National Art Education Association

Principles for Interpreting Art

Author(s): Terry Barrett
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Art Education, Vol. 47, No. 5, Interpretation (Sep., 1994), pp. 8-13
Published by: National Art Education Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193496 .
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SPECIAL

PRINCIPLES
FOR

Inte
eaching interpretation within art criticism is probably the most difficult aspect of teach-
ing criticism because interpretation is perhaps the least understood and most often con-
fused of critical activities. Interpretationis also the most importantaspect of criticismbecause
a responsibleinterpretationnecessarilyincludes description,andbecause a thoroughinterpreta-
tion of a work of art,which results in an understandingof that art,rendersjudgmentmuch easier
and perhapssuperfluous.Judgmentof a work of artwithoutinterpretation,however,is both irre-
sponsive and irresponsible.
This articleis writtento guide artteachers in engaging their studentsin interpretivedialogue
aboutworks of artand to providecriteriafor assessing their interpretationsof art. The following
principlesof interpretationderivefromthe writingsof aestheticians,artcritics,arteducators,and
the author'sexperience in writingcriticismand teachingothers to interpretart. These principles
are not exclusive of other possible principles;rather,they forma relativelycomprehensive,con-
plementary,anduseful set of principlesfor guiding and assessing interpretivediscussions.
Artworks have "aboutness" (Danto, 1981) and demand interpretation. This is the fun-
damentalprincipleidentifiedby aestheticians(e.g., Danto, 1981,Goodman,1976) andreadily
acceptedby critics (e.g., Alloway,1975;Kuspitin VanProyen,1991). It is sometimes disputed,
however,by artists,an occasionalartprofessor,and more frequentlyartstudentsinclinedto hold
that "artspeaks for itself,"or "youcan'ttalkaboutart."Whetherartseems confoundingor readily
understandable,it has potentialfor provokingand sustaininginterestinginterpretations.A work
of artis an expressive objectmade by a person, andtherefore,unlikea tree, a rock, or other mere
things, it is alwaysaboutsomething;thus, unliketrees or rocks, artworkscallfor interpretations.
Responsible interpretations present the artwork in its best rather than in its weakest
light. This principleis in the spiritof fairplay,generosity of spirit,and respect of artists.
Interpretations are arguments. Intelligentcritics'interpretiveargumentsentailpremises
which lead to conclusionsbased on reason and evidence. Fortheir arguments,criticsdrawevi-
dence from a varietyof sources: whatthey see in the artwork,whatthey know aboutthe artist's
otherwork,and their knowledge of the times in which the workwas made andto which it might
refer. Because good criticsare generallypersuasiveandwritein an engaging literarymanner,
their interpretationsrarelyrevealthemselves as logicalargumentsbased on premises thatresult
in a conclusion. Criticismusuallyneeds to be readcarefullyto determinea critic'sinterpretations
of art.
Interpretations are persuasive. Criticismis persuasiverhetoric;thatis, the criticwouldlike
the readerto see a work of artthe way the criticsees it. A critictries to engage the readerin a simi-

BY TERRY BARRETT

ART EDUCATION / SEPTEMBER 1994

Art
larperceptionand understandingso
that eventuallythe readerwillbe likely
to think,'"Yes,I see whatyou mean",
'Yes, I now see it the wayyou see it."
Interpretationsshould be analyzedas
argumentsto see if they are persuasive
by the reasons they offeras well as by
their colorfulterms and carefully
wroughtphrases.
Some interpretations are better
than others. This principledefends
againstoften heard objectionsby those
not knowledgeableaboutcriticism-
'That'sjust your interpretation"-by
which they usuallymean thatno one
interpretationis betterthan any other,
and further,thatno interpretationis
more certainthan any other. This is a
form of intellectualrelativismthatis
somehow toleratedmore in the arts
than in the humanitiesand sciences. understanding.A single, comprehen- overlookedor has not mentioned. One
This principle,on the contrary,holds sive but exhaustiveinterpretationis not criticpresents an interpretationthat
thatall interpretationsare not equal, a goal of interpretation.Since an art- contributesto anothercritic'sprevious
that some interpretationsare better work may generate a varietyof plausi- interpretation.These enrich our under-
argued,better groundedin evidence, ble interpretations,interpretationsmay standingof a work of art. They also
and thereforemore reasonable,more compete, encouragingthe readerto enrich our appreciationof the respon-
persuasive,and more readilyaccept- choose among them, especiallyif inter- siveness of humanbeings.
able. pretationsof the same work of artare Althoughthis principleallowsfor
No single interpretation is contradictory. and encourages a varietyof interpreta-
exhaustive of the meaning of an art- This principleencourages a diversi- tions of a work of art,it may not be logi-
work and there can be different, ty of interpretationsfroma numberof callypossible for one to hold all
competing, and contradictory inter- viewers and froma numberof pointsof interpretationsaboutthe same work of
pretations of the same artwork. Any view. It values an artworkas a rich artif those interpretationsare mutually
given artworkmay receive several dif- repositoryof expression thatallowsfor exclusive or contradictory.One could,
ferentinterpretations,each providing a richvarietyof response. Any one crit- however,sympatheticallyunderstand
subtle.nuancesor bold alternativesfor ic may note something that anotherhas several differentand contradictory

SEPTEMBER 1994 / ART ED UCATION

interpretationsif one understoodthe with how it is appliedto the artwork;or Buchanan
Beverly ?1990 Shack South:
Inside
and
beliefs andvalues of the critic. rejectthe worldview but acceptthe Out.Cedar,
pine,tine,cardboard
Courtesy
Interpretations imply a world specificinterpretationit yields. Steinbaum
Krauss NYC
Gallery, TheChrysler
view. We all move throughthe world Good interpretations of art tell
Museum,
Norfolk, Photo
Virginia byScottWolff
with a more or less articulatedset of more about the artwork than they
assumptionsaboutexistence, and it is tell about the interpreter. Good
throughthese thatwe interpretevery- interpretationsmust clearlypertainto
thing, includingworks of art. Some the work of art. Criticscome to a work not be valuableas an interpretationof
critics interpretarton the basis of less of artwith a historyand a worldview the artwork,and hence is not a good
articulatedtheories. Othershave more and these do, should,and must affect interpretation.
finely articulatedand consistentworld how they see a workof art. All interpre- Interpretations are not so much
views, based on study of philosophy, tationsrevealthe critic,but the critic's absolutely right, but more or less
psychology, and other disciplines. primarychallenge is to directthe read- reasonable, convincing, enlighten-
Through these they interpretworks of er to betterperceiveandunderstand ing, and informative (Hampshirein
art. They may operateon the basis of the artobjectin question. This princi- Kennick,1975). This principleholds
psychoanalytictheory,for example,or ple guards againstinterpretationsthat thatthere is no one true interpretation
offerneo-Marxistcritiquesof allworks are too subjective,those thattell us of an artwork,andthatgood interpreta-
of artthey encounter. more aboutthe criticthanthe artthe tions are not so much "right"as they
Sometimes the criticsmake their criticis interpreting. are compelling,original,insightful,and
basic assumptionsaboutartandlife If one cannotrelatethe critic'sinter- so forth.
explicit;more often,however,they pretationto the workof artthe criticis Good interpretations have coher-
leave them implicit. Once the critic's discussing, the interpretationmaybe ence, correspondence, and inclu-
worldview is identified,choices follow. too subjective. If it is, it will not be siveness. A good interpretation
One can acceptthe worldview and the enlighteningaboutthe object,andwill shouldbe a coherentstatementin itself
interpretationthat it influences or reject andit should also correspondto the art-
both the worldview and the interpreta- work. Coherenceis an autonomous
tion, acceptthe worldview but disagree andinternalcriterion. One couldjudge

ART EDUCATION/ SEPTEMBER1994

whetheraninterpretation wascoherent artwithoutknowledgeofanyothersby However,a criticoughtnotbe the
withoutseeingtheartwork; thatis, the theartist.To interpreta singlenew spokespersonfortheartist.Thisis to
argumenteithermakessenseorit pieceofartbyanunknownis verydiffi- saythatthecriticshoulddomuchmore
doesn't.Correspondence is anexternal cult. Criticsusuallyhavethebenefitof thantranscribe whatartistssayabout
criterionthataskswhethertheinter- knowledgeof severalartworks by an theirwork;rather,criticsmustinter-
pretation fitsthe artwork.A coherent artistwhentheyinterpretanyoneof pret.
interpretation maynotsufficiently cor- thatartistsartworks. The objects of interpretationsare
respond to the work beinginterpreted. An interpretationof an artwork artworks,not artists. Incasualcon-
Thisprinciplealsoprotectsagainst need not matchthe artist'sintent versationaboutart,it is artistswhoare
interpretations whichtendtoward for the artwork.Themeaningofan ofteninterpreted-"He's justtryingto
unleashedspeculation, byaskingthe artworkshouldnotbe limitedtowhat shockus.""She'sanangrywoman."-
interpreter to adheretowhatis actually wasintendedbythe artist.Itsmeaning ratherthantheworktheymake.Incrit-
intheartwork. mightbe muchbroaderthaneventhe icism,however,it shouldbe the objects
Thedemandforinclusiveness artistknows.Someartistsdonotwork thatareinterpreted ratherthantheper-
ensuresthataninterpretation accounts withspecific,consciousintentionsto sonswhomadethe objects.Thisprin-
forallthatis inanartwork.Ifaninter- expressparticular anddefiniteideas. cipledoesnotexcludebiographical
pretationomitsmentionofanaspectof Somearequitecomfortable withtheir information. Oftentimescriticsprovide
anartwork, thatinterpretation is sus- lackofspecificityofintentwhilethey information aboutthelivesofartists.
pect. If the interpretation oneto
leads areworking.Aboutmakingherpaint- Suchbiographical information, howev-
believethatit hasthe capacityto ings,SusanRothenberg(inMarshall& er, shouldbe used to provideinsight
accountforthe omission,butthat Mapplethorpe, 1986),forexample, intothework.Biographical informa-
capacityhasforsomereasonnotbeen says:'Theresultsareawayof discov- tionremindsus thatartdoesnot
used,theinterpretation is notasflawed eringwhatI knowandwhatI don't, emergeapartfroma socialenviron-
as whenaninterpretation cannot whatI didn'tknowI knew,andwhatI ment InafewsentencesinArtnews,
accountforwhatithasignored. wanttolearn-whicharethingsthat criticCurtiaJames (1990)providesa
Feelings are guides to interpreta- seemcloseto unpaintable, whichis goodexampleofhowbiographical
tions. Theseprinciplesdonotsuggest whyI lovepainting,whichis notquite information canbe interpretively infor-
orimplythatthe critic'soranyviewer's likethedonkeyandthecarrot,but mativeregardinga sculptural installa-
feelingsarenotimportant tounder- close"(p.94). tionby BeverlyBuchanan:
standing art.A person'sabilityto Theartist'sinterpretation ofhis or "Buchanan's ShackSouth:Insideand
respond to a work ofartis emotionalas herownworkofart,ifthe artisthasone outwasa full-sizeshackpatchedtogeth-
wellas intellectual, fromthegutandthe andexpressesit,is oneinterpretation eroutofcedar,pine,twine,andcard-
heartaswellas fromthehead.This amongmany,andit is notnecessarily board.Buchananis fromAthens,
principlerejectsthe dichotomous dis- moreaccurateormoreacceptable just Georgia.As a childshe traveledwith
tinctionbetweenthoughtandfeeling; becauseit is the artist'sinterpretation. herfather,a professorofagriculture,
onthe contrary, it assertsthatthought Someartistsarequitearticulate and whodocumentedthe livesofblack
andfeelingareirrevocably intertwined. speakandwriteveryinsightfully about farmers.Shesawmanyshackslikethis
To be successfullyinterpretive, howev- theirwork;othersdonot,andsome andperceivedhoweachinhabitant put
er,thecriticmustarticulate feelingand choosenotto discussthemeaningof his orherownstamp,orimprint,onthe
thoughtin suchawaythatreadersmay theirwork,notwantingtheirarttobe dwelling,animprintthatidentifiedthe
sharethemandsee howtheyarerelat- limitedbytheirownviewsofit. individualinthe community.
ed tothe artwork. Veryimportantly, thisprinciple Buchanan's lovingabilityto capture
Itis interpretively riskyto arriveata activelyplacestheresponsibility of thatindividualimprintmadeShack
confidentinterpretation ofonepieceof interpretationsquarelyonthe shoul- Southanimageofhumblenobility"(p.
dersofviewers,notonartists. 203).
Thereis a caution,however,that
concernswhatmightbe called"bio-
graphicaldeterminism." Artistsshould

SEPTEMBER 1994 / ART EDUCATION

notbe lockedintotheirbiographic Dressed
forBall,1988.William
Wegman. 20x
Unique,
pasts,norshouldonearguethatif 24"Polaroid.
Polacolorphotograph. William
Copyright,
someoneis ofthisraceorthatgender Pace/MacGill
Courtesy
Wegman NewYork.
Gallery,
orthishistoricalbackground,
then
theirartmustbe aboutsuchfactors.
All art is in part about the world influenceda particular artistandabout
in which it emerged. DonaldKuspit whosearttheartist'sworkmaybe com-
(inVan Proyen, 1991) reinforcedthis menting.Artdoesnotemergewithin
principlewhen discussing his study of anaestheticvacuum.Artistsaregener-
psychoanalysis andits effectonhis crit- allyawareoftheworkofotherartists
icismof art:"Ibeganto feelthatthe andoftentheyareespeciallyawareof
artistis notexemptfromlife. Thereis theworkofcertainartists.Even
nowayoutfromseeingartas a reflec- untrained artistsareawareofandinflu-
tionormediationora commentonlife. encedbythevisualrepresentations in
I becameinterestedintheprocess, theirsocieties.Thisprincipleasserts
includingthe artist'slife. I became thatallartcanbe interpreted as tohow
interestedinhowartreflectedthe it is influencedbyotherart,andthatin
artist'slifeaswellas howit reflectedlife manycases,someartis specifically
issues,orexistentialissueswithwhich aboutotherart.Artcanbe aboutlife,
we areallinvolved"(p.19). aboutart,orboth.Animportant guide
Anothercritic,PamelaHammond to interpreting anyartis to see howit
(1990),remindsus ofthe importance of relatesto anddirectlyorindirectly com-
thisprinciple,especiallywheninter- mentsuponotherart.
pretingthe artof artistsfroma culture Interpretation is ultimately a
differentfromthatofthe critic.When communal endeavor (Parsons,1987),
she writesaboutthe sculptureoften and the community is eventually
JapaneseartistsshowinginAmerica, self-corrective. This is an optimistic
she informsus thattraditional Japanese view of the artworldand scholarship
artdoesnotrecognize"sculpture" in thatholdsthatcriticsandhistorians
andofitself.Wheninterpreting the andotherseriousinterpreters will
massive,shapedtimbersofChuichi eventuallycorrectless thanadequate
Fujii,she informsus thatJapanesetra- andeventually putforth
ditionteachesthatmaterialpossessesa The meaningofan interpretations
betterinterpretations.Thishappensin
lifeforceequivalentto thatofa human, theshortrunandthelongrun.Inthe
andthat"thedualisticJudeo-Christian artworkshouldnot shortrun,interpretations mightbe very
viewthatnaturedefersto manopposes nearsighted.Thisprincipleassertsthat
thebeliefofEasternculturesrootedin be limitedto what eventuallythesenarrowinterpretations
theharmoniouscoexistenceofman willbe broadened.Essaysinexhibition
andnature,lifeanddeath,goodand wasintendedbythe catalogues,forexample,areoftencom-
evil"(pp.201-202).Hercriticalknowl- pilationsby scholarlycriticsofthebest
edge oftraditional Japaneseaesthetics
artist.Itsmeaning thinkingaboutanartist'sworkto that
informsherinterpretation andour point.Suchcompilations putforththe
understanding of the work. mightbe much mostplausibleinterpretations available
All art is in part about other art atthetimeandomitless informative
Criticsstate over and over againwho broaderthaneven ones.
the artistknows.

ART EDUCATION/ SEPTEMBER1994

 Feministrevisionistaccountsof his- ColumbusAlternativeHigh School, TerryBarrettis ProfessorofArt
toricalartmade by women are a case in however,has writtenthis more insight- Education,The OhioState University,
point. Scholarsfor years andfor cen- ful interpretation:"Peopleoften get Columbus.
turies have ignored the artof many dressed up for some big social to-do,as
women, and it is only now, through this dog has. However,that social to-do REFERENCES
workbegun by feministhistorians,that may be inflatedin significance. In reali- Alloway,L (1975). TopicsofAmericanart
since1945. NewYork:W.W. Norton.
the historicalrecordis being repaired. ty, what seems too importantmay in art:
Barrett,T. (1994). Criticizing
This is a good example of the scholarly factbe as ordinaryas the bouncingball. Understanding thecontemporary.
The significanceof the event is extrin- MountainView,CA:Mayfield.
communitycorrectingits own mis-
Danto,A (1981). Thetransfiguration ofthe
takes, howeverbelatedly. sic-created by the peoplewho think commonplace: A philosophy ofart.
Good interpretations invite us to the event is important." Cambridge,MA:Harvard.
see for ourselves and to continue In an ideal interpretivediscussion by Eaton,M. (1988).Basicissuesin aesthetics.
Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.
on our own (Eaton,1988). This princi- advancedartinterpreters,every princi- Hammond,P. (1990).Aprimalspirit:Ten
ple reasserts the openness of interpre- ple would come into play,but these contemporary Japanesesculptors.
tationsand encourages the viewer to would be hardto trackwithouta verba- Artnews,89(8), 201-202.
Kennick,W. E. (1979).Artandphilosophy.
get involvedwith the meaningof art. It tim transcript.Teachers maywish to 2ndedition.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.
opposes "right"interpretationsthat end concentrateon and reinforceone or James,C. (1985). New history.Artnews,
interpretivediscussions, and it provides anotherprinciplein a given lesson, 89(8), 203.
Goodman,N. (1976).Languagesofart.
the viewerwith individualfreedomto while they are generallyguided by all of Indianapolis,IN: Hackett
meanderintellectuallythroughfields of them. To teach thatinterpretationsare Margolis,J. (1987).Philosophy looksat the
arts. 3rdedition.Philadelphia, PA:
thought. It might also serve as a goal arguments,for example,students can
Temple.
for interpretersto be friendlyto their be led in a close readingof a piece of Marshall,R & Mapplethorpe, R. (1986).50
audiences by drawingthem in, engag- publishedcriticismappropriatefor NewYorkartists.SanFrancisco,CA:
ing them in conversationratherthan their level of developmentandbe ChronicleBooks.
Parsons,M. (1987).Howweunderstand art:A
haltingdiscussion by dogmaticpro- helped in listing on a chalkboardthe cognitivedevelopmental accountofaesthetic
nouncements. critic'spremises thatlead to a conclu- experience.NewYork:OxfordUniversity
sion. They can look for evidence the Press.
Raven,A. (1988). Crossing over:Feminism
IMPLICATIONSFOR TEACHING criticsuppliesfor the interpretationand andtheartofsocialconcern.AnnArbor,
These principlesare general and identifypersuasiveuses of language. MI: UMIPress.
should hold true no matterwhat the VanProyen,M. (1991).A conversationwith
Similarly,afterthe students have inter- DonaldKuspit.Artweek,September5(19),
age of interpreters,but some of the preted a work of art,they can reiterate 19-22.
principleswill not make sense to some their own premises which led to their
students, dependingon their stage of conclusion. These principlesareextendedwithexamples
of the writingsof professionalcritics
intellectualdevelopment. Nonetheless, These principlesshould hold true regardingtheirinterpretations of pho-
the principlescan providedirectionfor for interpretingchildren'sartas well as tographsbyWilliamWegman,the word
teachers in leadinginterpretivediscus- artmade by matureartists. Too often in piecesofJennyHolzer,andpaintingsby
ElizabethMurray,in Chapter3,
sions and for assessing the learningof classroom situationswe ask the child- Interpreting Art. Barrett,Terry,(1994),
students regardingthe interpretationof artistto be the interpreterand CriticizingArt:Understanding the
art. Thirdgraders,for example,can Contemporary, MountainView,CA:
spokespersonfor his or her own work.
arriveat a simple and adequateinter- This common activitydiminishesthe Mayfield.

pretationof WilliamWegman'sphoto- responsibilityof the viewerto thought- The authorthanksLindaHimesandRonald

graphDressedforBall by seeing it as a fullyrespondto works of artand runs MacGregorforhelpfuleditorialadvice.
humorous doubleentendre;the dog is counterto the interpretiveprinciples
dressed for the tennis ball above its offeredhere.
head and for a formaldance. Karen
Atkinson,a senior artstudentat

SEPTEMBER 1994 / ART EDUCATION