General Music Today

Volume 21 Number 3
Spring 2008 18-24
© 2008 MENC: The National
Our Singing Children Association for Music Education
10.1177/1048371308317086

Developing Singing Accuracy

Charlotte P. Mizener

The purpose of this article is to help the music educator maximize the time allotted to singing with children in the class-
room. It will address what teachers and children in the classroom may do to develop and improve singing accuracy, includ-
ing some suggestions for implementing instruction techniques, planning singing activities, and arranging the singing
environment. The article includes descriptions of “presinging activities” that a teacher may use to help children develop a
foundation for singing accuracy, a discussion of appropriate vocal models, and an examination of the use of various kines-
thetic activities and breath management techniques to increase singing accuracy. Some considerations regarding singing in
the classroom, such as frequency of music instruction periods, selection of appropriate songs, use of text or neutral sylla-
bles, performance with or without accompaniment, and individual or group singing conditions, are also presented.

Keywords: children’s singing voices; elementary music instruction; singing instruction; children’s songs

and sing with acceptable accuracy. The most important

“ S inging, alone and with others, a varied repertoire
of music” is the first content standard of the
National Standards for music education (Consortium of
thing the music educator can do is to realize that singing
is a learned behavior and singing instruction is vital in
National Arts Education Associations, 1994). Indeed, the producing competent singers.
authors of the National Standards purposely placed singing Both Bertaux (1989) and Bennett (1986) observe that
as the first content standard in music because of its impor- there is a set of skills that a child must develop in his or her
tance in music teaching and learning. Ideally, children progress toward singing accuracy. The authors agree that
should feel comfortable singing and should want to con- children master the skill of producing a specific pitch only
tinue to sing all through adulthood. Findings from research after mastering a long list of other aural and musical skills.
studies indicate that music teachers spend approximately Both authors emphasize that children should be aware of
one third of their instructional time in the music class on the physical sensations of singing, should describe verbally
singing activities (Baldridge, 1984; Moore, 1981; their own vocal sounds and those of others, and should
Weinberg, 1988). The purpose of this article is to help the explore and experiment with vocal registers and qualities.
music educator maximize the time allotted to singing with Past research reinforces the need to explore, experiment
children in the classroom. It will address what teachers and with, and develop singing range and vocal register.
children in the classroom may do to develop and improve
singing accuracy, including some suggestions for imple- Presinging Activities
menting instruction techniques, planning singing activities, There are many presinging activities a teacher may
and arranging the singing environment. use to help the children develop a foundation for singing
accuracy. Describing vocal experiences, feelings, and
sounds is one of them. Bertaux (1989) recommends a
Singing Instruction “discovery” and “asking” method rather than an
“instructional” and “telling” method for getting children
The good news is that the music educator can teach to describe their vocal experiences. She proposes that the
students to sing, and, barring certain disabilities or teacher assign a vocal task then ask students to be aware
physical conditions, students can learn to match pitch of various sensations and observations about physical

Charlotte Mizener is an associate professor and coordinator of music education at Lamar University in Beaumont, Texas. She previously taught elemen-
tary music in grades kindergarten through 6. She received a PhD in music education from the University of Texas at Austin. Her research interests include
the elementary school-aged singer and children’s attitudes toward music and singing. E-mail: [email protected].

18
 Mizener / Our Singing Children 19

actions involved in the vocal task. For example, the as a minor third (sol–mi) interval. Let the child hold a
children may speak in various registers of the voice stuffed kitten while calling. If the child’s voice is in the
(Papa Bear, Mama Bear, and Baby Bear voices) and feel speaking range, remind him or her to call an even smaller
vibrations in the chest or at the throat. The teacher should kitty in order to encourage use of the light mechanism.
ask them to describe the sensations. Children may also Environmental sounds may also use the full range of
make animal sounds, imitating larger or smaller animals the voice. Bell sounds, including “bim-bom” at a lower
with higher or lower, louder or softer, and rougher or pitch and “ding-dong” at various pitch levels, may be
smoother qualities. The teacher may call upon a class- used. Train whistles and fire engine sirens, complete
mate to describe the sound a child has just produced. with horn and bell sounds, make vocal exploration fun
Children must distinguish among whispering, calling, for younger children. The teacher or a child may conduct
speaking, and singing voices. The teacher may ask class members in making their voices move higher and
children to echo as he or she says, “This is my ___ lower with wind sounds and ghost sounds.
voice.” Then, individual children may speak a sentence As children move closer to actual singing activities,
in one of the voices, and a classmate may identify it. I they need to experience the feeling of sustaining the
have them say, “My name is ____.” voice. In speaking, the sound comes out in bursts; in
To call attention to the singing/speaking voice differ- singing, in a continuous, sustained “ribbon.” Reciting
ence, use a version of “Tinker, Tailor” in which the tradi- nursery rhymes in a sustained-tone style allows children
tional rhyme is sung in a sol–mi chant: “Tinker (two to feel the continuous production of sound. The children
hammering motions), tailor (two stitching motions), sol- choose a nursery rhyme then speak it at any pitch level
dier (two marching steps), sailor (one salute), / Rich man and in as legato a manner as possible. They are essen-
(hands in pockets), poor man (hands pretend to turn pock- tially singing on a single pitch. I try not to demonstrate
ets inside out), beggar man (hands cupped in front), thief at first because I do not want them to match my pitch
(suddenly draw hands to chest).” Then a second part is level. I want them to use a pitch level comfortable to
added in a speaking voice. The children chant it rhythmi- them. If they “just don’t get it,” I will demonstrate. Thus,
cally, starting pianissimo and making a crescendo to the they start to make a transition from speaking to singing.
end while repeating the motions for the “Rich man” sec- After reciting nursery rhymes on a single-pitch,
tion: “Some people have the money, / Some people have no sustained-tone style, the children move to singing them
money, / Some people beg for money, / Some just take it!” to two- or three-tone melodies, melodies consisting of
Finally, repeat the “Tinker, Tailor” section in the singing sol and mi or sol, mi, and la. The young singers pick up
voice. the idea of singing the patterns very quickly and natu-
Various animal and environmental sounds allow rally with very little assistance from the teacher. From
children to explore and experiment with the voice. Bird that experience, they may move to the repertoire of limited-
sounds offer many ways for children to use different reg- range nursery and children’s songs.
isters of the speaking voice. Traditionally, teachers have A final suggestion for a presinging activity is to create
used the “whoo, whoo” of the owl or the “cuckoo” “The Lost Puppy” story. Depending on the age of the
sound. Both sounds use the “oo” vowel, which is helpful children, the teacher may either prepare the story or lead
in shifting from a speaking mode into a singing mode. the children in making up the story. It may be a story
Other bird sounds include rooster calls, both the “cock- that the teacher reads to the children, allowing them to sup-
a-doo-dle-doo” and the not so melodious but nonetheless ply the conversation, dialogue, or sound effects. Alterna-
useful “er-er-er-er-errr.” Children also enjoy imitating tively, it may be written as a play for the students to
the “beep-beep!” sound of the cartoon roadrunner. prepare and present as a class activity.
Encourage them to produce it with a strong nasal quality. The basic format of the story is as follows: There are at
Children may also howl like a coyote or whimper like least two children; a kitty, which sets the children up to use
a puppy. Buzzing like a mosquito offers opportunities for the kitty call “Here, Kitty, Kitty!”; and a puppy, setting them
exploring upper and lower registers. Urge the children to up to use the sound of a whimpering puppy. The story may
buzz like various sizes of mosquitoes, including a very contain additional child or adult characters and additional
tiny mosquito in order to use a higher register. Carry on animals. In the conversation or dialogue of the story, the
a “mosquito conversation” with the class, and have indi- characters use speaking, whispering, calling, and singing
vidual students hold conversations. Make each part as voices. The animals may take part in the dialogue. The story
expressive as possible. The children may also practice includes at least one favorite song, and it may also provide
calling the kitty. “Here, Kitty, Kitty” usually comes out opportunity for the children to use classroom instruments,
20 General Music Today

either as a constituent part of the story, as sound effects, or study in which participants echoed a minor third after child,
as accompaniment to the favorite song. adult female, and adult male models, Green (1990) found
“The Lost Puppy” project allows children to use their that children in grades 1, 2, and 6 responded most accu-
creativity and imagination while engaging in vocal rately to a child model, whereas participants in grades 3
activities designed for vocal development. In addition, it through 5 had the greatest percentage of accurate responses
brings a multidisciplinary component to music instruction. to the adult female model. Similarly, a study by Yarbrough,
When the children engage in the creation of the story, they Green, Benson, and Bowers (1991) indicated that inaccu-
are using language arts skills. If they go on to present it as rate singers responded more accurately to an adult female
a play, they also draw on theatre arts skills. model than to an adult male model. Results of a study of the
adult male vocal model by Hendley and Persellin (1996)
Song-Teaching Conditions suggested that the adult male should sing in the falsetto
range in order for children to sing with the most accuracy.
In music classrooms, not only do students take part in Regarding another aspect of the singing model, Yarbrough,
presinging activities to help develop singing skill, but, of Bowers, and Benson (1992) found that a nonvibrato singing
course, they also learn songs. When the teacher sets out model brought about more accurate responses among
to teach children a song, the question arises, Should the younger and inaccurate singers. In practice, then, it appears
teacher sing with the children or only for them in the that children will sing more accurately if they have child or
process of teaching the song? Many teachers adamantly adult female models singing without vibrato.
hold that the teacher should never sing along with the
children. “When the children sing, the teacher listens; Kinesthetic activities and singing accuracy. Many
when the teacher sings, the children listen” is their rule. researchers recommend using various kinesthetic activi-
Other teachers just as firmly believe that the teacher should ties to increase singing accuracy. Associating moving the
have the option to sing with the children when it is deemed voice to higher and lower pitch levels with higher and
appropriate. Persellin, Smith, Klein, and Taguiam (2002) lower physical actions has long been a recommendation
investigated kindergarteners’ singing accuracy following a for increasing singing accuracy. Szabo (2001) described
treatment period of the teacher either singing only for the many procedures for improving singing accuracy based
children or the teacher singing only with the children. on research results. She concluded that kinesthetic activ-
Whereas singing accuracy improved for all groups, the ities that reinforce a visual model were the most helpful
researchers found that teaching technique had no effect on in improving singing accuracy. Among kinesthetic activ-
the accuracy scores. Persellin (2003) subsequently con- ities that children may perform to improve singing accu-
ducted a survey of music-teacher educators and found that racy are larger movements such as reaching and bending
there was no agreement on the sing-with or sing-for issue. to follow the melodic contour or indicating specific tones
The author of the article presented several references advo- by touching designated points on the body. They may
cating one procedure or the other, but no research makes also use smaller movements to show specific tones
any definitive recommendations. Written comments from through hand levels or Curwen hand signs.
many of the teachers involved in both the above studies, The use of hand signs and solfège are two activities of
however, indicated that they felt that no single technique interest to numerous teachers in this country and around
applied to all situations. The teacher should adapt the tech- the world. Youngson and Persellin (2001) worked with two
nique to the singing skills of the children and the nature of groups of kindergartners, giving each group 10 weeks of
the particular song. Until we have more data, the teacher music instruction, one group singing with hand signs, the
should continue to be aware of the children’s response to other without. They found significant differences between
various song-teaching techniques and adapt them to the pretest and posttest scores of vocal accuracy for the hand
best advantage. Sing for or with the children, but always sign group but no pretest-posttest differences in the group
remember that you must be able to hear them in order to not using hand signs. The posttest scores of the two groups,
assess their singing accuracy. however, were not significantly different. The researchers
Another consideration related to song-teaching condi- concluded that it is difficult to draw any generalizations
tions is the vocal model. Teachers must provide appropriate about the use of hand signs.
vocal models for children. An adult female voice or a child Yarbrough et al. (1991) similarly found that the accuracy
voice seems to be the most appropriate singing model. of singing responses did not seem to be related to the use of
Sims, Moore, and Kuhn (1982) found that 5- and 6-year- hand signs. They worked with inaccurate singers from
olds responded with greater singing accuracy to an adult kindergarten through grade 3 and grades 7 through 8. The
female model than to an adult male model. Similarly, in a participants echoed the interval of a minor third with hand
 Mizener / Our Singing Children 21

signs, solfège, or a neutral syllable. There were no signifi- Arranging the Singing Environment
cant differences in singing accuracy when the participants
used the various response modes. Although no significant Planning singing activities includes many factors related
differences occurred in singing accuracy by response mode, to how singing takes place in the music classroom. Some of
only kindergarten students responded best by neutral sylla- those factors are frequency of music instruction periods,
ble; students in the second, third, seventh, and eighth grades selection of appropriate songs, use of text or neutral sylla-
responded best with solfège; and first graders responded bles, performance with or without accompaniment, and
best with hand signs. The results prompted the researchers individual or group singing conditions.
to suggest that children may start singing songs with neutral
syllables, move on to the use of hand signs and solfège in Frequency of Music Instruction Periods
second and third grades, then fade the hand signs at later
Regular music instruction is necessary for improve-
grades. Judging from the mixed results of these studies, it is
ment of singing accuracy. Ideally, students should
evident that the use of hand signs is an area open to further
receive at least 90 min of music instruction per week,
study. In my experience, however, many students infor-
with periods of 20 to 30 min for primary grades and peri-
mally remark that when echo singing melodic patterns, the
ods of 25 to 45 min for intermediate and upper grades
visual and physical use of hand signs makes remembering
(MENC, 1994). Music educators have advocated for
the patterns easier.
music classes following such a schedule for very long
The kinesthetic activity category may also include
time, and at least two research studies support it.
breathing exercises. Children may engage in breath manage-
Rutkowski (1996) found that periods of shorter, more
ment exercises in order to improve singing accuracy. There
frequent music instruction might be more effective than
is a multitude of such exercises appropriate for children.
longer, less frequent sessions in teaching singing skills to
Phillips (1985) and Bertaux (1989) are two researchers
kindergartners. In addition, results of a study by Moore,
offering effective strategies for developing appropriate use
Fyk, Frega, and Brotons (1995/1996) indicated that
of the breath. Phillips found that regular breathing instruc-
students who had regular music instruction performed
tion can improve singing accuracy in children as young as
more accurately an interval matching exercise than those
second graders. In his study, second-grade students took
without regular instruction. It appears that both common
part in physical conditioning and posture development
practice and research results support the recommenda-
exercises. They also engaged in exercises to help them
tions of shorter, more frequent music classes.
become aware of the breathing motion of muscles in the
torso. Breath management exercises including the addition
of a singing tone were also used. Selection of Appropriate Songs
For breath management, Bertaux (1989) suggests that Another means by which the teacher can help children
students experiment with different ways of exhaling and achieve singing accuracy is through thoughtful song selec-
inhaling. For inhaling, she recommends pretending to take tion. Range, interval size and quality, and text of a song
short and long sips through a straw, gasping, and yawning; affect singing accuracy. Moore et al. (1995/1996) observed
for exhaling, blowing up a balloon, keeping bubbles afloat, children echoing interval patterns including most intervals
and blowing out birthday candles. Moving from managing between a unison and an octave. Participants sang unisons,
the breath to connecting breath to sound, she advises descending minor thirds, and descending perfect fourths
teachers to have students sigh and determine if they are with the greatest accuracy. These results support the prac-
exhaling or inhaling. When the students sigh again, they tice of using songs of narrow range and with a limited
should notice the sensation of where the sound is produced. number of intervals. They also suggest the use of penta-
Merrill (2002) discussed a number of physical activities tonic songs in the repertoire of young children. Building on
to improve singing accuracy. He suggested throwing an the data gathered from the 1995/1996 study, Moore,
imaginary ball and singing “woo” starting at a high pitch Brotons, Fyk, and Castillo (1997) found evidence that step-
level and making the voice follow the arc of the ball as it wise melodies indeed appear to be easier to sing than
travels to the target. An exercise related to breathing melodies with skips and leaps. They composed a melody of
involved lightly touching the chest while inhaling and phys- two sections, one phrase more conjunct and one more dis-
ically tracking the breath as it fills the lungs. Then the junct. The children, aged 6 through 9, sang the conjunct
singers reach their hands high and sing “ah” starting at a phrase with greater accuracy than the disjunct phrase. In
higher pitch. Their hands should move lower as their voices selecting songs for young singers in the process of devel-
descend. oping singing accuracy, then, teachers should remember
22 General Music Today

that the students will have greater success singing songs without accompaniment and the other performed them with
with appropriate ranges and melodies using steps and small simple harmonic piano accompaniment. At the end of the
intervals (seconds, thirds, and fourths). Keeping these year, there were no differences between pretest and posttest
research findings in mind, we can find songs appropriate assessments of singing accuracy. In a review of literature on
for children of various ages in our textbooks and in other children’s singing, Goetze, Cooper, and Brown (1990) con-
sources. Through thoughtful song selection, we can give the cluded that simple harmonic accompaniment seemed to
developing singer a “fighting chance” to sing accurately. result in greater singing accuracy, whereas complex and dis-
sonant accompaniments decreased accuracy. Along those
Use of Text or Neutral Syllables same lines, Hale (1977) concluded that a combination of
melodic and harmonic accompaniment resulted in greater
Also related to song selection is the question of how the singing accuracy than harmonic accompaniment alone.
use of text or neutral syllables affects singing accuracy. In These results indicate that simple harmonic accompaniment
the studies consulted for this article, participants demon- does not affect singing accuracy adversely, so teachers may
strated greater accuracy when singing without text. use an appropriate accompaniment without concern for
Levinowitz (1989) taught songs with and without text (on negative effects. Furthermore, some teachers recommend
neutral syllables) to children in preschool. At the end of the using chordal accompaniment on the guitar because the gui-
treatment period, she found that children demonstrated tar does not overpower the voices as the piano might. Still
greater singing accuracy on the criterion song without another advantage of using the guitar is that while playing
words than on the one with words. Welch, Sergeant, and the guitar, the teacher can watch and listen to the children
White (1995/1996) obtained similar results in their tests of more carefully than while playing the piano.
singing competencies of 5-year-olds. The children in the
study sang single pitches, pitch patterns of three to five
pitches, “glides,” and whole songs. The participants repro- Individual or Group Singing Conditions
duced items without words generally more accurately than A considerable number of investigations into children’s
songs. Individual pitches and simple glides had more accu- singing have concerned the issue of singing accuracy in an
rate responses than patterns, and patterns had more accu- individual singing condition and in a small-group unison
rate responses than songs. singing condition. No conclusive recommendations have
A review of literature by Lange (2002) also found mixed emerged. Findings from some studies suggested that
results among several studies of singing accuracy with text children sing with greater accuracy in the group unison con-
or no text as a variable. The reports she reviewed indicated dition, and other findings indicated greater accuracy with
either no differences in singing accuracy between text and the individual condition. In the study by Green (1994),
no-text conditions or the no-text condition yielding greater children in grades 1, 2, 3, and 5 sang a short song individu-
singing accuracy. These results may suggest that music ally and in groups of eight. They sang more accurately in
educators consider teaching songs and patterns from songs the group condition. In contrast, Goetze and Horii (1989)
on a neutral syllable then add the words when the children found that for children in kindergarten, first grade, and third
can sing the melody securely. grade, individual singing was more accurate than singing in
groups of six. The boys in this study demonstrated a much
Performance With or Without Accompaniment greater difference in singing accuracy between the two con-
In arranging the singing environment, the use of accom- ditions, with their group singing being much less accurate
paniment is a factor to consider. Different studies investi- than the group singing of the girls. A third study yielded no
gating relationships between singing accuracy and use of significant differences in singing accuracy between the two
accompaniment yield different results. Kuhn and Sims conditions (Cooper, 1995). In this study, the researcher
(1983) tested first graders singing “Row, Row, Row Your recorded children in grades 1 through 5 echoing a four-beat
Boat” with and without guitar accompaniment. Analysis of pattern sung by a child model on tape. Although she found
the accuracy of several target pitches in the song indicated no differences in singing accuracy according to group or
that accompaniment was not related to the accuracy with individual condition, she did find that singing accuracy in
which the children sang the target pitches. Atterbury and both individual and group conditions was highest among
Silcox (1993) found no differences in singing accuracy with fourth graders and lowest among third graders. Singing
or without accompaniment. They tested kindergartners for task, age, and gender all seemed to be associated with the
singing accuracy at the beginning of the school year. Then, various results of these studies. As with the solution to the
for the entire year, one group performed singing activities question of whether the teacher should sing for or sing with
 Mizener / Our Singing Children 23

Table 1 are just a few of the motives or phrases children may sing
Suggested Songs for Individual Singing individually in relatively painless surroundings.
Songs for Lower Grades Songs for Upper Grades Teaching children to sing and helping them to develop a
desire to sing are two of the most important things the ele-
Did You Feed My Cow? Don Gato mentary general music teacher can do. The music educator
(spoken responses) Old Blue
can proceed in these endeavors confidently and effectively
John the Rabbit One More River to Cross
Frog Went A-Courtin’ Li’l Liza Jane with an understanding of the nature of the child singing
Old McDonald Angel Band voice and knowledge of techniques and activities to culti-
Roll Over Going Down to Cairo vate singing accuracy.
Who Has the Penny? Charlottetown
Lucy Locket Ezekiel Saw the Wheel
Doggie, Doggie Grizzly Bear References
Old House The Telephone Song
Cuckoo Wallflower Atterbury, B. W., & Silcox, L. (1993). The effect of piano accompa-
Who Built the Ark? niment on kindergartners’ developmental singing ability. Journal
Tick Tock Goes the Little Clock of Research in Music Education, 41, 40–47.
Baldridge, W. R. (1984). A systematic investigation of listening activ-
ities in the elementary general music classroom. Journal of
Research in Music Education, 32, 79–93.
children for greater singing accuracy, the solution to the Bennett, P. (1986). A responsibility to young voices. Music Educators
question of singing individually or in a small-group condi- Journal, 73, 33–38.
tion for greater singing accuracy seems to depend on the Bertaux, B. (1989). Teaching children of all ages to use the singing voice,
and how to work with out-of-tune singers. In D. L. Walters &
individual situation. The music educator should keep in C. C. Taggart (Eds.), Readings in music learning theory (pp. 92–104).
mind, however, that classes (or groups) do not learn: indi- Chicago: GIA Publications.
viduals do. Therefore, considering the importance of assess- Consortium of National Arts Education Associations. (1994). The
ment in today’s educational environment, it is imperative to National Standards for Arts Education. Reston, VA: MENC.
provide opportunities for individual singing in order to track Cooper, N. A. (1995). Children’s singing accuracy as a function of
grade level, gender, and individual versus unison singing. Journal
achievement in singing accuracy.
of Research in Music Education, 43, 222–231.
Of all the above features and influences on children’s Goetze, M., Cooper, N., & Brown, C. J. (1990). Recent research on
singing, I thought that the individual or group issue was the singing in the general music classroom. Bulletin of the Council for
most interesting. The lack of consistency in the results of Research in Music Education, 104, 17–37.
the individual or group singing studies may have occurred Goetze, M., & Horii, Y. (1989). A comparison of the pitch accuracy
because of the different treatment conditions. Nonetheless, of group and individual singing in young children. Bulletin of the
Council for Research in Music Education, 99, 57–73.
individual singing is necessary in the general music class- Green, G. A. (1990). The effect of vocal modeling on pitch-matching
room. Teachers are sometimes reluctant to have children accuracy of elementary school children. Journal of Research in
sing individually, but there are effective ways in which Music Education, 38, 225–231.
children may sing alone in a painless manner. If individual Green, G. A. (1994). Unison versus individual singing and elemen-
singing is a routine event in music class from the beginning tary students’ vocal pitch accuracy. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 42, 105–114.
of a child’s formal music education, then he or she will be
Hale, M. R. (1977). An experimental study of the comparative effec-
more likely to take it in stride. Singing conversation songs tiveness of harmonic and melodic accompaniment in singing as it
such as “Cuckoo, Who Are You?” or “Come Home, All relates to the development of a sense of tonality. Bulletin of the
My Ducks and Geese” with puppets is often a successful Council for Research in Music Education, 53, 23–30.
means of getting two children to sing alone. There are Hendley, J. A., & Persellin, D. C. (1996). How the lower adult male
many songs that offer opportunities for individual singing. voice and the male falsetto voice affect children’s vocal accuracy.
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 14, 9–14.
Some of those songs appear in Table 1. Several are singing Kuhn, T. L., & Sims, W. L. (1983). The effect of simultaneous
games with questions and answers that individual children melodic and harmonic accompaniment, pitch level, and song tones
may sing: “Who Has the Penny?” “Lucy Locket,” “Doggie, on first-grade students’ ability to sing correct pitches. Contributions
Doggie,” “Wallflower,” and “The Telephone Song.” Others to Symposium/83, 2, 153–168.
are songs with a repeated phrase or motive that children Lange, D. L. (2002, February). Text vs. no text: A review of literature.
Paper presented at the meeting of the Texas Music Educators
may sing first as a class, then in smaller groups, then in
Association, San Antonio, TX.
pairs, and finally individually. “Meow, meow, meow” of Levinowitz, L. M. (1989). An investigation of preschool children’s com-
“Don Gato”; “Tear it down” of “Old House”; “Oo-oo-oo- parative capability to sing songs with and without words. Bulletin of
oo” of “Skin and Bone”; and “Here, Blue” of “Old Blue” the Council for Research in Music Education, 100, 14–19.
24 General Music Today

Merrill, J. D. (2002). Successful singing for all in the elementary Rutkowski, J. (1996). The effectiveness of individual/small-group
grades. Music Educators Journal, 89, 50–55. singing activities on kindergartners’ use of singing voice and devel-
Moore, R. S. (1981). The comparative use of teaching time by opmental music aptitude. Journal of Research in Music Education,
American and British elementary music specialists. Bulletin of the 44, 353–368.
Council for Research in Music Education, 66–67, 62–68. Sims, W. L., Moore, R. S, & Kuhn, T. L. (1982). Effects of female
Moore, R. S., Brotons, M., Fyk, J., & Castillo, A. (1997). Effects of and male vocal stimuli, tonal pattern length, and age on vocal
culture, age, gender, and repeated trials on rote song learning pitch-matching abilities of young children from England and
skills of children 6-9 years old from England, Panama, Poland, the United States. Psychology of Music [Special issue],
Spain, and the United States. Bulletin of the Council for Research 104–108.
in Music Education, 133, 83–88. Szabo, M. (2001). Children’s inaccurate singing: Selected contribut-
Moore, R. S., Fyk, J., Frega, A. L., & Brotons, M. (1995/1996). ing factors. General Music Today, 14, 4–10.
Influences of culture, age, gender and two-tone melodies on interval Weinberg, P. T. (1988). A descriptive study of music teachers’ verbal
matching skills of children from Argentina, Poland, Spain, and the behavior during the teaching of a new song. Unpublished master’s
USA. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127, thesis, University of Texas at Austin.
127–135. Welch, G. F., Sergeant, D. S., & White, P. J. (1995/1996). The
Music Educators National Conference. (1994). Opportunity to learn singing competencies of five-year-old developing singers.
standards for music instruction: Grades preK-12. Reston, VA: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127,
Author. 155–162.
Persellin, D. (2003). Teaching songs to young children: What do Yarbrough, C., Bowers, J., & Benson, W. (1992). The effect of vibrato
music-teacher educators say? General Music Today, 17, 18–27. on the pitch-matching accuracy of certain and uncertain singers.
Persellin, D. C., Smith, L., Klein, M., & Taguiam E. (2002). An investi- Journal of Research in Music Education, 40, 30–38.
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