑚 + 25) 𝑦 = 0
6. 𝑦 = 3𝑒 sin 3𝑥
𝑦 ( ) + 4𝑦 + 14𝑦 + 20𝑦 + 25𝑦 = 0
[(𝑚 − 2) + 3 ] 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 − 4𝑚 + 13) 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 13𝑦 = 0

Method of Undetermined Coefficients

To solve a nonhomogeneous linear differential equation:
𝑎 𝑦( )
+𝑎 𝑦( )
+ ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Find:
𝑦 =𝑦 +𝑦
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Complementary Solution
To solve for the complementary solution:
 Convert the left-hand side of the equation into an auxiliary equation and equate it to zero
 Find the roots of the auxiliary equation
 Apply the three cases (distinct real roots, repeated real roots, conjugate complex roots)
accordingly

Particular Solution
To solve for the particular solution, make a conjecture about the form of 𝑦 based on the
functions that make up 𝑔(𝑥), then solve for the constants of 𝑦

𝑔(𝑥) 𝑦
1. 𝑐 𝐴
2. 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
3. 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
4. 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
5. 𝑒 𝐴𝑒
6. (𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 ) 𝑒 (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) 𝑒
7. (𝑐 𝑥 ) 𝑒 (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) 𝑒
8. sin 𝑐𝑥 or cos 𝑐𝑥 𝐴 cos 𝑐𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑐𝑥
9. 𝑒 sin 𝑐 𝑥 or 𝑒 cos 𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑒 cos 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 sin 𝑐 𝑥
Note: If 𝑦 contains terms in 𝑦 (disregarding the numerical coefficients), 𝑦 must be multiplied by 𝑥 , such that 𝑛 is
the smallest integer that eliminates the duplication.

Examples: Method of Undetermined Coefficients

1. 𝑦 − 6𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 :
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 : 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒
(𝑚 − 6𝑚 + 9) 𝑦 = 0 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 ; 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 ; 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒
(𝑚 − 3) 𝑦 = 0 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑚 = 3, 3 𝐴𝑒 − 6𝐴𝑒 + 9𝐴𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑦 =𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒 𝐴 − 6𝐴 + 9𝐴 = 1
4𝐴 = 1 → 𝐴 = 1/4
1
∴ 𝑦= 𝑐 𝑒 + 𝑐 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒
4

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2. 𝑦 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 12𝑥 3. 𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 5𝑒 − 162𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 : 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 :
(𝑚 + 3𝑚 + 2) 𝑦 = 0 (𝑚 + 9) 𝑦 = 0
(𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 + 2) 𝑦 = 0 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎:
𝑚 = −1, −2 𝑚 = ±3𝑖
𝑦 =𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑐 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 3𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 : 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 :
𝑔(𝑥) = 12𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑒 − 162𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶; 𝑦 = 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵; 𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶; 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵; 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
2𝐴 + 3(2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) + 2(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) = 12𝑥 𝐴𝑒 + 9(𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) = 5𝑒 − 162𝑥
𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝐴 = 6; 𝐵 = −18; 𝐶 = 21 1
𝐴= ; 𝐵 = −18; 𝐶=0
2
∴ 𝑦=𝑐 𝑒 +𝑐 𝑒 + 6𝑥 − 18𝑥 + 21
1
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐 cos 3𝑥 + 𝑐 sin 3𝑥 + 𝑒 − 18𝑥
2

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