Copperminingandprocessing Final

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The document discusses the properties, occurrence, and uses of copper as well as the history of copper mining in Arizona and tribal lands. It also outlines the life cycle of a mine and the process of extracting and refining copper from ore.

Copper has high thermal and electrical conductivity and is resistant to corrosion, so it is used for wiring, plumbing, cookware and other applications that require these properties. Common copper alloys include bronze and brass.

The steps involved are exploration, development, extraction/mining, beneficiation/milling, smelting, refining and production. Additional details on processing oxide and sulfide ores are provided.

University of Arizona

Superfund Research Program


Community Engagement Core
[Authors] Jennifer Stanley, Sarah T. Wilkinson, Denise
Moreno Ramírez, Raina M. Maier, & Karletta Chief
[Expert Reviewers] Mary Poulton, Mark Barton, Addison
Smith, Peter Denetclaw, & Leif Abrell
[Student Reviewers] Christopher Livingston & Linnea
Honeker
[Website]
http://www.superfund.pharmacy.arizona.edu/learning-
modules/tribal-modules

TRIBAL MINING
COPPER MINING
EDUCATIONAL
AND PROCESSING
MODULES

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Tribal Mining Educational Modules

Instructor’s Guide

Copyright © 2015

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STATEMENT BY THE AUTHORS

Brief quotations from these modules are allowed without special permission, provided that
accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation
from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

Suggested citation:

Stanley, J., Wilkinson, S.T., Moreno Ramírez, D., Maier R.M., & Chief, K. (2015). Tribal Mining
Educational Modules: Copper Mining and Processing [PDF document]. Retrieved from
http://www.superfund.pharmacy.arizona.edu/learning-modules/tribal-modules

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Copper Mining and Processing
MODULE SUMMARY

Copper is a chemical element that has a variety of uses based on its properties of malleability and
conductivity. Copper ore deposits are found on every continent, and it has been mined around the
world for more than 10,000 years. It is a necessary component for many products in the modern world.
The steps involved in opening a mine and processing copper ore into a final product are very complex.
This module will cover basic information about copper, copper mining in Arizona and on tribal lands,
the life cycle of a mine, and the specifics of copper processing.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

A. Describe basic information about copper, its occurrence, and its use
B. Articulate the history and current status of copper mining in Arizona and tribal lands
C. Detail the stages in the life cycle of a mine
D. Describe copper processing for oxide and sulfide ores

BACKGROUND
I. Copper, its occurrence, and use

A. What is copper?

Copper is a chemical element in the periodic table with the symbol


Cu (from the Latin word cuprum, meaning ‘metal of Cyprus,’ where it
was mined during the Roman era) (Figure 1). Copper has an atomic
number of 29 and atomic weight of 63.54 grams per mole. It is an
element in Group 11 of the periodic table, sharing many properties
with silver and gold. In its standard state at room temperature, copper
is solid. Copper is reddish-orange and has a bright metallic luster. With
weathering, copper can become coated in a dull-green tarnish of
copper carbonate called verdigris. One famous example of this is the
Figure 1: Copper element information.
Statue of Liberty, which is coated with 60,000 pounds of copper
sheeting that has weathered to verdigris. Copper is also an essential micronutrient, meaning it is an
essential dietary element in very tiny concentrations for plants and animals, including humans.
In its pure form, copper is relatively soft, and is malleable and ductile, meaning that it can be
shaped or molded without breaking; for example, hammered flat into sheets or drawn out into wires.
Copper is resistant to corrosion, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity (second only to silver).
Because it is an element, copper can be perpetually recycled, without losing its properties. These
properties can be adapted for specific uses based on whether it is used alone or alloyed (mixed with
other elements). The most common copper alloys are bronze (copper and tin) and brass (copper and
zinc), which are harder and stronger than copper.
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B. Naturally Occurring Forms of
Copper

Copper deposits were formed by the


action of hot waters, commonly
associated with volcanism but also with
sediments, and can be found around the
world on every continent. Copper can be
found in the earth’s crust as pure native
copper, but mostly occurs in combination
with other elements (Figure 2). Native
copper is typically found as irregular
masses or veins, which fill fractures and
other spaces in the earth’s crust. When
found in combination with other
elements, copper can occur in minerals
including copper sulfides (e.g.,
chalcopyrite and chalcocite), copper
oxides (e.g., cuprite), copper carbonates
(e.g., azurite and malachite), copper
phosphates (turquoise), and additional
mixed copper ores. Such ores can be quite
complex, containing a variety of other Figure 2: The different forms of copper. A) Native copper; B) Azurite; C)
non-metallic minerals, as well as metals Cuprite; D) Chalcopyrite; E) Chalcocite; and F) Malachite. Photo Credit: Arizona
Geological Survey.
and other elements (which for the
purpose of copper extraction are considered wastes). Within an ore, copper concentration is
commonly less than 1%. Each of the different natural forms of copper requires distinct mining and
processing steps that eventually lead to 9.99% pure copper.

C. Historical and Modern Copper Use

The development of copper has a rich history. Copper has been used for thousands of years; it may
have been discovered as early as 9000 BC in the Middle East. Early artifacts discovered were made of
native copper and included utensils, tools, weapons, piping, ornaments, and jewelry. The largest
deposit of native copper discovered to date was found in Michigan at the Keweenaw mines (Wood,
2001). Native Americans mined copper in this area between 5000 and 1200 BC, as evidenced by copper
knives, arrows, spearheads, and axes. These types of artifacts have also been found throughout North
and South America.
Copper smelting, or the use of heat and chemical reactions to extract the metal from an ore,
appears to have been discovered independently in different parts of the world. A rise in the use of
smelted copper defines the Chalcolithic period (from the Greek words khalkos and lithos, meaning
‘copper’ and ‘stone,’ respectively), which occurred between the end of the Stone Age and the advent
of the Bronze Age (approximately 3500-2500 BC). Smelting of ores containing both copper and tin
likely led to the discovery of the alloy bronze, which is easier to cast, and allowed a greater variety of
materials to be made, including figurines and vessels. The addition of zinc vapor via calamine ore
allowed the production of brass (often for decorative purposes), which became popular in the Roman

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World during the first millennium BC. Copper’s use as currency also came into prominence in the
Roman World in 280 BC as brass coins and in 23 BC as copper coins.
Today, copper and its alloys have a variety of uses that impact our daily lives. To give some
examples, the average U.S.-built automobile contains 50 pounds of copper, and the average U.S.-built
home contains 400 pounds of copper. As seen in Table 1, the five major uses of copper are: 1) building
construction, 2) electrical and electronics, 3) general consumer products, 4) industrial machinery and
equipment, and 5) transportation equipment. In addition, copper is antimicrobial, and may be used in
personal products such as socks, as well as handles used in hospitals, and tables used in kitchen
restaurants.

Table 1: Copper consumption by major U.S. markets in 2013. Source: Copper Development Association Inc. Annual Data (2014).

Copper
Type of Market Consumption Examples
[million lbs.]

Construction 2,233 Wiring, heating/refrigeration, and plumbing

Power utilities, cell phones, computers,


Electrical and Electronics 978
lighting, and anything with an on/off switch
Currency, cookware, household appliances,
Consumer and General Products 627
coins, etc.
Transportation Equipment 982 Airplanes, cars, trucks, trains, etc.
Manufacturing machinery, on-site equipment,
Industrial Equipment 378
off-highway vehicles, and transmission lines

Copper alloys are also used to make important and common instruments and tools. For example,
bronze (copper and tin) is used to make durable tools (e.g., hammers), musical instruments (e.g.,
cymbals), ornaments, medals, statues, and bearings of various machines. In addition, brass (copper and
zinc) is used to make musical instruments (e.g., horns) and decorative art (e.g., sculptures), and low
friction (e.g., locks) and non-sparking tools (e.g., for use around explosive gases).
Worldwide consumption of copper has increased greatly over the past century as the world has
developed. Currently, Asia is the leading world consumer of copper while Europe and the Americas
take second and third place respectively (IWCC, 2013). Worldwide, Chile is the largest producer of
copper (5.7 million tons per year), followed by China (1.7 million tons), Peru (1.3 million tons), the
United States (1.2 million tons), and Australia (1 million tons) (USGS, 2014). In the United States,
approximately 99% of the $9 billion dollars’ worth of copper produced annually comes from five states:
Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, and Montana (USGS, 2014). Building and construction markets
typically utilize a large portion of the copper around the world. Yet, individually we also contribute to
the active mining of copper due to our use of consumer products. A person born today is expected to
use nearly ¾ of a ton of copper in his/her lifetime (Harmon et. al., 2013). Some of this copper is newly
mined, and some is from recycling of copper used before by others.

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II. Copper Mining in Arizona

The legacy of mining is etched into the landscape and history of


Arizona. It is part of the culture, economy, and environment. Indeed,
copper is showcased as one of the “Five Cs” upon which the Arizona
economy was founded. These five industries – cattle, cotton, citrus,
climate, and copper – are represented on the Great Seal of the State of
Arizona (Figure 3).
Arizona produces approximately 65% of the country’s copper (AZGS,
2014). In 2011, copper mining contributed $4.6 billion in direct and
indirect economic benefits to the state, generating 49,800 jobs (AZ Figure 3: Great Seal of the State of
Arizona.
Mining Assoc., 2011). Arizona is home to the Morenci Mine, owned by
Freeport-McMoRan, which is one of the largest copper mines in the world (Freeport-McMoRan, 2014).
As seen in Figure 4, there are 27 major mines in Arizona, including 10 major copper mines which
produce 23 to 632 million pounds of copper per year. Of interest, only two of the 10 major copper
mines are located north of Phoenix; the rest are located in the southeastern part of the state. In
addition, there are two proposed major mines, which are waiting for special permitting to be approved
to begin production: Rosemont Copper Mine near Tucson, AZ (on lands sacred to the Tohono O’odham
and Pascua Yaqui Tribes) and Resolution Copper Mine near Superior, AZ (on lands sacred to the San
Carlos Apache and related Tribes).

A. Environmental Regulation of Copper Mining in Arizona

The main environmental protection agencies which govern a mine’s potential to contaminate the
local environment include the Arizona Department
of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
These two agencies, as well as county or other local
agencies, ensure that operating mines, as well as
mines which have been closed, do not release
contaminated or hazardous materials outside of the
mine site. Hazardous materials have the potential to
leave a mine site through wind, which can carry
dust; rain, which can flow in washes and streams;
and in the groundwater, which can contaminate the
local drinking water. If hazardous materials or
contaminated water were to leave a mine site, mine
owners could face very large fines on a daily basis,
be rejected for future permits, and even face time in
jail. Mines on reservations must meet environmental
quality standards set out by the respective
reservations. For instance, the Navajo Nation
Environmental Protection Agency (NNEPA) has well-
defined water and air quality standards, which the
mines must comply with. Many of the laws in NNEPA
Figure 4: Arizona Major Mines in 2014 (adapted from Arizona are modeled after the US EPA; companies working in
Geological Survey Map 38 by Nyal Niemuth). such areas often follow the governing body with the
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strictest policies to ensure adequate environmental compliance. If there is no formal tribal
environmental protection agency, the mines will be governed by the US EPA. Typically, mining
companies will have environmental engineers on staff at the site or use environmental consulting firms
to interact with the regulatory agencies.

III. Copper Mining on Tribal Lands in Arizona

Twenty-one federally-recognized tribes own lands that cover 19.7 million of Arizona’s 72.9 million
acres, or 27% of the state (Figure 5). Currently, there is only one active copper mine on designated
tribal lands in Arizona, the Mission Mine (see Case Study #1). The Mission Mine is operating on both
privately owned land as well as lands owned by the Tohono O’odham Reservation and pays royalties
on the copper extracted there. In addition, the Cyprus Tohono Mine (see case study #2) may resume
operations.

Figure 5: Major mines (black ovals), major mines on tribal land


(orange stars), and tribal reservations (light orange areas) in
Arizona.

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A. Tohono O’odham Nation

The Tohono O’odham tribe owns 2.7 million acres, or 3.7% of the state. Metallic minerals mined on
or near the Tohono O’odham reservation throughout history include copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc,
iron, mercury, manganese, uranium, and tungsten. There are approximately 210 metallic mineral
deposits, prospects, and quarries within the Pima County portion of the Tohono O’odham Nation.
However, many of the smaller mines are the results of small-time prospectors and have since been
abandoned. The two most prominent mines include the Mission Mine and the Cyprus Tohono Mine.

Case Study #1 - Mission Mine (ASARCO):

The Mission Mine is situated on 19,000 acres (29.7 square miles)


of land in Sahuarita, AZ, 18 miles south of Tucson. The mining
complex is comprised of the Mission, Eisenhower, Pima, Mineral
Hill and South San Xavier properties and the nearby North San For more information about this site:
Xavier mine (ASARCO, 2014). While most of the mining property
is owned by ASARCO, a portion of the mine complex is located US EPA ASARCO Mission Complex Fact
on the south end of the Tohono O’odham San Xavier District and Sheet: http://tinyurl.com/qbacbss
is leased to ASARCO by the Tohono O’odham Nation. The open- US EPA Renewable Energy Development
pit copper mine is approximately 2.5 miles long, 1.5 miles wide, Opportunities ASARCO Mission Mine
and 1,200 feet deep, with 40-foot-highbenches (narrow, step- Tailings Area:
like strips cut into the side of the open pit). Early copper mining http://www.epa.gov/aml/revital/asarco-
began at the site in 1900, with open pit stripping beginning in solar.pdf
1959. In 2012, the mine produced 134 million pounds of copper
concentrate, paid $6.6 million in state royalties and $2.5 million ADEQ Draft Fact Sheet, Pollutant
in tribal royalties, and employed 620 people. The mine is Discharge Elimination System permit for
expected to produce until 2033. ASARCO Mission Complex:
https://azdeq.gov/calendar/AZ0024597fs.
A reclamation plan for the Tohono O’odham portion of the pdf
Mission Complex details how different sections of the mine will
be reclaimed both during and after active mining. For waste rock PDEQ ASARCO Mission Complex Mine
dumps and mine tailings, reclamation will include soil capping Tailings Dust webpage:
and rainwater capture to support revegetation with native plants http://tinyurl.com/nrea5ye
(Gault Group, 2008). The Tohono O’odham Nation is also
working with US EPA to develop renewable energy (solar panels)
on a portion of the mine tailings.
Since the mine is on both private and tribal lands, ASARCO is
required to file for permits with the US EPA, ADEQ, and the Pima
County Dept. of Environmental Quality (PDEQ). As discharges
from the mine enter unnamed tributaries and ephemeral washes
of the Santa Cruz River, one of the permits is for the discharge of
mine drainage and stormwater. ASARCO has been issued several
notices of violation for discharges containing copper, lead, and
other metals. They continue to work with the regulatory
agencies to achieve compliance through construction and
maintenance activities to limit additional discharges. Another Photo Credit: 2011-03-2897, ADMMR Photo Archive,
Arizona Geological Survey.
permit is related to dust emissions from the mine tailings.
Violations of air quality rules in 2009 and 2013 led to
assessments of fines and ASARCO has taken measures to control
the tailings dust and limit additional violations.
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Case Study #2 - Cyprus Tohono Mine
(Cyprus Tohono Corporation, a subsidiary of
Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, Inc.)
The Cyprus Tohono Mine is located 32 miles south of
Casa Grande, AZ, near the town of North Komelik in the
Sif Oidak District. It is situated on 4,180 acres of land
leased from the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Tohono
O’odham Nation. The copper mine and processing For more information about this site:
facility, formerly known as Casa Grande Mine and
Lakeshore Mine, has been operated by several different US EPA Site Overview:
companies since the 1880s. Open pit mining began in http://tinyurl.com/m5g4bl7
1959 and underground mining began in 1970. Both oxide
and sulfide ores were mined and processed. Open pit
mining ended in 1997, and in 1999 the facility
transitioned into care and maintenance mode. The
Cyprus Tohono Corporation is currently considering
resuming operations.
In 2009, the site was listed as a Superfund Alternative
Site because of a groundwater plume contaminated with
uranium, sulfate, and perchlorate extending one-half
mile from the site. The US EPA has been investigating the
site and considering options for clean-up. In response to Photo Credit: 2011-03-6237, ADMMR Photo Archive, Arizona
a request from the US EPA and the Tohono O’odham Geological Survey.

Nation, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease


Registry has completed a Health Consultation regarding
human exposures and possible health impacts (ATSDR,
2014 and ATSDR, 2014).

B. Tribal Concerns with Mining

Throughout history, tribes have faced displacement, discrimination, and marginalization due to
mining on their lands (Ballard, 2003). The copper mining industry is an important source of wealth and
employment in Arizona (AZ Mining Assoc., 2011). Yet, without proper planning and environmental
monitoring, mining can also be a source of contamination that impacts the health of neighboring
communities and the environment (US EPA, 2011). Environmental health is an important concern for
communities living near mine sites, including tribes. Many times these communities are exposed to
poor air quality, contaminated water, and occupational hazards (Azapagic, 2004). In general, the
occupational health and safety risks are above average for the mining industries. Such risks can include
chronic occupational diseases which can be a result of direct exposure to dust during metal/mineral
extraction (Azapagic, 2004). These risks can be greatly reduced with the proper use of Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) which, under law, must be worn by those with a risk of exposure
(Merrifield, 2013). The enforcement of such laws, and other mine safety issues, is regulated by the
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), a division of the US Department of Labor.

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The impacts of mining on sacred lands and artifacts are also of concern for tribal communities.
Although U.S. laws for the most part protect sacred lands on and off tribal reservations, there are still
potential risks for loss. For example, traditional livelihoods may be limited due to lack of access to land
and/or destruction of important resources (e.g., mountains, vegetation, wildlife). Tribal communities
often rely on natural resources found on sacred lands for cultural, medicinal, and spiritual purposes.
For example, on the Navajo Nation in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah, Navajo people
living in and near uranium mining areas used mill tailings, a sandy waste containing heavy metals and
radium, which is radioactive, to build their traditional earthen homes (hogan), many of which remain in
use today (DOE, 2013). Another example is the nearly 100 sacred and cultural sites of the Tohono
O’odham Nation, which may be impacted by the proposed development of the Rosemont Copper Mine
in southern Arizona (Tohono O’odham, 2009). A final example is the Oak Flat area east of Superior, AZ,
lands sacred to the San Carlos Apache tribe, where Resolution Copper is proposing to mine (Allen,
2015). Innovative mining companies implementing responsible mining have recognized the need for
more respectful relationships with tribal nations to ensure that when mining is undertaken, the rights
and interests of the People are considered. For more details on U.S. laws protecting sacred lands, refer
to the “Mining-Induced Sociocultural Impacts” module.

IV. Life Cycle of a Mine

The stages in the life cycle of a mine


are: 1) Prospecting and exploration, 2)
•Finding and Defining it:
Development; 3) Extraction, and 4) Prospecting/ searching, sampling, and
Closure/Reclamation (Figure 6). Each of analysis to ID ore reserve
Exploration and generate feasibility
the stages may overlap with the next and report
is very lengthy and expensive.

A. Prospecting and Exploration


(“Finding and Defining it”) •Planning and Building it:
permitting and logistics for
Development mining operations + building the
Prospecting and exploration are mine
precursors to mining and often occur
simultaneously; together, they can take
two to eight years to complete, and may
cost from $500,000 to $15 million
•Mining it: extracting
overall. Extraction the ore
Prospecting is the process of
searching the region for mineral
deposits. Historically, prospectors would
explore a region on foot with a pick and
•Cleaning it up:
shovel. Modern prospecting uses a remediation and/or
variety of geological methods. Geology
Closure/ redevelopment of the
experts use a direct method to discover Reclamation land to a more natural
state
surface mineral deposits by examining
the area visually. Geophysics experts use
an indirect method to identify
underground mineral deposits by Figure 6: The Life Cycle of a Mine.

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detecting rock alterations under the surface. Geochemistry can also be used to analyze samples of soil,
rock, and water. These methods are supplemented by aerial or satellite photography, and combined
with historical maps and literature to develop detailed maps of surface and underground rock
formations. Drilling is used to search for mineral occurrences or the clues in the rocks that may lead to
them. Information gathered in this stage may or may not lead to a discovery of valuable minerals.
In mining exploration, experts use additional techniques to determine the possible size and value
of the mineral deposit discovered during prospecting. Depending on the ownership of the land, a
Mineral Rights Lease, a contractual arrangement that allows the holder to explore/exploit an area that
contains minerals, may be required. Samples that are collected by drilling undergo various analyses by
geologists and metallurgists to determine the richness and extent of the mineral, both vertically and
horizontally. Such analyses of geological confidence and technical and economic evaluation allow
experts to label the deposit as a “mineral resource” and/or an “ore reserve,” to better establish the
economic value of the deposit and to estimate mining costs (Figure 7) (JORC, 2012).
A mineral resource is a
concentration of potentially valuable
material that naturally occurs in the
earth that can potentially be mined for
economic profit. Whether it is worth
extracting now or later may depend on
the amount, form, location, and quality
of the material, a concept called
geological confidence. Experts use
geological sampling and testing
methods to classify a mineral resource
into three different categories
according to geological confidence.
When the amount and quality of the
mineral can be estimated with only a
low level of confidence based on
limited sampling, it is called an
“inferred” mineral resource. Such a
Figure 7: General relationship between Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves. resource will likely not be mined at this
Adapted from: Australasian Code for Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral
Resources and Ore Reserves (JORC, 2012). time, but may be mined one day in the
future, either because all other reserves
have been exploited or because improvements in technology make it easier to extract less
concentrated ores. Additional sampling may allow the amount, quality, density, shape, and physical
characteristics of the mineral to be estimated with a reasonable level of confidence, and it is classified
as an “indicated” mineral resource. If further sampling and reliable and detailed exploration allow the
amount, quality, density, shape, and physical characteristics of the mineral to be accurately estimated
with a high level of confidence, it is classified as a “measured” mineral resource.
An ore reserve is the part of the mineral resource that can be economically profitable to mine (i.e.,
there is enough valuable metal to be worth removing it and extracting it from all of the surrounding
rock). After a deposit has been identified as an inferred, indicated, or measured mineral resource, it is
next labeled as a “probable” or “proved” ore reserve. This classification is based on what is known
about the mineral resource through sampling, combined with consideration of “modifying factors,”
such as mining, metallurgic, economic, environmental, marketing, legal, political, and social factors.
With some information available about the concentration of the ore (i.e., indicated mineral resource),
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and some uncertainty in the modifying factors, the
deposit can be labelled a probable ore reserve. A mine
developed from a probable ore reserve has a chance of
success, but is still financially risky. A measured mineral
resource may also be labelled as only a possible ore
reserve, if there is uncertainty in the consideration of the
modifying factors; if these uncertainties can be removed,
it may later be labelled a proved ore reserve. When the
concentration of ore has been accurately and confidently
measured to be high (i.e. measured mineral resource),
and there is limited uncertainty about the modifying
factors, it is classified as a proved ore reserve. This is the
highest confidence category of reserve estimate,
implying high geological, technical, and economic
confidence that it can be mined at a profit.
Following the completion of the prospecting and
exploration stages, a feasibility study is performed to
formally determine whether it is economically worth
developing the mineral deposit into a mine. A feasibility
report is generated, in which factors such as production
rate, operating costs, income tax, and the sale price of Figure 8: Surface and underground mining in Arizona. A)
Floor and side of the pit at the Copper Hill surface mine. B)
the mineral are estimated as well as put into a formula Mine train in the underground mine at San Manuel. (Photo
to calculate what the final rate of return will be. The credits: 2011-03-1647/2011-03-4003, ADMMR Photo
mining organization can then make a decision about Archive, Arizona Geological Survey).
whether the project will be abandoned or continued at
this stage.

B. Development (“Planning and building it”)

The development stage usually takes 4-12 years to open an ore deposit for production, and may
cost anywhere from $1 million to over $1 billion to complete depending on the type of mine.
Development involves extensive pre-development planning and paperwork. Budget and financial
reports are prepared and permits are requested. Reports regarding potential impacts on the
environment and nearby communities are generated. Plans are assessed regarding the: 1) the mining
process/technology that will be used, 2) building of access roads for transportation, 3) identification of
resources such as power and water sources, and 4) construction of ore processing facilities and
disposal areas for waste. At this point, tens of millions to hundreds of millions of dollars may have been
invested in the project, but it may fail to open if the pre-development requirements are not met,
including acceptance by the community. At this stage, just enough development of the mine site is
performed to ensure that it will be able to be productive for the life of the mine, without later
interruption.
Plans are made for the appropriate type of mining that will be performed. There are three major
types of mining, surface mining, underground mining, and solution mining; their use depends on the
type of ore and where it is located, as well as issues of safety, technology, economics, and
environmental impacts (Figure 8). Surface mining, which includes strip mining, open-pit mining, and
mountaintop removal, removes soil and rock from on top of the mineral deposit. It may begin as soon
as the pre-development steps are complete. Underground mining uses shafts and tunnels to access
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deeply-buried mineral deposits, while the overlying rock is left in place. This type of mining is usually
more expensive and complex, and requires a lot of additional planning for convenience and safety.
Solution mining, sometimes referred to as in situ leaching, is performed by pumping a leaching solution
such as an acid into the ground, where the solution then dissolves the solid minerals into a liquid. This
liquid containing the minerals is then pumped out of the ground and the mineral can then be
recovered by various techniques.

C. Extraction (“Mining it”)

In the extraction stage the mineral is removed from the earth in large quantities as the mine begins
producing. This stage is typically what we envision when we think of mining. Some exploration and
development may continue at this stage, as well. The extraction stage can take from 5-30 years to
complete, although many mines have been open for more than 100 years, and may cost anywhere
from a few million dollars to hundreds of millions of dollars a year depending on the size of the mine
and its location.

D. Closure/Reclamation (“Cleaning it up”)

The mining organization begins planning for mine closure and reclamation early on; even before a
mine is allowed to open, a reclamation plan must be set in place for its closure. In these reclamation
plans the mining operator describes the processes it will use to attempt to restore or redevelop the
land that has been mined to a more natural or economically usable state. This can include removing
buildings and roads as well as covering up and re-vegetating rock piles. Federal and state regulations
require mining companies to post funding for closure before the mining project begins. This is to
ensure that reclamation is completed at the end of the mining closure (Arms, 2004). Once the mine has
been depleted or is no longer economically feasible to continue mining, the mining operators must
contact local and state agencies to close the mine, and must comply with their respective regulations.
The closure plan must be approved by a variety of mining stakeholders, including government and
community members. Considerations when planning for closure include: protecting public health and
safety, addressing environmental damage, returning the land to its original state or an acceptable new
use, and sustaining social and economic benefits brought by the mine. The succeeding custodian, the
party responsible for the land after the mine closes, should establish an agreement with the mining
company early in the life cycle of the mine, to develop a closure plan that minimizes risks and liabilities.
The cost of closing a mine depends on the age, location, type, and size of mine, amount of waste,
geological characteristics, and type of mineral being extracted. For example, a medium-sized open-pit
mine that is 10-15 years old could cost a few million dollars to close, while a large open-pit mine that
has been operating for more than 35 years could cost tens of millions of dollars to close (Tetra Tech,
2007). It is often less expensive for a mining company operating the mine to close a mine themselves
than for the succeeding custodian to close it. For more detail on reclamation, refer to the “Mine
Tailings and Waste Rock Reclamation” module.

14
V. Processing of Copper Ores

Copper processing is a complicated


process that begins with mining of the ore
(less than 1% copper) and ends with sheets
of 99.99% pure copper called cathodes,
which will ultimately be made into
products for everyday use. The most
common types of ore, copper oxide and
copper sulfide, undergo two different
processes, hydrometallurgy and
pyrometallurgy, respectively, due to the
Figure 9: Oxide and sulfide ores undergo different processes to be purified different chemistries of the ore (Figure 9).
into 99.99% pure copper. Copper oxides are more abundant near the
surface, but are considered low-grade ore, with a lower concentration of copper. Although this
requires more ore to be extracted and processed, this process is less expensive, so oxides can still be
mined at a profit. On the other hand, while copper sulfide ores are less abundant, they contain higher
amounts of copper. Although the processing costs are higher, ultimately more copper can be
extracted. Since each mine site is unique in its mineral composition, concentration, and quantities, the
most economical and profitable processing of ore must be determined by the mine planners. When it
is economically feasible, a mine may extract both types of copper minerals; when it is not possible,
mines will only process either the copper oxides or the copper sulfides.
The first steps of copper processing are the same for both ores: mining and transporting. Copper
mining is usually performed using open-pit mining
(Figure 10), in which a series of stepped benches are dug
deeper and deeper into the earth over time. To remove
the ore, boring machinery is used to drill holes into the
hard rock, and explosives are inserted into the drill holes
to blast and break the rock. The resulting boulders are
then ready for hauling; specialized haul trucks,
conveyors, trains, and shuttle cars can all be used to
haul the ore from the blasting site to the processing site.
The size of the equipment needed to haul the tons and
tons of ore is gigantic (Figure 10). Most ores are then
sent through a primary crusher, which is typically
located very close to or sometimes in the pit. This
primary crusher reduces the size of the ore from boulder
to golf ball-sized rocks.

A. Processing of Oxide Ore

Oxide ores are generally processed using


hydrometallurgy. This process uses aqueous (water-
based) solutions to extract and purify copper from Figure 10: A) A view of the open-pit mine in Morenci. B) A
copper oxide ores at ordinary temperatures, usually in man standing next to a 170-ton haul truck at Mission mine.
three steps: heap leaching, solvent extraction, and (Photo Credit: 2011-03-3018/2011-03-2270, ADMMR
Photo Archive, Arizona Geological Survey).
electrowinning.
15
Heap Leaching is the process of
using percolating chemical
solutions to leach out metals
(Figure 11). Heap leaching is very
commonly used for low-grade ore,
which would otherwise not be
economical to send through a
milling process. Following mining,
transporting, and crushing to a
consistent gravel or golf ball-size,
the crushed ore is piled into a heap
on top of an impenetrable layer, on
a slight slope. The leaching reagent
(dilute sulfuric acid) is sprayed
Figure 11: Heap Leaching and Solvent Extraction of Oxide Ore.
through sprinklers on top of the
heap pile and allowed to trickle down through the heap, where it dissolves the copper from the ore.
The resulting “pregnant” leach solution of sulfuric acid and copper sulfate is collected in a small pool.
The copper compound can now be seen at concentrations of between 60-70%.
The second step is solvent extraction, in which two immiscible (un-mixing) liquids are stirred and
allowed to separate, causing the cooper to move from one liquid to the other (Figure 11). The pregnant
leach solution is mixed vigorously with a solvent. The copper migrates from the leach solution into the
solvent. The two liquids are then allowed to separate based on solubility, with copper remaining in
solution in the solvent, and impurities remaining in the leach solution. The leftover leach solution is
then recycled, by adding additional acid and sending it back to the sprinklers in the heap leaching
process.
The last step is called electrowinning, a type of electrolysis. An electrical current passes through an
inert anode (positive electrode) and through the copper solution from the previous step, which acts as
an electrolyte. Positively-charged copper ions (called cations) come out of solution and are plated onto
a cathode (negative electrode) as 99.99% pure copper (Figure 12).

B. Processing of Sulfide Ore

Sulfide ores are generally processed


using pyrometallurgy, the extraction and
purification of metals by processes
involving the application of heat. This
process uses a series of physical steps and
high temperatures to extract and purify
copper from copper sulfide ores, in four
basic steps: 1) froth flotation, 2)
thickening, 3) smelting, and 4)
electrolysis.
Following mining, transporting, and
crushing to a consistent gravel or golf ball-
Figure 12: Electrowinning is the final step in processing oxide ore into
size, the crushed ore is further processed copper cathodes.
16
at a mill using secondary crushers, and reduced to pebbles, and finally to fine sand. After the copper
ore is crushed, liquid is added to make it a slurry. The slurry is a mix of valuable copper ore minerals
and “worthless” rock, called gangue (pronounced “gang”). The slurry is placed in a tank and a process
called froth floatation is used to separate the copper minerals from the gangue. Chemical reagents
called “collectors” are added to the slurry and bind to the copper particles, making them hydrophobic,
or waterproof. Pipes are used to blow air into the bottom of the tank to create bubbles, which rise to
the surface, taking the waterproof copper sulfide particles along. The froth of copper-rich bubbles at
the top of the tank is then skimmed off for further processing. The gangue sinks to the bottom of the
tank to be removed or disposed of as mine tailings.
The next stage after froth flotation is the thickening stage. The froth is poured into large tanks
called thickeners. The bubbles break and solids from the froth solution settle at the bottom of the tank.
The solids are then filtered to remove excess water, which can be reused in processing additional
batches of sulfide ore. The final product of the thickening stage is a combination of 30% copper and
other metals; this copper concentrate is then sent to the smelter.
At the smelter, high temperatures are used to further purify the ore in a series of smelting steps.
The copper concentrate is first sent through the smelting furnace to be heated up to 2,300 °F and
converted into molten liquid. The heated liquid is poured into a slag-settling furnace. This step
produces a combination of matte, a mixture of copper,
sulfur and iron, and slag, a dense, glassy material made
of iron, silica, and other impurities. The copper matte
created by the smelting furnace contains 58-60% copper.
The molten matte is then taken to another furnace
called a converter to have the remaining iron and sulfur
burned off; the product is referred to as blister copper,
which contains 98% copper, and taken to the anode
smelter. The blister copper is yellow; when the oxygen in
the copper is burned off in the anode smelter, it turns a
blue-green color. The resulting product, molten anode
copper, is poured into molds called anode-casting Figure 13: Anodes at the Bagdad mine in Arizona. (Photo
wheels. The cooled anode slabs are 99% pure copper, Credit: ADMMR Photo Archive, Arizona Geological Survey).
are now copper-colored, have two handles molded on top, and are two inches thick, three feet wide,
three-and-a-half feet high, and weigh 750
pounds (Figure 13).
The copper anode slabs are then
refined in a final step called electrolysis
(Figure 14). The anode slabs are hung in a
large tank full of an electrolyte solution
made of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid.
Thin sheets of pure copper, which are
called cathodes and weigh about 15
pounds each, are hung in between the
anodes. An electric current is applied, and
positively-charged copper ions (called
cations) leave the anode (positive
electrode) and move in solution through
the electrolyte solution to be plated on
Figure 14: Electrolysis is the final process into purifying sulfide ore into
the cathode (negative electrode). Other copper cathodes.
17
metals and impurities also leave the anode to drop to the bottom of the tank or stay in the electrolytic
solution. These impurities are collected and may be refined to recover other metals such as silver and
gold. After 14 days of electrolysis, the anodes have gradually disappeared, and the copper cathodes
now weigh 375 pounds each and contain 99.99% pure copper. The cathodes are taken out of the tank
and rinsed with water to prevent further reaction. The finished copper cathodes can then be made into
wires, plates, tubes, and other copper products.

C. Recycling Copper

In addition to processing copper ores, new and old copper scrap or copper alloys can be melted, re-
purified, and recycled into new components. It is estimated that such recycling supplies 50% of copper
used in the copper industry (Scott, 2011). In 2010, 770,000 metric tons of copper were recycled, at an
estimated value of nearly six billion dollars (Papp, 2010).

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

 How does copper affect your everyday lifestyle – how long could you go without using copper?
 Do you think mining on tribal lands is a benefit or a misfortune – why?
 If you had $1 billion, would you invest it in a potential mine or the stock market – why?

18
VIDEO RESOURCES

Video Title and Author Video Link


The Legacy of Copper Mining in Arizona www.youtube.com/watch?v=BucmR-kWwmo
(Arizona Experience)
Copper Mining Video 1 www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjaUX4kDUSw&feature
(Engr. Aquil M. Khan) =related
Making History – Malachite and Copper www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OrBw4L490Y
(All Histories)
Ore to More – The History of Copper www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmaGh4g1JtY
(Vérité, Inc.)
Introducing Copper www.azomining.com/video-details.aspx?VidID=29
(University of Nottingham)
DIG http://vimeo.com/14236119
(Joey Howell)
Nearly One Mile Underground http://vimeo.com/38616178
(Keith Yaskin)
Copper: The Miracle Metal www.youtube.com/watch?v=sSVI5l-MbMQ
(Engineer Guy)
Copper Mining and Refining (Redox) www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2hjv6FS67g
(Bill Grosser)

19
WEB-BASED RESOURCES

Resource Title and Author Resource Link


Copper Education www.copper.org/education/
(Copper Development Association Inc.)
Our Mining Process www.fcx.com/resources/fmi/index.html
(Freeport-McMoRan)
Copper and Society www.copperalliance.org.uk/copper-and-
(Copper Development Association Inc.) society/environment
All About Mining www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/all-about-
(Minerals Education Coalition) mining
Copper www.mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals/copp
(Minerals Education Coalition) er
It’s Not Over When It’s Over: Mine http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Reso
Closure Around the World urces/notoverwhenover.pdf
(World Bank and International Finance
Corporation)
Arizona Geology Magazine http://azgeology.azgs.az.gov/article/minerals-and-
(Arizona Geological Survey) mining/2011/09/2010-arizona-mining-review
Mine Closure www.infomine.com/library/publications/docs/e-
(Infomine E-Book) book%2002%20mine%20closure.pdf
Cypress Tohono Mine http://tinyurl.com/m5g4bl7
(US Environmental Protection Agency)
Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and www.smenet.org/docs/publications/MiningEngHndb
Exploration Mining Engineering k3Vol1FM.pdf
Handbook
Copper Statistics and Information http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity
(US Geological Survey) /copper/index.html

20
GLOSSARY

alloy
A material made of two or more metals (such as brass or bronze), or of a metal and another material.

anode
1. An electrode through which conventional current flows into a polarized electrical device; in
electrolysis, it is the positive terminal.
2. In copper processing, a copper anode is an intermediate product from the smelting furnaces which
is used as a copper source from which to make copper cathodes during electrolysis.

brass
A yellowish alloy of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc, sometimes including small amounts of other
metals.

bronze
A yellowish-brown alloy of two-thirds or more of copper and up to one-third of tin, sometimes
including small amounts of other metals.

cathode
1. An electrode from which conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device; in electrolysis, it
is the negative terminal.
2. In copper processing, a copper cathode is the final, 99.99% pure product of the electrolysis process,
and is itself the primary raw material input for the production of finished copper products, such as
rode, tubes, and wires.

closure
In mining, the period of time when the ore-extracting activities of a mine have ceased, and final
decommissioning and mine reclamation are being completed. It is generally associated with reduced
employment levels, which can have a significant impact on local economies.

development
In mining, the process of constructing a mining facility and the infrastructure to support it; typically
occurs before extraction begins, but can also occur concurrently.

copper
A reddish-brown, ductile, malleable metallic element that is an excellent conductor of heat and
electricity and is widely used for electrical wiring.

copper oxide ore


A copper-containing ore that in which some of the original minerals have been oxidized; typically
processed with hydrometallurgy. Includes chrysocolla, azurite, malachite, and cuprite. Typically
processed using hydrometallurgy.

21
copper sulfide ore
A copper-containing ore that is typically a mixture of copper carbonate, sulfate, phosphate, and oxide
minerals and secondary sulfide minerals. Includes chalcocite and chalcopyrite. Typically processed
using pyrometallurgy, although low-grade ores may sometimes use steps from the hydrometallurgy
process.

electrolysis
Generally, a technique that uses an electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical
reaction. Typically, an electrical potential is applied across a pair of electrodes (anode and cathode)
immersed in an electrolyte solution, resulting in the movement of positively charged ions (cations)
moving toward cathode and negatively charged ions (anions) toward the anode. For copper sulfide
ore, electrolysis is the final stage in the process of pyrometallurgy, in which anode copper slabs are
hung in a large tank full of a copper-based electrolyte solution and an electric current is applied,
resulting in the plating of copper onto 99.9% pure copper cathodes.

electrolyte
A chemical compound that conducts electricity by changing into ions when melted or dissolved into a
solution.

electrowinning
Generally, the electrodeposition of a metal from an ore that has been put in solution via a process
commonly referred to as leaching; a form of electrolysis. For copper oxide ore, electrowinning is the
final stage in the process of hydrometallurgy, in which concentrated copper solution from the heap
leaching and solvent extraction processes is used as an electrolyte; an electric current is applied
through an inert anode, resulting in the plating of copper onto 99.9% pure copper cathodes.

element
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means; a pure chemical
substance consisting of a single type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number
of protons in its atomic nucleus. Elements are divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

exploration
In mining, the process of analyzing an area of land to find mineral deposits and acquiring the rights to
explore for mineral deposits on that land.

extraction
In mining, the process of removing ore from the earth in large quantities. May also be referred to as
“production” or “exploitation.”

froth floatation
Generally, a process for selectively separating hydrophobic (do not mix with water) materials from
hydrophilic (do mix with water) materials. For copper sulfide ore, froth floatation is the first stage in
the process of pyrometallurgy, in which air bubbles are introduced into a mixture of finely crushed ore
with water and a chemical that aids attachment of the bubbles to the particles of copper, which are
recovered as a floating froth.

22
geochemistry
The science that applies chemistry to geological systems to understand the composition, structure, and
processes of the earth.

geophysics
The science that applies physics to the geological systems to understand physical properties and
processes of the earth and its surrounding environment.

geology
The science that deals with the dynamics and physical history of the earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that the earth has undergone or is
undergoing.

heap leaching
Generally, an industrial mining process in which a valuable metal is extracted from a heap, or pile, of
crushed ore. For copper oxide ore, heap leaching is the first stage in the process of hydrometallurgy,
in which a chemical solution is applied to a heap of crushed ore, through which it percolates, dissolving
the copper. The resulting pregnant leach solution is collected for further refining via solvent extraction
and electrowinning.

hydrometallurgy
The process of extracting and purifying metals from ore at ordinary temperatures by leaching ore with
liquid solvents. In copper processing, typically used with copper oxide ores and involves heap leaching,
solvent extraction, and electrowinning.

metallurgist
Someone who specializes in metallurgy, the branch of science and technology concerned with the
properties of metals and their production and purification.

mine tailings
The ore waste of mines; large piles of finely-crushed, chemically processed material (also called
gangue) left over after metals of interest (such as copper) have been extracted from the ore that
contained them. May contain metals or other contaminants, and may be susceptible to erosion by
wind or water.

mineral
A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid substance with a definite chemical composition and an ordered
atomic arrangement.

mineral resource
A concentration or deposit of minerals in the earth’s crust which is potentially valuable.

native copper
An uncombined (pure) form of copper which occurs as a natural mineral. Copper is one of the few
metallic elements to occur in native form, although it most commonly occurs in oxidized states and
mixed with other elements.
23
open-pit mining
A type of surface mining in which massive, usually metallic mineral deposits are removed by cutting
benches in the walls of a broad, deep funnel-shaped excavation which is open to the surface for the
duration of the mine's life. This form of mining differs from underground mining that requires
tunneling into the earth.

ore
A naturally occurring mineral containing valuable elements (often metals) which can be extracted from
the surrounding mineral at a profit.

ore reserve
A concentration or deposit of minerals in the earth’s crust which is valuable and can be mined at a
profit.

prospecting
In mining, the process of physically searching a region for mineral deposits.

pyrometallurgy
The process of extracting and purifying metals from ore using high temperatures. In copper processing,
is typically used with copper sulfide ores, and involves froth flotation, thickening, smelting, and
electrolysis.

reclamation
In mining, the process of restoring land that has been mined to a more natural or economically usable
state.

smelting
Generally, extraction of a metal from its ore by a process that involves heating it beyond its melting
point; takes place at a smelter. For copper sulfide ore, smelting is a stage in the process of
pyrometallurgy, in which a series of steps use heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the
partially processed ore, drive off other elements as gases or slag (waste), and leave just the
concentrated copper base behind. The final product is a copper anode slab which is then refined in a
final step called electrolysis.

solvent extraction
Generally, a process in which two immiscible (unmixing) liquids are vigorously mixed in an attempt to
disperse one in the other so that solutes can migrate from one solvent to the other. For copper oxide
ore, solvent extraction is a stage in the process of hydrometallurgy, in which copper-rich pregnant
leach solution from the heap leaching stage is mixed vigorously with a solvent, allowing the copper to
migrate into the solvent and be separated out. This solution will then act as the copper
source/electrolyte for the electrowinning stage.

24
Superfund Alternative Site
Although it is not listed on the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National Priorities List
(NPL) with Superfund Sites, the Superfund Alternative approach uses the same investigation and
cleanup process and standards that are used for sites listed on the NPL. The criteria that must be met
for a site to be identified as Superfund Alternative are: site contaminants are significant enough that
the site would be eligible for listing on the NPL; a long-term response (i.e., a remedial action) is
anticipated at the site; and the site owner is willing to negotiate and sign an agreement with EPA to
perform the investigation or cleanup.

thickening
For copper sulfide ore, a stage in the process of pyrometallurgy, in which the copper froth from the
froth floatation stage is poured into large tanks called thickeners, where the copper solids settle and
are filtered to remove excess water; this copper concentrate will then undergo smelting.

verdigris
A blue-green layer that forms on copper, brass, or bronze after atmospheric oxidation, or weathering.

25
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Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2014). Cyprus Tohono Corporation Mine
Tohono O’odham Nation, Arizona Health Consultation (Public Comment Version). Retrieved
from
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/CyprusTohonoCorporationMine/Cyprus%20Tohono%20Co
rporation%20Mine_HC_PC_12-08-2014.pdf

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2014). Health Consultation: Cyprus Tohono
Mine Site A Summary of Findings – North M=Komelik, Tohono O’odham Nation. Retrieved from
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/CyprusTohonoCorporationMine/14_252827-
A_CyprusTohono_Summary_FINAL_1.pdf

Arizona Geological Survey (AZGS). (2014). Mineral Resources: Mining in Arizona. Retrieved from
http://www.azgs.az.gov/minerals_mining.shtml

Allen, L. (2015, February 9). Hundreds Gather at Oak Flat to Fight for Sacred Apache Land. Indian
Country. Retrieved from http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/02/09/hundreds-
gather-oak-flat-fight-sacred-apache-land-159119

Arms, K. (2004). Mining Regulations and Mine Reclamation. In Environmental Science (Chapter 16,
Section 3). Retrieved from http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_env_science/16-3.pdf

ASARCO. (2014). Mission Mine. Retrieved from http://www.asarco.com/about-us/our-


locations/mission-mine/

Azapagic, A. (2004). Developing a framework for sustainable development indicators for the mining
and minerals industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 12, 639-662. doi:10.1016/S0959-
6526(03)00075-1

Ballard, C. & Banks, G. (2003). Resources wars: The anthropology of mining. Annual Review of
Anthropology. 32, 287-313. doi: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093116

Copper Development Association Inc. (2014). Annual Data 2014: Copper Supply & Consumption –
1993-2013. Retrieved from
http://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/pdfs/annual_data.pdf

Freeport-McMoRan. (2014). Morenci Mine. Retrieved from


http://www.fcx.com/operations/USA_Arizona_Morenci.htm

Gault Group, Inc. (2008). Mining and reclamation plan: ASARCO-Mission Complex Tohono O’odham
National San Xavier District. Retrieved from the restructuring information website for the
Chapter 11 of ASARCO LLC
https://www.asarcoreorg.com/Images/Mining%20and%20Reclamation%20Plan%20(Exhibit%20
F).pdf

26
Harmon, A., Oso, P., and S. Webb. Copper, More than Metal. [PDF document]. Retrieved from
Freeport-McMoran web site: www.mii.org/pdfs/copper.pdf

International Wrought Copper Council (IWCC). (2013). [Graph illustration copper and copper alloy
demand in 2013]. Copper and copper alloy demand in Europe, China, Japan and in the U.S. in
2013 (in 1,000 metric tons). Retrieved from Statista web site
http://www.statista.com/statistics/281095/copper-and-copper-alloy-demand/

Joint Ore Reserves Committee (JORC). (2012). [Graphical illustration of relationship]. General
relationship between exploration results, mineral resources, and ore reserves. Retrieved from
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(The JORC Code) online document
http://www.asx.com.au/documents/rules/Appendix_05A.DOC

Merrifield, N. (2013). Mine Safety and Health Administration Handbook Series: Metal and Nonmetal
Mine Safety and Health (Handbook Number PH13-IV-1). Retrieved from Mine Safety and Health
Administration, US Department of Labor web site
http://www.msha.gov/READROOM/HANDBOOK/PH13-IV-1MNMGIP.pdf

Niemuth, N. (2014). [Map of major Arizona mines - 2014]. Arizona Major Mines – 2014 Map #38.
Retrieved from the Arizona Geological Survey web site
http://repository.azgs.az.gov/uri_gin/azgs/dlio/1588

Papp, J.F. (2010). 2010 Minerals Yearbook: Recycling – Metals (advance release). Retrieved from U.S.
Geological Survey, US Department of the Interior web site
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/recycle/myb1-2010-recyc.pdf

Scott, W. (2011. Methods and Techniques for Recycling Copper. Bright Hub. Retrieved from
http://www.brighthub.com/environment/green-living/articles/66929.aspx

Tetra Tech. (2007). Reclamation and Closure Plan: Rosemont Copper (Project No. 320614-400)."
Retrieved from Forest Service, Department of Agriculture web site
http://www.rosemonteis.us/documents/011884

Tohono O’odham Nation Res. 09-569. Legislative Council. (2009) (enacted).

Wood, V. (2001). A short history of copper mining. Retrieved from Exploring the North website
http://www.exploringthenorth.com/cophistory/cophist.html

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2011). Toxic Release Inventory 2011 Arizona
Report. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/region9/tri/report/11/tri-2011arizona-report.pdf

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from http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2014-coppe.pdf

*All links were verified on July 24, 2015.

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