INTRODUCTION

Teaching and learning are essential components of educational process.Infact teaching and learning
are equally important in nursing education .Teaching is the task of a teacher to impart knowledge,
develop attitude and skills in students whereas learning is the outcome of effective teaching in terms
of developing activities , progressive change in behaviour as a result of mental activity by students.it
is important for the teacher needs to know teaching and learning aspects of nursing education.
CONCEPTS OF TEACHING
 Teaching is an interactive process, which takes place between teacher and student to
influence each other.
 The interactive teaching activities are designed to promote desired change in student’s
behaviour to achieve desired objectives. In other words, teaching is a goal directed.
 Teaching is based on student’s intellectual level capacity.
 Teaching take place in a situation having controllable and incontrollable factors.
 Teaching is the task of a teacher who not only imparts information’s but also motivates,
guides, helps and encourages student to learn.
DEFINITIONS OF TEACHING
1. John Brubacher (1939): Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which there
are gaps and obstructions which an individual will seek to overcome and from which he'll learn in the
course of doing so.

2. N.L. Gage (1962): Teaching is a form of inter-personal influence aimed at changing the behaviour
potential of another person.

3. Clarke (1970): Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce change in
the student's (pupil's) behaviour.

A somewhat comprehensive and functional definition can be adapted as follows:

“Teaching is a triadic relation and a tripolar process involving the source of teaching (human or
material), student and a set of activities designed and manipulated primarily to bring changes in the
behaviour of the student”.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHING

1. Teaching giving information and imparting knowledge is: There are many things which the
students will not come to know by themselves unless they are told by the teacher. Similarly,
there are many things which students will not know how to use unless they are given such
information. Therefore, information giving is an important part of teaching. But, while giving
any kind of information the teacher must consider the students level of maturity, their
learning needs and the systematic presentation of content.

2. Teaching is causing to learn: Through teaching is imparting knowledge but knowledge does
not get imparted unless students are ready to receive it. Therefore, the teacher while
imparting knowledge must motivate, guide and help student to receive knowledge and learn
to utilize in daily activities. Thus, is causing to learn.

3. Teaching is helping students to adjust/respond to their environment in an effective manner:

Through teaching students are help to develop knowledge and understanding, attitude and
skills which would help them to react / adjust to their personal and professional environment
and thus lead a useful and happy life.
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 4. Teaching is guiding students: It is through proper guidance that students are helped to
acquire right knowledge, right attitude and right skills which are required to develop personal
and professional competencies. This will help student to make effective adjustment t their
environment.

5. Teaching is stimulation and encouragement: The teacher designs her teaching that is
stimulating and creates desire in student to learn. It encourages the student to learn. It
encourages students to be active and put in efforts to learn.

6. Teaching is both science and as an art: Teaching like nursing is a science of education which
draws its body of knowledge from sociology, psychology, biology, philosophy etc. It involves
specific teaching technique procedures and skills which need to be systematically studied and
improved. It is also an art and calls for once exercise of one’s talent and creativity.

7. Teaching is social service: The teaching as a profession provide services to the society in terms
of educating children and preparing them for variety of pursuits. It thus, helps to improve the
social pattern of society.

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD TEACHING

In March, 1987, the American Association of Higher Education first published "Seven Principles of
Good Teaching Practice":
1. Good teaching encourages interaction between students and faculty.
2. Good teaching encourages collaboration among students.
3. Good teaching uses active learning techniques.
4. Good teaching gives prompt feedback.
5. Good practice emphasizes time on tat
6. Good practice respects diversity-talents, experience and ways of learning.

PRINCIPLES AND MAXIMS OF GOOD TEACHING:

a) General Principles
1) Principle of Setting Definite Goals and Objectives
The goals and objectives must be set according to the expected standards and outcomes in students,
these should be clear to both, teachers and students. The goals and objectives should be definite and
clearly stated to be able to plan, implement and evaluate teaching learning activities effectively.
2) Principle of Student Centeredness
The teaching is for the students to achieve educational objectives; therefore, it is very important that
the teaching strategies planned by the teacher should be according to the level of students, their
abilities, interests etc.
3) Principle of individual Deference All children are different with respect to their abilities, interests
etc. The teacher needs to consider individual differences for her teaching to be effective.
4) Principle of Motivation
Motivation is stimulating interests. The teacher needs to do her best to create interest (motivate)
among students in the teaching lessons. Once the interest is created in students, they will become
attentive, comprehend and work better and thus learning is done. The motivation can be done by the
following techniques.
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i) Linking teaching- learning with life experiences, important happenings, with some examples.
ii) Satisfying curiosity of students. Answering queries, linking them with students' queries.
iii) Making use of natural urges and acquired interests e.g., the system of having class representative,
class-room committees etc. This gives students opportunity to satisfy their ego, self-assertion and
learn to take responsibilities. This in turn motivates students in their studies.
iv), Utilizing all the senses of children. The teacher needs to make use of variety of teaching aids as
these stimulate and sustain interest of students in teaching lessons.
5) Principle of Activity or Learning by Doing
Teaching is effective only when learners are active in the class-room and outside the class-room,
both physically and mentally. When learners are active, learning becomes easier, quicker and more
effective, therefore the teacher needs to plan teaching-learning activities where students can make
direct observation to the situation, phenomena etc., participate in doing certain activities during the
class and after the class, do certain mental exercises, solve problems, plan and organize certain social
services etc. Thus, it stimulates interest and effective learning takes place.
6) Principle of Connecting with Life
The effective learning takes place when teaching is done in the social context and linked with the life
experiences.
7) Principle of Active Involvement and Participation of Students
The students are no more passive listener to what is being taught by the teacher. They need to be
actively involved in all the stages of teaching-learning process according to their level of readiness i.e.
state of mind. This would not only provide input from the students but will make them aware of what
is being planned and what is expected from them in the teaching-learning programme.
8) Principle of correlation
Knowledge is not fragmented. There exist links among various subjects, in the same subject, between
the present and the past etc. Future can be predicted on the basis of present situations. The teacher
therefore, needs to identify the linking ideas and events and correlate while teaching various lessons
to make effective teaching.
9) The Principle of Feedback, Reinforcement and Remedial Teaching
The teacher needs to device feedback mechanisms to laow the results of teaching and accordingly
give positive reinforcements in the form of praise, grades, certificates and other incentives. Some
students may lag behind and need to have remedial teaching. The teacher may have to arrange extra
coaching classes, additional assignments etc.
10) Principle of Creating Conducive Environment
It is very important to have suitable physical and social environment to motivate students to learn.
The teacher should see that there is proper arrangement of classroom, its furniture, lighting etc.,
there is proper discipline and order in the students, the students are co-operative, help each other
etc.

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11) Principle of Planning Teaching and its Effective Strategies
It is very important for the teacher to plan lesson content, teaching aids, teaching methods, teaching-
learning activities and an outline of the plan to be implemented. This way the teaching becomes
objective based. It helps in following all the principles of teaching. The learning is also more effective.
12) ' The Principle of Change and Rest
There should be appropriate provision of change, rest and recreation otherwise it leads to fatigue,
boredom and lack of concentration. The time table should be well balanced. Two consecutive period
of the same subjects should be avoided.
B) MAXIMS OF TEACHING
Maxims of teaching are the basic rules of teaching which when implemented motivate learners,
promote their attention on what is being taught, encourage their active involvement and thus result
in effective learning. The teacher needs to know them and practice.
1) Proceed from Known to Unknown
The teaching is always done step by step. The new lesson should be related to what is already learnt
i.e. what is known to them. The teacher can show the similarities and dissimilarities of the new lesson
with the old lesson. This would not only create interest in students but also make the learning
meaningful and lively. For example, while teaching about the pathological changes in a particular
organ of the body it can be started by review of its normal structure and functions.
2) Proceed from simple to complex
This maxim implies that the content of the lesson is organized in a manner that those ideas which
are elementary and easier to understand by the students are put up in the beginning and further
details follow the proper order. For example, teaching of anatomy and physiology of a particular
organ. It initiates with gross structure to minute structured followed by its functions and role in the
body.
3) Proceed from Indefinite to definite
Nursing students who enter school/college of nursing, usually have vague ideas about human body,
health and disease, about care of patients, their rehabilitation etc. The purpose of teaching in nursing
is to make these ideas clear and precise so that students have definite picture in their mind and
develop desired attitude and skills. It is therefore very important for the teacher to plan the lesson
carefully, make use of variety of methods and Audio-visual aids, give live experiences etc. to clarify
the ideas.
4) Proceed from Concrete to Abstract
This maxim implies that students would understand new ideas better when teacher makes use of
clear and vivid illustrations, Examples, concrete objects, models, actual field visits etc. For example,
anatomy of an organ can be learnt by handling the actual organ and by doing its dissection. Disposal
of sewage can be best understood by visiting sewage disposal plant.
5) Proceed from Particular to the General
This maxim implies that before telling general rules or principles to the class, the teacher presents
particular facts and examples. After study of these facts, the students themselves come out with
general rules and principles. For example, the definition and underlying causes of bed sores can be
generalised by the students after consideration of particular facts and instances of bed sores. This
principle is applied in the inductive method of teaching.

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 6) Proceed from Inductive to Deductive approach
It implies using of inductive method of teaching. In this method of teaching the teacher begins with
the presentation of facts, examples to the students. The students after consideration of facts and
examples and after close and correct observation, establish general rules/principles/definitions and
uses etc. Closely associated to this approach, is the deductive approach. In this approach the teacher
presents general rules/principles/definitions to the students. The students are asked to apply it to
particular examples. For examples definition and general causes of bed sores are presented to the
students, they are then asked to identify cases of bed sores and specify the underlying causes. Both
these methods go together and are important for effective teaching as students become mentally
active and get motivated. These rnethods involve the process of analysis and synthesis.

THE FUNCTIONS AND QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER

a) FUNCTIONS OF A TEACHER
1) Creating and maintaining desirable learning environment.
2) Motivating students to learn.
3) Arranging for conditions which would provide opportunities to develop desired comprehension,
competencies and attitudes.
4) Utilizing the initiatives and natural urges of students to facilitate learning.
5) Guiding and helping students to develop creative abilities.
6) Guiding and helping students to develop inductive and deductive abilities.
7) Diagnosing learning problems of students.
8) Planning and implementing remedial measures.
9) Evaluating records and reports
10) Participating in planning and organizing of curriculum.

b) QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER

A good teacher possesses the following qualities.
A good teacher:
1) Has mastery of the subject matter,
2) Is skilful and artistic in teaching methods and in guiding learning,
3) Treats each individual as unique and recognizes individual differences,
4) Encourages self-learning
5) Keeps the students active and disciplined
6) Is kind and sympathetic
7) Plans her/his teaching carefully in advance but is not very rigid with the plan,
8) Is approachable and seeks the co-operation of the learner.
PURPOSES OF GOOD TEACHING
 Immediate mastery over the subject with its related skills is important, but advancement toward
growth in all spheres of the human personality.
 Development of wholesome personality, (changing habits, attitudes, reconstituting ideals and
changing interests) of the learner.
 To help students to acquire, retain and be able to use knowledge.
 Understand, analyse, synthesize and evaluate the knowledge.
 Achieve skills.
 Establish habits.
 Develop attitude.

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THEORIES OF TEACHING
The theories can be broadly classified into three groups:
1. Formal theories of teaching
2. Descriptive theories of teaching
3. Normative theories of teaching

1. FORMAL THEORIES OF TEACHING/PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES OF TEACHING

These theories are based on certain principles of thought, science of knowledge and philosophical
assumptions. The following four theories are included in this category:
(a) MAIEUTIC THEORY OF TEACHING
The special features of this theory are as follows:
 The knowledge to be gained by the child through education already lies within him in the shape
of forgotten knowledge. The task of teaching is to help the child in its proper recollection.
 Every child is born with inherent capacities and abilities. The teacher's job is to help the child in
actualizing these potentialities and converting it from internal to external.
 In the upbringing and education of the child, this theory puts more emphasis on hereditary than
environmental influences.
b) COMMUNICATION THEORY OF TEACHING
 What is to be taught to the child lies outside him and not within the child.
 The teacher has to provide the knowledge and skills to the child by utilizing the communication
strategies involving narration, explanation, demonstration, etc.
 Sensation and perception play a key role in the process of communication.
 For better communication, the new knowledge should always be linked with the past experiences
and old knowledge possessed by the students.
 Both, hereditary and environmental factors should be provided due importance in the process of
teaching.
c) MOULDING THEORY OF TEACHING
 Environmental influences play a great role in shaping and moulding of human behaviour and
personality.
 Teaching is nothing but an attempt of proper organization of environmental influences to help
the child shape and mould his behaviour in a desirable way.
 In the process of behaviour modification carried out through teaching, due care should be taken
to maintain a proper link between stimulus and response by arranging relevant learning
situations.
 The teacher's main task lies in arranging proper learning situations and providing reasonable
freedom to the child for learning and developing his potential in a desired way.
(d) THE MUTUAL INQUIRY THEORY
 Knowledge is best acquired through inquiry and investigation.
 Better teaching involves the organization of teaching-learning situations in such a way that help
the child to discover knowledge with limited guidance from the teacher.
 Teaching-learning is a co-operative enterprise in which both, the teacher and the learner have to
participate by adopting enquiry and problem-solving approach.
 Both the teacher and the leaner should try to select the most appropriate method for the enquiry
and investigation depending upon the nature of the subject-matter, available environmental
settings and stipulated instructional objectives.

2. DESCRIPTIVE THEORIES OF TEACHING/PRESCRIPTIVE THEORIES OF TEACHING

These theories describe and pinpoint the proper way of the organization of instructional process to
achieve the desired instructional objectives and consequently they lead to a number of theories
which are as follows:

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(a) GAGNE'S HIERARCHICAL THEORY OF INSTRUCTION
Gagne's theory of instruction planned the instructional strategy adopted by the teacher through the
following steps:
 Get the students motivated to learn. It can be done by creating interest of the student's interest
in the learning task. To inform the learner about the learning outcomes or objectives attained
may prove to be a good motivating force.
 Make the students accept presented learning material.
 To assimilate new learning material by stimulating recall of the previous related learning.
 To provide sufficient learning guidance for learning and memorizing the presented material.
 To help the learners for the retention of newly acquired learning experiences.
 To help the students to transfer or generalize the facts, principles or concepts to new situations.
 To help the students to demonstrate their achievement or performance and to provide them with
immediate feedback.

(b) ATKINSON'S OPTIMAL LEARNING THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

An instructional strategy is composed of the following steps:
 The teacher must first lay out instructional objectives specified in behavioural terms.
 The teacher then should chalk out a model of the teaching learning process by specifying the
necessary instructional activities.
 A proper strategy should be chalked out by measuring the attainment of each instructional
objective by designing suitable measurement scale.

(c) BRUNER'S COGNITIVE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

The major points suggested in this theory of instruction and discovery approach may be summarized
as follows:
 Try to make the best use of a student's natural interest and instinct of curiosity. Encourage the
students to think and learn independently, instead of giving them ready material; let them
discover or rediscover it through their own efforts.
 Set the learning situation in such a way that:
• Arouses children's curiosity an motivation.
• Minimizes risk of failure.
• Remains as relevant as possible for the attainment of teaching-learning objectives.

 Never resort to spoon feeding.

 Help the students in proper identification and categorization of objects and events in a particular
and generalized way.
 Try to help the students learn the ways to acquire knowledge and thus, get them acquainted with
the knowledge getting process.
 Arrange the leaning material into proper structure and sequence it properly for its adequate
grasping and understanding on the part of the students.

3. NORMATIVE THEORIES OF TEACHING

They set the norms for the teaching-leaning conditions best suited for achieving the desired
teaching-learning objectives. The findings of these theories are applicable for more generalized set of
situations or conditions available in a normal classroom set-up. The following four theories are there:

a) GAGE'S COGNITIVE THEORY OF TEACHING

 Teaching task is mainly concerned with helping the students in proper comprehension or
meaningful learning of content material.
 They can ha.ve proper comprehension, if this content material is organized, arranged and
presented in a proper way by following the principles of cognitive learning.
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 Teaching task consists of many activities that need to be planned and organized according to the
available situations and circumstances given as follows:
 The type of role to be played by the teacher, such as philosopher, motivator, counsellor, etc.
 The types of educational objectives to be achieved.
 The type of learning in which the learner is to be engaged just in motor learning, concept
learning, problem solving, etc.
 The type of stage or components of learning, such as preparing student to learn, sustaining
their attention and interest, helping in proper comprehension, reinforcing or evaluating their
learning or evaluating their learning outcomes.

(b) RYAN'S THEORY OF TEACHER BEHAVIOUR

According to it, teaching is greatly influenced by the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of the
teacher demonstrated by him in the classroom instruction to induce learning. Therefore, the
improvement in teaching and classroom instruction is dependent on the quality of the teacher's
behaviour demonstrated by the teacher in the classroom activities. There are certain basic
assumptions attached with the teacher's behaviour which are as follows:
 The teacher's behaviour is a function of situational factors present at the time of teaching and
personal characteristics of an individual teacher.
 The teacher behaviour is observable and can be measured in terms of desirable and undesirable
behaviour for the purpose of good teaching.

(c) MITRA'S PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY OF TEACHING

The main ideas propagated by this theory can be summarized as follows:
 Teaching needs to be restricted to the formalized instructional situation. However, it may take
place in and outside the classroom and school.
 For teaching to take place, there must be at least two persons, one the teacher and other the
student. These two persons need to be bound by a contractual relationship. The teacher has the
responsibility of influencing the behaviour of the student in order to lead him from his entry to
the set terminal behaviour.
 The teacher should formulate his teaching task based upon his knowledge of the psychological
principles related to the psychology of individual differences, learning, intelligence, personality,
aptitude and achievement. The teaching task so formulated may include activities like:
• Analysing teaching task.
• Identifying entry behaviour of the pupil.
• Defining teaching objectives.
• Selecting teaching strategies.

(d) CLARKE'S GENERAL THEORY OF TEACHING

It is termed as general theory of teaching on account of its very general nature outlined as
follows:
 It considers teaching as generalized phenomenon or process instead of specific ones.
 It takes into account teaching learning situation in general, common to all types of learning.
 The principles in this theory are generally applicable to all types of teaching carried out at different
stages for attaining general teaching objectives.
 It gives due significance to all the variables, in general, involved at different levels in the process
of teaching.
 It talks about the general strategies adopted by a common teacher to deal with all types of
learners in varied teaching learning situations.

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 LEARNING
CONCEPTS OF LEARNING
 Learning is a process of modification and implies a progressive change in behaviour as a result
of synthesis of old and new knowledge and experience.
 Learning is developing abilities to respond to various situations intelligently and meaningfully.
 Learning can be accomplished by learner own active efforts
 Learning is mental activity which involves the process of conceptualization, description,
inductive and deductive reasoning for acquiring knowledge, attitudes and skill.

DEFINITIONS
1. Henry P. Smith (1962): Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.

2. Crow and crow (1993): Learning the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new
ways of doing things and it operates on an individual's attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust
to a new situation. It represents progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests
to attain a goal.

3. Hilgard (1958): Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through
reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the changes in activity
cannot be explained on the basis of native response, tendencies, maturation or temporary states of
the organism (e.g. fatigue or drugs, etc).

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

1) Learning is Unitary: It implies that the learner reacts as a whole person to the whole situation
in a unified way. It means that the learner responds ' intellectually, emotionally, physically and
spiritually at the same time. The response by the learner is to the entire learning situation
rather than to any one stimulus and in a unified way. This coordinated and integrated total
reaction of the learner to the learning situation helps achieve educational goals.
2) Learning is Individual and Social: The very fact that learning is a self-active process, it
emphasizes that learning is an individual matter. Each individual has to do her/his own
learning. Each individual differs in this depending upon inherited traits, health, home training,
social environment, educational opportunities, self-determination etc.
3) Learning is Self-active: This characteristic of learning implies that the learner can learn only
through her/his own active response to teaching- learning situation, i.e., the individual has to
undertake self leaming activities. Without self-activities there is no learning. The various self-
activities include listening attentively, visualizing attentively, making observation carefully,
reacting and acting in situation, asking questions for clarification, taking down notes, search
literature, do self-study, recall, memorize, do analysis and return demonstration, practice etc.
Students need to develop their own habits of learning. The teacher can simply help and guide
them to develop proper habits and direct them to undertake suitable self-learning activities
to achieve educational goals.
4) Learning is Purposive: Learning is always based on purpose. No learning takes place without
any purpose. Purpose gives directions and thus determines goals for leaming. The goals
determined are based on students leaming needs as related to their desires, interests,
attitudes etc. The teacher needs to set desirable goals by involving students and considering
their needs, desires, interests etc.
5) Learning is Creative: Learning is a process in which the potentialities within the individual are
created in to actualities both by her/his own initiative and also by the assistance of others. In

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 simple words it can be said that there are two dynamic factors in creative learning and these
are:
i) the natural responses of learner's mind i.e. internal force and
ii) intellectual guidance from the. teacher. Both these factors are vital. But it is the learner
who decides and makes choices out of internal motivation as to what, how and when to do in
response to the demands of existing situation. Thus, learning results in new organization of
knowledge and pattern of experiences which has not happened before. The learner develops
unique and distinctive pattern of behaviour and that is what the creative learning is.
6) Learning is Transferable: This characteristic of learning implies that what is learnt in one
context or situation will apply or affect another situation. True learning transfers but it
depends upon understanding of principles, concepts, their relationships which have been
generalised by the learner and applied deliberately to the solution of practical problems. The
teacher should provide opportunities and should see that nursing students apply the
principles which they have learnt in the class room while giving nursing care to the patient.
7) Learning Affects the Conduct of Learner: Learning results in acquisition of knowledge, skills
and brings in change in attitude. This modifies the conduct of learner.

DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Domains of learning are classified by Benjamin, Bloom, et al. in the “Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives” as follows:

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR: Involves the recall of information and the process of analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.

AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR is described as emotive reactions or that may be hidden from observation,
but may be evident in values placed on what is being learnt or attitudes towards people and things.
They are usually the direct result of cognitive or psychomotor behaviour acquired by the learner
during learning experience.

PSYCHOMOTOR BEHAVIOUR is that requiring neuromuscular co-ordination. A psychomotor skill is

the habit of making complex motor responses without conscious thought about movements involved
for e.g. walking.
Cognitive skill is the habit of making complex mental responses without a conscious thought for e.g.
always beginning a sentence with the same word, such as "well".

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

 READINESS
Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are
physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason
for learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject
matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s
responsibility.
 EXERCISE
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is
the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information
longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must
be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.
 EFFECT
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct
relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when
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 accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated
with an unpleasant feeling. , every learning experience should contain elements that leave the
student with some good feelings.
 PRIMACY
The state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first
create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that
what is taught must be right the first time. for example, a student learns a faulty technique, the
instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and “re teaching” correct ones. The
student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to
follow. What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time.
 RECENCY
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the
more difficult it is to remember. For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialled
a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialled last week.
 INTENSITY
The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute. For example, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by
watching it than by reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding
of tasks by performing them rather than merely reading about them.
 REQUIREMENT
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can
be ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting
point or root is needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials
with which to draw, and you must know how to draw a point, a line, and a figure and so on until
you reach your goal, which is to draw a person.
 . FREEDOM
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further
a student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is
learned. Compulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom
enjoyed by individuals within a society, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement
enjoyed by society as a whole. Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom:
freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of action—these are the three
great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted, students may
have little interest in learning.

LEARNING THEORIES

Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and
recall knowledge. By studying and knowing the different learning theories, we can better understand
how learning occurs. The principles of the theories can be used as guidelines to help select
instructional tools, techniques and strategies that promote learning.
Three learning theories:
Behaviourism
Cognitive Information Processing (Cognitivism)
Constructivism

BEHAVIOURIST:

New behaviours or changes in behaviours are acquired through associations between stimuli and
responses
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COGNITIVE:
Information processing leads to understanding and retention
CONSTRUCTIVIST:
We construct our own knowledge of the world based on individual experiences

BEHAVIOURISM
Behaviourism stems from the work of B.F. Skinner and the concept of operant conditioning.
Behaviourism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and outside of people. They
view the learner as a blank slate who must be provided the experience. Behaviourists believe that
learning actually occurs when new behaviours or changes in behaviours are acquired through
associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads to a change in behaviour.

There are three types of behavioural learning:

1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
3. Observational Learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – LEARNING THROUGH ASSOCIATION

OPERANT CONDITIONING – LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING – LEARNING THROUGH OBSERVATION

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between two stimuli. With
classical conditioning, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response. One
stimulus is a neutral and the other evokes a natural response. After learning the association, the
neutral stimulus elicits the conditioned response.
The theory of classical conditioning was introduced by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov
conducted his classic experiment involving dogs. In his experiment, he conditioned the dogs to
associate the sound of a bell with the presence of food. He paired the smell of food which was the
naturally occurring stimulus with the neutral stimulus of a ringing bell. Once an association had been
made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could elicit a response. The dogs responded to
the sound of the bell by salivating.
In his experiment, the bell was neutral stimulus since the bell itself did not produce the dogs’
salivation. However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus of the smell of the food, which did produce
the salivation response, eventually, the bell by itself was able to trigger the salivation response. Thus,
the “conditioning” was achieved when the sound of the bell on its own was able to make the dogs
salivate in anticipation for the food.
Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a learning process in which responses are controlled
by consequences. The likelihood of a certain response occurring is either increased or decreased due
to either a reinforcement or a punishment consequence. A reinforcement helps to increase a
behaviour, while a punishment helps to decrease a behaviour.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

The term operant conditioning Was coined by a behaviourist B.F. Skinner. Skinner conducted
experiments with rats using a device called the Skinner box. The box was a cage set up so the rats
could automatically get a food reward if they stepped on a lever.

The lever caused food to be released. From these experiments, Skinner observed how reinforcement
could lead to increases in behaviours where punishment would result in decreases in behaviours.

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Reinforcement Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood a response will occur.
If you are using reinforcement, you are trying to increase a behaviour.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT.
Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement
Positive means adding a stimulus, while negative means removing a stimulus. Thus, positive
reinforcement is the addition of a good stimulus after a response in order to encourage the response
to continue. An example of this would be giving someone praise after a desired behaviour is displayed.
In contrast, negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesirable stimulus after a response so that
the response will occur more often. An example of this would be fastening your seatbelt in a car so
the beeping sound will stop. Since the undesirable stimulus is removed when you fasten your
seatbelt, you are encouraged to fasten your seatbelt.
Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment because of its name. However, negative
reinforcement involves removing a negative consequence to increase a behaviour, while punishment
seeks to decrease a behaviour.
PUNISHMENT
Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood a response will occur. If you are using
punishment, you are trying to decrease a behaviour.
There are two types of punishment:
Positive punishment Negative punishment

POSITIVE PUNISHMENT is the Addition of an undesirable stimulus after a response so that the
response will occur less or stop. An example would be to give someone extra work for misbehaving.
NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT is the removal of a pleasing stimulus after a response so that the response
will occur less or stop. An example would be taking away television or video games from a child for
misbehaving so he or she will stop misbehaving.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Observational learning or modeling is a process in which learning occurs through observing the
behaviours of others and then imitating those behaviours. Observational learning allows for learning
without any direct change to behaviour. This is why it is not considered strict behaviourism. It is more
of a link between behaviourism and cognitive learning.
Observational learning is associated with the work of Albert Bandura and his social learning theory.
The social learning theory suggests that learning occurs through observation and interaction with
other people.
Bandura first demonstrated observational learning in his famous “Bobo-doll” experiment. In this
experiment, children imitated the actions of adults. After seeing adults hit a doll, children would
assault the Bobo-doll. The experiment showed that

LEARNING PROCESS IN BEHAVIOURISM

The learning process is based on objectively observable changes in behaviour. Behaviour theorists
define learning simply as the acquisition of a new behaviour or change in behaviour. The theory is
that learning begins when a cue or stimulus from the environment is presented and the learner reacts
to the stimulus with some type of response. Consequences that reinforce the desired behaviour are
arranged to follow the desired behaviour (e.g. study for a test and get a good grade). The new
behavioural pattern can be repeated so it becomes automatic. The change in behaviour of the learner
signifies that learning has occurred. Teachers use Behaviourism when they reward or punish student
behaviours.
Examples and applications of behaviourist learning theory:
Drill /Rote work
Rote work
Repetitive practice
Bonus points (providing an incentive to do more)
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Participation points (providing an incentive to participate)
Verbal Reinforcement (saying “good job”)
Establishing Rules

Unfortunately, Behaviourism instruction does not prepare the learner for problem solving or creative
thinking. Learners do what they are told and do not take the initiative to change or improve things.
The learner is only prepared for recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks.

COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING (COGNITIVISM)

Cognitive information processing is based on the thought process behind the behaviour. The theory
is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding
to stimuli (i.e. that think about what is happening). The changes in behaviour are observed, but only
as an indicator to what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is like a mirror from
which new knowledge and skills will be reflected.
Cognitive information processing is used when the learner plays an active role in seeking ways to
understand and process information that he or she receives and relate it to what is already known
and stored within memory. Cognitive learning theories are credited to Jean Piaget.

LEARNING PROCESS
Cognitive learning theorists believe learning occurs through internal processing of information.
Unlike behaviourism, cognitive information processing is governed by an internal process rather than
by external circumstance. The cognitive approach to learning theory pays more attention to what
goes on inside the learner’s head and focuses on mental processes rather than observable behaviour.
Changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s
mind.
Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or changing old
ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory, and not just a change in
behaviour.
Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:

Classifying or chunking information

Linking Concepts (associate new content with something known)
Providing Structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways) Real world examples
Discussions Problem solving Analogies Imagery / providing pictures Mnemonics

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, based
on individual experiences and internal knowledge. Learning is based on how the individual interprets
and creates the meaning of his or her experiences. Knowledge is constructed by the learner and since
everyone has a different set of experiences and perceptions, learning is unique and different for each
person.

Learning Process
Constructivist theorists believe that learning is a process where individuals construct new ideas or
concepts based on prior knowledge and/or experience. Each of us generates our own mental models,
which we use to make sense of our experiences. We resolve conflicts between ideas and reflect on
theoretical explanations. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models
to accommodate our new experiences.
This theory is used to focus on preparing people to problem solve. Therefore, to be successful, the
learner needs a significant base of knowledge upon which to interpret and create ideas. Additionally,

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with Constructivism, outcomes are not always predictable because learners are constructing their
own knowledge. Thus, Constructivism does not work when the results always need to be consistent.
Examples and applications constructivism:
Case studies
Research Projects
Problem based learning
Brainstorming Collaborative learning / group work
Discovery
learning Simulations

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Learning may be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour (excluding the influence of
growth, maturing or lesion). Teaching process is also related to realize the same objective stated in
the definition given by Clarke (1970), i.e. "activities that are designed and performed to produce
change in a student’s behaviour". Teaching consists of all those activities or system of actions that are
intended to produce learning.

It is not essential for teaching to be ended with some kind of leaning. Similarly, learning may also take
place without involving the formalities of teaching process. It is true that teachings intend to produce
learning or bring relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of students. But there is no guarantee
that what a teacher intends be fully realized.

For example, the doctor gives treatment to cure the patient but every patient is not cured by the
treatment. Therefore, it may be possible that the learning outcomes for the whole class particular
students may be absolutely nil. It is also possible that while he tries to provide equal opportunities
and learning situations through his teaching, the variance in the learning achievement of his students
may be quite significant.

Similarly, if one decides to learn something, he may learn through experience; self-learning
Or self-study may also help him to achieve his target. While teaching is an interactive process, learning
may be purely one-sided activity needing no interaction.

Therefore, in the words of B.O. Smith (1961), “Leaning does not necessarily issue from teaching, that
teaching is one thing and learning is quite another."

So, it is wrong to accept that learning is directly proportional to teaching or vice-versa. Both the
concepts may exist and function independently. But, for good things to come, there is need for a
good relationship between the two. They are to join hands, come near and have a synthesis, known
as Teaching-Learning process.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1) Neerja, KP. (2009). Text book of “Nursing education” (1st ed., pp. 327-334). Haryana: Jaypee
publishers.

2) Gupta, Sanjay. (2016). A text book “Nursing education” (1st ed., pp. 41-53). Delhi: Kumar
publishing house.

3) B. T., Basavanthappa. Nursing Education (2nd ed.). India: Jaypee Brothers, Medical
Publishers.

4) [Internet]. [cited 2nd August, 2017]. Available from: https://teach.com/what/teachers-

teach/teaching-methods/

5) [Internet]. [cited 7th August, 2017]. Available from:

http://www.innovativelearning.com/teaching/teaching_methods.html

6) [Internet]. [cited 7th August, 2017]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning

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