TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT ON

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted by
G. AJAY (13E11A0313)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

BHARAT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUH
Mangalpally (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M), R. R. Dist., Telangana – 501510.
APRIL 2017
 ABSTRACT

Modern Industrial Robots are true marvels of engineering. Changes in

today’s manufacturing environment allow tedious, fatiguing and repetitive tasks to be
mechanically performed by robots, as manually controlled work is transition to auto-
cycle control equipment. Alternately, robot has been used as the general term for a
mechanical man.
A Robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional operator designed to move
materials, parts, tools or specialized devices for the performance of variety of tasks.
Furthermore these robots can do that for 24 hours a day for years on end with no
failures. Though they are reprogrammable, in many applications (particularly those in
the auto industry) they are programmed once and then repeat that exact same task
for year. In industries the robots are widely used for developing and improving the
productivity and quality of product. My seminar takes you to the current & future
applications of “Industrial Robots”.
 Index

Chapter No. Title Page no.

1. 1.1. Introduction. 1
1.2. Industrial Robots & Main Components. 3
1.3. Brief History of Industrial Robots. 4
6
1.4. Characteristics.

2. 2.1. Types of Robotic Joints. 7

9
2.2. Robot Classifications.

3. 3.1. Working & Installation. 15

19
3.2. Specifications.

4. Current use of Industrial Robots. 22

5. 5.1. Advantages & Disadvantages. 24

26
5.2. Applications.

6. Future Scope 27

7. References 29
 1.1. INTRODUCTION

An industrial robot is a multifunctional manipulator designed

to move materials, parts, tools or other devices by means of variable
programmed motions and to perform a variety of other tasks.
Industrial robots can perform repetitious, difficult and hazardous tasks
(like machine loading, material handling, and spray painting and
welding) with precision, and can also significantly improve quality and
productivity of the manufacturing organizations.

As manufacturing assembly has grown increasingly complex,

the need for new and expanded capabilities, particularly in automated
assembly systems, has become evident. As components get smaller, as
in micro-manufacturing, it is required that greater precision, more
flexibility and higher throughput are achieved. Manual assembly no
longer suffices for a great many of manufacturing's current
requirements. Functions formerly performed by humans, especially
difficult, dangerous, monotonous, or tedious tasks, are now often
assumed by robots or other mechanical devices that can be operated
by humans or computers. Robots can take the place of humans in
extreme settings or life threatening situations involving nuclear
contaminants, corrosive chemicals, or poisonous fumes.

The complexity of the problem can be better understood

when one realizes that there are many attributes that are to be
considered while selecting a robot for a particular industrial
application. Among these attributes, cost, load carrying capacity,
velocity, weight of the robot, material of robot, drive systems, size of
the robot, accuracy of the robot, geometrical dexterity (skill), path
measuring systems, programming flexibility, man-machine interface

1
and availability of the diagnostic software are considered to be the
most important ones.

The evaluation of robot suitability versus subjective criteria and

the weights of the criteria are usually expressed in linguistic terms.
Thus, Liang and Wang proposed a fuzzy multi-criteria decision making
(MCDM) approach for robot selection.

2
 1.2. INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS & MAIN
COMPONENTS

An industrial robot is defined by ISO 8373 as an automatically

controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator
programmable in three or more axes. The field of robotics may be
more practically defined as the study, design and use of robot
systems for manufacturing (a top-level definition relying on the prior
definition of robot).
Modern industrial robots are true marvels of engineering. A
robot the size of a person can easily carry a load over one hundred
pounds and move it very quickly with a repeatability of +/-0.006
inches. Furthermore these robots can do 24 hours a day for years on
end with no failures whatsoever. Though they are reprogrammable,
in many applications (particularly those in the auto industry) they are
programmed once and then repeat that exact same task for years.

Main Components of Industrial Robots are,

 Arm or Manipulator.
 End effectors.
 Drive Mechanism.
 Controller.
 Custom features,
e.g: Sensors and Transducers.

3
 1.3. BRIEF HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL
ROBOTS

George Charles Devol is often called the father of robotics.

He invented the first industrial robot, the Unimate, in 1954. A few
years later, Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger formed the first robot
company, Unimation. In 1960, Unimation was purchased by Condec
Corporation. General Motors installed the Unimate for die casting
handling and spot welding in 1961.

Modern industrial robot arms continued to evolve in the

1960's and 70's. In 1963, the six-jointed Rancho Arm was created to
assist handicapped. This was followed by the tentacle arm, designed
by Marvin Minsky in 1968. It was able to lift a person and had 12
joints.

It was the 1969 Stanford Arm that eventually led to

commercial arm production. The Stanford Arm was one of the first
electronically powered, computer-controlled arms. By 1974, it
reached a level of sophistication where it could assemble a Model T
water pump.

The Stanford Arm was followed by the Silver Arm in 1974.

The Silver Arm was created by MIT's David Silver to perform precise
assembly using touch and pressure sensors and a microcomputer.
These arms led to Victor Scheinman, the inventor of the Stanford
Arm, to form Vicarm, Inc. in 1974 to manufacture industrial robotic
arms. Scheinman was instrumental in the creation of the PUMA
(programmable universal manipulator for assembly) for Unimation.

4
In 1977, the European robot company ASEA, built two sizes of
industrial robots.

Despite the fact that robotics technology was developed in

the United States, Japan became the first nation to actually embrace
robotics; many observers view this as a significant factor in Japan's
emergence as a global manufacturing power. Today Japan is not only
one of the major users of manufacturing robotics but it is also the
dominant manufacturer of industrial robots.

In the early 1980s, 70 percent of robot orders were for use

in the automotive industry. During this time, robot manufacturers
simultaneously improved their reliability and performance and
sought to lessen their dependence on the automotive industry by
focusing on specific niche markets. By concentrating on applications
other than spot welding, painting, and dispensing, the robotics
industry was able to develop products that could successfully handle
not only assembly, but also material handling and material removal.
Spot welding, which for a long time was the major application of
robotics, eventually was eclipsed by materials handling. This was a
clear indication that the robotics industry was indeed becoming less
dependent on the automotive industry, since materials handling is
used in a wide and varied range of industries. Additionally, non-
manufacturing applications started to become viable in such areas as
security, health care, environmental cleanup, and space and
undersea exploration.

Advances in robot control technology, simulation, and offline

programming made robots easier to program, maintain, and use.
Simulation use allowed for the discovery of potential problems
before the robots were actually installed.

5
 1.4. CHARACTERISTICS

A general-purpose, programmable machine possessing

certain anthropomorphic characteristics,

 Hazardous work environments.

 Repetitive work cycle.

 Consistency and accuracy.

 Difficult handling task for humans.

 Multi-shift operations.

 Reprogrammable, flexible.

 Interfaced to other computer systems.

6
 2.1. TYPES OF ROBOTIC JOINTS

1) Linear Joints:
These are also known as sliding as well as Prismatic joints (L)

They are called prismatic because the cross section of the

joint is considered as a generalized prism. They permit links to
move in a linear relationship.

2) Revolute joints:
These permit only angular motion between links. Their
variations include,
 Rotational joint (R)
 Twisting joint (T)
 Revolving joint (V)

 A Rotational joint (R):

It is identified by its motion, rotation about an axis
perpendicular to the adjoining links.
 A Twisting joint (T):
It is also a rotational joint, where the rotation takes place
about an axis that is parallel to both adjoining links.
 A Revolving joint (V):
It is another rotational joint, where the rotation takes place
perpendicular to one another at this kind of joint. The rotation
involves revolution of one link about another.

7
DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

8
 2.2. ROBOT CLASSIFICATION

 Depending on Configuration.
 Depending on type of control system.
 Fixed or variable sequence robot.
 Depending upon generation.
 Servo / non-servo robots.
 Point to Point or continuous controlling robots.

 Classification Based on Physical Configuration:

 Cartesian configuration.
 Cylindrical configuration.
 Polar configuration.
 Joint-arm configuration.
 SCARA.

 Cartesian Configuration:
Robots with Cartesian configurations consists of links
connected by linear joints (L). Gantry robots are Cartesian
robots (LLL).

9
  Cartesian Robots:
A robot with 3 prismatic joints – the axes consistent with
a Cartesian coordinate system.

Commonly used for:

 Pick and place work.

 Assembly operations.
 Handling machine tools.
 Arc welding.

 Advantages:

 Ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces.

 Easy computation and programming.
 Most rigid structure for given length.

 Disadvantages:

 Requires large operating volume.

 Exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or
dusty environments.
 Can only reach front of itself axes hard to seal.

10
  Cylindrical Robots:
A robot with 2 prismatic joints and a rotary joint – the
axes consistent with a cylindrical coordinate system.

Commonly used for:

 Handling at die-casting machines.

 Assembly operations.
 Handling machine tools.
 Spot welding.

 Advantages:

 Can reach all around itself.

 Rotational axis easy to seal.
 Relatively easy programming.
 Rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working
space.
 Good access into cavities and machine openings.

 Disadvantages:

 Can't reach above itself.

 Linear axes is hard to seal.
 Won’t reach around obstacles.

11
  Exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids.
 Polar Configuration:
Polar robots have a work space of spherical shape.
Generally, the arm is connected to the base with a twisting (T)
joint and rotatory (R) and linear (L) joints follow.

 The designation of the arm for this configuration can be TRL or

TRR.
 Robots with the designation TRL are also called spherical robots.
Those with the designation TRR are also called articulated robots.
An articulated robot more closely resembles the human arm.

 Joint-arm Configuration:
The jointed-arm is a combination of cylindrical and articulated
configurations. The arm of the robot is connected to the base with a
twisting joint. The links in the arm are connected by rotatory joints.
Many commercially available robots have this configuration.

12
  Articulated Robots:
A robot with at least 3 rotary joints.

 Commonly used for:

 Assembly operations.
 Welding.
 Weld sealing.
 Spray painting.
 Handling at die casting or fettling machines.

 Advantages:
 All rotary joints allows for maximum flexibility
 Any point in total volume can be reached.
 All joints can be sealed from the environment.
 Disadvantages:
 Extremely difficult to visualize, control, and program.
 Restricted volume coverage
 Low accuracy.

13
  SCARA (Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm)
Robots:
A robot with at least 2 parallel rotary joints.

 Commonly used for:

 Pick and place work.

 Assembly operations.

 Advantages:
 High speed.
 Height axis is rigid.
 Large work area for floor space.
 Moderately easy to program.
 Disadvantages:
 Limited applications.
 2 ways to reach point.
 Difficult to program off-line.
 Highly complex arm.

14
 3.1. WORKING AND INSTALLATION

Traditionally, the automotive industry has been the largest

employer of robots. We look at a couple of robot applications in their
spiritual home!

Jaguar Cars has transformed its traditional car body seam

sealing, soundproofing and under-body sealing operations at its
Castle Bromwich plant, by installing an automated six-axis ABB
robot-based facility.

Installation of the robots began in February 2005 and the

facility, which has a throughput of 43 vehicles per hour, has been in
full operation since June 2005. It is fully automated, with no operator
intervention required during normal operating conditions. Operation
of the facility is split into three ‘sealing’ stations. It can process the
complete range of Jaguar car bodies – including the XK sports car,
the S Type and the XJ saloon, both standard and long wheel base.

The skid-mounted car bodies pass through three stations. At

the first station, three seam sealing robots spray a PVC plastisol
material at a temperature of 30°C within the interior and luggage
compartment spaces of the body, to seal against water ingress and
wind noise. Three IRB 4400 robots, with a 45kg payload, are
designed with a long reach, allowing them to enter each car body to
access body seams. The robots are mounted on linear track systems
to further increase their flexibility. Two of them conduct sealing
operations from either side of the rear passenger compartment, then
track forward along the track and access the forward passenger
compartment, while the third robot tracks across the rear of the

15
body, sealing the luggage compartment. After seam sealing, the car
bodies are transferred to the next station, where three more robots
spray an epoxy-based, solvent-free material, at a temperature of
60°C, to reduce noise, vibration and harshness. Previous spraying
methods at the facility involved the labour-intensive insertion of
bitumen pads.

After seam sealing and sound insulation operations, the car

bodies move on to an under-body sealing cell, incorporating two IRB
2400L robots with a 10kg payload. As the body moves through the
station, the robots carry out a combined seam sealing and
underbody coating operation, applying the same PVC plastisol used
for internal seam sealing.

Once the under-body sealing application and curing is

complete, the car bodies move on for the application of primer, base
coat and clear coat. Here the robots are equipped with dispensing
systems that incorporate both material conditioning and flow
control. ABB SPA 400 (swivel pointer applicator) spray guns are used
– each is equipped with three separate nozzle types that can be
individually selected, depending on the area to be sprayed. A wide
‘fan’ configuration may be required for coating areas, while seams
may need a very narrow, flat stream, so the robots are able to switch
instantly from one nozzle to another, all co-ordinated by the ABB
robot controller.

Positional accuracy:
Positional accuracy of each car body skid is ±15mm – not
sufficiently precise for optimum quality. An integral vision system
was, therefore, incorporated to locate the actual position of the car
body in relation to its ideal datum position. This then sends data to
the robot controller to offset the positioning of the robots by the

16
required margin. Additionally, the under-body robots are equipped
with ‘conveyor tracking’ software and encoder input, so that they
can determine the exact positional accuracy of the carrier as it
moves through the station. If the carrier moves faster, or slower, or
stops, the robot will offset its program to track the movement.

From spot to arc:

When automotive component manufacturer, Wild Springs &
Wireforms, won the contract to manufacture the frame supporting
the rear seat cushion in the latest Astra saloon car, Vauxhall specified
that the wire frame should be arcrather than spot-welded. Full-
volume production quantities of over 4,000 per week for delivery to
the foaming plant, which in turn supplies line-side to the OEM at
Ellesmere Port, dictated the use of robotic welding for the operation.

The company turned to Motoman for the supply of a twin-

robot MIG welding cell with powered turntable, with the assistance
of system integrator, Bauromat UK. The Astra seat frame comprises
11 formed components made from round, mild steel wire of 5mm
diameter, which are placed by an operator into a bespoke jig. During
this time, 20 welds are deposited by the two robots to produce the
previous frame. The turntable then swings through 180° to present
the unwelded assembly to the robots and the welded frame to the
operator for unloading, ensuring almost uninterrupted production.
TAKT time is one minute – around 25 per cent less than for an
equivalent spot welding cycle.

Much of Wild’s experience of seat frame manufacture had

involved spot welding in robot cells for a variety of automotive
manufacturers, including Jaguar, Land Rover, Range Rover, Nissan,
Honda, Toyota and for the BMW Mini convertible. It does, however,
have long experience in large volume, robotic arc welding of

17
automotive products from 0.5 to 13mm diameter wire, such as seat
parts, exhaust hangers and various components requiring sub
assembly. Other products produced at the Red ditch factory include
float rods, trim wires and springs for doors, throttles and
thermostats.

Hence, Robots in Automotive Industry contribute not only to

the company’s growth but also to its nation. In Germany, The
automotive industry’s manufacturers, suppliers, and service
providers represent Germany’s largest industry in revenue terms
(EUR 293 billion in 2007). Almost every second industrial robot can
be found here. Thanks to numerous new vehicle programs there has
been a significant number of new robot installations in the last three
years. Moreover, there will continue to be a strong need for
equipment in all areas; especially in the area of material-handling
robots due to the extensive wear and tear inflicted on the equipment
over prolonged periods of use in this industry.

18
 3.2. SPECIFICATIONS

A specification is a detailed description of the design and

materials used to make something.
 Following are main specifications of a robot:

 Axis Movement Specifications:

1. Axes - The individual segments of each robot manipulator are

connected with mechanical joints - each serves as an axis of
movement. The most common industrial robots have six axes
of movement. The number and placement of axes determines
the flexibility of each model.

2. Robot Motion Range (Work volume) - Much like the joints

between bones, robot axes have limits to each movement.
Every axis has a specific scope of motion. On a typical
specifications sheet, the degree of movement shows up as
positive or negative degree of movement from the centre base
position of each axis.

3. Robot Motion Speed - Each axis moves at a different speed.

They are listed as degrees travelled per second. Focus on this
criterion when you need to match certain speed specifications
for your application.

4. Repeatability - Industrial robots are known for their accuracy.

But this ability to return to an exact location again and again,
known as a robot's repeatability, can vary with each model.
More precision-driven applications will require tighter

19
 repeatability figures. Repeatability is listed as a millimeter of
alteration plus or minus from the point.

5. Spatial Accuracy – It refers to the smallest increment of motion

at the wrist that can be controlled by the robot. It is sum of the
control resolution and mechanical accuracies. The arm
movement must be divided into its basic motions and the
resolution of each degree of freedom is figured separately.

6. Accuracy – the accuracy of the robot is its capability to position

its wrist end at a given point with in its work volume. The
accuracy is also defined as half the distance b/w two adjacent
resolution points.

 Robot Specifications for Weight:

1. Payload - The weight capacity of each robot manipulator is its

payload. This is a critical specification and includes the tooling
weight as well. You can rule out a number of robots with this
robot specification category alone.

2. Robot Mass - Every robot has a specific weight or mass. This

number only indicates how much the robot manipulator
weighs. It does not include the weight of the robot's controller.
This specification may not be quite as important unless you are
trying to install your robot on a table or shelf.

 Specifications and Work Envelope:

1. V-Reach - How high can the robot go? A robot's vertical reach
specification refers to the height of the robot when it extends

20
 upwards from the base. Use this to determine whether or not a
model is tall enough for your application and location.

2. H-Reach - How far can a robot reach? The horizontal reach

measures the distance of the fully extended arm - from the
base to the wrist.

3. Structure - Robots are engineered with different structures. The

most common by far is a jointed-arm robot. Other structure
types include Cylinder, Cartesian and polar kinematic robots.

 Power specification:
1. Whether it is A.C. or D.C.
2. Rated current: Also described as current rating or current-
carrying capacity, is the RMS electric current which a device or
conductor can continuously carry while remaining within its
temperature rating.
3. Power consumption: In electrical engineering, power
consumption often refers to the electrical energy over time
supplied to operate an electrical appliance
4. Power source: Battery or Generator.
5. Type of power supply: A power supply is an electronic device
that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. Single phase
or 3 phase.

Other specifications: These include memory, processor type

etc.

21
 4. CURRENT USE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Though less dependent on the automotive industry than in
the past, the robotics industry still finds its widest application in that
market. However, driven by the need for increased manufacturing
efficiency, the automakers and automotive-related industries are
moving away from hard automation in favor of flexible automation.
Analysts predict greater use of robots for assembly, paint systems,
final trim, and parts transfer in the automotive industry

One reason for increased practicality of robots is the

availability to control machinery and systems through personal or
laptop computers. According to Waurzyniak, some advances in
computer-guided systems are robots with force sensing capabilities
and 3-D and 2-D vision-guidance capabilities. NASA is using
sophisticated computer-guided robot controllers for its Space Shuttle
Endeavor and the Mars landing craft. Each of these systems utilize
computer control of some sort, ranging from simple machine-specific
tracking, to shop-wide data collection across a variety of machinery
and instruments, to galactic monitoring and control in a unique,
outer space environment.

The Robotic Industries Association reports that an

estimated 144,000 industrial robots are in use in the United States in
2004, up from 82,000 in 1998. In 2004, North American
manufacturers purchased 14, 838 robots, valued at nearly $1 billion,
a 20 percent increase from 2003 and the industry's second best unit
total ever. There has been a 152 percent increase in new robots
ordered and a 78 percent increase in revenue in 2004 as well.

The key factors driving this growth in robotics are mass

customization of electronic goods (specifically communications

22
equipment), the miniaturization of electronic goods and their
internal components, and the re-standardization of the
semiconductor industry. Robot installations for such tasks as
packaging, palletizing, and filling are expected to see continued
growth. In addition, increases are anticipated in the aerospace,
appliance, and non-manufacturing markets.

23
 5.1. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

 Advantages:

 It can carry out simple and repetitive work for human beings.
 Do not take rest and so can work continuously for a longer
period.
 They can be used in assembly work with high precision and
density. The quality of products is enhanced.
 Robots can replace workers without laboring cost, and robots
can achieve stable production rate as robots will not be late to
work, resign, take day off or strike.
 The program can be modified easily so robots can increase the
flexibility in manufacturing.
 They can work in unfavorable circumstances, e.g. removing the
high-temperature artifact from a casting machine, welding task,
spraying task, transportation of chemicals, etc., such work will
affect the health of the workers.
 Using robots may minimize the wasting of materials. etc.
 Quality, Production, Safety.
 Less cost.
 Perform tasks faster than humans.
 Accuracy.
 Repeatability.
 Working at places 24/7 etc.

24
 Disadvantages:

 He industries prefer utilizing the robots than the human

workers, So, the unemployment rate will increase, and many
people who cannot get work will become poorer while the
company owners will get richer.
 The companies should calculate the cost of the robotic
automation in light business, it sometimes costs a lot of money
greater than the financial budget and they need regular
maintenance which costs a lot of money.
 The robots can work in the factory with limitations, the human
do the tasks that require creativity, decision-making,
adaptation and job learning.
 If the employees have no experience to deal with the robots,
they will need training program to interact with the new
robotic equipment, it will take time and cost a lot of money.
etc.
 Job loss.
 High initial cost and maintenance.
 Need of high power.
 Expertise.
 Expensive.
 Area requires to install.
 Check and balance required etc.

25
 5.2. APPLICATIONS

Industrial robots have been in use for about 50 years. The

first industrial robot was used for material handling in General
Motors facilities. Nowadays, many different applications can be done
by robots.
Here are the top 5 applications for industrial robots,

1) Robotic handling operations (38%)

2) Robotic Welding (29%)
3) Robotic Assembly (10%)
4) Robotic Dispensing (4%)
5) Robotic Processing (2%)

 Other applications are:

 Domestic or household robots.

 Medical robots.
 Service robots.
 Military robots.
 Entertainment robots.
 Hobby and competition robots.

26
 6. FUTURE SCOPE

The convergence of technologies involving computing,

communication, and intelligent interfaces with autonomous robotics
suggests that networks of intelligent, autonomous robots may
become the next disruptive technology.

Thus, the development of both hardware and software in

the PC-area makes a big impact on the robot controller development
and efforts are made to use also technology coming from the
telecommunication area. The cost of software development and
maintenance is continuously increasing and a long software life time
is therefore important, which means that, for example, new efficient
software development environments and new concepts for scalable
system architectures, open interfaces and communication concepts
are important drivers of the robot controller development. Even if
the fastest development in robotics is found on the controller side,
there is also some technology push on the electromechanical side.
Examples are more efficient and bigger compact gear boxes, more
cost efficient motors and drive systems, cheaper carbon composite
material and more advanced tools for mechanical design.

Since the automotive industry is the major force driving the

robotic development today it could be relevant to start looking at the
future of car manufacturing with a scenario based on the earlier
proposed need of more accurate, rigid, fast and slender robots for
such processes as laser welding, soldering, assembly, riveting and
gluing to replace the large number of big heavy robots used for spot
welding. Assuming the use of fiber optics and improved Yttrium
Aluminum Garnet (YAG) laser technology and lightweight soldering,

27
riveting and gluing equipment, the weight of the load carried around
by the robot will be radically reduced from that of a spot welding
gun. This means that it is not far away to look at an implementation
scenario for the development of lightweight slender robots with
wrist- and upper arm concepts having much lower mass using
integrated actuator solutions, fiber composites and other lightweight
materials.

A lightweight slender robot concept could also be useful for

tasks in the final assembly lines of automobile plants. The scenario in
this case must, however, also include the possibility to make intuitive
programming and efficient failure handling in direct contact between
human and robot, otherwise the automation system will be too
complex. Therefore, full safety is needed and a low moving mass and
compliant control of the robot is important in this. In order to obtain
a high safety level, it is not far away to make use of the sensors
needed for virtual stiffness control also for safety purpose. This could
be done by using the redundant measurement signals to generate
residuals and to make redundant supervision of the robot control. If
also a six DOF force/torque sensor or joint torque sensors are used
for human–robot interaction, further redundant supervision can be
introduced.
In future robot applications with very complex work objects as in
disassembly, sorting, cleaning, cutting up etc. the robots must be
supported by advanced vision systems.

28
 7. REFERENCES

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