Copperminingandprocessing Final
Copperminingandprocessing Final
Copperminingandprocessing Final
TRIBAL MINING
COPPER MINING
EDUCATIONAL
AND PROCESSING
MODULES
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Tribal Mining Educational Modules
Instructor’s Guide
Copyright © 2015
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STATEMENT BY THE AUTHORS
Brief quotations from these modules are allowed without special permission, provided that
accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation
from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.
Suggested citation:
Stanley, J., Wilkinson, S.T., Moreno Ramírez, D., Maier R.M., & Chief, K. (2015). Tribal Mining
Educational Modules: Copper Mining and Processing [PDF document]. Retrieved from
http://www.superfund.pharmacy.arizona.edu/learning-modules/tribal-modules
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Copper Mining and Processing
MODULE SUMMARY
Copper is a chemical element that has a variety of uses based on its properties of malleability and
conductivity. Copper ore deposits are found on every continent, and it has been mined around the
world for more than 10,000 years. It is a necessary component for many products in the modern world.
The steps involved in opening a mine and processing copper ore into a final product are very complex.
This module will cover basic information about copper, copper mining in Arizona and on tribal lands,
the life cycle of a mine, and the specifics of copper processing.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
A. Describe basic information about copper, its occurrence, and its use
B. Articulate the history and current status of copper mining in Arizona and tribal lands
C. Detail the stages in the life cycle of a mine
D. Describe copper processing for oxide and sulfide ores
BACKGROUND
I. Copper, its occurrence, and use
A. What is copper?
The development of copper has a rich history. Copper has been used for thousands of years; it may
have been discovered as early as 9000 BC in the Middle East. Early artifacts discovered were made of
native copper and included utensils, tools, weapons, piping, ornaments, and jewelry. The largest
deposit of native copper discovered to date was found in Michigan at the Keweenaw mines (Wood,
2001). Native Americans mined copper in this area between 5000 and 1200 BC, as evidenced by copper
knives, arrows, spearheads, and axes. These types of artifacts have also been found throughout North
and South America.
Copper smelting, or the use of heat and chemical reactions to extract the metal from an ore,
appears to have been discovered independently in different parts of the world. A rise in the use of
smelted copper defines the Chalcolithic period (from the Greek words khalkos and lithos, meaning
‘copper’ and ‘stone,’ respectively), which occurred between the end of the Stone Age and the advent
of the Bronze Age (approximately 3500-2500 BC). Smelting of ores containing both copper and tin
likely led to the discovery of the alloy bronze, which is easier to cast, and allowed a greater variety of
materials to be made, including figurines and vessels. The addition of zinc vapor via calamine ore
allowed the production of brass (often for decorative purposes), which became popular in the Roman
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World during the first millennium BC. Copper’s use as currency also came into prominence in the
Roman World in 280 BC as brass coins and in 23 BC as copper coins.
Today, copper and its alloys have a variety of uses that impact our daily lives. To give some
examples, the average U.S.-built automobile contains 50 pounds of copper, and the average U.S.-built
home contains 400 pounds of copper. As seen in Table 1, the five major uses of copper are: 1) building
construction, 2) electrical and electronics, 3) general consumer products, 4) industrial machinery and
equipment, and 5) transportation equipment. In addition, copper is antimicrobial, and may be used in
personal products such as socks, as well as handles used in hospitals, and tables used in kitchen
restaurants.
Table 1: Copper consumption by major U.S. markets in 2013. Source: Copper Development Association Inc. Annual Data (2014).
Copper
Type of Market Consumption Examples
[million lbs.]
Copper alloys are also used to make important and common instruments and tools. For example,
bronze (copper and tin) is used to make durable tools (e.g., hammers), musical instruments (e.g.,
cymbals), ornaments, medals, statues, and bearings of various machines. In addition, brass (copper and
zinc) is used to make musical instruments (e.g., horns) and decorative art (e.g., sculptures), and low
friction (e.g., locks) and non-sparking tools (e.g., for use around explosive gases).
Worldwide consumption of copper has increased greatly over the past century as the world has
developed. Currently, Asia is the leading world consumer of copper while Europe and the Americas
take second and third place respectively (IWCC, 2013). Worldwide, Chile is the largest producer of
copper (5.7 million tons per year), followed by China (1.7 million tons), Peru (1.3 million tons), the
United States (1.2 million tons), and Australia (1 million tons) (USGS, 2014). In the United States,
approximately 99% of the $9 billion dollars’ worth of copper produced annually comes from five states:
Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, and Montana (USGS, 2014). Building and construction markets
typically utilize a large portion of the copper around the world. Yet, individually we also contribute to
the active mining of copper due to our use of consumer products. A person born today is expected to
use nearly ¾ of a ton of copper in his/her lifetime (Harmon et. al., 2013). Some of this copper is newly
mined, and some is from recycling of copper used before by others.
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II. Copper Mining in Arizona
The main environmental protection agencies which govern a mine’s potential to contaminate the
local environment include the Arizona Department
of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
These two agencies, as well as county or other local
agencies, ensure that operating mines, as well as
mines which have been closed, do not release
contaminated or hazardous materials outside of the
mine site. Hazardous materials have the potential to
leave a mine site through wind, which can carry
dust; rain, which can flow in washes and streams;
and in the groundwater, which can contaminate the
local drinking water. If hazardous materials or
contaminated water were to leave a mine site, mine
owners could face very large fines on a daily basis,
be rejected for future permits, and even face time in
jail. Mines on reservations must meet environmental
quality standards set out by the respective
reservations. For instance, the Navajo Nation
Environmental Protection Agency (NNEPA) has well-
defined water and air quality standards, which the
mines must comply with. Many of the laws in NNEPA
Figure 4: Arizona Major Mines in 2014 (adapted from Arizona are modeled after the US EPA; companies working in
Geological Survey Map 38 by Nyal Niemuth). such areas often follow the governing body with the
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strictest policies to ensure adequate environmental compliance. If there is no formal tribal
environmental protection agency, the mines will be governed by the US EPA. Typically, mining
companies will have environmental engineers on staff at the site or use environmental consulting firms
to interact with the regulatory agencies.
Twenty-one federally-recognized tribes own lands that cover 19.7 million of Arizona’s 72.9 million
acres, or 27% of the state (Figure 5). Currently, there is only one active copper mine on designated
tribal lands in Arizona, the Mission Mine (see Case Study #1). The Mission Mine is operating on both
privately owned land as well as lands owned by the Tohono O’odham Reservation and pays royalties
on the copper extracted there. In addition, the Cyprus Tohono Mine (see case study #2) may resume
operations.
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A. Tohono O’odham Nation
The Tohono O’odham tribe owns 2.7 million acres, or 3.7% of the state. Metallic minerals mined on
or near the Tohono O’odham reservation throughout history include copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc,
iron, mercury, manganese, uranium, and tungsten. There are approximately 210 metallic mineral
deposits, prospects, and quarries within the Pima County portion of the Tohono O’odham Nation.
However, many of the smaller mines are the results of small-time prospectors and have since been
abandoned. The two most prominent mines include the Mission Mine and the Cyprus Tohono Mine.
Throughout history, tribes have faced displacement, discrimination, and marginalization due to
mining on their lands (Ballard, 2003). The copper mining industry is an important source of wealth and
employment in Arizona (AZ Mining Assoc., 2011). Yet, without proper planning and environmental
monitoring, mining can also be a source of contamination that impacts the health of neighboring
communities and the environment (US EPA, 2011). Environmental health is an important concern for
communities living near mine sites, including tribes. Many times these communities are exposed to
poor air quality, contaminated water, and occupational hazards (Azapagic, 2004). In general, the
occupational health and safety risks are above average for the mining industries. Such risks can include
chronic occupational diseases which can be a result of direct exposure to dust during metal/mineral
extraction (Azapagic, 2004). These risks can be greatly reduced with the proper use of Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) which, under law, must be worn by those with a risk of exposure
(Merrifield, 2013). The enforcement of such laws, and other mine safety issues, is regulated by the
Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), a division of the US Department of Labor.
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The impacts of mining on sacred lands and artifacts are also of concern for tribal communities.
Although U.S. laws for the most part protect sacred lands on and off tribal reservations, there are still
potential risks for loss. For example, traditional livelihoods may be limited due to lack of access to land
and/or destruction of important resources (e.g., mountains, vegetation, wildlife). Tribal communities
often rely on natural resources found on sacred lands for cultural, medicinal, and spiritual purposes.
For example, on the Navajo Nation in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah, Navajo people
living in and near uranium mining areas used mill tailings, a sandy waste containing heavy metals and
radium, which is radioactive, to build their traditional earthen homes (hogan), many of which remain in
use today (DOE, 2013). Another example is the nearly 100 sacred and cultural sites of the Tohono
O’odham Nation, which may be impacted by the proposed development of the Rosemont Copper Mine
in southern Arizona (Tohono O’odham, 2009). A final example is the Oak Flat area east of Superior, AZ,
lands sacred to the San Carlos Apache tribe, where Resolution Copper is proposing to mine (Allen,
2015). Innovative mining companies implementing responsible mining have recognized the need for
more respectful relationships with tribal nations to ensure that when mining is undertaken, the rights
and interests of the People are considered. For more details on U.S. laws protecting sacred lands, refer
to the “Mining-Induced Sociocultural Impacts” module.
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detecting rock alterations under the surface. Geochemistry can also be used to analyze samples of soil,
rock, and water. These methods are supplemented by aerial or satellite photography, and combined
with historical maps and literature to develop detailed maps of surface and underground rock
formations. Drilling is used to search for mineral occurrences or the clues in the rocks that may lead to
them. Information gathered in this stage may or may not lead to a discovery of valuable minerals.
In mining exploration, experts use additional techniques to determine the possible size and value
of the mineral deposit discovered during prospecting. Depending on the ownership of the land, a
Mineral Rights Lease, a contractual arrangement that allows the holder to explore/exploit an area that
contains minerals, may be required. Samples that are collected by drilling undergo various analyses by
geologists and metallurgists to determine the richness and extent of the mineral, both vertically and
horizontally. Such analyses of geological confidence and technical and economic evaluation allow
experts to label the deposit as a “mineral resource” and/or an “ore reserve,” to better establish the
economic value of the deposit and to estimate mining costs (Figure 7) (JORC, 2012).
A mineral resource is a
concentration of potentially valuable
material that naturally occurs in the
earth that can potentially be mined for
economic profit. Whether it is worth
extracting now or later may depend on
the amount, form, location, and quality
of the material, a concept called
geological confidence. Experts use
geological sampling and testing
methods to classify a mineral resource
into three different categories
according to geological confidence.
When the amount and quality of the
mineral can be estimated with only a
low level of confidence based on
limited sampling, it is called an
“inferred” mineral resource. Such a
Figure 7: General relationship between Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves. resource will likely not be mined at this
Adapted from: Australasian Code for Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral
Resources and Ore Reserves (JORC, 2012). time, but may be mined one day in the
future, either because all other reserves
have been exploited or because improvements in technology make it easier to extract less
concentrated ores. Additional sampling may allow the amount, quality, density, shape, and physical
characteristics of the mineral to be estimated with a reasonable level of confidence, and it is classified
as an “indicated” mineral resource. If further sampling and reliable and detailed exploration allow the
amount, quality, density, shape, and physical characteristics of the mineral to be accurately estimated
with a high level of confidence, it is classified as a “measured” mineral resource.
An ore reserve is the part of the mineral resource that can be economically profitable to mine (i.e.,
there is enough valuable metal to be worth removing it and extracting it from all of the surrounding
rock). After a deposit has been identified as an inferred, indicated, or measured mineral resource, it is
next labeled as a “probable” or “proved” ore reserve. This classification is based on what is known
about the mineral resource through sampling, combined with consideration of “modifying factors,”
such as mining, metallurgic, economic, environmental, marketing, legal, political, and social factors.
With some information available about the concentration of the ore (i.e., indicated mineral resource),
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and some uncertainty in the modifying factors, the
deposit can be labelled a probable ore reserve. A mine
developed from a probable ore reserve has a chance of
success, but is still financially risky. A measured mineral
resource may also be labelled as only a possible ore
reserve, if there is uncertainty in the consideration of the
modifying factors; if these uncertainties can be removed,
it may later be labelled a proved ore reserve. When the
concentration of ore has been accurately and confidently
measured to be high (i.e. measured mineral resource),
and there is limited uncertainty about the modifying
factors, it is classified as a proved ore reserve. This is the
highest confidence category of reserve estimate,
implying high geological, technical, and economic
confidence that it can be mined at a profit.
Following the completion of the prospecting and
exploration stages, a feasibility study is performed to
formally determine whether it is economically worth
developing the mineral deposit into a mine. A feasibility
report is generated, in which factors such as production
rate, operating costs, income tax, and the sale price of Figure 8: Surface and underground mining in Arizona. A)
Floor and side of the pit at the Copper Hill surface mine. B)
the mineral are estimated as well as put into a formula Mine train in the underground mine at San Manuel. (Photo
to calculate what the final rate of return will be. The credits: 2011-03-1647/2011-03-4003, ADMMR Photo
mining organization can then make a decision about Archive, Arizona Geological Survey).
whether the project will be abandoned or continued at
this stage.
The development stage usually takes 4-12 years to open an ore deposit for production, and may
cost anywhere from $1 million to over $1 billion to complete depending on the type of mine.
Development involves extensive pre-development planning and paperwork. Budget and financial
reports are prepared and permits are requested. Reports regarding potential impacts on the
environment and nearby communities are generated. Plans are assessed regarding the: 1) the mining
process/technology that will be used, 2) building of access roads for transportation, 3) identification of
resources such as power and water sources, and 4) construction of ore processing facilities and
disposal areas for waste. At this point, tens of millions to hundreds of millions of dollars may have been
invested in the project, but it may fail to open if the pre-development requirements are not met,
including acceptance by the community. At this stage, just enough development of the mine site is
performed to ensure that it will be able to be productive for the life of the mine, without later
interruption.
Plans are made for the appropriate type of mining that will be performed. There are three major
types of mining, surface mining, underground mining, and solution mining; their use depends on the
type of ore and where it is located, as well as issues of safety, technology, economics, and
environmental impacts (Figure 8). Surface mining, which includes strip mining, open-pit mining, and
mountaintop removal, removes soil and rock from on top of the mineral deposit. It may begin as soon
as the pre-development steps are complete. Underground mining uses shafts and tunnels to access
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deeply-buried mineral deposits, while the overlying rock is left in place. This type of mining is usually
more expensive and complex, and requires a lot of additional planning for convenience and safety.
Solution mining, sometimes referred to as in situ leaching, is performed by pumping a leaching solution
such as an acid into the ground, where the solution then dissolves the solid minerals into a liquid. This
liquid containing the minerals is then pumped out of the ground and the mineral can then be
recovered by various techniques.
In the extraction stage the mineral is removed from the earth in large quantities as the mine begins
producing. This stage is typically what we envision when we think of mining. Some exploration and
development may continue at this stage, as well. The extraction stage can take from 5-30 years to
complete, although many mines have been open for more than 100 years, and may cost anywhere
from a few million dollars to hundreds of millions of dollars a year depending on the size of the mine
and its location.
The mining organization begins planning for mine closure and reclamation early on; even before a
mine is allowed to open, a reclamation plan must be set in place for its closure. In these reclamation
plans the mining operator describes the processes it will use to attempt to restore or redevelop the
land that has been mined to a more natural or economically usable state. This can include removing
buildings and roads as well as covering up and re-vegetating rock piles. Federal and state regulations
require mining companies to post funding for closure before the mining project begins. This is to
ensure that reclamation is completed at the end of the mining closure (Arms, 2004). Once the mine has
been depleted or is no longer economically feasible to continue mining, the mining operators must
contact local and state agencies to close the mine, and must comply with their respective regulations.
The closure plan must be approved by a variety of mining stakeholders, including government and
community members. Considerations when planning for closure include: protecting public health and
safety, addressing environmental damage, returning the land to its original state or an acceptable new
use, and sustaining social and economic benefits brought by the mine. The succeeding custodian, the
party responsible for the land after the mine closes, should establish an agreement with the mining
company early in the life cycle of the mine, to develop a closure plan that minimizes risks and liabilities.
The cost of closing a mine depends on the age, location, type, and size of mine, amount of waste,
geological characteristics, and type of mineral being extracted. For example, a medium-sized open-pit
mine that is 10-15 years old could cost a few million dollars to close, while a large open-pit mine that
has been operating for more than 35 years could cost tens of millions of dollars to close (Tetra Tech,
2007). It is often less expensive for a mining company operating the mine to close a mine themselves
than for the succeeding custodian to close it. For more detail on reclamation, refer to the “Mine
Tailings and Waste Rock Reclamation” module.
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V. Processing of Copper Ores
C. Recycling Copper
In addition to processing copper ores, new and old copper scrap or copper alloys can be melted, re-
purified, and recycled into new components. It is estimated that such recycling supplies 50% of copper
used in the copper industry (Scott, 2011). In 2010, 770,000 metric tons of copper were recycled, at an
estimated value of nearly six billion dollars (Papp, 2010).
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
How does copper affect your everyday lifestyle – how long could you go without using copper?
Do you think mining on tribal lands is a benefit or a misfortune – why?
If you had $1 billion, would you invest it in a potential mine or the stock market – why?
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VIDEO RESOURCES
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WEB-BASED RESOURCES
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GLOSSARY
alloy
A material made of two or more metals (such as brass or bronze), or of a metal and another material.
anode
1. An electrode through which conventional current flows into a polarized electrical device; in
electrolysis, it is the positive terminal.
2. In copper processing, a copper anode is an intermediate product from the smelting furnaces which
is used as a copper source from which to make copper cathodes during electrolysis.
brass
A yellowish alloy of two-thirds copper and one-third zinc, sometimes including small amounts of other
metals.
bronze
A yellowish-brown alloy of two-thirds or more of copper and up to one-third of tin, sometimes
including small amounts of other metals.
cathode
1. An electrode from which conventional current leaves a polarized electrical device; in electrolysis, it
is the negative terminal.
2. In copper processing, a copper cathode is the final, 99.99% pure product of the electrolysis process,
and is itself the primary raw material input for the production of finished copper products, such as
rode, tubes, and wires.
closure
In mining, the period of time when the ore-extracting activities of a mine have ceased, and final
decommissioning and mine reclamation are being completed. It is generally associated with reduced
employment levels, which can have a significant impact on local economies.
development
In mining, the process of constructing a mining facility and the infrastructure to support it; typically
occurs before extraction begins, but can also occur concurrently.
copper
A reddish-brown, ductile, malleable metallic element that is an excellent conductor of heat and
electricity and is widely used for electrical wiring.
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copper sulfide ore
A copper-containing ore that is typically a mixture of copper carbonate, sulfate, phosphate, and oxide
minerals and secondary sulfide minerals. Includes chalcocite and chalcopyrite. Typically processed
using pyrometallurgy, although low-grade ores may sometimes use steps from the hydrometallurgy
process.
electrolysis
Generally, a technique that uses an electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical
reaction. Typically, an electrical potential is applied across a pair of electrodes (anode and cathode)
immersed in an electrolyte solution, resulting in the movement of positively charged ions (cations)
moving toward cathode and negatively charged ions (anions) toward the anode. For copper sulfide
ore, electrolysis is the final stage in the process of pyrometallurgy, in which anode copper slabs are
hung in a large tank full of a copper-based electrolyte solution and an electric current is applied,
resulting in the plating of copper onto 99.9% pure copper cathodes.
electrolyte
A chemical compound that conducts electricity by changing into ions when melted or dissolved into a
solution.
electrowinning
Generally, the electrodeposition of a metal from an ore that has been put in solution via a process
commonly referred to as leaching; a form of electrolysis. For copper oxide ore, electrowinning is the
final stage in the process of hydrometallurgy, in which concentrated copper solution from the heap
leaching and solvent extraction processes is used as an electrolyte; an electric current is applied
through an inert anode, resulting in the plating of copper onto 99.9% pure copper cathodes.
element
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means; a pure chemical
substance consisting of a single type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number
of protons in its atomic nucleus. Elements are divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.
exploration
In mining, the process of analyzing an area of land to find mineral deposits and acquiring the rights to
explore for mineral deposits on that land.
extraction
In mining, the process of removing ore from the earth in large quantities. May also be referred to as
“production” or “exploitation.”
froth floatation
Generally, a process for selectively separating hydrophobic (do not mix with water) materials from
hydrophilic (do mix with water) materials. For copper sulfide ore, froth floatation is the first stage in
the process of pyrometallurgy, in which air bubbles are introduced into a mixture of finely crushed ore
with water and a chemical that aids attachment of the bubbles to the particles of copper, which are
recovered as a floating froth.
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geochemistry
The science that applies chemistry to geological systems to understand the composition, structure, and
processes of the earth.
geophysics
The science that applies physics to the geological systems to understand physical properties and
processes of the earth and its surrounding environment.
geology
The science that deals with the dynamics and physical history of the earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that the earth has undergone or is
undergoing.
heap leaching
Generally, an industrial mining process in which a valuable metal is extracted from a heap, or pile, of
crushed ore. For copper oxide ore, heap leaching is the first stage in the process of hydrometallurgy,
in which a chemical solution is applied to a heap of crushed ore, through which it percolates, dissolving
the copper. The resulting pregnant leach solution is collected for further refining via solvent extraction
and electrowinning.
hydrometallurgy
The process of extracting and purifying metals from ore at ordinary temperatures by leaching ore with
liquid solvents. In copper processing, typically used with copper oxide ores and involves heap leaching,
solvent extraction, and electrowinning.
metallurgist
Someone who specializes in metallurgy, the branch of science and technology concerned with the
properties of metals and their production and purification.
mine tailings
The ore waste of mines; large piles of finely-crushed, chemically processed material (also called
gangue) left over after metals of interest (such as copper) have been extracted from the ore that
contained them. May contain metals or other contaminants, and may be susceptible to erosion by
wind or water.
mineral
A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid substance with a definite chemical composition and an ordered
atomic arrangement.
mineral resource
A concentration or deposit of minerals in the earth’s crust which is potentially valuable.
native copper
An uncombined (pure) form of copper which occurs as a natural mineral. Copper is one of the few
metallic elements to occur in native form, although it most commonly occurs in oxidized states and
mixed with other elements.
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open-pit mining
A type of surface mining in which massive, usually metallic mineral deposits are removed by cutting
benches in the walls of a broad, deep funnel-shaped excavation which is open to the surface for the
duration of the mine's life. This form of mining differs from underground mining that requires
tunneling into the earth.
ore
A naturally occurring mineral containing valuable elements (often metals) which can be extracted from
the surrounding mineral at a profit.
ore reserve
A concentration or deposit of minerals in the earth’s crust which is valuable and can be mined at a
profit.
prospecting
In mining, the process of physically searching a region for mineral deposits.
pyrometallurgy
The process of extracting and purifying metals from ore using high temperatures. In copper processing,
is typically used with copper sulfide ores, and involves froth flotation, thickening, smelting, and
electrolysis.
reclamation
In mining, the process of restoring land that has been mined to a more natural or economically usable
state.
smelting
Generally, extraction of a metal from its ore by a process that involves heating it beyond its melting
point; takes place at a smelter. For copper sulfide ore, smelting is a stage in the process of
pyrometallurgy, in which a series of steps use heat and a chemical reducing agent to decompose the
partially processed ore, drive off other elements as gases or slag (waste), and leave just the
concentrated copper base behind. The final product is a copper anode slab which is then refined in a
final step called electrolysis.
solvent extraction
Generally, a process in which two immiscible (unmixing) liquids are vigorously mixed in an attempt to
disperse one in the other so that solutes can migrate from one solvent to the other. For copper oxide
ore, solvent extraction is a stage in the process of hydrometallurgy, in which copper-rich pregnant
leach solution from the heap leaching stage is mixed vigorously with a solvent, allowing the copper to
migrate into the solvent and be separated out. This solution will then act as the copper
source/electrolyte for the electrowinning stage.
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Superfund Alternative Site
Although it is not listed on the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National Priorities List
(NPL) with Superfund Sites, the Superfund Alternative approach uses the same investigation and
cleanup process and standards that are used for sites listed on the NPL. The criteria that must be met
for a site to be identified as Superfund Alternative are: site contaminants are significant enough that
the site would be eligible for listing on the NPL; a long-term response (i.e., a remedial action) is
anticipated at the site; and the site owner is willing to negotiate and sign an agreement with EPA to
perform the investigation or cleanup.
thickening
For copper sulfide ore, a stage in the process of pyrometallurgy, in which the copper froth from the
froth floatation stage is poured into large tanks called thickeners, where the copper solids settle and
are filtered to remove excess water; this copper concentrate will then undergo smelting.
verdigris
A blue-green layer that forms on copper, brass, or bronze after atmospheric oxidation, or weathering.
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