QUAID-E-AZAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BSc. Civil Engineering, Session 2017

Name: ASAD ALI KHAN Registration 2017-UET-QET-
No: SWL-CIVIL-22
Subject: CE-332 Engineering Hydrology Semester: 5th Semester
Assessment Assignment Marks: 05 Time: 1- Week
Type - II
Question# 1
CLOs CLO1
Addressed C-2
Domain &
Level
PLOs PLO-1
Addressed low
& Intensity
CLO's Total 05
Marks
Obtained
Marks
Obtained Total In Instructor’s
Words Sign

Question-1: Discuss the Causes of Sedimentation in Reservoirs and possible Remedies. And
explain the process and mechanism of soil erosion.

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 Sedimentation in Reservoirs and Remedial Measures: -

Reservoir Sedimentation: -
✓ Sedimentation is stated to be one of the adverse environmental impacts of water resources
projects, among others.
✓ Sediment flow in rivers is a natural process and WRD Projects do not by themselves
contribute to increase in the sediment inflow in the rivers.
✓ Sedimentation is actually caused by erosion of soil in the catchment areas, its
transportation by flow of water and deposition in the reservoirs. All reservoirs formed by
dams on natural rivers are therefore subjected to some degree of sedimentation.

✓ Soil erosion and carriage of sediment during floods are serious problems experienced in
Brahmaputra, Barak and Ganga Basins, and to some extent in Godavari Basin. As per CWC
data, the weight of the total sediment deposits in all the reservoirs in India is 1080 million
tons annually, causing average annual loss in gross storage to an extent of 0.95 cu km.
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 ✓ It is estimated that about 5,333 M. Tons (16.35 T/ha) of soil are detached annually, and of
this 20% is carried away by rivers into the sea.
✓ Nearly 10% is deposited in reservoirs, resulting in the loss of 1 to 2% of storage capacity.

Sedimentation of Reservoirs: -
✓ The storage reservoirs are expected to serve the expected functions properly for the whole
life span and their life should be extended beyond the service period for as long as possible.
✓ The problem of the project planner is to estimate the rate of sedimentation and the period
before it interferes with the useful functions of the reservoir.
✓ Sufficient provision should be made for sediment storage in the reservoir at the time of
design so as not to impair reservoir functions during the designed life of the project.
✓ It is therefore essential to monitor the capacity of existing reservoirs at regular intervals
and take suitable measures for controlling the sedimentation rate and utilize the findings in
the planning of future reservoirs.

Removal of Deposited Sediment From Reservoirs: -

✓ Although many reservoirs experience serious sedimentation problems, no reservoir has
become inoperative so far and there are no compelling situations to attempt removal of silt.
✓ At the present rates of siltation, it is apprehended that a number of reservoirs may become
inoperative by the year 2050 or may not perform expected functions due to reduction in
live storage. There are a number of methods adopted for desilting in different countries.

Some of them include the following:

➢ Sluicing and Flushing:
This is achieved by venting the water and sediments through bottom outlets fitted with suitable
gates or valves to control the outflow. It is primarily used during flood flows. If the conditions are
favorable and density currents are formed in the reservoir, they can be flushed through openings
in the dam at appropriate level. However, it has been estimated that, under most favorable
conditions, not more than 10 to 15% of sediment can be removed in this manner. In China,
operation of reservoir by lowering the pool level during flood season to sluice out water with high
sediment load is common practice. In some cases, drawing down the water level in the reservoir
to such a stage that induces erosion in deposited material and then flushing the water through
sluices is also used. Such practice is successfully followed in Iran, Russia and China.

➢ Dredging: -
On relatively smaller reservoirs used primarily for water supply, dredging can be used can be
remove the deposited sediment regain the lost reservoir capacity. However dredging is quite costly
when used on large dams, as the disposal of dredged material is problematic. Some of this dredged

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material can however be used for construction, but finer material can cause environmental
problems if not properly disposed.

➢ Removal by hydro aspirator or Hydraulic Syphon Suction Dredger.

This method of sediment removal is used in China. The equipment of hydro-aspirator is connected
to intakes of irrigation outlet. The suction head of hydro aspirator is used to suck the deposit under
water. A flexible pipeline connects the intake and transports the muddy water into the downstream
channel. The hydraulic head difference between the upstream and downstream levels of dam
provides the motive power for suction. The deposit is sucked due to hydraulic pressure and high
velocity near the head and transported to the pipeline to downstream.
This technique has the advantage of simplicity in principle, low input and cost. The water and
sediment resources are fully utilized when it is operated with irrigation in downstream reach.
Flushed sediment water mixture can be stored in downstream reach by creating small barrages of
Summi gate type structure. (Summi gate is water or air inflated circular pipe which acts as barrier).
Suitable methods for Indian conditions are to be adopted for removal of sediment from reservoirs.
The modification structures of dam may have to be made in the reservoirs to be taken up in the
future for periodical removal of sediments.

Soil Erosion: -

✓ Soil Erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the parent body and
transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and water.
✓ The detaching agents are falling rain drops, channel flow and wind.
✓ The transporting agents are flowing water, rain splash and wind.

Factors Influencing Erosion: -

➢ Climate
➢ Topography
➢ Vegetation
➢ Soil
➢ Man and beast

Types of Erosion: -
✓ Water Erosion The forms of soil erosion by water are sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully
erosion and ravines.
✓ Wind Erosion Wind is an active force causing soil erosion, particularly in tracts subject to
heavy gales.
✓ Wave Erosion Water and wind combine to form waves which cut back river banks and
swallow fertile land, bit by bit.
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THE EROSION PROCESS: -
1. When it rains, drops up to 6 mm (0.24 inch) in diameter bombard the soil surface at
impact velocities of up to 32 km per hour (20 mph). This force throws soil particles and
water in all directions on a distance of up to 1 m (3.3 feet). (Pictures made by USDA in
the 1940s).
2. Runoff and erosion start with raindrop impact on bare soil surface. Soil splash seen on
fence posts, or on walls in a field or plot of bare soil, is evidence of the force of large
raindrops striking bare soil (Harrold, 1972). Meyer and Mannering (1967) reported that in
one year, raindrops deliver to an acre of land an impact energy equivalent to 20 tons of
TNT (50 t/ha dinamite). The impact of falling raindrops disaggregates the soil into very
fine particles, which clog soil pores and create a surface seal that impedes rapid water
infiltration

3. Due to surface sealing, only a small portion of rainwater can infiltrate into the soil; most of
it runs off over the soil surface, therefore is lost to plants and causes erosion damage when
flowing down the slopes. On the other hand, when the soil is covered with plants or plant
residues, the plant biomass absorbs the energy of falling raindrops and rainwater flows
gently to the soil surface where it infiltrates into soil that is porous and undisturbed. In this
way soil cover impedes the clogging of soil pores (Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5).
4. The drying of surface sealing, results in soil crusting, which may hinder or impede the
germination and emergence of crop seeds. Soil crusting only develops under a condition of
bare soil. Soils highly suceptible to crusting do not present this problem once no-tillage
and permanent cover systems are used.
5. Research conducted in Brazil (Roth, 1985) also shows, that the percentage of soil covered
with plant residues is the most important factor that influences water infiltration into the
soil. While virtually all water from a simulated rainfall of 60 mm/hour infiltrated when
the soil was 100% covered with plant residues, in the case of bare soil 75 to 80% of
rainwater left the plots as runoff (Figure 4). Similar results have been obtained by
researchers in many parts of the world.
6. Therefore it is important to maintain the soil covered with plants or with plant residue all
year round, avoiding exposure to climatic agents. Any attempt to control runoff and erosion
via bare soil, burying plant residues with tillage implements and maintaining the soil
surface loose and uncovered, will sooner or later lead to failure.
7. For this reason the no-tillage system under cover of crop residues or green manure cover
crops is the most efficient and adequate method for the prevention and control of erosion,
and should be the “par excellence” technology promoted and diffused all over the world.

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 8. Not tilling the soil, crop rotation combined with the use of cover crops, and not burning
plant residues are the most important agricultural practices that make it possible to achieve
the goal of permanent, year-round soil cover.
9. Conservation agriculture using the no-tillage system offers the most effective strategy and
affordable methods available today to control soil erosion, and in this way achieve a
sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is a necessary step to achieve sustainable
rural development, and only with sustainable rural development can global sustainable
development be achieved.
10. No-tillage appears to be essential for the maintenance of soil structure and productivity in
many tropical soils. The long-term gains from widespread conversion to no-tillage could
be greater than from any other innovation in third world agricultural production (Warren,
1981).
11. While most of the numerous advantages of the no-tillage system come from the permanent
cover of the soil with plant residues, there are several advantages coming from not tilling
the soil. Tillage destroys the vertical pore system created by roots, earthworm and other
soil animals, destroys soil structure, accelerates organic matter mineralization (depletion)
and reduces aggregate stability. Fields that are many years under no-tillage will be expected
to further increase water infiltration as the vertical pore system builds up and organic matter
increases. In this way, no-till with abundant soil cover allows for both the natural rebuilding
of soil structure and porosity, as well as protecting the soil from damaging raindrop impact.
12. Besides increasing water infiltration and controlling erosion, soil cover has a major impact
in reducing soil temperature, reducing evaporation, increasing available water for plants,
enhancing soil’s life and biological activity, contributing to reduce soil compaction and
soil crusting as well as having positive effects on soil chemical physical and biological
properties. All this is advantageous for the farmer and leads to higher productivity.
Furthermore, permanent cover systems are essential to achieve long term agricultural
sustainability.

Soil Erosion Mechanisms and Threats

Soil erosion is a serious environmental and public health issue. Each year, about 10 million ha of
cropland are lost due to soil erosion, thus reducing the cropland available for food production. This
is a serious problem because more than 99% of the world's food comes from the land. It is therefore
of great importance to understand the mechanisms of soil erosion and to be able to predict its
effects to preserve human food availability and the natural environment.
An American researcher has recently performed a literature survey to assess soil erosion
worldwide. Firstly, the author listed the factors driving soil erosion. Then, he assessed the effects
of soil erosion on agriculture productivity, environmental ecosystems, and biodiversity.
Erosion occurs when the soil is left exposed to rain drops and wind which can both easily dislodge
surface soil particles. According to the author, the following factors influence soil erosion:

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 ✓ Soil texture: a fine texture facilitates erosion.
✓ Vegetative cover: its presence protects the topsoil by dissipation of rain drop and wind
energy.
✓ Land topography: marginal and sloping lands exhibit higher erosion rates.
✓ Other local factors: the topsoil physical properties are influenced by factors such as human
activities, high water energy streams banks, landslides, or earthquakes.
The author highlights that world soil erosion rates are much higher than natural soil renewal,
leading to a reduction of agriculture productivity and natural biodiversity. According to the author,
the soil erosion notably exerts the following detrimental effects:
✓ An increased soil water runoff and therefore, decreased water availability for plant and
fruit growths.
✓ The removal of organic matter and essential plant nutrients.
✓ The reduction of soil depth and thus, of plant root space.
On the whole, the author estimates that 80% of world current agricultural lands suffer moderate to
severe erosion and that erosion has been responsible of the loss of 30% of world arable land in the
past 40 years. The author underlines that this has led to a reduction of food production but also of
the biodiversity of plants, animals, and microbes.
In conclusion, the author calls for the stimulation of research to develop effective soil and water
conservation methods, and for their rapid implementation in agricultural and natural ecosystems.
This study summarizes the key factors and challenges related to soil erosion. Its results are of great
help to understand better the mechanisms of soil erosion and to develop more sustainable
agricultural techniques limiting its detrimental effects.

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