EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

To design the shape of impeller blades, we should obtain an expression for tangential velocities
components V1, t and V2, t in terms of blade angles 𝜷𝟏 and𝜷𝟐 .

Consider the following velocity triangle

Vb
V2, t

𝜷𝟐
V2, n
V2,r
V2

Velocity diagram for the leading edge of the blade (2)

𝑉22 = 𝑉2,𝑟
2
+ 𝑉𝑏2 − 2𝑉2,𝑟 𝑉𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜷𝟐

But Vb is the blade velocity at radius r2

𝑉𝑏 = 𝝎𝒓𝟐
𝝎𝒓𝟐 − 𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝑉2,𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜷𝟐

Therefore

1
𝜔𝑟2 𝑉2,𝑡 = 2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉2,𝑟
2
+ 𝜔2 𝑟22 ) -----------------------------------------------------------------------(1)

Equation (1) can be derived for the leading edge (section 1) of the blade at radius r1

We know that

1
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑔 (𝜔𝑟2 𝑉2 , 𝑡 − 𝜔𝑟1 𝑉1 , 𝑡)------------------------------------------------------------------(2)

1
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Substitute equation (1) into (2)

1
𝐻 = 2𝑔 [(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + (𝜔2 𝑟22 − 𝜔2 𝑟12 ) − (𝑉2,𝑟
2 2
− 𝑉1,𝑟 )]-------------------------------------------(3)

To design for maximum head, we make 𝜔𝑟1 𝑉1,𝑡 = 0 in equation (2) by setting 𝑉1,𝑡 = 0

This means that we should select the blade inlet angle b1 such that the flow into the impeller
blade is in the radial direction from an absolute reference frame
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝑉1
Now, consider the velocity diagram at the blade inlet

Figure: Velocity diagram at blade inlet

From the figure above,

𝑉1,𝑛
𝑉1,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟1 −
tan 𝛽1
Similarly

𝑉2,𝑛
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟2 −
tan 𝛽2
For maximum head

2
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑉1,𝑡 = 0
Therefore,

𝑉
𝜔𝑟1 = tan1,𝑛𝛽 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4)
1

Volumetric flow rate,

𝑉̇ = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 𝑉1,𝑛
The above equation can be written in terms of equation 4 to become,
𝑽̇ = 𝟐𝝅𝒃𝟏 𝝎𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟏

Example 5
A centrifugal pump is being designed to pump liquid refrigerant R-134a at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. The impeller inlet and outlet radii are r1 = 100 and r2 = 180 mm. The
impeller inlet and outlet widths are b1 = 50 mm and b2 = 30mm. The pump is to deliver 0.25 m3/s
of the liquid at a net head of 14.5 m when the impeller rotates at 1720 rpm. Calculate
(a) The power required by the pump,
(b) The inlet and exit blade angles, (𝜷𝟏 and𝜷𝟐 ). Properties for refrigerant R-134a at
T = 200C: vf = 0.0008157 m3/kg. Note that density = 1/vf

Axial flow pumps

It was indicated earlier that in an axial fan, fluid enters the pump axially and leaves the pump in
the same direction.

Axial pumps do not utilize so-called centrifugal forces. Instead, the impeller blades behave more
like the wing of an airplane (Fig. a), producing lift by changing the momentum of the fluid as
they rotate. The rotor of a helicopter, for example, is a type of axial-flowpump. The lift force on
the blade is caused by pressure differences between the topand bottom surfaces of the blade, and

3
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

the change in flow direction leads to downwash (acolumn of descending air) through the rotor
plane.

A helicopter rotor and the airplane propeller are examples of open axial-flow fans, since there is
no duct or casing around the tips of the blades.
The small cooling fan inside your computer is typically an axial-flow fan and is an example of a
ducted axial-flow fan. The casing around the house fan also acts as a short duct, which helps to
direct the flow and eliminate some losses at the blade tips.

Figure a: The axial pump behave like the wing of an airplane. The air is turned downward by the
wing as it generate lift force

4
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: Axial-flow machines may be open or ducted: (a) a propeller is an open fan, and (b) a
computer cooling fan is a ducted fan.
Consider now an axial flow machine, as shown in the figure shown below.

Figure: Axial flow impeller

For axial flow machine,

𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑛 𝜋 (𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )
The following figure shows velocity triangles at the inlet and at the outlet of an axial flow
machine

5
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: (a) Outlet velocity triangle and (b) Inlet velocity triangle

The following analysis applies to any radius r drawn from the center of the hub.
The important difference between the axial flow machine and the centrifugal one is that, in the
axial flow pump, the flow is axial, the changes from inlet to outlet take place at the same radius
and, hence,
Velocity of the blade at radius r between the inlet and outlet = U= ωr

Also, since the flow area is the same at inlet and outlet,

𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝑉2,𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛
And the volumetric flow rate is obtained from,

𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝐴𝑉2,𝑛

It is assumed that,

6
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

α1 = 0°, V1,t= 0, V1= V1,n

From the outlet velocity triangle,

(𝑈 − 𝑉2,𝑡 )
cot 𝛽2 =
𝑉𝑛
So that,
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝑈 − 𝑉𝑛 cot 𝛽2

1
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐻 = (𝑈 𝑉 )
𝑔 2,𝑡 2,𝑡
Therefore,
𝑈
𝐻= (𝑈 − 𝑉𝑛 cot 𝛽2 )
𝑔

This equation applies to any particular radius r and is not necessarily constant over the range
from R1 to R2.

Example 6
An axial flow fan has a hub diameter of 1.50 m and a tip diameter of 2.0 m. It rotates at 18 rad s−1
and, when handling 5.0 m3 s−1 of air, develops a theoretical head equivalent to 17 mm of water.
Determine the blade outlet and inlet angles at the hub and at the tip. Assume that the velocity of
flow is independent of radius and that the energy transfer per unit length of blade (δr) is constant.
Take the density of air as 1.2 kgm−3 and the density of water as 1000 kgm−3.

Example 7
An axial flow pump operates at 500 rpm. The outer diameter of the impeller is 750 mm and the
hub diameter is 400 mm. At the mean blade radius, the inlet blade angle is 12° and the outlet
blade angle is 15°, both measured with respect to the plane of impeller rotation. Sketch the

7
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

corresponding velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet and estimate from them (a) the head generated
by the pump, (b) the rate of flow through the pump, (c) the shaft power consumed by the pump.

Mixed Flow Pumps

The flow in these kind of pumps is partly axial and partly radial. We have seen from the previous
section that the modern centrifugal pump is a formidable device, able to deliver very high heads
and low flow rates with excellent efficiency. It can match many system requirements. But
basically the centrifugal pump is a high-head, low flow machine, whereas there are many
applications requiring low head and high discharge. This head flow rate combination typically
yields specific speeds that are less than approximately axial pumps have low head and high
discharge. Axial pumps usually have specific speed in excess of 3.3.
There are other dynamic-pump designs which do provide low head and high discharge.
This is done by allowing the flow to pass through the impeller with an axial-flow component and
less centrifugal component. The passages can be opened up to the increased flow rate with very
little size increase, but the drop in radial outlet velocity decreases the head produced. These are
the mixed-flow (part radial, part axial) and axial flow (propeller-type) families of dynamic pump.
Some vane designs are sketched in Fig. 10. Mixed flow pumps operate in the specific speed range
1.5 < Ns < 3.3.
The figure indicate that as we proceed from centrifugal pump to the mixed flow pump to the axial
flow pump, the specific speed increases, the head decreases, the peed increases, the impeller
diameter decreases, and the eye diameter increases.

8
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Positive-Displacement Pumps
There exist numerous designs for positive-displacement pumps. In each design, fluid is sucked
into an expanding volume and then pushed along as that volume contracts

Some designs are complex while other are simple.

The following figures show different designs for positive displacement pumps.

(a) (c)
(b)

Figure pdp: (a) lobe pump, using rotating cams, (b) gear pump, using interlocking gears, (c)
screw pump

To illustrate the operation of a positive-displacement pump, we sketch four phases of half of a

cycle of a simple axial pump with two lobes on each rotor as shown below.

9
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure lobe: Four phases (one-eighth of a turn apart) in the operation of a two-lobe rotary pump, a
type of positive displacement pump.
The light colored region represents a chunk of fluid pushed through the top rotor, while the dark
colored region represents a chunk of fluid pushed through the bottom rotor, which rotates in the
opposite direction.
Flow is from left to right.

The two rotors are synchronized by an external gear box so as to rotate at the same angular speed,
but in opposite directions. In the diagram, the top rotor turns clockwise and the bottom rotor turns
counterclockwise, sucking in fluid from the left and discharging it to the right.

Analysis of positive-displacement pumps is straightforward.

From the geometry of the pump, we calculate the closed volume (Vclosed) that isfilled (and
expelled) for every n rotations of the shaft. Volume flow rate is then equal to rotation rate 𝑛̇ times
Vclosed divided by n,

𝑉𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉̇ = 𝑛̇ ×
𝑛
Example

Consider the gear pump of Figure pdp (b). Suppose the volume of fluid confined between two
gear teeth is0.350 cm3. How much fluid volume is pumped per rotation?

Solution
From Figure pdp b, number of teeth is 12 teeth per gear. Thus, for each 3600 rotation of each gear
(n = 1 rotation),
12*(0.350 cm3) of fluid is pumped. Since there are two gears, the total volume of fluid pumped
per rotation is 2(12)(0.350 cm3) = 8.40 cm3

Example
A two-lobe rotary positive-displacement pump moves 0.45 cm3 of SAE 30 motor oil in each lobe.
Calculate the volume flow rate of oil for the case where N = 900 rpm.

10
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Turbines
Turbines have been used for a long time to convert freely available energy from rivers and wind
into useful mechanical work, usually through a rotating shaft. Whereas the rotating part of a
pump is called the impeller, the rotating part of a turbine is called the runner. When the working
fluid is water, the fluid machines are called hydraulic turbines or hydroturbines. When the
working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from the wind, the machine is called a wind turbine.
In coal or nuclear power plants, the working fluid is usually steam; hence, the turbomachines that
convert energy from the steam into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft are called steam
turbines.
When compressible gas is used as the working fluid, the word gas turbine is used.
Turbines are classified into two broad categories, positive displacement and dynamic.
Positive-displacement turbines are small devices used for volume flow measurement, while
dynamic turbines are commonly used for power production.

Dynamic turbines

There are two basic types of dynamic turbine—impulse and reaction.

Impulse turbine
In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent through a nozzle so that most of its available energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
The high speed jet then impinges on bucket-shaped vanes that transfer energy to the turbine
shaft, as shown in the figure below.

11
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: Pelton wheel type impulse turbine, (a) Side view, absolute reference frame, and
(b) Bottom view of a cross section of bucket n, rotating reference frame.

Figure: Pelton wheel bucket design

Figure: A view from the bottom of an operating Pelton wheel illustrating the splitting and turning
of the water jet in the bucket. The water jet enters from the left, and the Pelton wheel is turning to
the right.

12
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

The modern and most efficient type of impulse turbine was invented by Lester A. Pelton (1829–
1908) in 1878, and the rotating wheel is now called a Pelton wheel.
The buckets of a Pelton wheel are designed so as to split the flow into half, and turn the flow
nearly 180° around (with respect to a frame of reference moving with the bucket)

We analyze the power output of a Pelton wheel turbine by using the Euler turbomachine
equation.

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉2,𝑡 𝑟2 − 𝑉1,𝑡 𝑟1 )

Since this is an energy-producing rather than an energy-absorbing device, for turbines, it is

conventional to define point 2 as the inlet and point 1 as the outlet.

Since both the size of the bucket and the diameter of the water jet are small compared to the
wheel radius, we take a radius of the pelton wheel equal to r.
Assume that the water is turned through angle β without losing any speed;in the relative frame of
reference moving with the bucket, the relative exit speed is thus Vj - ωr (the same as the relative
inlet speed)
The tangential component of velocity at the inlet, V2, t, is simply the jet speed itself, Vj.

To calculate the tangential component of velocity at the outlet, V1, t, Consider the following
velocity diagram at the outlet

Figure: Velocity diagram at the outlet,

Noting that sin (β - 90°) = -cos β,

V1, t = rω+ (Vj -rω) cos β

Substituting in the equation for shaft power,

13
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝐸𝑆 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉𝑗 − [𝑟𝜔 + (𝑉𝑗 − 𝑟𝜔)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽])

This simplifies to

𝐸𝑆 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉𝑗 − 𝑟𝜔)(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)-------------------------------------------------------5

From the above equation, the shaft power output is zero if rω = 0 (wheel not turning at all).
Also shaft power output is zero if rω=Vj (bucket moving at the jet speed).
Somewhere in between these two extremes lies the optimum wheel speed.

The value of rω for maximum power is obtained by differentiating Eq. 5 with respect to ω and
equating it to zero, i.e.
𝑑{𝐸𝑆 }
=0
𝑑𝜔
It can be shown that, the theoretical maximum power achievable by a Pelton turbine occurs when
the wheel rotates at
𝑉
𝜔 = 2𝑟𝑗 (Students to show this)I.e. when the bucket is moving at half the jet speed

Example

A Pelton wheel is used to produce hydroelectric power. The average radius of the wheel is 1.83
m, and the jetvelocity is 102 m/s from a nozzle of exit diameter equal to 10.0 cm. The turning
angle of the buckets is β = 165°.
(a) Calculate the volume flow rate through the turbine in m3/s. (b) What is the optimum rotation
rate (in rpm) of the wheel (for maximum power)?
(c) Calculate the output shaft power in MW if the efficiency of the turbine is 82 percent.

14
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example

In a Pelton wheel the diameter of the bucket circle is 2 m and the deflecting angle of the bucket is
162°. The jet is of 165mm diameter, the pressure behind the nozzle is 1000kN /m2 and the wheel
rotates at 320 rpm. Neglecting friction, find the power developed by the wheel and the hydraulic
efficiency. (701 Kw, 73.3 percent)

ASIIGNMENT QUESTION
1. Water is drawn from a reservoir, in which the water level is 240 m above datum, at the
rate of 0.13 m3/s. The outlet of the pipeline is at the datum level and is fitted with a nozzle
to produce a high speed jet to drive a turbine of the Pelton wheel type. If the velocity of
the jet is 66m/s, calculate (a) the power of the jet, (b) the power supplied from the
reservoir, (c) the head used to overcome losses and (d) the efficiency of the pipeline and
nozzle in transmitting power.
2. Write short notes about draft tube in relation to the reaction turbines.

15
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Reaction Turbines

The other main type of energy-producing hydroturbine is the reaction turbine, which consists of
fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustable guide vanes called wicket gates, and rotating
blades called runner blades
Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward the runner by the stay vanes as it
moves along the spiral casing or volute, and then passes through the wicket gates with a large
tangential velocity component.
Momentum is exchanged between the fluid and the runner as the runner rotates, and there is a
large pressure drop. Unlike the impulse turbine, the water completely fills the casing of a reaction
turbine. For this reason, a reaction turbine generally produces more power than an impulse
turbine of the same diameter, net head, and volume flow rate. The angle of the wicket gates is
adjustable so as to control the volume flow rate through the runner.
There are two main types of reaction turbine—Francis and Kaplan. The
Francis turbine is somewhat similar in geometry to a centrifugal, but with the flow in the
opposite direction.
In contrast, the Kaplan turbine is somewhat like an axial-flow fan running backward.

16
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Just like pumps are classified according to the angle at which the flow exits the impeller blade—
centrifugal (radial), mixed flow, or axial, in a similar but reversed manner, we classify reaction
turbines according to the angle that the flow enters the runner. If the flow enters the runner
radially, the turbine is called a Francis radial-flow turbine. If the flow enters the runner at some
angle between radial and axial the turbine is called a Francis mixed-flow turbine.

Fig: reaction turbines: (a) Francis radial flow (b) Francis mixed flow

The runner of a Francis The runner of a Francis

radial-flow mixed-flow
turbine turbine
radial-flow
turbine
Consider a typical hydroelectric dam that utilizes Francis reaction turbines to generate electricity.
The overall or gross head Hgross is defined as the elevation difference between the reservoir
surface upstream of the dam and the surface of the water exiting the dam,
𝐻gross = 𝑧𝐴 – 𝑧𝐸.

17
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

If there were no irreversible losses anywhere in the system, the maximum amount of power that
could be generated per turbine would be
̇ = 𝜌𝑔 𝑉̇ 𝐻𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

But since there are losses within the system, actual power is lower than Ideal

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊̇ = 𝑏ℎ𝑝

Turbine efficiency is based on net head H rather than gross head Hgross.
Turbine efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake horsepower output (actual turbine output shaft
power) to water horsepower (power extracted from the water flowing through the turbine)

𝑊̇𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝑊̇ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑉̇
Where,

𝐻 = 𝐸𝐺𝐿𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝐺𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡

EGL=Energy grade line

18
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Consider the top view of the Francis turbine.

Velocity vectors are drawn in the figure below.

Figure: Inlet velocity diagram

From the velocity diagram,

𝑉2,𝑛
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟2 −
tan 𝛽2

Figure: Inlet velocity diagram

From the velocity diagram,

𝑉1,𝑛
𝑉1,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟1 −
tan 𝛽1

Example

A retrofit Francis radial-flow hydroturbine is being designed to replace an old turbine in a

hydroelectric dam. The new turbine must meet the following design restrictions in order to
properly couple with the existing setup: The runner inlet radius is r2= 2.50 m and its outlet radius
is r1 =1.77 m. The runner blade widths are b2 = 0.914 m and b1= 2.62 m at the inlet and outlet,

19
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

respectively. The runner must rotate at n = 120 rpm to turn the 60-Hz electric generator. The
wicket gates turn the flow by angle α2= 33° from radial at the runner inlet, and the flow at the
runner outlet is to have angle α2 = 10° from radial for proper flow through the draft tube. The
volume flow rate at design conditions is 599 m3/s, and the gross head provided by the dam is
Hgross = 92.4 m. Calculate the inlet and outlet runner blade angles β2 and β1 , respectively, and
predict the power output and required net head if irreversible losses are neglected.

Example

A Francis radial-flow hydroturbine is being designed with the following dimensions: r2 = 2.00 m,
r1 = 1.42 m, b2= 0.731 m, and b1 = 2.20 m. The runner rotates at n = 180 rpm. The wicket gates
turn the flow by angle α2 = 30°from radial (figure below) at the runner inlet, and the flow at the
runner outlet is at angle α1 = 10° from radial. The volume flow rate at design conditions is 340
m3/s, and the gross head provided by the dam is Hgross = 90.0 m. For the preliminary design,
irreversible losses are neglected. Calculate the inlet and outlet runner blade angles β2 and β1,
respectively, and predict the power output (MW) and required net head (m).Is the design
feasible?
(β2=66.2 and β1=36.1, Power = 246MW, H=73.9m)

20
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Laws

Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of experimental
variables which affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort of compacting technique.

Using dimensional analysis, it becomes possible to predict the performance of one machine from
the results of a geometrically similar machine.
Repeating variable method is applied to the relationship between dependent and independent
variables.

Consider the pump shown below,

Figure: parameters affecting rotodynamic machine

Let W be the work done by this rotodynamic machine per unit mass

By definition,

𝑊 = 𝑔𝐻

W and bhp are functions of the following independent variables

𝑊 = 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
And

𝑏ℎ𝑝 = 𝑓2 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
Where

𝑉̇ = Volume flow rate, D = diameter of the impeller blades, 𝜀 = blade surface roughness height,
𝜔 = Impeller rotational speed, 𝜌 = fluid density, 𝜇 = viscosity

We apply method of repeating variables to obtain dimensionless parameters

21
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Set 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜔 as the repeating parameters

We use Pi (π) theorem method to obtain Pi’s

Noting that 𝐾 = 𝑛 − 𝑗 = 7 − 3 = 4
Therefore, the number of P is = 4
The following steps can be used

Determination of pi (π) Groups

The following are steps used in determination of π groups:

1. List all the parameters that influence the phenomenon concerned. There are normally three
types of parameters in fluid flow; fluid properties, flow geometry, and flow parameters.
2. Select a set of primary dimensions. The most commonly used sets are MLT (mass, length, and
time) system, FLT (force, length and time) system
3. List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of the chosen set.
4. Select from the list of parameters a set of repeating parameters equal to the number of primary
dimensions.
5. Set up a dimensional equation with the repeating set and one of the remaining parameters, in
turn to obtain n-m such equations, to determine n-m number of π terms.
6. Check whether π terms obtained are dimensionless.

Work done per unit mass

𝑔𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
List all units for all the variables in MLT system,

gH 𝑉̇ 𝐷 𝜀 𝜇 𝜌 𝜔

𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐿3 𝑇 −1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 −1

The following π’s are obtained

For 𝜋1 ………….

𝜋1 = 𝑔𝐻(𝐷)𝑎1 (𝜌)𝑏1 (𝜔)𝑐1

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 (𝐿1 )𝑎1 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏1 (𝑇 −1 )𝑐1

b1=0, a1=-2, c1=-2
𝑔𝐻
Therefore 𝜋1 = 𝑔𝐻𝐷−2 𝜔−2 = 𝐷2 𝜔2

22
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑔𝐻 𝑉̇ 𝜔𝜌𝐷 2 𝜀
𝜋1 = 𝜔2 𝐷2, 𝜋2 = 𝜔𝐷3 , 𝜋3 = , 𝜋4 = 𝐷
𝜇

Therefore,
𝑔𝐻 𝑉̇ 𝜇 𝜀
2 2
= 𝑓1 ( 3
, 2
, ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)
𝜔 𝐷 𝜔𝐷 𝜔𝜌𝐷 𝐷
Similarly, for bhp,

𝑏ℎ𝑝 𝑉̇ 𝜇 𝜀
= 𝑓2 ( , , ) − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝜔𝐷3 𝜔𝜌𝐷2 𝐷

bhp 𝑉̇ 𝐷 𝜀 𝜇 𝜌 𝜔

𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝑀3 𝑇 −1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 −1

From the above equations (6,7)the following pump parameters can be obtained and named as
below,

𝑔𝐻
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝐻 =
𝜔 2 𝐷2

𝑉̇
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑄 =
𝜔𝐷3
𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑃 =
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5
𝜀
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐾 =
𝐷

𝜔𝜌𝐷2
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Equation (6, 7) can be interpreted as follows;

Consider two pumps A and b which are geometrically similar (i.e. A is proportional to B),

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: geometrically similar pumps. If all the dimensionless pump parameters of pump A are
equivalent to those of pump B, the two pumps are dynamically similar.

Independent πs are equal to each other. Mathematically;

𝐶𝑄 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑄 𝐵, 𝑅𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵
If that is the case, dependent variables are equal as well;

𝐶𝑃 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑃 𝐵
𝜀
For many practical problems, effects of 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷can be neglected

Therefore equations 6,7 becomes

𝐶𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝐶𝑄 )
And
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑓2 (𝐶𝑄 )
Pump efficiency,

𝜌𝑉̇ (𝑔𝐻)
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =
𝑏ℎ𝑝
Which can be written as
𝜌(𝜔𝐷3 𝐶𝑄 )(𝜔2 𝐷2 𝐶𝐻 ) 𝐶𝑄 𝐶𝐻
=
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Pump specific speed

Another useful dimensionless parameter called pump specific speed (NSp) is formed by a
combination of parameters CQ and CH: this speed is useful when selecting a pump. Pump
specific speed is used to characterize the operation of a pump at its optimum conditions (best
efficiency point) and is useful for preliminary pump selection.
Nsp can be formed by combining CQ and CH

0.5
𝑉̇
𝐶𝑄0.5 (𝜔𝐷3 ) ̇
𝜔𝑉 0.5
𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁𝑆𝑃 = = 0.75 =
𝐶𝐻0.75 𝑔𝐻 (𝑔𝐻)0.75
(𝜔2 𝐷2 )

Affinity laws / similarity rules

Similarity relationships for two similar pumps A and B can be summarized in ratios as follows;

1. Volume flow rate

𝑉𝐵̇ 𝜔𝐵 𝐷𝐵 3
= ( ) − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑎)
𝑉𝐴̇ 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴
2. Head
𝐻𝐵 𝜔𝐵 2 𝐷𝐵 2
= ( ) ( ) − − − − − − − − − −(𝑏)
𝐻𝐴 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴
3. Power

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝐵 𝜔𝐵 3 𝐷𝐵 5
= ( ) ( ) − − − − − − − − − −(𝑐)
𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝐴 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴

Equations a,b,c applies to both pumps and turbines

Example 1

A fluid Professor uses a small closed-loop water tunnel to perform flow visualization research.
He would like to double the water speed in the test section of the tunnel and realizes that the least
expensive way to do this is to double the rotational speed of the flow pump. What he doesn't
realize is how much more powerful the new electric motor will need to be. If the Professor
doubles the flow speed, by approximately what factor will the motor power need to be increased?

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example 2

A 20 cm diameter centrifugal pump operating at 1200 rpm is geometrically similar to the 30-cm
diameter pump which has the following performance characteristics while operating at 1000 rpm
and for peak efficiency: CQ = 0.0625, CH = 0.19, and CP = 0.014. The working fluid is water at
200C. For peak efficiency, determine the following parameters for the smaller pump.

(i) Discharge,
(ii) Actual head rise,
(iii) The shaft power.

Example 3
In a test on a centrifugal fan it was found that the discharge was 2.75m3 s−1and the total pressure
63.5 mm water column. The shaft power was 1.7 kW. If a geometrically having twice the
rotational speed was used, calculate the output, pressure generated and shaft power required. The
air conditions are the same in both cases. [2.32 m3 s−1, 142.9 mm H2O, 3.2 kW]]

TURBINE SCALING LAWS

Dimensionless Turbine Parameters

We define dimensionless groups (Pi groups) for turbines in much the same way as we did in
Section 14–3 for pumps. Neglecting Reynolds number and roughness effects, we deal with the
same dimensional variables:
̇
𝑔𝐻, 𝑉 , 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜔, 𝑏ℎ𝑝 as illustrated in Figure below.
Dimensional analysis isidentical whether analyzing a pump or a turbine, except for the fact that
forthe efficiency.

Figure: The main variables used for dimensional analysis of a turbine.

Dimensionless turbine parameters:

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑔𝐻
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝐻 =
𝜔 2 𝐷2

𝑉̇
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑄 =
𝜔𝐷3
𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑃 =
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5
For turbine;

𝐶𝑃
𝜂𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝐶𝑄 𝐶𝐻

The affinity laws (Eqs. a,b,c) can be applied to turbines as well as to pumps, allowing us to scale
turbines up or down in size. We also use the affinity laws to predict the performance of a given
turbine operating at different speeds and flow rates in the same way as we did previously for
pumps.

Example

A Francis turbine is being designed for a hydroelectric dam. Instead of starting from scratch, the
engineers decide to geometrically scale up a previously designed hydroturbine that has an
excellent performance history. The existing turbine (turbine A) has diameter DA = 2.05 m, and
spins at NA= 120rpm, At its best efficiency point, 𝑉𝐴̇ = 350𝑚3 /𝑠, HA = 75.0 m of water, and
𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐴 = 242 MW. The new turbine (turbine B) is for a larger facility. Its generator will spin at the
same speed (120 rpm), but its net head will be higher (HB = 104 m). Calculate the diameter of the
new turbine such that it operates most efficiently. Also calculate 𝑉𝐵 and 𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐵

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