I 8616 en

Case studies on managing quality,
assuring safety and reducing

post-harvest losses in fruit
and vegetable supply chains
in South Asian Countries
TCP\RAS\3502
Reduction of Post-harvest Losses in Horticultural Chains
in South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation Countries
Case studies on managing quality,

assuring safety and reducing post-harvest
losses in fruit and vegetable supply chains
in South Asian Countries
Prepared by
Elda B. Esguerra, Lead Post-harvest Consultant
Post-harvest Horticulture Training and Research Center
Crop Science Cluster, College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines
Los Baños College, The Philippines
Technically Edited by
Rosa S. Rolle, Ph.D
Senior Food Systems Officer
Nutrition and Food Systems Division
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2018
Recommended citation
FAO. 2018. Case studies on managing quality, assuring safety and reducing post-harvest
losses in fruit and vegetable supply chains in South Asian Countries
by Rolle S. R., Esguerra E.B. Rome.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers
or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not
these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by
FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.
The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily
reflect the views or policies of FAO.
ISBN 978-92-5-130345-0
© FAO 2018
FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product.
Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private
study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services,
provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given
and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way.
All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights
should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to [email protected].
FAO information products are available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/publications) and can
be purchased through [email protected].
Cover photograph
©FAO/Chris Steele-Perkins/Magnum Ph
iii
Contents
Foreword vii
Abbreviations and acronyms viii
Introduction 1
Chapter 1
Case study of bananas in Sri Lanka 3
1.1 Overview of the Banana Supply Chain 3
1.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for bananas 5
1.3 Banana: Analysis of Results 6
1.4 Response of stakeholders in the banana supply chain 10
1.5 Bananas: conclusions and recommendations 10
Chapter 2
Case study of cauliflower in Nepal 11
2.1 Overview of the cauliflower supply chain 11
2.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for cauliflower 12
2.3 Cauliflower: analysis of results 14
2.4 Response of stakeholders in the califlower supply chain 17
2.5 Cauliflower: conclusions and recommendations 18
Chapter 3
Case study of mandarin in Nepal 19
3.1 Overview of the mandarin supply chain 19
3.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for mandarin 20
3.3 Mandarin: analysis of results 22
3.4 Response of stakeholders in the mandarin supply chain 24
3.5 Mandarin: conclusions and recommendations 24
Chapter 4
Case study of mango in Bangladesh 27
4.1 Overview of the mango supply chain 27
4.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for mango 28
4.3 Mango: analysis of results 31
4.4 response of Stakeholders in the mango supply chain 34
4.5 Mango: conclusions and recommendations 36
Chapter 5
Case study of snap beans in Sri Lanka 37
5.1 Overview of the snap bean supply chain 37
5.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for snap beans 40
5.3 Snap beans: analysis of results 40
5.4 Response of stakeholders in the snap beans supply chain 42
5.5 Snap bean: conclusion and recommendation 42
iv
Chapter 6
Case study of winter tomato in Bangladesh 45
6.1 Overview of the winter tomato supply chain 45
6.2 Technical innovations and practices introduced for winter tomato 47
6.3 Winter tomato: analysis of results 48
6.4 Response of stakeholders in the winer tomato supply chain 52
6.5 Winter tomato: conclusions and recommendations 52
References 53
TABLES
1 Traditional and improved banana post-harvest operations 6
2 Losses in the traditional and improved banana supply chains 8
3 Farmer: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and
transportation 9
4 Wholesaler: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and
transportation 9
5 Retailer: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and
transportation 9
6 Cauliflower: traditional and improved post-harvest operations 14
7 Cauliflower: summary of losses in traditional and improved post-harvest practices. 15
8 Farmer: benefits of trimming 16
9 Wholesaler: benefits of trimming 16
10 Retailer: benefits of trimming 17
11 Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging of produce for
transportation 17
12 Retailer: benefits of wrapping cauliflower curds with plastic film 18
13 Mandarin: traditional and improved post-harvest operations 22
14 Mandarin: losses in traditional and improved supply chain 23
15 Wholesaler: benefits of harvesting mandarins at correct maturity 24
16 Retailer: benefits of harvesting mandarins at correct stage of maturity 24
17 Traditional and improved post-harvest handling operations and technologies
during the pilot demonstration in the mango supply chain 30
18 Losses in the traditional and improved mango supply chain. (Source: field data) 33
19 Summary of gross returns obtained with improved practice of HWT versus
the traditional practice of no HWT during the five-day retail period 35
20 Retailer: benefits on day three after applying HWT improved practice 35
21 Retailer: benefit on day five after applying HWT improved 35
22 Snap beans: traditional and improved post-harvest operations 40
23 Snap beans: losses in the traditional and improved supply chain 41
24 Farmer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation 43
25 Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation 43
26 Retailer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation 43
27 Winter tomato: traditional and improved post-harvest operations 48
28 Winter tomato: losses in the traditional and improved supply chains 50
29 Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation 51
30 Retailer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation 51
v
FIGURES
1 Schematic of traditional banana supply chain from Embilipitiya to Colombo 3
2 Traditional handling practices for bananas: bunches are carried on
the shoulder (A) or a three-wheel cart is used (B); bunches of bananas
at the collection centre (C); and retail display of bananas (D) 4
3 Key stakeholders in the banana supply chain and losses incurred during
the traditional practices of handling and marketing 5
4. Improved post-harvest handling of bananas: dehanding using a dehanding tool (A),
packing of dehanded bananas in a plastic crate with thin polystyrene foam (B),
and transport of bananas using plastic crates (C) 6
5 Improved banana supply chain from Embilipitiya to Colombo 7
6 Key stakeholders in banana supply chains and losses incurred using improved
handling and marketing practices 8
7 Traditional handling practices for cauliflower: harvesting leaving long stems
and leaves attached (A); field packing in large bamboo baskets referred to
as ‘doko’ (B); and packaging in 50 kg plastic sacks (C) for transport to
the wholesale market 11
8 Traditional cauliflower supply chain from Dhading district to Kalimati wholesale market in
Kathmandu 12
9 Key stakeholders in the cauliflower supply chain and losses incurred using
traditional practices for handling and marketing 13
10 Improved cauliflower supply chain from Dhading district to Kalimati wholesale market 13
11 Improved practices in the cauliflower supply chain: trimming of leaves and stem (A);
packing in plastic crate with plastic liner between layers of curds (B); and individual
cauliflower curds wrapped in plastic film(C) 14
12 Key stakeholders in the cauliflower supply chain and losses incurred using improved
practices for handling and marketing 15
13 Mandarin: traditional supply chain from Kavre district to Kalimati wholesale market in
Kathmandu 20
14 Major stakeholders in the mandarin supply chain and losses incurred using traditional
practices for handling and marketing 21
15 Improved mandarin supply chain from Kavre district to Kathmandu 21
16 Improved post-harvest practices introduced into the mandarin supply chain: use of
harvesting tool with scissors and bag at the end (A); sorting based on maturity and
freedom from defects (B); coating with a mixture of vegetable oil and detergent (C);
and packing in plastic crate with plastic sheets at the bottom (D) 22
17 Major stakeholders in the mandarin supply chain and losses incurred employing
improved handling and marketing practices 23
18 Packaging in the traditional mango supply chain: harvesting using the
pick-throw-catch method (A); harvested mangoes directly in contact with
the ground (B); use of rice straw as cushion in bamboo baskets (C);
field-packed mangoes for delivery to collection centre (D); and packaging
materials for transporting mangoes (E) 28
19 Traditional mango supply chain from Chapi Nawabganj to Gazipur 29
20 Major stakeholders in mango supply chain and losses incurred using
traditional practices for handling and marketing 29
21 Improved mango supply chain from Chapai Nawabganj to Gazipur 30
22 Operations and improved practices in the mango supply chain: improved BARI
picking tool (A); field sorting and packing in plastic crates (B); trimming
of long stem and delatexing in trays (C); hot water treatment (D);
and packing in plastic crates as transport containers (E) 31
23 Major stakeholders in the mango supply chain and losses incurred using
the improved practices for handling and marketing 32
vi
24 Traditional snap bean supply chain from Walimada/Naula to Colombo 38

25 Traditional handling practices for snap beans: poly-sack as harvest
or field container (A); sacks of snap beans carried on shoulder
at the collection centre (B); and 50 kg capacity poly-sacks of snap beans
in the wholesale market (C) 38
26 Major stakeholders in the snap bean supply chain and losses incurred
using traditional practices for handling and marketing 39
27 Operations and improved practices in the snap bean supply chain: harvesting pods
at the correct stage of maturity (A); sorting based on external appearance (B);
and bulk packing in 15 kg capacity plastic crates (C) 39
28 Improved snap bean supply chain from Walimada/Naula to Colombo 40
29 Major stakeholders in the snap beans supply chain and losses incurred using
improved practices for handling and marketing 41
30 Operations in the traditional winter tomato supply chain: manual harvesting
and use of bamboo collecting basket (A); packing in red mesh sacks after sorting (B);
and tomatoes packed in 50 kg red plastic mesh sack (C) 46
31 Traditional winter tomatoes supply chain from Bogra to Gazipur 46
32 Major stakeholders in winter tomato supply chain and losses incurred using
the traditional practices for handling and marketing 47
33 Operations and improved practices in the winter tomato supply chain:
harvested tomatoes in plastic pail and in field plastic crates (A);
trimming of long stem (B); washing in chlorinate water (C); and bulk packaging
in 25 kg plastic crates (D) 48
34 Improved winter tomato supply chain from Bogra to Gazipur 49
35 Major stakeholders in the winter tomato supply chain and losses incurred using
the improved practices of handling and marketing 50
vii
Foreword
Fresh fruits and vegetables contribute significantly to food and nutrition security, poverty reduction
and to economic development in the countries belonging to the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC). Smallholders who make little use of post-harvest technologies produce most of
the fresh fruits and vegetables supplied to mass markets in the Region. The high qualitative and quantita-
tive post-harvest losses sustained in these traditional fruit and vegetable supply chains negatively impact
all stakeholders in the supply chain, with farmers and retailers being the most affected.
Mechanical damage and decay resulting from poor bulk packaging and transportation practices and
rough handling along the supply chain are the main cause of qualitative and quantitative loss between
harvest and market. High levels of weight loss, particularly at the retail level, also contribute significantly
to losses. Underlying causes include the lack of knowledge and awareness about good post-harvest
management practices as well as the limited availability of simple post-harvest technologies.
To address these issues, technical innovations and good practices were introduced through pilot
demonstrations and training in six fresh produce supply chains in three South Asian countries: The Peo-
ple’s Republic of Bangladesh, The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal and The Democratic Socialist
Republic of Sri Lanka. These demonstrations resulted in the dramatic reduction of qualitative and
quantitative losses during transportation, and improved produce quality for wholesale and retail, where
produce shelf-life was also improved. Cost and returns analysis revealed the technologies introduced into
the supply chains provided financial benefits to users and stakeholders.
The findings documented in this publication provide an evidence base for the cost-effective manage-
ment of the quality of fresh produce and the reduction of quantitative loss in fresh horticultural supply
chains in SAARC countries.
Rosa S. Rolle
Lead Technical Officer
TCP\RAS\35
viii
Abbreviations and acronyms
BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute

DAE Department of Agricultural Extension (Bangladesh)
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GMP Good Manufacturing Practices
HRC Bangladesh
HWT Hot water treatment
IPHT Institute of Post-harvest Technology
RHRS Post-harvest Technology Section and the Regional Horticultural
Research Station (Bangladesh)
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
TCP Technical Cooperation Programme
Currencies mentioned in the case studies (ISO codes)

Bangladesh Taka Currency code BDT. Conversion: US$1 = BDT81 9498 (April 2017)
Nepalese Rupee Currency code NPR. Conversion: US$1 = 103 288 (April 2017)
Sri Lankan Rupee Currency code LKR. Conversion US$1 = 152 140 (April 2017)
1
Introduction
Fruits and vegetables contribute significantly to nutrition, poverty reduction and to generating eco-
nomic development in the countries belonging to the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC). Poor quality, questionable safety and high levels of post-harvest losses are major bottlenecks
faced in traditional fruit and vegetable supply chains that feed the mass markets in the SAARC region
(Rolle, 2014). Farmers and retailers are the most adversely affected stakeholders in the supply chain.
Improper preharvest handling, unsuitable and inappropriate harvesting, post-harvest handling, pack-
aging and transportation practices coupled with poor logistical operations in the chains negatively impact
on the quality of fresh produce. These incorrect and inadequate practices limit market opportunities and
result in reduced incomes for small-scale farmers and other stakeholders in the supply chain.
Fresh produce safety is compromised by preharvest practice, production and post-harvest practices
and by poor hygienic management in the supply chain. Chemical and microbiological hazards can pose
a safety threat to human health with immediate and long-term effects. It is, therefore, imperative that
stakeholders in traditional fruit and vegetable supply chains focus on improving post-harvest handling
to enhance the quality and safety of fruits and vegetables.
Stakeholder capacity-development is warranted to address the above-mentioned safety issues and
losses in traditional fresh produce supply chains. Training would encourage the application of good prac-
tices in harvesting and in post-harvest systems management in order to maintain quality, ensure safety
and reduce the levels of post-harvest losses. Appropriate levels of cost effective post-harvest technologies
must also be introduced, which will effectively contribute to quality management.
Quality deterioration and quantitative loss results in reduced income for all stakeholders in the chain,
particularly farmers who often bear the cost of losses at the wholesale and retail levels in terms of low
farmgate pricing. Losses, likewise, increase the risks for traders and result in high prices to consumers.
Moreover, the deterioration of quality negatively impacts on the edibility of produce as well as consumer
acceptance.
This publication documents case studies on quantifying the levels of post-harvest loss in fresh produce
supply chains in three countries: the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, the Federal Democratic Republic
of Nepal and the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and on piloting the implementation of good
post-harvest management practices in harvesting, handling and in bulk packaging for improved quality,
safety and shelf-life. The data collected through the pilot demonstrations generated an evidence base for
reducing post-harvest losses in countries across the region.
POST-HARVEST LOSS
Post-harvest loss refers to the decrease in quantity or quality of produce between harvest and the market.
Post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables result from their inherent perishability, which is aggravated by
environmental conditions such as high temperature and relative humidity that enhance deteriorative changes
in the produce.
Rough handling, poor, inappropriate and inadequate packaging and lack of infrastructure and logistical sup-
port contributes to post-harvest losses in fresh fruit and supply chains.
3
Chapter 1
Case study of bananas in Sri Lanka
1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE BANANA into chips or into ketchup. Nutritionally, bananas
SUPPLY CHAIN are a rich source of vitamins and minerals such as
Banana (Musa sapientum) is one of most important potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.
fruit crops produced and consumed in Sri Lanka. Bananas are perishable and are highly suscepti-
Though the crop can be grown across the country, ble to abrasion and compression damage because of
commercial cultivation is limited to a few areas their thin fruit wall. Rough handling, particularly
such as Embilipitiya and Thambuttegama. While during transport and market distribution, leads to
two main banana varieties are grown, the Embul unsightly damage on the fruit, which detracts from
variety is preferably cultivated by farmers because its consumer appeal. More importantly, once dam-
of its comparably high level of disease resistance aged, the fruit undergoes rapid decay as a result
and high demand in local markets. of the enhancement of biological and physical
Ripe bananas are mainly consumed fresh as a processes such as ripening and senescence, which
dessert fruit. Immature, green bananas are processed results in water loss and decay.
FIGURE 1
Schematic of traditional banana supply chain from Embilipitiya to Colombo
Hotels,
Wholesale Market
Restaurants
CONSUMERS
Transportation Packing: bulk packing in bunches

by truck Cushioning material: dry/fresh banana leaves
176 km, Loading into lorry or truck
Retail good road
Markets
Collection center/area
near the farm or house
Supermarkets Manual Harvesting: manual using knife

Hauling/Vehicle Maturity of bunch: correct maturity
21 km Harvest container: bulk packing as bunches
Production Farms
Sources: field data.

4 Case studies on managing quality, assuring safety and reducing post-harvest losses in fruit and vegetable [...]
FIGURE 2
Traditional handling practices for bananas: bunches are carried on the shoulder (A) or a three-wheel cart is used
(B); bunches of bananas at the collection centre (C); and retail display of bananas (D)
A B
C D
©E. Serrano
Good practices from harvest to market dis- is near the farm. If further away, the bunches are
tribution must be employed to maintain qual- loaded onto trucks or on to three-wheeled carts
ity, extend shelf-life and assure safety of the fruit (Figure 2B). Most often, the collection centres are
offered to consumers. not protected from sun or rain (Figure 2C).
Transportation – Bunches of bananas are loaded
The traditional banana supply chain on trucks or vans for transport to the wholesale
A schematic of the traditional banana supply market in Colombo, which is 176 km away from
chain for those produced in Embilipitiya, and the collection centre. Some collectors or transport-
transported to Colombo, Sri Lanka is shown ers use fresh or dried banana leaves as cushioning
in Figure 1. Farmers generally harvest the fruit, between bunches of bananas to reduce mechanical
however, when fruit supply is low and demand is damage. Poor ventilation in the vehicles during
high, immature fruit is harvested by smallholders. transportation results in heat building-up within
Harvest method – Bananas are manually har- the piles of banana bunches.
vested using a knife. Two people are employed Wholesale – At the wholesale market, banana
in harvesting, one to cut the pseudostem and the bunches are unloaded, piled vertically and dis-
other to catch the bunch to prevent it from falling played in stalls. Buyers including retailers in wet
to the ground. markets, supermarkets and institutional buyers
Field handling – Banana bunches are carried on such as from hotels and restaurants, purchase
the shoulder (two bunches at a time) to the col- and transport bananas in bunches. Bananas are
lection centre (Figure 2A) if the collection centre dehanded in retail markets and are displayed either
Chapter 1 – Case study of bananas in Sri Lanka 5
FIGURE 3
Key stakeholders in the banana supply chain and losses incurred during the traditional practices of handling
and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: 8% Mechanical damage: 2% Weight loss: 9.02%

Harvest defects: 1% Weight loss: 3.4% Deterioration loss after 6 days: 5.39%
Loss = 9% Loss = 5.4% Loss = 14.41%
SLR 65/kg SLR 80/kg SLR 100/kg
CONSUMERS
FARMER COLLECTOR WHOLESALER RETAILER
Total Loss = 28.81% Institutional Buyer
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
on shelves or by hanging in front of retail stores in hands. Losses from deteriorative changes dur-
(Figure 1.2D). ing the six-day retail period amounted to 5.4 per-
cent. A weight loss of 9.02 percent was recorded
Bananas sold to supermarkets are dehanded at because of the high ambient temperature.
collection centres and are packed in plastic crates At the farm gate, bananas were priced in Sri
and transported. Lankan rupees (LKR) at 65/kg. At the wholesale
level, the price increased to LKR 80/kg owing to
Losses in the traditional banana supply chain transportation and handling cost and the losses
Losses in the traditional banana supply chain in incurred during transport. Retailers incurred the
Sri Lanka average around 28.8 percent distributed highest levels of loss at 14.4 percent, and, there-
among the farmer (9 percent), wholesaler (5.4 per- fore, sold their bananas at the comparably higher
cent) and retailer (14.41 percent) (Figure 3). Losses price of LKR 100 per kg to the consumers. In
amounting to 8 percent were incurred at the farm effect, it is the consumer who pays for the losses
largely as a result of insect damage. Defects caused and is the one who loses. It is the same for the
by improper harvesting were relatively low at 1 farmer as the low buying price compensates for
percent. At the wholesale level, losses amounted the loss incurred during transportation and in
to 5.4 percent attributed to mechanical damage (2 wholesale.
percent) during transportation of bunches. Weight
loss was high at 3.4 percent and was made worse 1.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND
by the high temperatures during transport because PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR
of the absence of ventilation. BANANAS
Although bananas are harvested at the green Harvest maturity – Bananas exhibiting fullness
stage, their external appearance in retail markets of fingers – an indication of correct status of matu-
was poor because of excessive mechanical dam- rity – were harvested from a farm in Embilipitiya.
age, which became increasingly apparent as the
fruit ripened. At the retail markets, bananas were Harvesting method – The correct method of
dehanded and displayed on shelves or by hanging harvesting involved two people, one to cut the
FIGURE 4.
Improved post-harvest handling of bananas: dehanding using a dehanding tool (A), packing of dehanded
bananas in a plastic crate with thin polystyrene foam (B), and transport of bananas using plastic crates (C)
A B C
©E. Serrano
TABLE 1
Traditional and improved banana post-harvest operations
Operation Traditional practice Improved practice
Harvesting Mature to mixed maturity Correct stage of maturity
Dehanding of bunches using a dehanding

Dehanding No dehanding of bunches
tool
Washing/delatexing No washing Washing and delatexing in chlorinated water
Packing dehanded bananas in a plastic crate

Packaging Bulk transport in bunches
with polystyrene foam between layer
bunch using a sharp knife, and the other to catch pared according to traditional practice (Figure 4C)
the falling bunch onto his padded shoulder. This and transported to the wholesale market. Bananas
method prevented the bunch from falling to the delivered to retail markets were evaluated over a
ground thus reducing mechanical damage. This six-day retail period under ambient conditions.
method also reduced the risk of contamination of
the bananas through contact with the ground. The traditional and improved post-harvest han-
dling operations employed in the banana supply
Handling – The harvested bananas were trans- chains are summarized in Table 1 while Figure 5
ferred to a small on-farm packinghouse, where shows the improved banana supply chain from
bunches were dehanded using a dehanding tool, Embilipitiya to Colombo.
which is curved to fit the banana bunch. With a
downward motion, the hands were easily sepa- 1.3 BANANA: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
rated from the bunch (Figure 4A). Dehanded Reduction of losses in the improved banana
bananas were washed in chlorinated water for supply chain
cleaning, removing latex and disinfecting. The introduction of improved practices in the
banana supply chain resulted in reduced losses
Packaging – After washing, dehanded bananas from 28.8 to 19.05 percent (Figure 6). At the farmer
were packed in plastic crates (24 kg capacity). A level, preharvest and harvest defects amounted to
thin layer of polystyrene foam was placed between 3 percent. Packing the dehanded bananas between
each layer of banana hands to minimize abrasion layers of thin polystyrene foam significantly mini-
damage to the banana fingers (Figure 4B). mized mechanical damage from abrasion during
transportation with minimal loss (0.2 percent)
Transportation – Bananas packed in plastic crates on arrival at the wholesale market. Weight loss
were loaded on to trucks alongside bunches pre- was also reduced from 3.4 percent to 1.9 percent.
FIGURE 5
Improved banana supply chain from Embilipitiya to Colombo
Retail
Wholesale Market - Colombo
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading on lorry or truck.

by lorry/truck Cushioning material: Styrofoam sheets
176 km Packaging: 24 kg plastic crate
Hotels,
Restaurants Manual sorting on covered ground
Supermarkets Manual Dehanding: with sharp knife

Hauling Manual harvesting
21 km Maturity: correct maturity
Production Farms
Embilipitiya
Source: field data.
The total loss on arrival at the wholesale market Shelf-life

was 2.10 percent using the improved practices as The recovery of marketable bananas handled using
against a 5.4 percent loss using traditional practices. the traditional practice was 94.6 percent during the
Reduced loss at the wholesale level resulting from six-day retail period. Losses in the traditionally
improved packaging was 61 percent (Table 2). handled bananas arose from deterioration caused
At the retailer level, weight loss during the by severe abrasion and compression damage that
six-day retail period was high at 11.95 percent resulted in poor appearance; accelerated ripening
because the cut portion of the dehanded bananas and senescence of fruits because of wounding,
caused a comparably high level of moisture loss resulting in reduced shelf-life.
as compared to when bananas were transported With improved handling practice, deteriorative
in bunches (Table 2). At the retail level, there was changes did not occur during retail hence the fruits
an overall 17 percent reduction in weight loss, were 100 percent marketable. Likewise, because
equivalent to loss in marketable weight (Table 2). of the absence of mechanical damage, ripening
Packing of dehanded bananas between thin layers and senescence were retarded thus extending the
of polystyrene foam resulted in zero loss from shelf-life of the fruit.
mechanical deterioration during retail.
The overall reduction in losses and improved Produce safety
quality and shelf-life of bananas benefitted all Care was taken in the method of harvesting
stakeholders in the supply chain. The wholesaler bananas so that bunches did not touch the ground,
can buy larger quantities and pay a higher price which prevented microbial and chemical con-
to the farmer for better quality, while the retailer tamination from contact with the soil. Washing
can sell more bananas because of their improved in chlorinated water after dehanding the bananas
quality and longer shelf-life. The retailer can also reduced, if not totally eliminated, any spoilage
demand a higher price for better quality bananas. and pathogenic micro-organisms and dirt adher-
These benefits trickle down to the farmer if he/ ing to the fruit thus further ensuring fruit safety.
she makes use of plastic crates during handling Packing in clean plastic crates using layers of thin
and transportation of the dehanded bananas to the polystyrene foam between layers provided added
wholesaler or retailer. protection from mechanical damage such as abra-
FIGURE 6
Key stakeholders in banana supply chains and losses incurred using improved handling and marketing practices
Pre-harvest loss Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 11.95%

& harvest defects: 3% damage: 0.2% Deterioration loss after 6 days: 0%
Weight loss: 1.9%
Loss = 3% Loss = 2.1% Loss = 11,95%
CONSUMERS
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
TABLE 2
Losses in the traditional and improved banana supply chains
Supply chain Losses (%)/Handling practice Reduction in loss
level Traditional Improved (%)
Farmer 9.00 3.00 67
Wholesaler 5.40 2.10 61
Retailer 14.4 11.95 17
Total Loss 28.81 19.05 34
Source: field data.
sion, cuts and punctures that could serve as entry 56.80/kg with the traditional practice. Overall,
points for micro-organisms. farmers will realize higher profits when selling
directly to the wholesaler who will pay a higher
Economic benefits derived from improved price for good quality. Further, the long utility
practices life (10 years) of plastic crates provides for added
Farmers who adopted the improved practices benefit to the user over the long term.
benefitted from dehanding the bananas and bulk The wholesaler and retailer benefitted from
packaging and transportation in plastic crates, as dehanding of the banana bunches as well as from
they were able to sell greater actual weights of the use of plastic crates for bulk transportation
bananas as a result of the removal of the stalk, as the number of unmarketable bananas (because
which is equivalent to 2 kg per bunch (Table 3). of mechanical damage) was substantially reduced
Moreover, banana quality was improved because upon arrival at the wholesale market. With the
of the low incidence of mechanical damage during improved practice the wholesaler had a net return
hauling and transportation. The use of improved of LKR 82.61/kg, while with the traditional prac-
practices in the supply chains resulted in a net tice, the return was only LKR 72.68/kg (Table 4).
return of LKR 64.33/kg compared with only LKR These benefits trickle down to the farmer through
TABLE 3
Farmer: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Item Traditional Improved
Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price
(100 kg – 8 kg/bunch) x LKR 65.00/kg LKR 5 980.00
(100 kg) x LKR 70.00/kg LKR 7 000.00
Costs
Depreciation cost of plastic crates 0 14.78
Interest on capital (plastic crate) 0 2.30
Transport cost 300.00 550.00
Subtotal 300.00 567.00
Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 5 680.00 LKR 6 433.00
LKR 56.80/kg LKR 64.33/kg
Source: field data.
TABLE 4
Wholesaler: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price)
(100 kg – 5.4kg) x LKR 80.00/kg LKR 7 568.00 LKR 8 811.00
(100 kg – 2.1 kg) x LKR 90.00/kg
Costs
Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 7 268 LKR 8 261.00
LKR 72.68/kg LKR 82.61/kg
Source: field data.
TABLE 5
Retailer: benefits of dehanding and using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price
(100 kg – 14.41kg) x LKR 100.00/kg LKR 7 759.00 LKR 10 556.00
(100 kg – 11.94 kg) x LKR 120.00/kg
Costs
Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 7 459.00 LKR 10 006.00
LKR 74.59/kg LKR 100.06/kg
Source: field data.
increased selling price for less damaged produce At the retail level, bananas do not incur loss
of good quality if farmers make use of plastic from deterioration, and thus have a longer shelf-
crates during handling and transportation of their life. The retailer obtains a net return of LKR
produce to the wholesaler. 100.06/kg for bananas handled using the improved
practice and only LKR 74.59/kg for bananas (IPHT), presented evidence generated by the pro-
handled using traditional practices (Table 5). ject, to the Ministry of Agriculture, which resulted
in permission being granted to use plastic crates at
1.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN the wholesale market.
THE BANANA SUPPLY CHAIN
On the basis of the evidence documented through 1.5 BANANAS: CONCLUSIONS AND
the pilot demonstrations, stakeholders in the sup- RECOMMENDATIONS
ply chain were convinced that good handling Significant levels of post-harvest loss are incurred
practices such as dehanding and bulk packaging in when bananas are transported in bunches to the
plastic crates greatly reduced losses during trans- wholesale market. Losses at the wholesale market
portation, and maintained the quality of bananas resulted primarily from abrasion and compression
from harvest to market. They also acknowledged damage because of detached fingers when bananas
the simplicity, ease of use and adoption of the were transported in bunches. Evidence collected
improved post-harvest management practices. In through the pilot demonstrations highlighted the
some cases, however, farmers were apprehensive considerably reduced losses when bananas were
about the use of plastic crates because of the high dehanded and packed in plastic crates during
initial investment for the purchase price. transport to the wholesale market. With their
The participation of representatives from improved appearance, bananas fetched a higher
supermarkets during the pilot demonstration price both at the wholesale and retail levels. Dete-
of improved practices facilitated the adoption rioration related to poor appearance was absent
of the introduced improved practices. Farmers at the retail level with the improved practice thus
were encouraged by the supermarket manager to extending the saleable shelf-life of the bananas.
adopt the improved practices and to supply qual- The improved practices likewise reduced the risk
ity bananas to the supermarkets using the plastic of contamination thus contributing to the safety
crates supplied by the supermarket. Farmers who of the produce.
began to supply bananas to the supermarket The adoption of the improved practices by
through these direct links benefitted accordingly, smallholders was greatly facilitated by links with
and increased their incomes by 20 to 40 percent. supermarkets, which resulted in the creation of
Moreover, the stakeholders’ initial apprehen- an enabling environment for the employment of
sion regarding the use of plastic crates as transport improved practices. Plastic crates were provided
containers to one of the largest government- to smallholders to be used together with apply-
managed markets (Dambulla Market), which did ing the improved practices learned to ensure
not encourage the use of plastic crates as transport the supply of better-quality bananas. Increasing
containers for fresh produce has been resolved. consumer awareness of quality and safety will
The Director for the project’s national counter- facilitate adoption of these simple and low-cost
part, the Institute of Post-harvest Technology techniques.
11
Chapter 2
Case study of cauliflower in Nepal
2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE CAULIFLOWER The traditional cauliflower supply chain

SUPPLY CHAIN Harvesting – Farmers in Dhading district manu-
Cauliflower is one of the most important vegetable ally harvest cauliflower at mixed stages of matu-
crops grown in Nepal. It is produced on small rity using scythes or knives. The cauliflower is
and scattered farms in hilly areas and accounts for harvested with a long stem and retains about 5 to
about 16 percent of the total vegetable production, 7 leaves attached to the curd (Figure 7A), as the
with Dhading district alone contributing 1.35 leaves serve as cushioning materials during bulk
percent of cauliflower production in the country. packaging and transportation.
Cauliflower is popularly consumed in both rural
and urban areas. Handling – Following harvest, cauliflower is
The quality attributes of cauliflower desired by transferred to large bamboo baskets referred to as
retailers and by consumers are: good curd size, ‘doko’, which are used as field containers (Figure
cleanliness and compactness of the curds, white to 7B). The filled baskets are manually hauled to the
creamy-white curd colour, few leaves, short stem, collection centre, which is located some 50 to 100
and freedom from physical injury. Stakeholders m from the farm. At the collection centre, the
in the supply chain are aware of the factors that cauliflower is sorted on covered ground.
contribute to the safety of cauliflower including
proper use of pesticides, strict adherence to the Packaging and transportation – Cauliflower
recommended preharvest interval and no-pesticide curds along with the leaves are packed into 50 kg
use after curd emergence. capacity mesh, jute or plastic sacks (Figure 7C).
The bulk packaged cauliflower is subsequently
FIGURE 7
Traditional handling practices for cauliflower: harvesting leaving long stems and leaves attached (A);
field packing in large bamboo baskets referred to as ‘doko’ (B); and packaging in 50 kg plastic sacks (C) for
transport to the wholesale market
A B C
©E. Serrano
FIGURE 8
Traditional cauliflower supply chain from Dhading district to Kalimati wholesale market in Kathmandu
Supermarkets Kalimati Wholesale Market

CONSUMERS
Transportation Manual sorting on covered ground

by lorry/truck Trimming of leaves: not done; or partial trimming
85 km, Packaging: 50 kg mesh sack or jute sack
Retail good road
or plastic sack
Markets
Loading into lorry or truck
Hotels,
Restaurants Manual Manual harvesting using scythe or knife
Hauling Maturity of curds: mixed
50-100 m Harvest container: bamboo basket
Production Farms
(Dhading District)
Source: field data.
loaded onto trucks for transport to the Kalimati three days during which deterioration becomes
Fruit and Vegetable Wholesale market in Kath- evident. After the fourth day in retail, dete-
mandu, about 85 km from Dhading district. rioration and weight loss were high at 20 and 21
percent, respectively (Figure 9). Weight loss was
Marketing – At the wholesale market, buyers largely because of moisture loss from the high
from supermarkets, hotels and restaurants or wet surface area of the leaves, which wilted. Curd
market retailers purchase cauliflower. Retailers deterioration was evident in the form of discolora-
display cauliflower in the wet market in open tion resulting from mechanical damage.
stalls and those that are not purchased within the Total loss in the traditional supply chain amount-
day are temporarily stored in the retail stalls. Steps ed to 52 percent distributed as follows: farmer level
in the traditional cauliflower supply chain from 28 to 30 percent; transportation and wholesale 11
Dhading district to Kalimati wholesale market in percent, and retail 41 percent (Figure 8). Because
Kathmandu are summarized in Figure 8. of the high levels of losses at the retail level, the
retail price was high at Nepalese rupee (NPR) 40/
Losses in the traditional cauliflower supply kg while the farm price was low at NPR 22/kg. At
chain the wholesale level, the price was also low at NPR
The traditional practice of leaving 5 to 7 leaves 25/kg very likely because of the relatively lower
attached to the long stem, results in 28 to 30 level of loss at that level of the supply chain when
percent loss at the farm level (Figure 9). The leaves compared with the losses at the retail level.
account for 25 percent of the weight of cauliflower
sold. Bulk packaging of cauliflower with leaves 2.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND
and long stems in either 50 kg plastic sacks or PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR
plastic bags results in 6 percent loss from damage CAULIFLOWER
related to transport and packaging (abrasion and The pilot demonstration was conducted in Dhad-
compression) and 5 percent weight loss at the level ing district and cauliflower was transported to the
of the wholesaler. Kalimati wholesale market and to retail markets
Considerable losses occur in retail, since the in Kathmandu. Innovations introduced included
cauliflower remains in retail stalls for more than harvesting at the correct stage of maturity, trim-
Chapter 2 – Case study of cauliflower in Nepal 13
FIGURE 9
Key stakeholders in the cauliflower supply chain and losses incurred using traditional practices for handling and
marketing
Pre-harvest loss: <5% Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 21%

Weight of leaves attached: damage: 6% Deterioration loss after 4 days: 20%
25% of total weight sold Weight loss: 5%
Loss = 28-30% Loss = 11% Loss = 41%
NRp 22/kg NRp 25/kg NRp 40/kg
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
FARMER Transport Service WHOLESALER RETAILER
Provider
Total Loss = 52% Institutional Buyer
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
FIGURE 10
Improved cauliflower supply chain from Dhading district to Kalimati wholesale market
Supermarkets Kalimati Wholesale Market

CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading into lorry or truck.

by lorry/truck Manner of packing: layering of curds
Plastic film wrapping 85 km, between plastic liners
good road
Retail Packaging: 15 kg plastic crate
Markets Trimming of leaves: well-trimmed
Manual sorting on covered ground
Hotels,
Restaurants Manual Manual harvesting: using scythe or knife
Hauling Maturity of curds: correct maturity
50 -100 m Harvest container: bamboo basket or doko
Production Farms
(Dhading District)
Source: field data.

FIGURE 11
Improved practices in the cauliflower supply chain: trimming of leaves and stem (A); packing in plastic crate
with plastic liner between layers of curds (B); and individual cauliflower curds wrapped in plastic film(C)
A B C
©E. Serrano
TABLE 6
Cauliflower: traditional and improved post-harvest operations
Harvesting Mixed maturity Correct stage of maturity
Trimming No trimming of leaves and stem Leaves and stems were trimmed
Bulk packing in 50 kg plastic sack or plastic Bulk packing in 15 kg plastic crates with plastic
Packaging
bag liners between layers of curds
Wrapping of single curds in low density

Retail display No film wrapping of curd
polyethylene film
Source: field data
ming of leaves and stems, culling of insect- and 2.3 CAULIFLOWER: ANALYSIS OF
disease-damaged curds, bulk packing in plastic RESULTS
crates for transportation and film wrapping of the Loss reduction in the improved cauliflower
curd at the retail market (Figure 11). supply chain
Preharvest defects in cauliflower attributed to
Harvesting and field preparation – Fully mature insect, rat and disease damage remained the same
and compact curds were harvested using a scythe, at 5 percent.
they were then trimmed, leaving only four wrap- At the wholesale level, the incidence of
per leaves intact (Figure 11A). Cauliflower stems mechanical damage was reduced from 6 percent to
were also trimmed short. Curds exhibiting ‘rici- 3.4 percent with the use of plastic crates for bulk
ness’ (an indication of over-maturity) and damage packaging (Figure 12) and weight loss was reduced
from insects or disease were culled. from 5 to 1.1 percent. With improved practices
in the chain, the loss incurred was substantially
Packaging and transportation – Good quality reduced. Losses arising from deteriorative changes
curds were packed in plastic crates (15 kg capac- such as curd discoloration and decay were reduced
ity), layered between sheets of plastic to minimize from 20 to 10 percent while weight loss was
abrasion (Figure 11B) damage. The crates were reduced from 20.1 to 3.8 percent. Cauliflower dis-
subsequently hauled to the collection centre in played in open stalls in high temperatures during
Dhading and then transported to the wholesale retail, resulted in rapid water loss and eventually
market. For retail display, curds were wrapped with curd discoloration. With individual film wrap-
low-density polyethylene film to minimize weight ping, water loss was reduced as the film provided
loss and other deteriorative changes (Figure 11C). a physical barrier to water loss. One disadvantage
A summary of the traditional and improved of wrapping each cauliflower with film led to a
post-harvest practices during the pilot demonstra- high incidence of decay in the curd because of high
tions is presented in Table 6. temperature and high humidity.
FIGURE 12
Key stakeholders in the cauliflower supply chain and losses incurred using improved practices for handling and
marketing
Pre-harvest loss: <5% Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 3.8%

damage: 3.4% Deterioration loss after 4 days: 10%
Weight loss: 1.1%
Loss = <5% Loss = 4.5% Loss = 13.8 %
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
Total Loss= 18.3% Institutional Buyer
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
TABLE 7
Cauliflower: summary of losses in traditional and improved post-harvest practices.
Supply chain Losses (%) Reduction in
level Traditional Improved loss (%)
Farmer 30.0 5.0 83.3
Wholesaler 11.0 4.5 59.1
Retailer 41.0 13.8 66.3
Total loss 52.0 18.3 64.8
Source: field data
Losses incurred in the traditional and improved Shelf-life

supply chains are summarized in Table 7. At the The five to seven leaves left attached to the
farmer level, the reduction in loss amounted to curd using the traditional practice resulted in
83 percent with the good practice of trimming. heightened water loss manifested as wilting of the
On the other hand, the decrease in loss from 11 leaves and eventually curd discoloration, which
to 4.5 percent at the wholesale level translated detracted from consumer appeal. Curds handled
to a 59.1 percent reduction in loss because of the using traditional practice, therefore, remained
reduced incidence of mechanical damage as plastic marketable for only 2 to 3 days. When the leaves
crates were used in transportation and weight loss were trimmed and the curds were individually
was reduced as a result of trimming. Retailers also film-wrapped for retail, weight loss was minimize,
benefitted from the improved practice with a 66.3 which substantially increased the shelf-life of
percent reduction in losses at this level. Losses in cauliflower to 6 days.
the supply chain were reduced from 52 percent
with the traditional practice, to 18.3 percent with Produce safety
the improved practice. Leaves potentially harbour spoilage and patho-
genic micro-organisms that can contaminate the
curd since the leaves are used to cover the curd and be sold to consumers at a higher price with sub-
serve as a cushion. The source of contamination is stantial reduction in weight loss. With the benefits
eliminated when the leaves are trimmed. spreading across the three sectors, in the end, the
Individual film wrapping of the curd also pre- consumer also benefits as well in terms of getting
vented cross-contamination since the film served the best quality.
as a physical barrier between the environment The wholesaler benefits from the use of plastic
and the curd. It also eliminated contamination of crates for bulk packaging as the number of unmar-
the curd by consumers who handle and press the ketable curds resulting from mechanical damage
curds to test for compactness. was substantially lowered upon arrival at the
wholesale market (Table 11). The farmer benefits
Economic benefit derived from the from the higher price paid by the wholesaler, for
introduction of improved practices the better quality cauliflower when plastic crates
Trimming the stem to about 1 to 2 cm in length and films are used for bulk packaging and trans-
and leaving only 4 small wrapper leaves attached portation of produce directly to the wholesaler.
to the curd benefits the farmer, the wholesaler With the current system of marketing cau-
and particularly the retailer (Tables 8 to 10). The liflower grown in Dhading district, farmers do
farmer sells a larger volume at a higher price to not, however, deliver their produce directly to the
the wholesaler; the wholesaler sells the trimmed wholesaler. Instead, they sell to a collector who
curd at a higher price to the retailer while the provides logistic services and packaging containers
retailer has the greatest benefit of the trimming (plastic crates) to the wholesaler. The wholesaler
intervention because of better quality, which can pays the collector for transport services that also
TABLE 8
Farmer: benefits of trimming
Item No Trimming Trimming
Gross returns (Volume sold – losses) x selling price

(100 kg – 26 kg opportunity loss) x NPR22.00/kg NPR1 628.00 NPR2 500.00
(100 kg – 0 kg) x NPR25.00/kg
Costs
Depreciation cost of trimming knife (NPR150/pc)
0 0.83
(useful life = 3 yr x 60 use/yr)
Labour cost for trimming @NPR 2/curd or kg 0 200.00
Subtotal 0 200.83
Net returns (Gross returns – total cost) 1 628.00 2 299.17
Net returns per kg sold NPR 16.28 NPR 22.99
Source: field data
TABLE 9
Wholesaler: benefits of trimming
Gross returns (Volume Sold – losses) x selling price

(100 kg – 11 kg) x NPR 26/kg, Untrimmed NPR 2 225.00 NPR 2 865.00
(100 kg – 4.5 kg) x NPR 30/kg, Trimmed
Costs
Cost of cauliflower = NPR 22/kg, Untrimmed
2 200.00 2 500.00
Cost of cauliflower = NPR 25/kg, Trimmed
Gross Returns –Total cost 25.00 365.00
Net return (NPR/kg sold) NPR 0.25 NPR 3.65
Source: field data

TABLE 10
Retailer: benefits of trimming

(100 kg – 21 kg weight loss) x NPR 40 kg, untrimmed NPR 3 160.00 NPR 5 772.00
(100 kg – 3.8 kg weight loss) x NPR 60/kg, trimmed
Costs
Cost of cauliflower = NPR 25/kg, Untrimmed 2 500.00 3 000.00
Gross returns – total cost 660.00 2 772.00
Source: field data
TABLE 11
Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging of produce for transportation
Plastic sack, Plastic crate,
Item
no trimming trimming

(100 kg – 11 kg) x NPR 25 kg, Plastic bag NPR 2 225.00 NPR 2 865.00
(100 kg – 4.5 kg) x NPR 30/kg, Plastic crate
Costs
Depreciation cost of packaging material 40.00 4.00
Interest on capital 10.00 2.40
Subtotal 50.00 6.40
Gross returns – total cost 2 175.00 2 858.40
Source: field data
include ‘renting’ the use of the plastic crate. If 2.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN
farmers owned the plastic crates, they would ben- THE CALIFLOWER SUPPLY CHAIN
efit from using them to sell produce directly to the Feedback and impressions from the stakeholders
wholesale market as they could add the benefit of were obtained during the pilot demonstrations
using the plastic crate in terms of reduced weight and training of stakeholders in the supply chain,
loss and fewer unmarketable curds, and would when the results of the pilot demonstration were
retain the cost of the packaging material/transport presented. One participant stated that whether
container, which is paid by the wholesaler to the or not the cauliflower was trimmed, it would be
collector. Further, the long utility life (10 years) purchased at the same price. However, this was
of plastic crates would be an added benefit to the not the case when wholesalers were interviewed.
farmer in the long run. Wholesalers stated their willingness to purchase
The retailer benefits greatly from wrapping the trimmed curds at a higher price as they would no
curd during retail as weight loss is substantially longer need to trim cauliflowers at the Kalimati
minimized and the shelf-life of the cauliflower market. Moreover they stated customers paid a
curd is extended by three days, as compared to higher price for trimmed curds.
unwrapped curds. The retailer would have net There was no negative impression concerning
returns of NPR22.32/kg of wrapped cauliflower the use of plastic crates. This was perhaps because
sold versus NPR6.00/kg of unwrapped curd the cost benefit analysis highlighted the long-term
(Table 12). benefit of the use of crates, especially if coopera-
tives would sell their produce directly at the Kali-
TABLE 12
Retailer: benefits of wrapping cauliflower curds with plastic film
Item No Wrapping Wrapping

(100 kg – 21 kg weight loss) x NPR40 kg, Untrimmed NPR 3 160.00 NPR 5 ,772.00
(100 kg – 3.8 kg weight loss) x NPR60/kg, Trimmed
Costs
Cost of cauliflower = NPR 25/kg, Untrimmed 2 ,500.00 3 ,000.00
Cost of plastic film, NPR 170/50 ft (51.8/15.24 m); one curd needs 340.00
one foot (30.48 cm) for wrapping 0 200.00
Labour cost for wrapping 0 3,540.00
Subtotal 2 500.00
Gross returns – total cost 660.00 2 232.00
Source: field data
mati market. The Chair of the cooperative stated substantially reduced upon arrival at the whole-
the cooperative has a designated selling area at the sale market. If farmers own the plastic crates,
Kalimati market and that several trials would be they would benefit from their use by being able
initiated and conducted following the improved to sell directly to the wholesale market. Further,
post-harvest practices to persuade cooperative the long utility life (10 years) of the plastic crate
members of the benefits of the improved system as would provide added benefits to the farmer over
compared to traditional methods of handling and the long term.
marketing produce. The retailer benefits substantially from wrap-
ping the curd during retail as weight loss is
2.5 CAULIFLOWER: CONCLUSIONS reduced. There is a resulting increase in the shelf-
AND RECOMMENDATIONS life of the cauliflower curds up to 3 days or more
The good post-harvest practices introduced under as compared to unwrapped curds.
the project were as follows: harvesting at the The benefits enjoyed by the farmer, wholesaler
correct stage of maturity late in the morning and retailer from the improved practices would
to prevent leaf breakage, trimming of the stem also benefit the consumer who would receive the
and leaves; bulk packaging in plastic crates for best value for their money when buying good
transportation; use of low density plastic film quality produce that is available in greater volume.
to wrap the curd during retail marketing. These The traditional marketing system in retail mar-
innovations in the supply chain reduced total loss kets for cauliflower does not reward quality with
(farm to retail) from 52 percent (incurred using premium price. However, with the rise of modern
traditional handling practices) to 18.3 percent with markets that require quality and safe produce and
improved practices. with buyers wanting a shorter supply chain, stake-
Trimming of the cauliflower leaves and stems holders can take advantage of this development.
benefitted the farmer, wholesaler and retailer. The If the stakeholders become organized, they can
wholesaler benefits the most from the use of plas- link directly to institutional buyers that require
tic crates for bulk packaging as the proportion consistent volumes of quality produce and who
of unmarketable curds (physically damaged) was would be willing to pay a premium price.
19
Chapter 3
Case study of mandarin in Nepal
3.1 OVERVIEW OF THE MANDARIN contractors provide the labour for harvesting. Low
SUPPLY CHAIN hanging fruit is generally harvested manually by
Mandarins include a diverse group of citrus fruits pulling the fruit resulting in the rind tearing. High
characterized by brightly coloured peel and pulp, hanging fruit are harvested by shaking the trees or
excellent flavour, easy-to-peel rind, and segments by hitting the fruit with a stick. The fruit falls to
that separate easily. The mandarin orange is the the ground and is collected.
most important fruit crop produced in the mid
hills of Nepal. It covers 72 percent of the total area Field preparation – Preharvest contractors sort
under citrus cultivation contributing 68 percent to mandarins primarily on the basis of size, for
citrus production. example: large, medium and small. Fruit is sorted
Mandarins are valued for their vitamin C con- on the ground on a tarpaulin sheet or underlay.
tent. The quality attributes of mandarins desired Sorted mandarins are packed into 20 kg capacity
by consumers include: freshness, large size, smooth plastic crates. Preharvest contractors and collec-
peel (absence of injury and decay), full peel colour, tors state the crates minimize post-harvest losses
good taste, juicy and thin, loose skin. In Kavre, and facilitates handling and stacking for transport.
however, thick-skinned mandarins are grown.
As to safety requirements, consumers are par- Transportation – Depending on the distance to
ticular about pesticide residues on the manda- the market, different types of vehicles are used to
rins. Farmers and preharvest contractors similarly transport mandarins but trucks are most common.
identified pesticide contamination as a safety risk From the production areas in Kavre, the truck
factor together with insect and bird infestation. travels over approximately 52 km on good road
Stakeholders in the supply chain are aware of these to the Kalimati wholesale market in Kathmandu,
desired quality and safety attributes. where the mandarins are distributed to the wet
One of the marketing practices in Kavre that market or to buyers from supermarkets. The
seriously impacts mandarin quality is the preva- traditional supply chain for mandarins produced
lence of preharvest contractors who set the harvest in Kavre district and marketed in Kathmandu is
date and the price. In situations where mandarins shown in Figure 13.
are harvested during the peak season when the
price is low, harvesting is delayed, resulting in over Losses in the traditional mandarin supply
maturation of the fruit. chain
At the farm level, preharvest loss amounted to
The traditional mandarin supply chain 5 percent. The main cause of farm level rejec-
Mandarins are produced on small farms in the tion was fallen fruit and damage by birds and
uplands of Kavre with each farmer producing an insects. At the wholesale level, losses amounted
average of 5.7 tonnes per season. The peak harvest to 7.25 percent distributed as follows: transport
season is January to February. Farmers are respon- and packaging-related damage 4.35 percent; poor
sible for taking care of the trees until fruiting. quality 2.20 percent and weight loss 0.70 percent
(Figure 14). While the distance between Kavre and
Harvesting – Mandarins are harvested at different the wholesale market was relatively short, only
stages of maturity depending on market destina- 52 km from the collection centre to the wholesale
tion and market demand. Therefore, the buyer market, losses resulting from poor packaging were
will often find mixed maturity fruit. Preharvest high. Damage from compression (resulting from
FIGURE 13
Mandarin: traditional supply chain from Kavre district to Kalimati wholesale market in Kathmandu
Supermarkets Wholesale Market

CONSUMERS
Transportation Manual sorting on tarpaulin sheet

by lorry/truck Packaging: 20 kg plastic crates
60 km, Loading on lorry or truck
good road
Retail
Markets Manual Hauling/ Harvesting: manual using hand
Vehicle Harvest container: plastic crate
50 -100 m
Production Farms
(Kavre District)
Source: field data.
over packing) and abrasion resulted in poor qual- included: use of harvesting tools with a bag
ity fruit. attached at the end; harvesting fruits at the correct
Mandarins have a relatively long shelf-life and stage of maturity; sorting and grading; coating
can be stored under ambient conditions for almost with vegetable oil in combination with detergent;
11 days. The highest loss was incurred at the and proper bulk packaging in plastic crates (Figure
retail level amounting to 13.04 percent distributed 15 and Table13).
almost equally between weight loss (6.84 percent)
and loss from deterioration (6.20 percent) after 11 Harvesting – Mandarins were harvested using a
days (Figure 14). harvesting device equipped with holding scissors
At the level of the wholesaler and retailer, the and a bag (Figure 16A) to minimize injury during
total post-harvest loss was 20.29 percent. As noted harvesting. The holding scissor at the end of the
in Figure 14 there was a significant difference bag greatly reduced injury at the point of fruit
between the retail price and farmgate price. The detachment. Fruit was sorted and graded on the
retail price for mandarin was NPR90/kg, which ground covered by a tarpaulin (Figure 16B). Fruits
was almost double the farm gate price of NPR45/ damaged by insects and birds and over-mature
kg. This difference in price is always attributed to fruit were culled.
losses incurred during retail. In effect, both the To enhance the external appearance of the fruit,
farmer and the consumer lose with farmers obtain- mandarins were coated with a mixture of vegetable
ing a low price for their produce and consumers oil and detergent (Figure 16C). The vegetable oil
paying a high price. was intended to reduce weight loss and enhance
the glossy appearance of the fruit.
3.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND
PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR Packaging and transportation – During pack-
MANDARIN ing, a plastic sheet was placed between layers of
Mechanical damage and the onset of decay result- mandarins (Figure 16D) to minimize abrasion
ing from faulty harvesting were the major causes damage. The bulk-packaged mandarins in plastic
of loss after harvest. Improved post-harvest prac- crates were then hauled to the collection centre for
tices introduced through pilot demonstrations transport to the wholesale market in Kathmandu.
Chapter 3 – Case study of mandarin in Nepal 21
FIGURE 14
Major stakeholders in the mandarin supply chain and losses incurred using traditional practices for handling
and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: <5% Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 21%

damage: 4.4 % Deterioration loss after 4 days: 20%
Poor quality: 2.2 %
Weight loss: 5%
Loss = 7.3% Loss = 13%
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
FIGURE 15
Improved mandarin supply chain from Kavre district to Kathmandu
Supermarkets Wholesale Market

CONSUMERS
Transportation Manual sorting on tarpaulin

by lorry/truck Cushioning: plastic liner between
60 km, layer of mandarins
good road Packaging: 20 kg plastic crates
Loading on lorry or truck
Retail
Markets Manual Harvesting: manual using clipper
Hauling/Vehicle Harvest container: plastic crate
50 -100 m Maturity: correct stage of maturity
Production Farms
(Kavre District)
Source: field data.

TABLE 13
Mandarin: traditional and improved post-harvest operations
Harvesting Mixed maturity, generally over mature Correct stage of maturity
Waxing No waxing Waxing with vegetable oil with detergent
Plastic crate with plastic sheet/liner between

Packaging Plastic crate, no liner
layers of mandarin
FIGURE 16
Improved post-harvest practices introduced into the mandarin supply chain: use of harvesting tool with scissors
and bag at the end (A); sorting based on maturity and freedom from defects (B); coating with a mixture of
vegetable oil and detergent (C); and packing in plastic crate with plastic sheets at the bottom (D)
A B
C D
©E. Serrano
3.3 MANDARIN: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS tional practice (Figure 17 and Table 14). Weight
Reduced losses with innovations introduced loss was low at 0.7 percent and was the same for
into the mandarin supply chain both traditional and improved practice.
Preharvest losses remained at 5 percent and were At the retail level, loss as a result of deterioration
not included in the calculation of total loss. was absent. Weight loss on the eleventh day at the
Improved packing of the mandarins using plastic retail level was 6.8 percent for mandarins handled
sheets between the layers during bulk packag- using the improved practice of waxing. Treatment
ing, reduced transport and packaging-related with vegetable oil coating in combination with
losses and the recovery of poor quality fruits was detergent retarded weight loss and other deteriora-
reduced to 4.1 percent with the improved practice, tive changes in mandarins during the eleven-day
as compared to 7.25 percent loss with the tradi- holding in retail under ambient conditions.
FIGURE 17
Major stakeholders in the mandarin supply chain and losses incurred employing improved handling and
marketing practices
Pre-harvest loss: <5% Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 4.6%

damage: 2.4 % Deterioration loss after 11 days: 0%
Poor quality: 1%
Weight loss: 0.8%
Loss = 4.1% Loss = 4.6%
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
TABLE 14
Mandarin: losses in traditional and improved supply chain
Supply chain Losses (%) Reduction in
level Traditional Improved loss (%)
Farmer >5.0 <5.0 -
Retailer 13.0 4.6 64.6
Total loss 20.2 8.7 56.9
At the wholesale level, there was a 43.4 percent The applied wax or coating also provided a barrier
reduction in loss with improved practices (Table to moisture loss hence shrivelling was retarded.
14). Loss reduction was highest at the retailer level
at 64.6 percent. Produce safety
The coating material applied protected the fruit
Shelf-life from invasion of spoilage and pathogenic micro-
Excessive moisture loss causing shrivelling is a organisms thus contributing to the safety of the
major cause of losses in retail. Hence, retail- mandarin.
ers purchase mandarins from wholesalers that
are adequate for the 11-day period. With the Economic benefits from improved post-
improved practices of waxing and layering of harvest practices
plastic sheets between layers of fruit, abrasion A cost-benefit analysis was completed to assess
damage was reduced and retailers could extend the the effect of fruit maturity on returns to the
shelf-life of mandarins beyond the 11-day period wholesaler and the retailer. The benefit to the
and sell a reasonable volume of good quality fruit. wholesaler was relatively small if mandarins were
TABLE 15
Wholesaler: benefits of harvesting mandarins at correct maturity
Item Correct maturity Over mature

(100 kg – 7.25 kg)x NPR 60/kg, over mature NPR 5 754.00 NPR 5 565.00
(100 kg – 4.1 kg)x NPR 60/kg, correct maturity
Costs
Cost for market preparation (0.5 working-day) 200.00 200.00
Cost for transportation (100 kg x NPR 2/kg) 200.00 200.00
Subtotal 400.00 400.00
Gross returns –Total cost 5 354.00 5 165.00
Source: field data
TABLE 16
Retailer: benefits of harvesting mandarins at correct stage of maturity
Item Correct maturity Over mature

(100 kg – 13 kg weight loss) x NPR 90/kg, over mature. NPR 8 586.00 NPR 5 565.00
(100 kg – 4.6 kg weight loss) x NPR 90/kg, correct maturity
Costs
Cost of transportation (100 kg x NPR 2/kg) 200.00 200.00
Cost of market preparation (lump sum) 400.00 400.00
Subtotal 600.00 600.00
Source: field data
harvested at the correct stage of maturity. The 3.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN

wholesaler received only NPR 53.54/kg of manda- THE MANDARIN SUPPLY CHAIN
rins for harvesting at the correct stage of maturity During the feedback session after the pilot dem-
and NPR 51.65/kg for over mature mandarins. onstration, the stakeholders were impressed with
It should be noted there was no difference in the the harvesting tool with scissors and harvesting
selling price (NPR 60/kg) of mandarins regardless bag, which reduced fruit damage. The stakehold-
of fruit maturity (Table 15). ers further realized the benefits of harvesting
The retailer, however, benefited from improved mandarins at the correct stage of maturity in terms
returns by selling mandarins harvested at the of reduced weight loss and delayed deterioration
correct stage of maturity, rather than over-ripe during retail. The stakeholders asserted that in
mandarins (Table 16), owing to the improved the coming harvest season, the fruit will only be
shelf-life. As in the case of the wholesaler, there harvested at the correct stage of maturity using the
was no difference in the selling price (NPR 90/ improved harvesting tool.
kg) of mandarins regardless of stage of maturity.
If there was a price premium for mandarins har- 3.5 MANDARIN: CONCLUSIONS AND
vested at the correct stage of maturity, the benefit RECOMMENDATIONS
to the retailer would be increased. The simple innovations introduced in the sup-
ply chain particularly when using the harvesting
tool with scissors and bag attached; harvesting tions should give priority to capacity-building of
at correct stage of maturity; sorting and grading; stakeholders through training and provision of
coating with vegetable oil; and use of plastic sheet technical assistance in the implementation of good
liners between layers of mandarins in plastic crates practice in harvesting and handling.
reduced total losses from 20.2 to 8.7 percent. The It is highly recommended that the prevail-
greatest reduction in losses occurred at the retail ing practice of preharvest contractors dictating
level because of the increased shelf-life where harvesting schedules should be discouraged.
mandarins are held for 11 days under ambient Stakeholders who are preharvest contractors in
condition. During that period, quality deteriora- the supply chain should be made aware of the
tion was more apparent in the form of decay and implications of their practice. They must also be
mechanical damage when fruit was handled using trained in good harvest and post-harvest practices.
the traditional practice. Moreover, since manda- Another strategy for minimizing the influence of
rins were sold by weight, the reduction in weight the preharvest contractors is by having an organ-
loss brought about by waxing resulted in higher ized group of farmers who are able to forge market
recovery of marketable fruit and extended shelf- links with buyers. Being better organized, farmers
life. can improve their bargaining power because, they
Lack of knowledge about good handling prac- would be able to supply the same quantities to
tice is a key contributor to losses. Relevant institu- buyers through cooperative marketing.
27
Chapter 4
Case study of mango in Bangladesh
4.1 OVERVIEW OF THE MANGO safety concern. According to the growers, the
SUPPLY CHAIN reason for this practice is to render the mangoes
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most disease free. Growers believe that if mangoes are
important and popularly grown fruits in Bangla- disease free, then the fruit is safe to eat. Plant
desh. In 2013, mangoes were produced on 30.80 growth regulators are generally applied from flow-
thousand ha with an average yield of 31.07 tonnes ering until fruit development and maturation to
(BBS, 2013 as cited by Miah et al., 2015). The increase the size of the fruit.
introduction of improved varieties, production
techniques and greater market demand have led Harvesting – Maturity indices followed are change
to an increase in the area and volume of mango in peel colour, flattening of the shoulder, and fall-
production by 1.5 and 5.3 percent, respectively ing of fruit to the ground. Mangoes are harvested
over the last few years. either by hand followed by throwing the harvested
Mangoes are harvested from mid-May until fruit to another person holding a jute sack to catch
mid-August with different varieties harvested each the fruit (Figure 18A and B) or using a traditional
season. The varieties that can be harvested in picking tool equipped with a net at the end to catch
mid-May until mid-June, referred to as the early the fruit. Using this traditional tool, however, a
varieties, are Gopalbhog, Himsagor, Khirsapat, long stem is left, which may cause puncture dam-
Brindabhani, and BARI Aam-1. The mid-season age to the fruit. The time of the day for harvesting
or peak season varieties harvested in mid to late is not a concern for farmers except mangoes are
June are Langra, Krisanbhog, Daseri, Lakhanbhog, not harvested when it rains.
and BARI Aam-2-3. The late varieties harvested in
July until mid-August are Fazli, Ashina, Chausa Field handling – Field sorting is done immediately
and BARI Aam-4. after harvest. Mangoes with prominent damage
Mangoes are mainly sold on the domestic caused by insects and diseases (like scab) or are
market in Bangladesh. Mangoes are supplied by deformed are culled. Sorted mangoes are packed
wholesalers to institutional buyers such as super- in bamboo baskets with newspaper or rice straw
markets and processors. Since 2015, small quanti- cushioning (Figure 18C and 18D) for delivery to
ties of mangoes have been exported to Europe, in the collection centres in Volarhat, Chapai Nawab-
particular to the United Kingdom and Italy. ganj.
The traditional mango supply chain Packaging and transportation – At the collec-
Farmers in Chapai Nawabganj have been production centre, mangoes in bamboo baskets are bulk
ing a range of mango varieties for over 30 years. packaged in 20 kg capacity plastic crates lined with
The main insect pests associated with mango newspaper at the bottom, on all sides and on top.
production are the leafhopper, weevil, fruit fly, Recycled fibreboard cartons are also used (Figure
stem borer, and mango defoliator. The main dis- 18E). Traditional bamboo baskets with rice straw
eases are dieback, gummosis, gall, anthracnose, linings are still used for local markets.
and powdery mildew. Because of these insect and
disease problems, pesticides are sprayed from 16
to 20 times per cropping season, application starts
with flowering through to fruiting. Some 27 types
of pesticides are frequently applied causing a major
FIGURE 18
Packaging in the traditional mango supply chain: harvesting using the pick-throw-catch method (A); harvested
mangoes directly in contact with the ground (B); use of rice straw as cushion in bamboo baskets (C); field-
packed mangoes for delivery to collection centre (D); and packaging materials for transporting mangoes (E)
A B C
D E
©E. Esguerra
Different types of vehicles are used to transport portation as plastic crates are traditionally used as
mangoes to the market depending on the destina- transport containers.
tion. Bicycles, rickshaws and carts are used to Loss at the retail level was high wherein weight
transport mangoes from the farm to the collec- loss was 10.9 percent and loss from decay dur-
tion centre. Trucks transport the fruit to distant ing the five-day retail period was 25.1 percent
wholesale markets. The major wholesale markets (Figure 20) with a high incidence of stem-end rot
for mangoes produced in Chapai Nawabganj are as compared with anthracnose. Stem-end rot and
Gazipur and Dhaka, which are located approxi- anthracnose are the major post-harvest mango
mately 450 km from the collection centre. diseases. Anthracnose is a latent infection and
At the wholesale market, mangoes are distrib- symptoms become apparent only as the fruit
uted to retailers and to other buyers that supply ripens. Post-harvest loss in mango from decay was
institutional markets such as supermarkets. The high, particularly when fruit was harvested during
traditional supply chain for mangoes from Vol- the rainy season from May to July.
arhat, Chapai Nawabganj to Gazipur wholesale The retailer’s high losses are one of the reasons
market is shown in Figure 19. for the big difference between the retail price in
Bangladesh Taka (BDT) 60/kg and farm gate price
Losses in the traditional mango supply chain (BDT 35/kg) for mangoes.
With the traditional method of harvesting, which
employs the ‘pick and throw’ method, harvest 4.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND
defects include cracking (when uncaught fruit falls PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR
to the ground) were high at 16.6 percent (Figure MANGO
20). At the wholesale level, loss was low at 1.9 On the basis of the results of loss measurements in
percent, mainly from weight loss. No losses were the traditional supply chain, key steps targeted for
evident from mechanical damage during trans- improvement in the supply chain were: harvest-
Chapter 4 – Case study of mango in Bangladesh 29
FIGURE 19
Traditional mango supply chain from Chapi Nawabganj to Gazipur
Retail
Wholesale Market
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Packaging: 20 kg plastic crates

by truck Cushioning material: newspaper lining
450 km Loading in truck
Collection center near the farm
Supermarkets Manual Hauling: Harvesting: manual (pick and throw;

cart, bicycles, traditional picking pole
mini-truck Harvest container: jute sack (for pick and throw);
100 m to 1 km bamboo basket for picking pole
Production Farms
(Chapai Nawabganj)
Source: field data.
FIGURE 20
Major stakeholders in mango supply chain and losses incurred using traditional practices for handling
and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: 15.8% Mechanical damage: 0% Weight loss: 10.9%

Harvest defects: 16.6% Weight loss: 1.9% Decay after 5 days: 25.1%
(fruit cracks)
Loss = 16.6% Loss = 1.9% Loss = 36%
Tk 35/kg Tk 50/kg Tk 60/kg

CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.

TABLE 17
Traditional and improved post-harvest handling operations and technologies during the pilot demonstration in the
mango supply chain
Harvesting Farmer’s picking pole BARI improved picking pole
Field packing Bamboo basket Plastic crate
Trimming with scissors. The person doing the

Trimming of stem Hand pulling of stem
trimming wears gloves
Use of a delatexing tray with trimmed fruit

Delatexing No delatexing
placed stem end down
Hot water treatment (53 oC, 5 minute dip)

Disease control No hot water treatment followed by 5 minutes hydrocooling in tap
water
Packaging for transport Plastic crate Plastic crate
Source: field data.
FIGURE 21
Improved mango supply chain from Chapai Nawabganj to Gazipur
Retail
Wholesale Market
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading in truck

by truck Packaging: 30 kg plastic crates
450 km Cushioning material: newspaper
lined on all sides of the crate
Hot water treatment: 53°C for 3 min
cooling and drying
Trimming of long stem
Delatexing
Collection center near the farm
Supermarkets Manual Hauling: Field sorting and packing: 30 kg plastic crate

cart, bicycles, Harvesting: BARI picking tool
mini-truck Harvest container: bamboo basket
100 m to 1 km
Production Farms
(Chapai Nawabganj)
Source: field data.
ing using an improved harvesting tool; sorting Harvesting – A modified harvesting tool designed
using plastic crates as field containers; delatexing, by the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute
and disease control with hot water treatment (BARI) was introduced during pilot demonstra-
(Figure 21 and Table 17). Packaging innovation tions. The harvesting tool includes an aluminium
was unnecessary as plastic crates are widely used pole with a blade attached at the end (Figure 22A)
by traders as bulk packaging. such that when mangoes are harvested, a short
stem is left on the fruit thus reducing latex stain-
FIGURE 22
Operations and improved practices in the mango supply chain: improved BARI picking tool (A); field sorting and
packing in plastic crates (B); trimming of long stem and delatexing in trays (C); hot water treatment (D); and
packing in plastic crates as transport containers (E)
A B C
D E
©E. Esguerra
ing. Two types of harvesting tools were fabricated cool for five minutes, they were then air dried on
by BARI, one for mangoes on high branches (tall a stainless steel sorting table.
trees), and the other for mangoes within easy Mangoes were bulk packed in plastic crates
reach. Once detached, mangoes were transferred (Figure 22E) having a 30 kg capacity with newspa-
to the collection basket, which was then lowered per liner at the bottom and between the layers of
to the ground. fruit. Mangoes were transported in the evening of
the same day together with a commercial load in
Field level handling – Mangoes were sorted on a 12-tonne truck and reached Gazipur wholesale
the basis of their external appearance (free of market the following evening. The distance from
mechanical injury and insect damage), and were Volarhat to Gazipur is 450 km.
transferred to plastic crates as field containers
(Figure 22B). 4.3 MANGO: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The crated mangoes were transported to the When the improved BARI harvester was used,
collection centre where the long stem was trimmed no harvest defects such as fruit cracks occurred.
using scissors, the mangoes were then delatexed, This is due to the fact that the harvester is
the fruit is placed stem end down for approxi- equipped with a net attached at the end to catch
mately 10 minutes on the delatexing tray (fabri- the harvested fruit, it also has a collecting basket
cated by BARI), to allow the latex to drain (Figure that is lowered to the ground when half-filled
22C). The delatexed mangoes were transferred to with harvested mangoes. Moreover, the improved
plastic crates for the hot water treatment (HWT) BARI harvesting tool reduced the length of the
for 5 minutes at 53oC (Figure 22D). Langra variety stem left on the fruit, and as a result, hand cutting
mangoes are thin skinned, hence the choice of of the stem was not required. This further reduced
this protocol to prevent fruit damage. Following injury to the fruit.
the hot water treatment, the crated mangoes were At the wholesale level, there was no incidence
transferred to another tank containing tap water of mechanically damaged mangoes as the plastic
under ambient conditions and allowed to hydro- crates lined with newspaper on all sides are effec-
FIGURE 23
Major stakeholders in the mango supply chain and losses incurred using the improved practices for handling
and marketing
Harvest defects due to: Mechanical damage: 0% Weight. loss: 9.3%

fruit cracks: 0% Weight loss: 1.6% Decay after 5 days: 7%
Loss = 0% Loss = 1.6% Loss = 16.3%
Tk 35/kg Tk 50/kg Tk 60/kg
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
tive as field and transport containers. The only stem-end rot, HWT dramatically retarded the
loss at the wholesale level was in weight, which onset of anthracnose and reduced the incidence to
was minimal at 1.6 percent (Figure 23). a very low level and also reduced the severity of
During the five-day retail period under ambient infection. Mangoes exhibiting slight anthracnose
conditions, weight loss was high at 9.8 percent infection were still marketable although the price
with the mangoes exhibiting slight shrivelling. The was low.
predominant form of decay during retail of Langra Another benefit of the improved practice of
mangoes was stem-end rot, which developed both HWT was the rapid and uniform ripening of
in unripe and ripe fruit. the mangoes since heat accelerates physiological
With the traditional practice, where there is no processes such as ripening. Moreover, the Langra
HWT, stem-end rot was apparent even on the first variety does not undergo colour change during
day of retail and was almost negligible in mangoes ripening but with HWT, peel colour change from
treated using the improved practice of HWT. The green to light yellow was observed. The change in
incidence of stem-end rot progressively increased peel colour can therefore be used as an index of
with extended holding in retail. On the fifth day, ripeness, thus preventing damage to the fruit when
the proportion of fruit with stem-end rot was 7 consumers touch it to determine ripeness.
percent (Figure 23) for fruit handled using the Another secondary benefit of HWT is that the
improved practice, while 25 percent of fruit were visual appeal of the fruit is enhanced when fresh
infected when traditional practices were employed. latex has been washed off.
These fruit were already unmarketable and thus Unmarketable mangoes include fruit that
represented a total loss. exhibit moderate to severe anthracnose and stem-
Unlike the case for stem-end rot, anthracnose end rot infection. On the third day, when mangoes
infections developed only as the mangoes ripened, were almost ripe, unmarketable fruit amounted
coinciding with the time when mangoes are in to 11.4 percent of those handled using traditional
retail or with the consumers. As in the case of practices as compared to only 3.4 percent for
TABLE 18
Losses in the traditional and improved mango supply chain. (Source: field data)
Supply chain level Losses (%)/Handling practice Reduction in loss
Traditional Improved (%)
Farmer (16.6) (0) (100)
36.0 16.8 53.3

Retailer
(25.1 % decay) (7.0 % decay) (72.1)
37.9
Total loss 18.4 66.2
(Excluding harvest loss)
Source: field data.
HWT mangoes. Extending the retail period to five traditionally handled mangoes have a shelf-life of
days resulted in a very high percentage of unmar- one to three days in retail, with a lower price for
ketable mangoes (25.1 percent) for the traditional marketable mangoes on the third day. With the
practice as compared to only 7 percent for the improved practice, in particularly HWT, the onset
improved practice. These unmarketable mangoes of decay was delayed, the incidence of decay was
were considered as post-harvest loss. reduced and the severity of infection was only
Because of the simple interventions introduced slight, resulting in an extended shelf-life in retail
in the supply chain, losses in mangoes were greatly of two to three additional days or more. Beyond
reduced. The simple intervention of using an the five-day retail period mangoes were already
improved harvesting tool reduced losses related to overripe but still edible.
fruit cracks at harvest by 100 percent (Table 18). Shelf-life was also extended because of the
At the wholesale level, loss was very low because effect of HWT in enhancing peel colour change
of the absence of mechanical damage related to thus consumers were less likely to touch the fruit
the use of plastic crates as transport containers. to determine ripeness. With constant finger pres-
Moreover, wholesalers retained mangoes for one sure on the fruit, stress is induced, which leads to
to two days. an enhanced rate of fruit ripening; fruit becomes
The HWT provided a low cost treatment as overripe on the third day thus reducing market-
a means to reducing losses, amounting to only able life.
BDT 0.63/kg of mangoes. This physical method
of controlling decay reduced stem-end rot and Produce safety
anthracnose infection from 25.1 percent employ- Hot water treatment is a physical method and no
ing the traditional practice to 7 percent with the chemicals are added thus it is a safe method of con-
improved practice, equivalent to a 72.1percent trolling decay. If adopted on a wider scale, especially
reduction in decay and ultimately loss (Table 18). for the mass market, HWT will eliminate consumers
With the application of improved practice, concern regarding the safety of mangoes because
better quality mangoes obtained commanded a of reports that chemicals such as formalin and even
comparably high retail price of BDT 80/kg. Man- fungicides are used after harvest to control decay.
goes with slight shrivelling but no anthracnose Fungicides, especially the systemic, have a long
infection, commanded a retail price of BDT 60/kg. preharvest interval. Considering that mangoes ripen
within 3 to 5 days after harvest, high levels of chemi-
Shelf-life cal residue in the fruit becomes a problem.
Decay in mangoes limits the potential shelf-life of The improved harvesting tool, and the method
the fruit. Stem-end rot is a devastating post-harvest of harvesting, prevented fruit from falling to the
disease that develops both in unripe and ripe fruit. ground, thus reducing the risk of contamination.
Moreover, even with slight stem-end rot infection, Fruit that falls to the ground, without cracks, are
the fruit is rendered unmarketable and inedible. included in packing and if not thoroughly cleaned
Anthracnose disease on the other hand, develops can pose a health risk.
only as the fruit ripens and this usually manifests
at the retail level. Because of these two diseases,
Economic benefits from improved practice related to decay increased to 25.1 percent for fruit
With HWT, mango traders and exporters can handled using the traditional practice equivalent
minimize if not totally control decay depending to 251 kg of unmarketable mangoes. The esti-
on the growing season (dry or rainy). Hot water mated gross income then would be BDT 37 450.
treatment results in increased returns or income With the improved practice, losses amounted to
resulting from the increased volume of mangoes only 7 percent equivalent to 70 kg of unmarket-
of marketable quality or higher-priced produce. able mangoes. At a retail price of BDT 60/kg, the
Costs are also reduced as a result of labour savings estimated gross income would be BDT 55 800.
for sorting decayed mangoes. The additional gross income per week with the
Since the onset of decay occurs at the trader improved practice would be BDT 18 350.
level particularly during retail when mangoes The summary of added gross returns using the
begin to ripen, the economic benefits were com- improved practice particularly HWT that would
puted at the retail level on two occasions: on day be obtained on days 3 and 5 of retail is shown in
three when mangoes were almost ripe and of good Table 19.
quality, and on day five, simulating extended
holding in retail especially during the peak month Added cost – With the improved practice
of June. of HWT, additional costs incurred, include the
depreciation cost of the HWT tank and the cool-
Gross returns – An 11.4 percent loss with the ing tank, use of electricity and water, labour cost
traditional practice (No HWT) on day 3, was during HWT and the opportunity cost of capital.
equivalent to 114 kg of unmarketable mangoes. The total added cost with HWT is BDT 0.63/kg
At the retail price of BDT 80/kg, the estimated of mangoes.
gross returns would be BDT 70 880/week. With The retailer would benefit from the improved
the improved practice (HWT), the loss was only practice of HWT (Tables 20 and 21). On the third
3.4 percent hence the estimated gross returns day of retail, the net returns are however lower
would be BDT 77 280/week. The additional than on day five, when a higher volume of man-
weekly gross income as a result of the improved goes would be sold because of the low incidence of
practice (HWT) would be BDT 6 400/week. decay and therefore higher recovery of marketable
On day 5 representing an extended retail peri- mangoes.
od, some mangoes exhibited shrivelling and were
almost overripe. For mangoes handled using the 4.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN
improved practice (HWT), decay was absent and THE MANGO SUPPLY CHAIN
fruit were of better quality than those handled The pilot demonstration was conducted in a major
using the traditional practice (No HWT) hence mango production area. Moreover, the building
the retail price was BDT 60/kg. With fruit handled of the Mango Foundation where the HWT dem-
using the traditional practice, slight anthracnose onstration was conducted, is located in the central
infection was apparent in some fruit and the retail collection centre in Volarhat. Thus, both members
price was lower at BDT 50/kg. On day 5, losses of the Mango Foundation and a range of other stake-
Assumptions:
Volume of mangoes handled during the 5-day retail period: 1 000 kg
Retail price of mango on day 3: BDT 80/kg1
Retail price of mango on day 5
For HWT mangoes with slight shrivelling,

BDT 60/kg
some overripe but no decay:
For non-HWT-treated mangoes with slight

BDT 50/kg
shrivelling, slight anthracnose, overripe:
Labour cost for sorting decayed mangoes: BDT 500/day2

1
Mangoes were of good quality on day 3 for both the IP-HWT and TP – No HWT
2
Based on data received from BARI on 23 August 2016
TABLE 19
Summary of gross returns obtained with improved practice of HWT versus the traditional practice of no HWT during the
five-day retail period
Parameter Day 3 Day 5
Traditional Improved Traditional Improved
Loss (%) 11.4 3.4 25.1 7.0
Unmarketable volume (kg) 114 34 251 70
Marketable volume (kg) 886 966 749 930
Gross income (BDT) 70 880.00 77 280.00 37 450.00 55 800.00
Additional gross income (BDT) 6 400.00 18 350.00
Source: field data.
TABLE 20
Retailer: benefits on day three after applying HWT improved practice
Traditional Improved
Item
No HWT With HWT

(1 000 kg – 114 kg) x BDT 80/kg; No HWT BDT 70 880.00 BDT 77 280.00
(1 000 kg – 34 kg) x BDT 80/kg; With HWT
Costs
Cost of HWT (BDT 0.63/kg of mangoes) 0 630.00

Cost of sorting during retail 500.00 0
Subtotal 500.00 630.00
Net returns (BDT/kg) 70.38 76.65
Source: field data
TABLE 21
Retailer: benefit on day five after applying HWT improved
Traditional Improved
Item
No HWT With HWT

(1 000 kg – 251 kg) x BDT 50/kg; No HWT BDT 37 450.00 BDT 55 800.00
(1 000 kg – 70 kg) x BDT 60/kg; With HWT
Costs
Cost of HWT (BDT 0.63/kg of mangoes) 0 630

Cost of sorting during retail 500.00 0
Subtotal 500.00 530.00
Net returns (BDT/kg) 36.95 55.17
Source: field data
holders participated in the demonstration of HWT. tool, and delatexing to reduce latex stains on the
The discussions with the stakeholders and the dem- fruit enhanced the awareness of the stakeholders that
onstrations of the effects of the good post-harvest fruit rejection, if not losses, can be reduced with the
practices such as the use of an improved harvesting application of these simple techniques.
During the training of stakeholders in the tributing factor to high post-harvest losses, which
supply chain, the results of the pilot demon- was verified in the loss assessment study and in the
stration were presented. The benefits derived pilot demonstration.
from reducing the incidence of decay (both stem- The following are further recommendations
end rot and anthracnose) through HWT, which to ensure sustained interest and adoption of the
included reduced losses, enhanced ripening and improved post-harvest practices:
peel colour change (for the Langra variety that
does not change colour), reduced latex staining, BARI through the Post-harvest Technol-
and enhanced marketable life of the mango fruit, ogy Section and the Regional Horticultural
created interest among the members of the Mango Research Station (RHRS) and the Depart-
Foundation as well as the stakeholders from the ment of Agricultural Extension should pur-
districts of Kansat and Chapai Sardar. Some of the sue a vigorous information campaign on the
stakeholders present during the pilot demonstra- benefits of improved post-harvest practices
tion and training, particularly those engaged in through seminars and production of infor-
mango trading, expressed an interest in adopting mation materials. The Mango Foundation in
the improved practices to supply mangoes to Volarhat is strategically located in the central
institutional buyers such as supermarkets or as mango collection centre and buying stations.
suppliers to exporters based in Dhaka. Posters illustrating the improved practices
and the technical and economic benefits can
4.5 MANGO: CONCLUSIONS AND be printed and posted in the collection centre
RECOMMENDATIONS and outside the Foundation building.
Innovations introduced during the project which Since the members of the Mango Foundation
demonstrated their beneficial effects in terms of who are engaged in the mango business are
reducing losses from decay, enhancing peel colour, interested in forging market links with insti-
reducing latex stains on the peel, which detracts tutional buyers such as supermarkets and
from consumer appeal would be most useful if in supplying the exporters, where they will
adopted by organized groups of stakeholders. A make use of the facilities provided by FAO,
price premium for mangoes subjected to improved BARI should provide technical assistance to
practices can be earned, by organized groups that the Foundation. A packinghouse facility that
link to the market. These groups might further adopts good manufacturing practices (GMP)
add value through branding of their produce. needs to be established particularly if the
The mango industry in Bangladesh is a flour- locality will be a major supplier of mangoes
ishing industry where the area under production for export and modern markets. The Mango
is expanding to meet high domestic demand. Foundation should assume responsibility for
Moreover, the rise of modern markets such as the management and operation of the facili-
supermarkets, hotels and other institutional buy- ties provided by FAO. Non-members of the
ers as well as the increasing volume of exports Mango Foundation, who are interested in
necessitates that emphasis is placed on quality and adopting the improved practices, can use the
safety management along the supply chain. facilities provided by FAO on condition they
Several varieties of mangoes flower and fruit pay a service fee.
in different seasons from May until mid-August, BARI through the Post-harvest Technol-
which is also the rainy season. As such, mangoes ogy Section should conduct studies on the
are prone to decay since the warm and humid optimization of HWT protocol for different
conditions during flowering until fruit matura- varieties of mango grown during the early,
tion are conducive to infection. The incidence of peak and late seasons. The optimized proto-
decay after harvest, particularly stem-end rot and col should provide a high degree of disease
anthracnose, has been identified as a major con- control without affecting fruit quality.
37
Chapter 5
Case study of snap beans in Sri Lanka
5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE SNAP BEAN Field level handling – Field sorting is done while
SUPPLY CHAIN harvesting the beans. The harvesters discard
The snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) ranks as the pods (in the field) that are damaged by insects or
sixth most consumed vegetable in Sri Lanka. diseases and that exhibit other defects. Harvest-
Snap beans are high in protein and soluble fibre ed pods are tightly packed into woven poly-sack
and are low in calories. They are also an excel- bags (Figure 25A), weighing approximately 50
lent source of vitamins, minerals, omega-3 fatty kg each. The filled sacks are transported to col-
acids and contain valuable quantities of silicon lection centres using two-wheeled tractors, three
in an absorbable form. Although snap beans can wheelers, motorbikes or are carried by men on
be grown throughout the country, commercial their backs (Figure 25B). Sometimes, beans are
cultivation is limited to two districts Badulla and again sorted at the collection centre where the
Matale. Snap bean is, however, produced mostly level of handling is increased.
on small farms.
Being an immature legume, the skin of the Packaging and transportation – The sorted beans
snap bean is thin and very sensitive to even slight are bulk packed in 50 kg capacity poly-sacks (Fig-
physical pressure, which results in mechanical ure 25C). Snap beans are marketed in two major
damage such as bruising and cuts. Damaged wholesale markets: Dambulla and Colombo. They
portions of the pod serve as entry points for are transported to the wholesale markets (172
disease-causing organisms as well as an avenue km of good road from the collection centre to
for water loss that eventually results in shrivel- Colombo) mainly by open trucks and are covered
ling and pod toughening. The respiration rate with either a tarpaulin or polyethylene sheet dur-
of snap beans at harvest is also high as the pods ing transportation. They are often transported
are harvested at a relatively immature stage with immediately after mid-day under hot sun, most
seeds that are still underdeveloped. Because of trucks do not have a roof to protect the produce
these characteristics snap beans undergo rapid from sunlight during transportation.
deterioration post-harvest.
Losses in the traditional supply chain
The traditional snap bean supply chain At the farm, preharvest loss amounted to 8.05
An overview of activities within the traditional percent attributed to pod immaturity or over-
supply chain for snap beans in Sri Lanka is shown maturity, small pod size, insect and disease
in Figure 24. damage and pod breakage. Packing of snap
beans in 50 kg poly-sacks and piling the sacks
Harvesting – Snap beans are mainly harvested on a truck, resulted in a high level of mechani-
when traders or collectors are ready to collect cally damaged (14 percent) pods at the wholesale
the crop. Harvested pods are partially mature, level. Even with the short duration of holding at
elongated and filled and undergo toughening 2 the wholesale level, weight loss of 3.90 percent
to 3 days after harvest. Pods are harvested at occurred. This high level of weight loss was
this stage of maturity because of the high yield likely the result of heat build-up within the pile
per harvest. Traders or collectors visit culti- of poly-sacks of beans owing to the high respira-
vated areas twice per week and harvest over- tion rate of the pods since they were harvested
mature pods. Beans are generally harvested in at a relatively immature stage. At the wholesale
the morning. level, total loss was 17.90 percent.
FIGURE 24
Traditional snap bean supply chain from Walimada/Naula to Colombo
Hotels,
Wholesale Market
Restaurants
CONSUMERS
Transportation Packaging: 50 kg capacity mesh or plastic sack

by truck Loading: into van or truck
172 km,
Retail good road
Markets
Supermarkets Manual Harvesting: manual hand picking

Hauling/Vehicle Maturity of pod: mixed
100 m to 2.5 km Harvest container: poly sack, plastic bag
Production Farms
Source: field data.
FIGURE 25
Traditional handling practices for snap beans: poly-sack as harvest or field container (A); sacks of snap beans
carried on shoulder at the collection centre (B); and 50 kg capacity poly-sacks of snap beans in the wholesale
market (C)
B C
©E. Serrano
Chapter 5 – Case study of snap beans in Sri Lanka 39
FIGURE 26
Major stakeholders in the snap bean supply chain and losses incurred using traditional practices for handling
and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: 8.05% Mechanical damages: 14% Weight loss: 11.74%

Weight loss: 3.9% Deterioration loss after 4 days: 14%
Loss = 8.05% Loss = 17.9% Loss = 25.74%
CONSUMERS
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
FIGURE 27
Operations and improved practices in the snap bean supply chain: harvesting pods at the correct stage of
maturity (A); sorting based on external appearance (B); and bulk packing in 15 kg capacity plastic crates (C)
A B C
©E. Serrano
Poly-sacks are used for transporting snap retail level (Figure 26). Deterioration loss was
beans from wholesale to retail. During retail, in the form of pod toughening and yellow-
snap beans are displayed loose on tables with- ing brought about by high weight loss, and
out any retail packaging. Thus, during the discoloration of the pods because of abrasion
six-day holding in retail, weight loss was 11.74 damage. Total loss from the farm up to six-days
percent and deterioration loss was 14 percent in retail using the traditional handling practice
resulting in a total loss of 35.74 percent at the was 51.69 percent.
FIGURE 28
Improved snap bean supply chain from Walimada/Naula to Colombo
Retail
Wholesale Market - Colombo
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading into van or truck

by van/truck Packaging: 15 kg capacity plastic crate
176 km, Manual sorting: on covered ground
Hotels, good road
Restaurants
Supermarkets Manual Manual harvesting

Hauling Maturity: correct maturity
50-100 m Harvest container: PP bag
Production Farms
Walimada
Source: field data.
TABLE 22
Snap beans: traditional and improved post-harvest operations
Harvesting Mixed maturities Correct stage of maturity
Sorting Field sorting while harvesting Sorting at the collection centre
Bulk packaging 50 kg poly-sacks 15 kg capacity plastic crates
Source: field data
5.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND Packaging and transportation – Sorted beans

PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR were packed in plastic crates having a 15 kg capacity
SNAP BEANS (Figure 27C), loaded in trucks and transported to
Harvesting – During the pilot demonstration the wholesale market in Colombo where they were
only pods at the correct stage of maturity purchased by retailers and institutional buyers.
were manually harvested (Figure 27A). The The improved handling practices in the supply
harvested pods were transferred to poly-sacks chain and the operations during the pilot demon-
because they are easy to carry along the rows stration are shown in Figure 28 and Table 22.
of snap beans.
5.3 SNAP BEANS: ANALYSIS OF
Field level handling – After field packing, the RESULTS
sacks were manually hauled to the collection Reduced losses in the improved supply chain
centre located about 50 to 100 m from the farm. At Preharvest loss resulting from insect and pest
the collection centre, the beans were sorted based damage remained at 8.05 percent at the farm level.
on external appearance such as freedom from At the wholesale level, transport and packaging-
defects and damage, maturity (Figure 27B). related damage amounted to 4.40 percent with the
FIGURE 29
Major stakeholders in the snap beans supply chain and losses incurred using improved practices for handling
and marketing
Pre-harvest loss Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 7.31%

and harvest defects: 8.05% damage: 4.4% Deterioration loss after 4 days: 13.3%
Weight loss: 2.9%
Loss = 8.05% Loss = 7.3% Loss = 20.61%
CONSUMERS
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
TABLE 23
Snap beans: losses in the traditional and improved supply chain
Supply chain Losses (%)/Handling practice Reduction in loss
Farmer 8.05 8.05 0
Wholesaler 17.90 7.30 59.2
Retailer 25.74 20.61 19.9
Total loss 51.69 35.96 30.4
Source: field data
use of plastic crates (Figure 29). In the traditional improved practice. At the retail level, total loss was
packaging practice of using 50 kg poly-sacks as 20.61 percent during the four-day retail period. At
the transport container, mechanical damage to the this level, weight loss and loss from deterioration
snap beans was high at 14.40 percent. Weight loss was still high because of the manner of retail
was reduced from 3.90 percent in the traditional display that results in moisture loss from snap
practice to 2.90 percent in the improved practice. beans, which eventually leads to discoloration and
Total loss at the wholesale level was 7.30 percent. shrivelling of pods. Retail packaging of snap beans
At the retail level, weight loss was 7.31 percent into convenient sizes (250 gr to 1 kg pack) in mesh
during the four-day retail period. During retail, or plastic bags of suitable thickness with small
the beans were displayed in a loose format under perforations/holes to allow for transpiration of
ambient conditions resulting in a high level of moisture and gas, would reduce the rate of weight
weight loss. Loss from deterioration was also high loss and associated deteriorative changes.
at 13.30 percent (Figure 29) with only very slight Table 23 shows the reduction in losses when
reduction from 14 percent deterioration loss in the employing improved practices in the supply chain.
The greatest loss reduction was obtained at the The wholesaler and retailer benefitted from the
wholesale level at 59.2 percent as a result of the use of plastic crates as the proportion of unmar-
reduction in mechanical damage when 15 kg ketable pods, resulting from physical damage, was
capacity plastic crates are used for bulk packaging substantially reduced on arrival at the wholesale
and transportation. At the retail level, reduced market. The wholesaler obtained a net return
loss during the four-day retail period was only of LKR 111.06/kg with the improved practice
19.9 percent and largely because of how the pro- and LKR 93.80/kg with the traditional practice
duce was displayed, which resulted in moisture (Table 25). At the retailer’s end, the pods incurred
loss. In the traditional practice, the total loss was less decay and reduced weight loss. Thus, the
51.69 percent, which was reduced to 35.96 percent retailer’s net returns were LKR 158.00/kg with
when improved practices were employed resulting the improved practice and only LKR 143.92/
in 30.4 percent reduction in total losses. kg with the traditional practice (Table 26). These
benefits will trickle down to the farmer through
Shelf-life an increase in the buying price paid by the whole-
As previously highlighted, snap beans are imma- saler for good quality produce if the farmer uses
ture vegetables with a thin skin that is highly plastic crates for bulk packaging and transporting
susceptible even to slight physical damage. Snap produce to the wholesaler.
beans generally remain highly marketable for two
days in retail owing to their rapid rate of deterio- 5.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS IN
ration. With the improved practice of using 15 kg THE SNAP BEANS SUPPLY CHAIN
capacity plastic crates, the rate of deterioration of The stakeholders realized the benefits of using
snap beans was retarded because of the reduction plastic crates for the bulk packaging of snap
or prevention of damage. Pods that are not dam- beans to reduce damage during transportation.
aged have a longer shelf-life (more than three to Moreover, the pilot demonstration and training in
four days) on retail shelves than have damaged harvesting at the correct stage of pod maturity and
pods. Moreover, a longer shelf-life will be attained proper sorting increased stakeholder confidence in
if snap beans are sold in retail packs than when applying good post-harvest principles and practice
they are sold loose. in the supply chain.
A significant accomplishment of the pilot dem-
Produce safety onstration and training was the forging of a
Improper sorting during the traditional practice market link between the operations manager of
rendered the snap beans totally unmarketable. the packinghouse/collection centre that supplies
Moreover, damage incurred with the rough han- snap beans to two major supermarket chains in
dling provided avenues for the entry of patho- Sri Lanka.
genic and spoilage micro-organisms that may
pose health risks. With improved packaging, pods 5.5 SNAP BEAN: CONCLUSION AND
were susceptible to minimal damage, resulting in RECOMMENDATION
reduced infection. The traditional method of handling snap beans
in Sri Lanka results in 51.69 percent loss spread
Economic benefits from applying improved among the farmer (8.05 percent), the wholesaler
practice (18 percent) and the retailer (25.74 percent). The
Farmers would benefit from the use of plastic crates retailer incurs the highest losses because beans
for bulk packaging, as they would be able to sell have to be sold at a high price (LKR 200-240/kg)
larger quantities of beans because of the reduced to consumers. In effect, it is the consumer who
damage or physical losses during harvest. With the pays for the losses and is the one who loses out.
use of plastic crates, farmers would have net returns With improved supply chain management, includ-
of LKR 113.74/kg compared with only LKR 95.40 ing the use of plastic crates, the levels of loss were
when using poly-sacks as transport containers substantially reduced (36.46 percent). Losses at
(Table 24). A greater level of profit is realized if the wholesale level were reduced to 7.3 percent,
the farmer sells directly to the wholesaler as the and at the retail level were reduced to 20.6 percent.
wholesaler would purchase the beans at a higher The retailer can reduce the selling price because
price because of the good quality. Further, the long larger quantities of snap beans can be sold as the
utility life (10 years) of plastic crates provides added shelf-life has been improved. With lower losses
benefit to the user over the long term. and better quality beans, the wholesaler can buy
TABLE 24
Farmer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Item Plastic sack Plastic crate
Gross returns (Volume sold x selling price)

100 kg x LKR 100.00/kg LKR 10 000.00
(100 kg + 8.5) x LKR 105.00/kg LKR 11 392.00
Costs
Interest on capital of packaging material 60.00 2.30
Subtotal 460.00 17.08
9 540.00 11 374.92
Net returns (Gross returns – costs)
LKR 95.40/kg LKR 113.74/ kg
Source: field data
TABLE 25
Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Gross returns (Volume sold – losses) x selling price)

(100 kg – 18 kg) x LKR 120.00/kg LKR 9 840.00
(100 kg – 7.3 kg) x LKR 120.00/kg LKR 11 124.00
Costs
Subtotal 460.00 17.08
9 380.00 11,106.92
LKR 93.80/kg LKR 111.06/kg
Source: field data
TABLE 26
Retailer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Gross returns (Volume sold – losses) x selling price)

(100 kg – 25.74 kg) x LKR 200.00/kg LKR 14 852.00
(100 kg – 20.61 kg ) x LKR 200.00/kg LKR 15 878.00
Costs
Subtotal 460.00 17.08
14 392.00 15 860.92
LKR 143.92/kg LKR 158.60/kg
Source: field data
a larger quantity from the farmer at a higher In general, the farmer, the wholesaler and the
buying price. Therefore, the farmer benefits the retailer benefit from the use of plastic crates as
most from using plastic crates at harvesting and a bulk-packaging container. With the improved
transportation through to the wholesaler. practices the consumer will also benefit from
receiving the best value for money as they can buy Farmers should also be trained in good agri-
higher quality produce at the lower price offered cultural practices, particularly pest manage-
by the retailer. ment so production costs can be lowered and
Losses at the retail level would further be the safety of snap beans ensured.
reduced if the beans were sold in retail packs to As marketing is still a problem, the Ministry
reduce weight loss that eventually leads to pod of Agriculture could make market linking or
discoloration, shrivelling and toughening. market matching one of its top priorities.
During training, some stakeholders suggested the
following:
People involved in the handling of produce
in the collection centres and packinghouses
should also be trained in good post-harvest
practices.
45
Chapter 6
Case study of winter tomato in
Bangladesh
6.1 OVERVIEW OF THE WINTER intended use or market. Tomatoes are harvested at
TOMATO SUPPLY CHAIN the mature green stage if intended for use in curry
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) are dishes, at turning, more green than pink or orange
popularly vegetables consumed in Bangladesh. peel colour, or at 50 percent ripe stage when
They are a rich source of vitamins A and C and intended for nearby markets. The fruit is manually
are an excellent source of lycopene (a powerful harvested and the harvested fruit placed in bamboo
antioxidant). Over the past three years, tomato collecting baskets (Figure 30A).
production in Bangladesh has increased as a result
of the introduction of improved varieties and pro- Field level handling – The filled collecting baskets
duction techniques as well as because of increased are manually hauled or are loaded in three-wheeled
market demand and growth of modern market carts and transported to collection centres for sort-
outlets, in particular supermarkets, hotels and res- ing. Tomatoes are poured onto the ground that has
taurants. Quality attributes desired by consumers been covered by a canvass underlay. After sorting,
in a tomato are: attractive colour, mature status, tomatoes are bulk packaged in 50 kg red plastic
clean and fresh, firm, large, and free of ripening mesh sacks (Figure 30B and C).
chemicals.
Tomato production in Bangladesh is, however, Transportation – Bulk packaged tomatoes are
beset with many pre and post-harvest problems transported to wholesale markets in Gazipur and
such as the indiscriminate use of pesticides and Dhaka, which is about 173 km from Bogra, in the
the use of various ripening agents that pose health evening. Tomatoes are loaded onto trucks together
risks to humans. Moreover, after harvest, losses are with other commodities. On arrival at the whole-
high because of the inherently perishable nature of sale market, tomatoes are distributed to retailers
tomatoes, which is increased by rough handling or are purchased by supermarkets and institutional
practices and unfavourable environmental condi- buyers.
tions that enhance produce deterioration.
Figure 31 shows the traditional supply chain for
The traditional winter tomato supply chain winter tomato from Bogra to Gazipur wholesale
Bogra is a major production area for winter market.
tomato and is a preferred source for the fruit.
The Sulop variety, which is grown in the region, Losses in the traditional supply chain
meets the quality attributes desired by consumers. Preharvest losses in winter tomato were esti-
Increasing tomato production and the practice mated at about 5 percent because of bird and insect
of monoculture has resulted in pest and disease damage and deformation. However, these defects
infestation in production. To address these prob- occurred during production and are therefore not
lems, farmers apply 29 types of pesticides in one considered part of post-harvest loss.
cropping season beginning with flowering and Even with a relatively shorter distance and
ending with harvesting. Considering that tomatoes duration of transport, losses at the wholesale level
are harvested two to three times a week, pesticide reached 16.7 percent mainly attributed to mechani-
residues on tomatoes pose major safety risks. cal damage (Figure 32). The red plastic mesh sacks
used for the bulk packaging of tomatoes did not
Harvesting – Tomatoes are harvested at different provide adequate protection during transporta-
stages of maturity or ripeness depending on the tion. Given their advanced stages of ripeness,
FIGURE 30
Operations in the traditional winter tomato supply chain: manual harvesting and use of bamboo collecting
basket (A); packing in red mesh sacks after sorting (B); and tomatoes packed in 50 kg red plastic mesh sack (C)
A C
©E. Esguerra
FIGURE 31
Traditional winter tomatoes supply chain from Bogra to Gazipur
Retail
Wholesale Market
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading in truck: mixed load

by truck Packaging: 50 kg red plastic mesh sack
173 km;
good road
near the farm
Supermarkets Manual Hauling Harvesting: manual (hand picking)

or in cart Harvest container: bamboo basket; no liner
200 m to 300 m
Production Farms
(Bogra)
Source: field data.

Chapter 6 – Case study of winter tomato in Bangladesh 47
FIGURE 32
Major stakeholders in winter tomato supply chain and losses incurred using the traditional practices for
handling and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: 5.0% Mechanical damage: 16.7% Mechanical damage: 29.3%
Loss = 16.7% Loss = 29.3%
Tk 5/kg Tk 10/kg Tk 15-20/kg
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
Total Loss = 46% Institutional Buyer
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
tomatoes are highly susceptible to mechanical 6.2 TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS AND

damage during transport. All forms of mechanical PRACTICES INTRODUCED FOR
damage such as abrasion, bruising, compression WINTER TOMATO
and cracks were evident. Abrasion damage was Tomatoes produced during the winter season are
particularly observed on fruits that were in direct grown under protected cultivation in raised beds
contact with the rough red mesh sack. Hence, with the use of nets to protect fruits from birds.
upon arrival at the wholesale market, tomatoes at
the bottom of the pack suffered the greatest degree Harvesting – Tomatoes were harvested at an
of damage with some fruits already exhibiting advanced stage of maturity for nearby wholesale
cracks (non-marketable) and severe deformation. markets such as Dhaka and Gazipur, that is, they
Deformed tomatoes were still marketable but at had turned 30 percent pink to half-ripe 50 percent.
a low price.
At the retail level, deteriorative changes became Handling – For the improved practice, harvested
more apparent with the ripening of the tomatoes. tomatoes were placed in plastic pails and when
Losses amounted to 29.3 percent because of severe half-filled, the harvested fruit was emptied into
mechanical damage (Figure 32). Tomatoes with the plastic field crates (Figure 33A). The plastic
cracks were also observed in the retail mar- crates used for field collection were loaded into
ket. Moreover, fruit with cracks and punctures three-wheeled carts and taken to the collection
developed fungal growth and eventually decayed. centre. Plastic crates were easily stacked on the
Because of the high level of loss at the retail level, carts for transportation, while bamboo baskets
the price of tomato was relatively high at BDT could not be stacked properly or placed one on
15.00 to BDT 20/kg to compensate for the losses top of the other.
incurred. On the other hand, the farm gate price At the collection centre, the tomatoes were
was low at BDT 5/kg. It is therefore apparent that sorted on the ground, which was covered by a
the farmer and the consumer bear the cost of the canvas liner under a pitched tent to protect har-
losses incurred both by the wholesaler and retailer. vested fruit from exposure to the sun. Rejected
FIGURE 33
Operations and improved practices in the winter tomato supply chain: harvested tomatoes in plastic pail and in
field plastic crates (A); trimming of long stem (B); washing in chlorinate water (C); and bulk packaging in 25 kg
plastic crates (D)
B C
A D
©E. Esguerra
TABLE 27
Winter tomato: traditional and improved post-harvest operations
Plastic pail or bucket as harvesting

Harvesting Bamboo basket as harvesting container container and plastic crates as field
containers
Trimming of stem No trimming Trimming using scissors
Washing No washing Washing in chlorinated water
Packaging 50 kg red plastic mesh sack 25 kg plastic crate
Source: field data.
tomatoes included those at the green to breaker Crated tomatoes were transported to Konabari
stage, fully ripe, and those with pre-harvest dam- vegetable wholesale market in Gazipur in the
age such as growth cracks and deformation. The evening and arrived at the market the following
long stems attached to the fruit were trimmed with morning. Tomatoes were then distributed to the
scissors close to the shoulder keeping the calyx retailers and supermarket buyers. Operations in
intact (Figure 33B). Tomatoes were then washed the improved winter tomato supply chain are
in chlorinated water (150 ppm) and air-dried prior shown in Figure 34 while the traditional and
to packing (Figure 33C). improved operations in the chain are shown in
Table 27.
Bulk packaging – Sorted tomatoes were bulk
packaged in 25 kg capacity stackable plastic 6.3 WINTER TOMATO: ANALYSIS OF
crates lined with double layers of newspaper RESULTS
at the bottom and on all sides. Once filled, the Losses at the farm level remained at 5 percent,
crates were covered with two layers of news- this was attributed to bird and insect damage and
paper (Figure 33D). Tomatoes were then trans- deformation. In view of the fact that these defects
ported from the collection centre to the main were incurred during production they were not
road for loading on to the truck in the evening. considered as post-harvest loss.
FIGURE 34
Improved winter tomato supply chain from Bogra to Gazipur
Retail
Wholesale Market
Markets
CONSUMERS
Transportation Loading in truck: mixed load

by truck Packaging: 20 kg plastic crate
173 km; Cushioning material: newspaper lining
good road
Washing in chlorinated water
Trimming of long stem
near the farm
Supermarkets Manual Hauling Field sorting and packing: 20 kg plastic crate

or in cart Harvesting: manual hand picking
200 m to 300 m Harvest container: plastic crate
Production Farms
(Bogra)
Source: field data.
The use of plastic crates as field containers es. The greatest reduction in losses amounting to
and as bulk packaging containers for transport, 100 percent occurred at the wholesale level where
dramatically reduced the incidence of mechani- there was no mechanical damage as tomatoes were
cal damage since no damage was observed at bulk packaged in plastic crates for transportation.
the wholesale level translating to 100 percent At the retail level, losses were reduced by 91.1 per-
marketable fruit (Figure 35). This was in contrast cent, which was also attributed to the use of plastic
to 16.7 percent mechanically damaged tomatoes crates. With the traditional practice, total loss was
when red mesh sacks were used as traditional 46.3 percent, this high level of loss was reduced to
packaging containers. 2.6 percent in the improved practice.
During the three-day retail period, loss from
mechanical damage was only 2.6 percent (Figure Shelf-life
35) for tomatoes transported in plastic crates. Mechanical damage in the forms of abrasion,
Tomatoes that were bulk packaged in plastic crates bruising and compression are stress factors that
also suffered mechanical damage in the form of enhance biological and physical processes such as
compression. As the incidence of damage was ripening, senescence, and moisture loss, ultimately
low, the proportion of total marketable tomatoes leading to decay and reduced shelf-life. This was
that were bulk packaged in plastic crates remained observed in tomatoes handled using the traditional
high and fetched a comparably higher price (BDT practice of bulk packaging and transportation
20/kg) than tomatoes that exhibited slight dam- using red mesh sacks.
age (BDT 15/kg). Puncture damage was evident On the other hand, with the use of plastic crates
in tomatoes that were not trimmed (traditional as bulk packaging tomatoes were protected from
practice) but was absent with trimmed fruit. Thus, damage during transportation hence even during
the improved practice of trimming contributed to the three-day retail period, the proportion of
the reduction in losses. marketable fruits remained high and the shelf-life
Table 28 shows the extent of reduction in losses in retail increased by more than three days. The
brought about by improved post-harvest practic- Sulop tomato variety does not readily soften even
FIGURE 35
Major stakeholders in the winter tomato supply chain and losses incurred using the improved practices of
handling and marketing
Pre-harvest loss: 5.0% Mechanical damage: 0% Mechanical damage: 2.6%
Loss = 0% Loss = 2.6%
Tk 5/kg Tk 10/kg Tk 15-20/kg
CONSUMERS
COLLECTOR
Provider
LOCAL
MARKET
RETAILERS
Source: field data.
TABLE 28
Winter tomato: losses in the traditional and improved supply chains
Supply chain Losses (%)/Handling practice Reduction in Loss
Farmer (preharvest) (5.0) (5.0) -
Wholesaler 16.7 0 100
Retailer 29.3 2.6 91.1
Total Loss 46.0 2.6 94.3
Source: field data.
at the ripe stage and remains marketable for a Produce safety

comparably longer period as compared to soften- The use of collecting containers such as plastic
ing varieties. pails and plastic crates in the field prevented injury
Wounds such as punctures created by long to, which can serve as entry points for spoilage and
stems (left on the fruit that eventually dry out and pathogenic micro-organisms. In contrast, the rough
harden) serve as entry points for decay-causing edges and pointed ends of the collecting bamboo
organisms and also as avenues for water loss baskets tend to injure the fruits resulting in decay.
and eventually deteriorative changes that shorten Plastic crates lined with double layers of news-
shelf-life. With trimming, puncturing is avoided paper minimize the risk of cross-contamination
and quality maintained, resulting in an extended during transport in mixed loads of commodities,
shelf-life. unlike the red plastic mesh sack where tomatoes
may easily become contaminated.
TABLE 29
Wholesaler: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Item Red mesh sack Plastic crate
Gross returns (Volume sold – loss) x selling price

(1 000 kg – 167 kg) x BDT 10/kg BDT 8 330.00
(1 000 kg – 0 kg) x BDT 10/kg 10 000.00
Costs
Depreciation cost of plastic crate 0 24.62
Opportunity cost of capital 0 23.38
Labour for sorting 250.00 0
Subtotal 250.00 48.00
Gross returns – costs 8 080.00 9 952.00

BDT 8.08 per kg BDT 9.95/kg
Source: field data.
TABLE 30
Retailer: benefits of using plastic crates for bulk packaging and transportation
Item Red mesh sack Plastic crate
Gross returns (Volume sold – loss) x selling price

(1 000 kg – 293 kg) x BDT 20/kg BDT 14 140.00
(1 000 kg – 26 kg) x BDT 20/kg 19 480.00
Costs
Depreciation cost of plastic crate 0 24.62
Opportunity cost of capital 0 23.38
Labour for sorting 250.00 0
Subtotal 250.00 48.00
Gross returns – costs 13 890.00 19 432.00

BDT 13.89/kg BDT 19.43/kg
Source: field data.
Washing in chlorinated water removed or Added returns: At a wholesale price of

reduced chemical residues on the peel of the fruit BDT 10/kg of tomatoes, the estimated gross
and also disinfected the fruit. income using red mesh sacks would be:
1 000 kg – 167 kg = 833 kg x BDT 10/kg =
Economic benefits from improved practices BDT 8 330.00 per week.
Assuming the wholesaler handled 1 000 kg of win- Using plastic crates, the loss was 0, hence the
ter tomato per week and the tomatoes were bulk estimated gross income would be:
packaged in red mesh sacks, since the Gazipur 1 000 – 0 = 1 000 x BDT 10 = BDT 10 000 per
wholesale market is relatively close to Bogra week. The additional weekly gross income,
(about 173 km): On the basis of the results of the as a result of using plastic crates for bulk
pilot demonstration, loss resulting from mechani- packaging, (with 100 percent reduction in
cal damage in the form of cracks amounted to 16.7 loss) would amount to: BDT 10 000 – BDT
percent, which is equivalent to 167 kg of non- 8 330.00 = BDT 1 670.00.
marketable tomatoes per week. However, with the Added cost: Use of plastic crates entails a
use of plastic crates for bulk packaging there was depreciation cost of plastic crates and oppor-
no damage and therefore the loss was equivalent tunity cost of capital invested in purchasing
to 0 percent. plastic crates. Forty plastic crates are needed
to pack 1 000 kg of tomatoes; at BDT 320 Regarding the comparably higher transport cost
(US$4) per crate, total cost is BDT 12 800. using plastic crates, it was reiterated that sound fruit
Plastic crates normally last for 10 years, at 10 resulted from improved bulk packaging, which
percent depreciation per year; depreciation could be sold at a higher price and with 100 per-
cost is BDT 1 200/year or BDT 24.62 per cent reduction in loss at the wholesale level; the
week (BDT 1 280 per year/52 weeks per increased income obtained would offset the high
year). Salvage value is 0. transport cost. Moreover, it was also stressed that
while the initial investment cost of the plastic crate
With the improved practice of using plastic crates, was high, with proper care and maintenance, it
the wholesaler will have a net return of BDT 9.95 could be used for approximately 10 years.
per kg and only BDT 8.08 employing the tradi-
tional practice (Table 29). 6.5 WINTER TOMATO: CONCLUSIONS
The retailer on the other hand will receive a AND RECOMMENDATIONS
higher return than the wholesaler when plastic The improved practices of using plastic buckets
crates are used. The net return employing the as collecting containers, plastic crates as field and
improved practice is BDT 19.43/kg and only transport containers, trimming of long stems left
13.89/kg with the traditional practice (Table 30). on the fruit and washing in chlorinated water dra-
matically reduced the levels of losses in the supply
6.4 RESPONSE OF STAKEHOLDERS chain. The greatest reduction occurred during
IN THE WINER TOMATO SUPPLY transport, and at the wholesale level when there
CHAIN was no loss. This is in contrast to 16.7 percent loss
At the outset, although the farmers and collectors employing the traditional practice of packing in a
realized the benefits of using plastic crates, they red plastic mesh sack.
were reluctant to use plastic crates during the From the results of the pilot demonstration and
winter season. According to them, the low farm the training of stakeholders in the supply chain,
gate price (BDT 3 to 5/kg) for tomatoes would the following are recommended:
not offset the cost of the plastic crates, which is HRC-BARI in collaboration with the Depart-
about BDT 320/crate. Moreover, according to the ment of Agricultural Extension (DAE) could
collectors, only 10 tonnes of tomatoes could be propose a project nationwide, in different
packed into plastic crates and loaded onto a truck, districts, to train stakeholders not only for
while with traditional containers such as bamboo tomato but also for other commodities where
baskets and red mesh sacks, up to 13 tonnes could post-harvest losses are high. Other stake-
be loaded, resulting in lower transport cost than holders such as buyers from institutional
with the use of crates. When it was explained that markets should be invited to the training so
the low farm price was because of the poor quality they become aware of post-harvest losses and
of the fruit and the large quantities of unmarket- how losses can be reduced with simple post-
able fruit arriving at the wholesale and retail levels harvest practices. Having the private group
because of mechanical damage caused by poor as participants in the training could serve as a
packaging, they began reconsidering the adoption venue for a market linkage.
of plastic crates for bulk packaging. Stakeholders HRC-BARI in collaboration with the farm-
reported having seen an increasing use of plastic ers’ association should prepare a proposal for
crates at the wholesale markets, which were an external funding such as from FAO Bangla-
indication of their benefits. Accordingly, they desh in post-harvest systems improvement
requested FAO’s assistance in providing them with the establishment of a packing house
with plastic crates for their use. facility as one of the components.
53
References
Ahmad, M.S. & Haque, AHMM. 2013. Needs assessment of post-harvest handling and storage for selected
vegetable crops in Bangladesh (Unpublished consultant report prepared for AVRDC – The World
Vegetable Center).
Esguerra, E.B. 2016. Pilot demonstration and training of stakeholders in the supply chain of winter tomato.
25 January to 5 February 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses
in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Esguerra, E.B. 2016. Pilot demonstration and training of stakeholders in the supply chain of mango. 13 to
30 June 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses in horticultural
chains in SAARC countries.
Giri, H. 2015. Loss assessment report of cauliflower. FAO TCP RAS 3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses
Giri, H. 2016. Stakeholders training and pilot demonstration of improved supply chain management of
mandarins in Kavre district, Nepal. 17 to 18 March 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 –
Reduction of post-harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Khatun, M., Karim, M.R, Khandoker, S., Hossain, T.M.B. & Hossain, S. 2014. Post-harvest
loss assessment of tomato in some selected areas in Bangladesh. International Journal of Business, Social and
Scientific Research, 1(3): 209-218.
Miah, M.A., Md. S Hoq, Md. Abdul Matin, Saha, M.G. 2016. A baseline survey on mango supply chain
in selected areas of Bangladesh. May 2016. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses in
horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Miah, M.A, Md. S Hoq, Md. Abdul Matin, Saha, M.G. 2016. A baseline survey on winter tomato supply
chain in selected areas of Bangladesh. May 2016. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses
Pandey, S. 2015. Knowledge, attitude and practices survey on post-harvest handling of fresh fruits and
vegetables in Nepal: A case study of mandarin and cauliflower. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-
harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Pant, K.P. 2015. Market study of fresh fruits and vegetables in Nepal: A case study of mandarin and
cauliflower. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC
countries.
Rahman A. 2015. Loss assessment report in mango. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-harvest
losses in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Rapusas, R.S. & Rolle, R.S. 2009. Management of reusable plastic crates in fresh produce supply
chains: A technical guide. Food and Agriculture Organization, Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific.
Rolle, R.S. 2014. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 Reduction of post-harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC
countries. Project Document. Food and Agriculture Organization, Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific.
Sarananda, K.H. Loss assessment of snap beans. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-
Sarananda, K.H. Loss assessment of banana. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-
Serrano, E.P. 2016. Pilot demonstration of improved supply chain management of cauliflower in Dhading
district, Nepal. 26 Januaryto 3 February 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of post-
Serrano, E.P. 2016. Training of stakeholders and pilot demonstration of improved supply chain management
of snap beans in Sri Lanka. 20 June to 1 July 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of
post-harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Serrano, E.P. 2016. Training of stakeholders and pilot demonstration of improved supply chain management
of banana in Sri Lanka. 16 to 20 August 2016. Mission Report. FAO TCP/RAS/3502 – Reduction of
post-harvest losses in horticultural chains in SAARC countries.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
www.fao.org
ISBN 978-92-5-130345-0
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 3 0 3 4 5 0
I8616EN/1/02.18

I 8616 en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

I 8616 en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

I 8616 en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case studies on managing quality,

assuring safety and reducing

Case studies on managing quality,

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Abbreviations and acronyms viii

24 Traditional snap bean supply chain from Walimada/Naula to Colombo 38

Abbreviations and acronyms

BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute

Currencies mentioned in the case studies (ISO codes)

Transportation Packing: bulk packing in bunches

Supermarkets Manual Harvesting: manual using knife

Sources: field data.

Pre-harvest loss: 8% Mechanical damage: 2% Weight loss: 9.02%

Loss = 9% Loss = 5.4% Loss = 14.41%

SLR 65/kg SLR 80/kg SLR 100/kg

Total Loss = 28.81% Institutional Buyer

Source: field data.

Harvesting Mature to mixed maturity Correct stage of maturity

Dehanding of bunches using a dehanding

Washing/delatexing No washing Washing and delatexing in chlorinated water

Packing dehanded bananas in a plastic crate

Transportation Loading on lorry or truck.

Supermarkets Manual Dehanding: with sharp knife

Source: field data.

The total loss on arrival at the wholesale market Shelf-life

Pre-harvest loss Transport/packaging-related Weight loss: 11.95%

Loss = 3% Loss = 2.1% Loss = 11,95%

SLR 70/kg SLR 90/kg SLR 120/kg

Total Loss = 17.05% Institutional Buyer

Source: field data.

level Traditional Improved (%)

Farmer 9.00 3.00 67

Wholesaler 5.40 2.10 61

Retailer 14.4 11.95 17

Total Loss 28.81 19.05 34

Source: field data.

Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price

(100 kg – 8 kg/bunch) x LKR 65.00/kg LKR 5 980.00

(100 kg) x LKR 70.00/kg LKR 7 000.00

Depreciation cost of plastic crates 0 14.78

Interest on capital (plastic crate) 0 2.30

Transport cost 300.00 550.00

Subtotal 300.00 567.00

Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 5 680.00 LKR 6 433.00

LKR 56.80/kg LKR 64.33/kg

Source: field data.

Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price)

(100 kg – 5.4kg) x LKR 80.00/kg LKR 7 568.00 LKR 8 811.00

(100 kg – 2.1 kg) x LKR 90.00/kg

Transport cost 300.00 550.00

Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 7 268 LKR 8 261.00

LKR 72.68/kg LKR 82.61/kg

Source: field data.

Gross returns (volume sold – losses x selling price

(100 kg – 14.41kg) x LKR 100.00/kg LKR 7 759.00 LKR 10 556.00

(100 kg – 11.94 kg) x LKR 120.00/kg

Transport cost 300.00 550.00

Net returns (Gross returns – Costs) LKR 7 459.00 LKR 10 006.00

LKR 74.59/kg LKR 100.06/kg