Automatic Power Factor Correction Using Capacitive Bank

AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION USING CAPACITIVE BANK
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are

inductive, there is an ongoing interest in improving power factor. The low
power factor of inductive loads robs system’s capacity and can adversely
affect voltage level.
As such, power factor correction through the application of

capacitors is widely practiced at all system voltages. As utilities increase
penalties they charge customers for low power factor, system performance
will not be the only consideration. The installation of power factor
correction capacitors improves system performance and saves money.
A number of manufacturers have catalogs and design manuals to

assist in the application of their products. These publications provide
guidance in the selection and placement of capacitors and discuss general
provisions that will affect the overall performance of the installation.
1.1. What is Electric Power?
Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is

transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt.
In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as

inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the
direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that, averaged over a
complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net
transfer of energy in one direction is known as real
power (also referred to as active power). That
portion of power flow due to stored energy, which
returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.
DEPT-EEE,SBIT,KMM. Page - 1 -
Power triangle the components of AC power
The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent

power can be expressed by representing the quantities as vectors. Real
power is represented as a horizontal vector and reactive power is
represented as a vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the
hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive
power vectors. This representation is often called the power triangle.
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real, reactive and
apparent power is:
(apparent power)2 = (real power)2 + (reactive power)2
Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the
apparent power, when the current and voltage are both sinusoids with a
known phase angle between them:
(real power) = (apparent power) * cos(Ө)

(reactive power) = (apparent power) * sin(Ө)
1.2. Significance of reactive power
Waveform of Reactive power

Reactive power is a quantity that is normally only defined for
alternating current (AC) electrical systems. Our Indian interconnected
grid is almost entirely an AC system where the voltages and currents
alternate up and down 50 times per second (not necessarily at the same
time). In that sense, these are pulsating quantities. Because of this, the
power being transmitted down a single line also “pulsates” - although it
goes up and down 100 times per second rather than 50. This power goes
up and down around some “average” value - this average value is called
the “real” power and over time you pay for this in kilowatt-hours of
energy. If this average value is zero, then all of the power being
transmitted is called “reactive” power. You would not normally be charged
for using reactive power because you are consuming some energy half the
time, and giving it all back the other half of the time - for a net use of
zero. To distinguish reactive power from real power, we use the reactive
power unit called “VAR” - which stands for Volt-Ampere-Reactive. Voltage
in an electrical system is analogous to pressure in a water system.
Current in an electrical system is analogous to the flow of water in a water
system.
1.3. A physical analogy for reactive power
While there are numerous physical analogies for this quantity called
reactive power, one that is reasonably accurate is the process of filling a
water tower tank with water - one bucket at a time. Suppose you want to
fill a water tower tank with water, and the only way that you can do that
is by climbing up a ladder carrying a bucket of water and then dumping
the water into the tank. You then have to go back down the ladder to get
more water. Strictly speaking, if you simply go up a ladder (not carrying
anything) and come back down (not carrying anything), you have not done
any work in the process. But, since it did take work to go up the ladder,
you must have gotten all that energy back when you came down. While
you may not feel that coming down the ladder completely restores you to
the condition you were in before you went up, ideally, from an energy
conversion viewpoint, you should! If you don’t agree, get out your physics
book and check out the official definition of doing work.
OK, if you still don’t agree that walking up a ladder and coming
back down does not require any net work, then think of it this way. Would
you pay anyone to walk up a ladder and back down without doing
anything at the top? Probably not. But, if they dumped a bucket of water
in the tank while they were at the top, then that would be something
worth paying for.
When you carry a bucket of water up the ladder you do a certain amount
of work. If you dump the water at the top and carry an empty bucket
down, then you have not gotten all your energy back (because your total
weight coming down is less than going up), and you have done work
during that process. The energy that it takes to go up and down a ladder
carrying nothing either way requires reactive power, but no real power.
The energy that it takes to go up a ladder carrying something and come
down without carrying anything requires both real power and reactive
power.
To make the system more reliable, we might put two sets of three
ladders leading up to the tank on the tower. Then, if one set fails (maybe
the water plus the person get too heavy and the ladder breaks), the other
set picks up the slack (that is, has to carry more water). But, this could
eventually overload the second set so that it too fails. This is a cascading
outage due to the overloading of ladders.
1.4 How is reactive power related to the problem of
voltage collapse?
In terms of this water-carrying analogy, the frequency of going up
and down the ladder should be nearly constant (that, is like our 50 cycles
per second electrical frequency). So, when more water is needed, the
amount that each person carries up the ladder must get bigger (since they
are not allowed to go faster or slower). Well, if this water gets too heavy,
either the ladder might break, or the person might get too tired to carry it.
We could argue that if the ladder breaks, that is like the outage of a
transmission line that either sags or breaks under the stress of too much
current. There are devices called relays in an electrical system that are
supposed to sense when the load is too much and send a signal to a
“circuit breaker” to remove the line from service (like removing the set of
three ladders). If the person gets too tired, we could again stretch this
analogy to say that this is like not having enough reactive power (resulting
in low voltage). In the extreme case, the person might “collapse” under the
weight of the water that the person is being asked to carry. If it happens
to one person, it will probably happen to many of them. In the electrical
system this could be considered a “voltage collapse”. While there are
“under voltage relays,” there are no relays in the system to directly
sense the problem that the voltage is about to collapse.
In summary, a voltage collapse occurs when the system is
trying to serve more load than the voltage can support. A simulation
has been prepared to illustrate voltage collapse by simply using a system
with an Eastern generator and customer load, a Western generator and
customer load, and East to West transmission lines. In the simulation,
the Eastern generator has a constrained supply of reactive power and
progressive line outages for unspecified reasons lead to a voltage collapse
even when reactive power supply is ample at the Western generator.
In contrast to all of this, you could route a hose up the side of the
water tower and simply turn on the water and let the water flow in the
hose to fill up the tank. The water pressure is like voltage, and the water
flow is like current. This type of system would be a direct current (DC)
system and would not involve reactive power at all. However, the concept
of voltage collapse is not unique to AC systems. A simple DC system
consisting of a battery serving light bulbs can be used to illustrate how
too much load on a system can lead to a condition where voltages drop to
a critical point where “adding more load” results in less power
transmission - a form of voltage collapse.
CHAPTER-2
2. WHAT IS POWER FACTOR ?
 The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio

of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power, and is a
number between 0 and 1.
 A measure of the effectiveness with which an electrical device converts
volt-amperes to watts; devices with power factors >0.90 are
"highpowerfactor"
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a
particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and
voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to
the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of
the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be greater
than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with low
power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor
for the same amount of useful power transferrer
Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy,

electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or
commercial customers where there is a low power factor. Linear loads
with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected
with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. On-linear loads,
such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such
cases, active power factor correction is used to counteract the
distortion and raise power factor.
The devices for correction of power factor may be at a central

substation, or spread out over a distribution system, or built into
power-consuming equipment AC power flow has the three components:
real power (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in
volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-
amperes (VAr).In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and
S can be expressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such that: If
φ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power
factor is equal to cosine(φ), and: Since the units are consistent, the
power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.
When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive,

and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When
the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed
by the load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to
show the sign of the phase angle. If a purely resistive load is connected to
a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the
power factor will be unity.
KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real

Power).It is the power that actually powers the equipment and performs
useful work.
KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment

(transformer, motor and relay) needs to produce the magnetizing flux.
KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.
Let s look at a simple analogy in order to better understand these

terms .Let s say you are at the ballpark and it is a really hot day. You
order up a mug of your favorite brewsky. The thirst-quenching portion of
your beer represented by KW (Figure 1). Unfortunately, life is not perfect.
Along with your ale comes a little bit of foam. (And let s face it that foam
just does not quench your thirst.) This foam is represented by KVAR. The
total contents of your mug, KVA, is this summation of KW (the beer)and
KVAR (the foam).
The beer analogy for AC Power
So, now that we understand some basic terms, we are ready to learn
about power factor:
Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of Working Power to Apparent Power.

Looking at our beer mug analogy above, power factor would be the ratio of
beer (KW) to beer plus foam (KVA).
Thus, for a given KVA: The more foam you have (the higher the
percentage of KVAR), the lower your ratio of KW (beer) to KVA (beer plus
foam). Thus, the lower your power factor.
The less foam you have (the lower the percentage of KVAR), the
higher your ratio of KW (beer) to KVA (beer plus foam). In fact, as your
foam (or KVAR) approaches zero, your power factor approaches 1.0.Our
beer mug analogy is a bit simplistic. In reality, when we calculate KVA, we
must determine the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW. Therefore, we
must go one step further and look at the angle between these vector
Let’s look at another analogy
Mac here is dragging a heavy load (Figure 2). Mac s Working Power
(or Actual Power) in the forward direction, where he most wants his load
to travel, is KW. Unfortunately, Mac can t drag his load on a perfect
horizontal (he would get a tremendous backache), so his shoulder height

adds a little Reactive Power, or KVAR.
The Apparent Power Mac is dragging, KVA, is this vectorial summation of
KVAR and KW.
2.1 EFFECTS OF LOW POWER FACTOR
 Consider an alternator (single phase), having full load rated capacity of

1,000 A at 500 V.
 Rating of the alternator = (1,000 x 500)/1,000 =500kVA
 If the alternator is operating at unity p.f., load supplied = 500 X 1 =
500kW.
 If the p.f. is 0.6, load supplied = 500x 0.6 = 300kW.
 Although the alternator is fully loaded i.e., developing its maximum

current and voltage, yet when the p.f. is 0.6 it is supplying only 60%
of its full load capacity. So in order to supply 500 kW at 0.6 p.f the
alternator must be overloaded and the conductors connecting the
alternator to load must be made of much larger cross-section to carry
the overload current.
 Hence for a given power the lower the power factor the larger must be
the size of the alternator and larger must be the size of the conductors
of transmission ; or, in other words, the greater will be the cost of
generation and the transmission. That is the reason why supply

undertakings always stress upon the consumers to increase their p.f
2.2 DISADVANTAGES WITH LOW POWER FACTOR

There are many serious defects of low power factor over the plants
which are summarized as follows:
 Effect on transmission lines: For the same power to be

transmitted over the line, it will have to carry more current at low
power factors. As the line is to carry more current, its cross-
sectional area will have to be increased which increases the capital
cost of the lines. Also increased current increases the line loss or
the efficiency of the line is lowered, and the line drop is also
increased.
 Effect on Transformers: For decreased power factor, the kW

capacity of the transformer is decreased and the voltage in it is
increased.
 Effect on Switchgear and Bus bars: The cross-sectional area of

the bus bar, and the contact surface of the switchgears must be
enlarged for the same power to be delivered at low power factors.
 Effect on Generators: With the low power factor the kVA as well
as kW capacities are lowered. The power supplied by the exciter is
increased, as well as the generator copper losses are increased, so
their efficiency decreased.
 Effect on Prime Movers: When the power factor is decreased the

alternator develops more reactive kVA or the wattles power
generated is more, but certain energy is required to develop it
which is supplied by the prime mover. That is the part of the
prime mover capacity is idle and represents dead investment.
Working at low power factors also decreases the efficiency of prime

mover.
2.3 ADVANTAGES OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
 The kW capacity of the prime movers is better utilized.

 This increases the kilowatt capacity of the alternators.
 The kW capacity of transmission and the lines are increased.
 The efficiency of every plant is increased.
 The overall cost per unit decreased.
 The regulation of the lines is improved.
2.4 METHODS OF IMPROVING POWER FACTOR

Following are the methods of improving the power factor:
With the use of capacitors:

They are connected in parallel with the supply mains and take
current leading by 90 degrees from the mains which neutralize the
reactive lagging. Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive
power (KVAR or foam), thus increasing your power factor Reactive power
(KVARS), caused by inductive loads, acts at a 90-degree angle to working
power (KW). Capacitors store KVARS and release energy opposing the
reactive energy caused by the inductor .The presence of both a capacitor
and inductor in the same circuit results in the continuous alternating
transfer of energy between the two. Thus, when the circuit is balanced, all
the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor
With the help of a synchronous condenser: The synchronous

confessor is also called as synchronous motor. This is the only motor
which can also be worked at leading power factor at the same time this
can supply mechanical power.
Phase Advancers: These are special commutator machines which

improve the
There are some other methods other than the above mentioned one, they
are as follows
 Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
 We already talked about the fact that low power factor is caused by
the presence of induction motors. But, more specifically, low power
factor is caused by running induction motors lightly loaded.
 Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
 Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient

motors. Even with energy-efficient motors, power factor is
significantly affected by variations in load. A motor must be
operated near its rated load in order to realize the benefits of a high
power factor design.
2.5 LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

APPARATUS
Power factor improvement apparatus should always be located near

the equipment/machinery which is responsible for low power factor. If
synchronous condensers are to be used for improving the power factor of
the transmission line, then the best location for these will be at the
receiving end. Synchronous condensers thus installed will relieve both the
transmission line and generators form the excessive current. However, if
synchronous condensers are installed near the generators then only
generators will be relieved from the excessive lagging current component
and the transmission line will have to carry more than normal current.
NEAR THE SOURCE -- MORE LOSSES
Location of power factor apparatus near the source
NEAR THE LOAD --- LESS LOSSES
Location of power factor apparatus near the Load
CHAPTER-3
3. NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
 Varying power demand on the supply system.

 Power factor also varies as a function of the load requirements.
 Difficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Fixed
Compensation i.e. fixed capacitors.
 leading power factor under light load conditions(fixed
compensation)
 This result in over voltages, saturation of transformers, mal-
operation of diesel generating sets, penalties by electric supply
authorities.
 Automatically variation, without manual intervention, the
compensation to suit the load requirements.
 Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC) system provides this
facility.
 Leading power factor will be also prevented.
3.1 Benefits of APFC
 Consistently high power factor under fluctuating loads

 Prevention of leading power factor
 Eliminate power factor penalty
 Lower energy consumption by reducing losses.
 Continuously sense and monitor load
 Automatically switch on/off relevant capacitors steps for consistent
power factor.
 Ensures easy user interface
3.2 PROBLEMS RELATED TO POWER FACTOR

CORRECTION USING CAPACITOR
It is ironic to think that as steps are being taken to improve the
operating efficiency at a facility, those very steps may be adversely
affecting the facility in other ways. This is sometimes the case when power
factor correction capacitors are installed at a facility. As an example,
general application of capacitors on motors, when applied without regard
to the connected system, can result in the inadvertent tuning of a system
to a dominant harmonic. (The implications of this are discussed further
below).Although “harmonic problems” are attributed to many power
system problems, it is sometimes overly used. There are other
ramifications associated with the use of power factor correction capacitors
such as voltage rise and switching transients. Each of these power quality
concepts will be discussed in turn.
3.3 AUTOMATION
Automation or industrial automation or numerical control is the use of
control systems such as computers to control industrial machinery and
processes, reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of
industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas
mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them
with the physical requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the
need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Processes and
systems can also be automated.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy
and in daily experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices
with mathematical and organizational tools to create complex systems for
a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
CHAPTER-4
4.EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose

devices. Due to the limited duties this systems can be highly optimized to
the particular needs. Traditionally most of these systems are used for
control and process measurement, as a side-effect of higher integration of
integrated circuits more complex applications can be solved by embedded
systems. To be able to solve these problems embedded systems are
commonly equipped with various kinds of peripherals. Early applications
of embedded devices include the guidance computer of the Minuteman I
missiles and the Apollo guidance computer. The Minuteman I & II
missiles are intercontinental ballistic nuclear warheads, produced by
Boeing in the 1960’s. Due to the large quantities of ICs used in the
guidance system of Minuteman II missiles, prices for ICs fell from 1000$
each to 3$ each. This lead to wide adoption of embedded systems in
consumer electronics in the 1980’s. Nowadays embedded systems can be
found in devices from digital watches to traffic-control systems. The broad
range of applications with totally different requirements leads to various
implementation approaches. The range of hardware used in embedded
systems reaches from FPGAs to full blown desktop CPUs which are
accompanied by special purpose ICs such as DSPs. On the software side,
depending on the needs, everything, from logic fully implemented in
hardware, to systems with own operating system and different
applications running on it, can be found.
• Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used

to achieve a single specific task.
• Embedded systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to,
or control an external environment.
• Environment connected to systems through sensors, actuators and
other I/O interfaces.
• Embedded system must meet timing & other constraints imposed

on it by environment.
An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven,
reliable, real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network
interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in diverse
environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
4.1 CLASSIFICATION:
 Real Time Systems.
 RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified
deadline.
 A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer
 RTS classification
 Hard Real Time Systems
 Soft Real Time System
HARD REAL TIME SYSTEMS

 "Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.
 Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.
SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM
 "Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but
still must operate very quickly and repeatable.
 Example: Railway reservation system – takes a few extra seconds
the data remains valid.
4.2.BLOCK DIAGRAM:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTOR

USING CAPACITIVE LOAD BANK
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROJECT
 Microcontroller
 Transformer
 Light Emitting Diode
 Voltage Regulator Unit
 LCD Display
 Relay
 Crystal Oscillator
 Inductive load Choke Coil
 Bulb
4.3 Micro Controller
A microcontroller is a computer. All computers -- whether we are talking

about a personal desktop computer or a large mainframe computer or a
microcontroller -- have several things in common:
All computers have a CPU (central processing unit) that executes

programs. If you are sitting at a desktop computer right now reading this
article, the CPU in that machine is executing a program that implements
the Web browser that is displaying this page. The CPU loads the program
from somewhere. On your desktop machine, the browser program is
loaded from the hard disk. The computer has some RAM (random-access
memory) where it can store "variables”. And the computer has some input
and output devices so it can talk to people. On your desktop machine, the
keyboard and mouse are input devices and the monitor and printer are
output devices. A hard disk is an I/O device -- it handles both input and
output. The desktop computer you are using is a "general purpose
computer" that can run any of thousands of programs. Microcontrollers
are "special purpose computers." Microcontrollers do one thing well. There
are a number of other common characteristics that define
microcontrollers. If a computer matches a majority of these
characteristics, then you can call it a "microcontroller".
Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a

consumer product) so that they can control the features or actions of the
product. Another name for a microcontroller, therefore, is "embedded
controller." Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one
specific program. The program is stored in ROM (read-only memory) and
generally does not change. Microcontrollers are often low-power devices.
A desktop computer is almost always plugged into a wall socket and
might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller
might consume 50 mill watts.
A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not

always) has a small LED or LCD display for output. A microcontroller
also takes input from the device it is controlling and controls the device
by sending signals to different components in the device.
History
Microcontrollers have existed from the very early years of the

microprocessor revolution. The first single chip microprocessor was the 4
bit Intel 4004 released in 1971. The following year saw the first 8-bit
microprocessor, the 8008, and the 8080 in 1974. Released in 1975, the
first microcontroller was the Intel 8048 featuring RAM and ROM on the
same chip, and this was used in several successful commercial products.
The popularity of microcontrollers increased when EEPROM

memory was incorporated to replace one time programmable PROM
memory. With EEPROM, the development cycle of programming, testing
and erasing a part could be repeated many times with the same part until
the firmware was debugged and ready for production use.
Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller.
A microcontroller is a specialized form of microprocessor that is

designed to be self-sufficient and cost-effective, where a microprocessor is
typically designed to be general purpose (the kind used in a PC).
Microcontrollers are frequently found in automobiles, office machines,
toys, and appliances. The microcontroller is the integration of a number of
useful functions into a single IC package. These functions are:
The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user

defined tasks. The ability to be able to access external memory chips to
both read and write data from and to the memory.
Introduction to PIC Microcontrollers:

PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller given by
Microchip Technology to identify its single-chip microcontrollers. These
devices have been very successful in 8-bit microcontrollers. The main
reason is that Microchip Technology has continuously upgraded the
device architecture and added needed peripherals to the microcontroller
to suit customers' requirements. The development tools such as
assembler and simulator are freely available on the internet at
www.microchip.com .
Low - end PIC Architectures:
Microchip PIC microcontrollers are available in various
types. When PIC microcontroller MCU was first available from General
Instruments in early 1980's, the microcontroller consisted of a simple
processor executing 12-bit wide instructions with basic I/O functions.
These devices are known as low-end architectures. They have limited
program memory and are meant for applications requiring simple
interface functions and small program & data memories. Some of the low-
end device numbers are
12C5XX
16C5X
16C505
Popularity of the PIC microcontrollers is due to the following factors.
1. Speed: Harvard Architecture, RISC architecture, 1 instruction cycle

= 4 clock cycles.
2. Instruction set simplicity: The instruction set consists of just 35
instructions (as opposed to 111 instructions for 8051).
3. Power-on-reset and brown-out reset. Brown-out-reset means when
the power supply goes below a specified voltage (say 4V), it causes
PIC to reset; hence malfunction is avoided. A watch dog timer (user
programmable) resets the processor if the software/program ever
malfunctions and deviates from its normal operation.
4. PIC microcontroller has four optional clock sources.
 Low power crystal

 Mid range crystal
 High range crystal
 RC oscillator (low cost).
5. Programmable timers and on-chip ADC.

6. Up to 12 independent interrupt sources.
7. Powerful output pin control (25 mA (max.) current sourcing
capability per pin.)
8. EPROM/OTP/ROM/Flash memory option.
9. I/O port expansion capability.
CPU Architecture:
The CPU uses Harvard architecture with separate Program and
Variable (data) memory interface. This facilitates instruction fetch and
the operation on data/accessing of variables simultaneously.
Architecture of PIC microcontroller
Architecture of PIC microcontroller

Basically, all PIC microcontrollers offer the following features:
 RISC instruction set with around 35 instructions _9 Digital I/O
ports
 On-chip timer with 8-bit prescaler.
 Power-on reset
 Watchdog timer
 Power saving SLEEP mode
 Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes
 External clock interface
 RAM data memory
 EPROM (or OTP) program memory
Microcontroller PIC16F73
The PIC16F73 CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller is upward

compatible with the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77,
PIC16F873/874/876/877devices. It features 200 ns instruction
execution, self programming, an ICD, 2 Comparators, 8 channels of 8-bit
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2 capture/compare/PWM functions, a
synchronous serial port that can be configured as either 3-wire SPI or 2-
wire I2C bus, a USART, and a Parallel Slave Port.
High-Performance RISC CPU
• Only 35 single word instructions to learn

• All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two-
cycle
• Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input
DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
• Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of
Data Memory (RAM)
• Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77
• Pin out compatible to the PIC16F873/874/876/877
• Interrupt capability (up to 12 sources)
• Eight level deep hardware stack
• Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes
• Processor read access to program memory
Special Microcontroller Features
• Power-up Timer (PWRT) and oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)

• Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation
• Programmable code protection
• Power saving SLEEP mode
• Selectable oscillator options
• In-
Analog Comparator module
 2 analog comparators
 Programmable on-chip voltage reference module
 Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal

VREF
 Comparator outputs are externally accessible
CMOS Technology:
• Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH technology
• Fully static design
• Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
• High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA
• Industrial temperature range
• Low power consumption:
Following are the major blocks of PIC Microcontroller.
Program memory (FLASH) is used for storing a written program.

Since memory made in FLASH technology can be programmed and
cleared more than once, it makes this microcontroller suitable for device
development.
EEPROM - data memory that needs to be saved when there is no supply.

It is usually used for storing important data that must not be lost if power
supply suddenly stops. For instance, one such data is an assigned
temperature in temperature regulators. If during a loss of power supply
this data was lost, we would have to make the adjustment once again
upon return of supply. Thus our device looses on self-reliance.
RAM - Data memory used by a program during its execution.

In RAM are stored all inter-results or temporary data during run-time.
PORTS are physical connections between the microcontroller and the

outside world. PIC16F73 has 22 I/O.
FREE-RUN TIMER is an 8-bit register inside a microcontroller that works

independently of the program. On every fourth clock of the oscillator it
increments its value until it reaches the maximum (255), and then it
starts counting over again from zero. As we know the exact timing
between each two increments of the timer contents, timer can be used for
measuring time which is very useful with some devices.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT has a role of connective element between

other blocks in the microcontroller. It coordinates the work of other blocks
and executes the user program.
CISC, RISC
It has already been said that PIC16F73 has RISC architecture. This term
is often found in computer literature, and it needs to be explained here in
more detail. Harvard architecture is a newer concept than von-Neumann.
It rose out of the need to speed up the work of a microcontroller. In
Harvard architecture, data bus and address bus are separate. Thus a
greater flow of data is possible through the central processing unit, and of
course, a greater speed of work. Separating a program from data memory
makes it further possible for instructions not to have to be 8-bit words.
PIC16F73 uses 14 bits for instructions which allows for all instructions to
be one word instructions. It is also typical for Harvard architecture to
have fewer instructions than von-Neumann's, and to have instructions

usually executed in one cycle.
Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the PIC

microcontroller range from DC to 20Mhz. Using the CCS C compiler
normally 20Mhz oscillator will be used and the price is very cheap. The 20
MHz crystal oscillator should be connected with about 22pF capacitor.
Please refer to my circuit schematic.
There are 5 input/output ports on PIC microcontroller namely port

A, port B, port C, port D and port E. Each port has different function.
Most of them can be used as I/O port.
PIC16F73 perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and

controlling home appliances to industrial instruments, remote sensors,
electrical door locks and safety devices. It is also ideal for smart cards as
well as for battery supplied devices because of its low consumption.
EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to

devices where permanent storage of various parameters is needed (codes
for transmitters, motor speed, receiver frequencies, etc.). Low cost, low
consumption, easy handling and flexibility make PIC16F73 applicable
even in areas where microcontrollers had not previously been considered
(example: timer functions, interface replacement in larger systems,
coprocessor applications, etc.).
In System Programmability of this chip (along with using only two

pins in data transfer) makes possible the flexibility of a product, after
assembling and testing have been completed. This capability can be used
to create assembly-line production, to store calibration data available only
after final testing, or it can be used to improve programs on finished
products.
Clock / instruction cycle
Clock is microcontroller's main starter, and is obtained from an

external component called an "oscillator". If we want to compare a
microcontroller with a time clock, our "clock" would then be a ticking
sound we hear from the time clock. In that case, oscillator could be
compared to a spring that is wound so time clock can run. Also, force
used to wind the time clock can be compared to an electrical supply.
Clock from the oscillator enters a microcontroller via OSC1 pin where
internal circuit of a microcontroller divides the clock into four even clocks
Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 which do not overlap. These four clocks make up one
instruction cycle (also called machine cycle) during which one instruction
is executed.
Pipelining
Instruction cycle consists of cycles Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. Cycles of calling
and executing instructions are connected in such a way that in order to
make a call, one instruction cycle is needed, and one more is needed for
decoding and execution. However, due to pipelining, each instruction is
effectively executed in one cycle. If instruction causes a change on
program counter, and PC doesn't point to the following but to some other
address (which can be the case with jumps or with calling subprograms),
two cycles are needed for executing an instruction. This is so because

instruction must be processed again, but this time from the right address.
Cycle of calling begins with Q1 clock, by writing into instruction register
(IR). Decoding and executing begins with Q2, Q3 and Q4 clocks.
Pin description
PIC16F73 has a total of 28 pins. It is most frequently found in a DIP28

type of case but can also be found in SMD case which is smaller from a
DIP. DIP is an abbreviation for Dual In Package. SMD is an abbreviation
for Surface Mount Devices suggesting that holes for pins to go through
when mounting aren't necessary in soldering this type of a component.
PIN diagram if PIC microcontroller
Pins on PIC16F73 microcontroller have the following meaning:
There are 28 pins on PIC16F73. Most of them can be used as an IO pin.

Others are already for specific functions. These are the pin functions.
Ports
Term "port" refers to a group of pins on a microcontroller which can be

accessed simultaneously, or on which we can set the desired combination
of zeros and ones, or read from them an existing status. Physically, port is
a register inside a microcontroller which is connected by wires to the pins
of a microcontroller. Ports represent physical connection of Central
Processing Unit with an outside world. Microcontroller uses them in order
to monitor or control other components or devices. Due to functionality,
some pins have twofold roles like PA4/TOCKI for instance, which is in the
same time the fourth bit of port A and an external input for free-run
counter. Selection of one of these two pin functions is done in one of the
configuration registers. An illustration of this is the fifth bit T0CS in
OPTION register. By selecting one of the functions the other one is
disabled.
All port pins can be designated as input or output, according to the needs
of a device that's being developed. In order to define a pin as input or
output pin, the right combination of zeros and ones must be written in
TRIS register. If the appropriate bit of TRIS register contains logical "1",
then that pin is an input pin, and if the opposite is true, it's an output
pin. Every port has its proper TRIS register. Thus, port A has TRISA, and
port B has TRISB. Pin direction can be changed during the course of work
which is particularly fitting for one-line communication where data flow
constantly changes direction. PORTA and PORTB state registers are
located in bank 0, while TRISA and TRISB pin direction registers are
located in bank 1.
PORTB and TRISB
PORTB has adjoined 8 pins. The appropriate register for data direction is
TRISB. Setting a bit in TRISB register defines the corresponding port pin
as input, and resetting a bit in TRISB register defines the corresponding
port pin as output.
Each PORTB pin has a weak internal pull-up resistor (resistor which
defines a line to logic one) which can be activated by resetting the seventh
bit RBPU in OPTION register. These 'pull-up' resistors are automatically
being turned off when port pin is configured as an output. When a
microcontroller is started, pull-ups are disabled.
Four pins PORTB, RB7:RB4 can cause an interrupt which occurs when
their status changes from logical one into logical zero and opposite. Only
pins configured as input can cause this interrupt to occur (if any
RB7:RB4 pin is configured as an output, an interrupt won't be generated
at the change of status.) This interrupt option along with internal pull-up
resistors makes it easier to solve common problems we find in practice
like for instance that of matrix keyboard. If rows on the keyboard are
connected to these pins, each push on a key will then cause an interrupt.
A microcontroller will determine which key is at hand while processing an
interrupt It is not recommended to refer to port B at the same time that
interrupt is being processed
PORTA and TRISA
PORTA has 5 adjoining pins. The corresponding register for data direction
is TRISA at address 85h. Like with port B, setting a bit in TRISA register
defines also the corresponding port pin as input, and clearing a bit in
TRISA register defines the corresponding port pin as output.
It is important to note that PORTA pin RA4 can be input only. On that pin
is also situated an external input for timer TMR0. Whether RA4 will be a
standard input or an input for a counter depends on T0CS bit (TMR0
Clock Source Select bit). This pin enables the timer TMR0 to increment
either from internal oscillator or via external impulses on RA4/T0CKI pin.
Memory organization
PIC16F73 has two separate memory blocks, one for data and the other for
program. EEPROM memory with GPR and SFR registers in RAM memory
make up the data block, while FLASH memory makes up the program
block.
Program memory
Program memory has been carried out in FLASH technology which makes
it possible to program a microcontroller many times before it's installed
into a device, and even after its installment if eventual changes in
program or process parameters should occur. The size of program
memory is 1024 locations with 14 bits width where locations zero and
four are reserved for reset and interrupt vector.
Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to

direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many
uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio
signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes,
mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to

AC) is known as an inverter.
Bridge full wave rectifier:
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.8, which

converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac
voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has
four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to
the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is
connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes

D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state.
The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and
hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2

and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes
D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Input Output
Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes
DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number

of DB107. In our project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier.
The picture of DB 107 is shown below
CHAPTER-5
5. FLOW CHART
Start
Get the Load Current &

voltage
Calculate the Load Power

Factor & Display it
YES Switch on 4
If P.f < 0.71
Capacitors
NO
If P.f <= 0.71 YES Switch on 3

& > 0.89 Capacitors
NO
If P.f <= 0.89 YES

Switch on 2
& > 0.97 Capacitors
NO
If P.f <= 0.97 YES Switch on 1

&>1 Capacitor
NO
Wait For Some Time 60 sec
Get the Load Current
Is there
YES any change NO
in Load
current
CHAPTER-6
6.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
This circuit consists of DC power supply unit, zero voltage crossing

detectors, Micro-controller, LCD display, Relays and Capacitor bank and
Load circuit. Let us see how it operates. The required DC power supply for
Micro-controller and other peripherals is supplied by the DC power supply.
For the calculation of the power factor by the Micro-controller we

need digitized voltage and current signals. The voltage signal from the
mains is taken and it is converted into pulsating DC by bridge rectifier and
is given to a comparator which generates the digital voltage signal.
Similarly the current signal is converted into the voltage signal by taking
the voltage drop of the load current across a resistor of 10 ohms. This A.C
signal is again converted into the digital signal as done for the voltage
signal. Then these digitized voltage and current signals are sent to the
micro-controller. The micro-controller calculates the time difference

between the zero crossing points of current and voltage, which is directly
proportional to the power factor and it determines the range in which the
power factor is. Micro-controller sends information regarding time
difference between current and voltage and power factor to the LCD display
to display them, Depending on the range it sends the signals to the relays
through the relay driver. Then the required number of capacitors are
connected in parallel to the load. By this the power factor will be improved.
CONCLUSION
So, by using the Automatic Power Factor Improvement module we

can efficiently improve the power factor for variable inductive loads,
improving the life span of equipment and reducing power bills
In this automatic power factor correction system, we are using
potential divider circuits instead of traditional zero crossing detector
which gives a more stable power factor and the price also get cut down
because we do not need to use IC’s
Care should b taken for overcorrection otherwise the voltage and
current becomes more due to which the power system becomes unstable
and the life of capacitor banks reduces
REFERENCES
1. An Introduction to Embedded Systems Florian Lechner, Daniel
Walter [email protected], [email protected] November 8,
2006 .
2. www.britanica.com
3. www.howstuffworks.com
4. What is Reactive Power? Peter W. Sauer Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign September 16, 2003
5. Electric Power Systems by S.L.Uppal.
6. Utilization of Electric Power and Electric Traction by J.B.Gupta.

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AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION USING CAPACITIVE BANK

Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are

As such, power factor correction through the application of

A number of manufacturers have catalogs and design manuals to

1.1. What is Electric Power?

Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is

In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as

Power triangle the components of AC power

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent

(apparent power)2 = (real power)2 + (reactive power)2

(real power) = (apparent power) * cos(Ө)

1.2. Significance of reactive power

Waveform of Reactive power

 The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio

Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy,

The devices for correction of power factor may be at a central

When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive,

KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real

KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment

KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.

Let s look at a simple analogy in order to better understand these

The beer analogy for AC Power

Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of Working Power to Apparent Power.

horizontal (he would get a tremendous backache), so his shoulder height

2.1 EFFECTS OF LOW POWER FACTOR

 Consider an alternator (single phase), having full load rated capacity of

 Although the alternator is fully loaded i.e., developing its maximum

generation and the transmission. That is the reason why supply

2.2 DISADVANTAGES WITH LOW POWER FACTOR

 Effect on transmission lines: For the same power to be

 Effect on Transformers: For decreased power factor, the kW

 Effect on Switchgear and Bus bars: The cross-sectional area of

 Effect on Prime Movers: When the power factor is decreased the

Working at low power factors also decreases the efficiency of prime

2.3 ADVANTAGES OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

 The kW capacity of the prime movers is better utilized.

2.4 METHODS OF IMPROVING POWER FACTOR

With the use of capacitors:

With the help of a synchronous condenser: The synchronous

Phase Advancers: These are special commutator machines which

 Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.

 Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.

 Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient

2.5 LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Power factor improvement apparatus should always be located near

NEAR THE SOURCE -- MORE LOSSES

Location of power factor apparatus near the source

NEAR THE LOAD --- LESS LOSSES

Location of power factor apparatus near the Load

 Varying power demand on the supply system.

3.1 Benefits of APFC

 Consistently high power factor under fluctuating loads

3.2 PROBLEMS RELATED TO POWER FACTOR

Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose

• Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used

• Embedded system must meet timing & other constraints imposed

HARD REAL TIME SYSTEMS

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTOR