AUTOMATIC BRAKING

SYSTEM
In this project we show the concept of auto braking system. In this system we use

one sensor base technology. When vehicle move on the road and in the case of

sudden braking sensor sense the obstruction and immediately offer a braking

system.

We attach this ABS system with any type of braking system either hydraulic

system or induction braking. In this concept we use one photo sensor with infra-

red light. Infra-red light transmits the signal in the air and if there is any

obstruction then this light is reflected from the object to the photo sensor and

further circuit is on automatically.

In the transmitter components we use infra-red led as a transmitter and

photodiode as a receiver. This photodiode is connected to the IC 555.

IC 555 is an 8-pin monostable timer IC. Photodiode is connected to the pin no. 2

directly. When pin no 2 become more negative then IC 555 provides an output to

the pin no 3. Pin no 4 and 8 is connected to the positive supply. For this purpose,

we use 5 Volt regulated power supply for the IC. For the 5-volt regulated power

supply we use IC 7805 regulator to provide a 5-volt regulation. Output of the IC

555 is connected to the H bridge circuit through 2 optocoupler components.

optocoupler is a 4 pin IC with 2 pins on either side. In this optocoupler there is

one input led and one photodiode in the other side. Optocoupler provide an

isolation between the input and output circuit through the optical isolation circuit.

DC motor is controlled by the ‘H’ Bridge circuit. H Bridge is a combination of

four transistors circuit. In the H Bridge two transistors are NPN and two

transistors are PNP transistor. With the help of these four transistors we control

the direction of the dc motor automatically.

Working of Infra-Red transmitter and receiver circuit

Photo Transistor
A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a normal bipolar transistor

that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the Base-Collector

diode. The phototransistor works like a photodiode, but with a much higher

sensitivity for light, because the electrons that tunnel through the Base-Collector

diode are amplified by the transistor function.

Phototransistors are specially designed transistors with the base region exposed.

These transistors are light sensitive, especially when infrared source of light is

used. They have only two leads (collector and emitter). When there is no light the

phototransistor is closed and does not allow a collector-emitter current to go

through. The phototransistor opens only with the presence of sufficient light

An auto electronic device that conducts current when exposed to light is the

PHOTOTRANSISTOR. A phototransistor, however, is much more sensitive to

light and produces more output current for a given light intensity that does a

photodiode. There are different types of phototransistor, which is made by placing

a photodiode in the base circuit of an NPN transistor. Light falling on the

photodiode changes the base current of the transistor, causing the collector

current to be amplified. Phototransistors may also be of the PNP type, with the

photodiode placed in the base-collector circuit.

Phototransistors may be of the two-terminal type, in which the light intensity on

the photodiode alone determines the amount of conduction. They may also be of

the three-terminal type, which have an added base lead that allows an electrical

bias to be applied to the base. The bias allows an optimum transistor conduction

level, and thus compensates for ambient (normal room) light intensity.

DC GEAR MOTOR.
The two types of motors that you are likely to use in robotic adventure are DC

motors and RC servo motors. The most common motor for robotics is the DC

gear motor, which works by gearing down a fast Dc motor to make the motor turn

at a slower speed and give the motor a higher torque suitable for robot

locomotion.

A DC gear motor is basically a regular DC motor with a special gear box attached

to the output shaft. Your robot electrical drive circuitry can control the dc gear

motor to rotate the wheels of your robot for locomotion.

You can get a DC motor without a gear head, but generally these are too fast
(around 15,000 RPM). For a robot to move at a reasonable rate you have to
gear down a DC motor to about 30 to 80 RPM . When DC motor is geared
down, you get a slower speed and plenty of torque.
 ‘H’ BRIDGE CIRCUIT
One of the most popular motor controller circuits is an H bridge circuit. An
H bridge circuit turns a motor on and off, allows a computer or processor to
control a motor’s direction and regulate speed, and may even provide a
breaking mechanism. A dc gear motor’s rotation direction is usually
controlled with an H bridge circuit.
A processor can not control a motor directly for a several reasons. First, a
computer doesn’t output enough power to drive a motor. Second, a
computer cannot control direction because it has only outputs. Third, motors
are noisy electrically speaking, and would quickly damage a computer.
Essentially, the computer sends, signals to the H Bridge to tell it to go
forward, reverse, brake or add speed. The H Bridge then steps up the voltage
and power for the motor. The H Bridge circuits also isolate the computer or
processor from destructive voltage spikes and noise, which arise mainly
from motors. In addition to using an H bridge circuit, you might want to
have two sets of batteries: one for your electronics and another for your
motors.
 REGENERATIVE
BRAKES

Regenerative brakes

A Regenerative brake is a mechanism that reduces vehicle speed by converting

some of its kinetic energy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is then

stored for future use or fed back into a power system for use by other vehicles.

Regenerative brakes in electric railway vehicles feed the generated electricity

back into the supply system. In battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the

energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use.

Regenerative braking should not be confused with dynamic braking, which

dissipates the electrical energy as heat.

Traditional friction-based braking is still used with regenerative braking for the

following reasons:

 The regenerative braking effect rapidly reduces at lower speeds.

 The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either

the capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of

charge of the battery or capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can

occur if another electric vehicle on the same supply system is not currently
 drawing power or if the battery or capacitors are already charged. For this

reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the

excess energy.

 For these reasons there is typically the need to control the Regenerative

Braking and to match the friction braking and Regenerative braking to

produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was the first

commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik

were issued 2 patents for this 'Brake by Wire' technology.

 MOTOR AS A BRAKE
Regenerative braking utilizes the fact that an electric motor can also act as

a generator. The vehicle's electric traction motor is reconnected as a generator

during braking and its output is connected to an electrical load. It is this load on

the motor that provides the braking effect.

An early example of this system was the Energy Regeneration Brake, developed

in 1967 for the Amitron. This was a completely battery powered urban concept

car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative braking, thus increasing the

range of the automobile

Electric railway vehicle operation

During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into

electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction

generator (MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG

now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn

the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators. Either sending the

generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the

supply (regenerative braking) provides the braking load.

When rail operator c2c's began using regenerative braking with a fleet

of Bombardier Class 357 EMUs, monitoring over the first two weeks showed an

immediate energy saving of 15%. Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin

Trains Pendolinos.[4] There is also less wear on friction braking components.

For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during

braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor

exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from the rolling direction.

Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field

windings, times that of the armature windings.

Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes

Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes,

dissipate the electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of

variable resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-

electric locomotives and streetcars. If designed appropriately, this heat can be

used to warm the vehicle interior. If dissipated externally, large radiator-like

cowls are employed to house the resistor banks.

The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic

brakes is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply

characteristics. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely

controlled. Only with the development of power electronics has this been possible

with AC supplies, where the supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly

applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors).

A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-

phase induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the

motors rotate with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking.
Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact.

It is not a fundamental force, as it is derived from electromagnetic

forces between atoms. When contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the

friction between the two objects converts kinetic energy into thermal energy,

or heat. Friction between solid objects is often referred to as Dry Friction and

frictional forces between two fluids (gases or liquids) as Fluid Friction. In

addition to these there is also Internal Friction which illustrates a body's ability to

recover from external deformantion. Contrary to popular belief, sliding friction is

not caused by surface roughness, but by chemical bonding between the

surfaces.[1]

Classical approximation

The classical approximation of the force of friction between two solid surfaces is

known as Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. The

equation is:

F= μR

where,

μ is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of

the contacting materials,

N is the normal force exerted between the surfaces, and

Ff is either the force exerted by friction, or, in the case of equality, the maximum

possible magnitude of this force.

For surfaces in relative motion, μ is the coefficient of kinetic friction (see below),

the Coulomb friction is equal to Ff, and the frictional force on each surface is

exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.

For surfaces at rest relative to each other, μ is the coefficient of static

friction (generally larger than its kinetic counterpart), the Coulomb friction may

take any value from zero up to Ff, and the direction of the frictional force against

a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence

of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be

in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending

to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual

frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this

force, above which sliding would commence.

This approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces

are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that

this contact area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes

place when all area is in atomic contact), and that frictional force is proportional

to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area (you can see the

experiments on friction from Leonardo Da Vinci). Such reasoning aside,

however, the approximation is fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a

rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated

physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and

versatility – though in general the relationship between normal force and

frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely
independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is

an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems.

 Coefficient of friction

The coefficient of friction (also known as the frictional coefficient) is a

dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction

between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of

friction depends on the materials used – for example, ice on steel has a low

coefficient of friction (the two materials slide past each other easily), while rubber

on pavement has a high coefficient of friction (the materials do not slide past each

other easily). Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one -

under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7.

When the surfaces are adhesive, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor

approximation (for example, Scotch tape resists sliding even when there is no

normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may

depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive in this

way.

The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for

kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two

surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic

force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels

of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did

not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the

pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they

oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement – it has to be

measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher

surfaces tend to have higher values. Most dry materials in combination have

friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are

rarer, but Teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of

zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property – even Magnetic

levitation vehicles have drag. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield

friction coefficients from 1.0 to 2.

Types of friction

 Static friction

Static friction occurs when the two objects are not moving relative to each other

(like a rock on a table). The coefficient of static friction is typically denoted as μs.
The initial force to get an object moving is often dominated by static friction. The

static friction is in most cases higher than the kinetic friction. Rolling

friction occurs when one object "rolls" on another (like a car's wheels on the

ground). This is classified under static friction because the patch of the tire in

contact with the ground, at any point while the tire spins, is stationary relative to

the ground. The coefficient of rolling friction is typically denoted as μr.

Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction, equal to the force

applied to a body on the verge of motion across a surface.

 Kinetic friction

Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each

other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic

friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually less than the coefficient of static

friction. From the mathematical point of view, however, the difference between

static and kinetic friction is of minor importance: Let us have a coefficient of

friction which depends on the sliding velocity and is such that its value at 0 (the

static friction μs ) is the limit of the kinetic friction μk for the velocity tending to

zero. Then a solution of the contact problem with such Coulomb friction solves

also the problem with the original μk and any static friction greater than that limit.

Since friction is exerted in a direction that opposes movement, kinetic friction

usually does negative work, typically slowing something down. There are

exceptions however, if the surface itself is under acceleration. One can see this

by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the
 box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the floor.

Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same

direction that the box moves, doing positive work.

Examples of kinetic friction:

 Sliding friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting

a book flat on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction

 Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid

or a gas. The drag of air on an airplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples

of fluid friction.

 Rolling friction

Rolling friction is the frictional force associated with the rotational movement of

a disc or other circular objects along a surface. Generally the frictional force of

rolling friction is less than that associated with kinetic friction.[2] Typical values

for the coefficient of rolling friction are .001. [3] One of the most common

examples of rolling friction is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a roadway,

a process which generates heat and sound as bi-products.

REDUCING FRICTION

 Devices
Devices such as tires, ball bearings or roller bearing can change sliding friction

into a much smaller type of rolling friction. Many thermoplastic materials such

as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used for low friction bearings. They

are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing

imposed load.

 Techniques

One technique used by railroad engineers is to back up the train to create slack in

the linkages between cars. This allows the train engine to pull forward and only

take on the static friction of one car at a time, instead of all cars at once, thus

spreading the static frictional force out over time.

 Lubricants

A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or

grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening

the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is

called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the

application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is

the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero

levels (a very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated).

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or

powdery solids such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses

sound as a lubricant.
 ENERGY OF FRICTION

According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to

friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed

from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest due to friction as

its kinetic energy changes into heat. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early

philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose

energy without a driving force.

Physical deformation is associated with friction. While this can be beneficial, as

in polishing, it is often a problem, as the materials are worn away, and may no

longer hold the specified tolerances.

The work done by friction can translate into deformation and heat that in the

long run may affect the surface's specification and the coefficient of friction

itself. Friction can in some cases cause solid materials to melt.

 STEPPER
MOTORS
WHERE WE FIND STEPPER MOTORS??

Stepper motors can be found in almost any piece of electro-mechanical

equipment. From my personal experiences, good sources for stepper motors

include:

 Surplus dot-matrix printers

If you find one of these at a swap meet, surplus store, or garage sale for a good

price, buy it! They usually contain at least 2 motors, sometimes with optical

shaft encoders attached to the motors! Also a good source for matching gears

and toothed belts. As a general rule, larger printers will have larger, more

powerful stepper motors in them.

 Old floppy disk drives

These usually contain at least 1 stepper motor, and if you're fortunate, possibly a

driver IC that can be salvaged and re-used in your own projects. Along with the

motor you will get some optical interrupter units used by the drive to sense the

state of the write-protect tabs and to index the disk.

 Surplus stores

These places buy surplus from others and sell it to the public, often at great

prices. The average price for a small to medium stepper motor is usually around

$5.00.

 Mail Order Companies

You can find surplus motors or even new, packaged units. Naturally the new

units are going to cost more, but this may save time and money if you're

building equipment with the motors that will be used at more than a "hobby"

level. For general tinkering and small scale robotics, used motors will work just

fine.

HOW STEPPER MOTORS WORK??

We experimented with free-spinning DC motors. DC motors have a very

gradual acceleration and deceleration curves; stabilization is slow. Adding

gearing to the motor will help to reduce this problem, but overshoot is still

present and will throw off the anticipated stop position. The only way to

effectively use a DC motor for precise positioning is to use a servo. Servos

usually implement a small DC motor, a feedback mechanism (usually a

potentiometer with attached to the shaft by gearing or other means), and a

control circuit which compares the position of the motor with the desired

position, and moves the motor accordingly. This can get fairly complex and

expensive for most hobby applications.

Stepper motors, however, behave differently than standard DC motors. First of

all, they cannot run freely by themselves. Stepper motors do as their name

suggests -- they "step" a little bit at a time. Stepper motors also differ from DC

motors in their torque-speed relationship. DC motors generally are not very

good at producing high torque at low speeds, without the aid of a gearing

mechanism. Stepper motors, on the other hand, work in the opposite manner.

They produce the highest torque at low speeds. Stepper motors also have

another characteristic, holding torque, which is not present in DC motors.

Holding torque allows a stepper motor to hold its position firmly when not

turning. This can be useful for applications where the motor may be starting and

stopping, while the force acting against the motor remains present. This

eliminates the need for a mechanical brake mechanism. Steppers don't simply

respond to a clock signal, they have several windings which need to be

energized in the correct sequence before the motor's shaft will rotate. Reversing

the order of the sequence will cause the motor to rotate the other way. If the

control signals are not sent in the correct order, the motor will not turn properly.

It may simply buzz and not move, or it may actually turn, but in a rough or

jerky manner. A circuit which is responsible for converting step and direction

signals into winding energy patterns is called a translator. Most stepper motor

control systems include a driver in addition to the translator, to handle the

current drawn by the motor's windings.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPPER MOTORS

Stepper Motor Characteristics

A stepper motor generates excellent torque at low speed, and falls rapidly as it

speeds up. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers

and increasing the driving voltage -- the best performing drive systems use line

voltages.

Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends

to snap the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can become very

bad at some speeds, and can cause the motor to lose torque. The effect can be

mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speed range, physically

dampening the system, or using a micro-stepping driver. Motors with greater

number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with fewer phases.

Fundamentals of Operation

Stepper motors operate much differently from normal DC motors, which simply

spin when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand,

effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central

metal gear, as shown at right. The electromagnets are energized by an external

control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first one

electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically

attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to
the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So

when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear

rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is

repeated.Each of those slight rotations is called a "step." In that way, the motor

can be turned a precise angle. There are two basic arrangements for the

electromagnetic coils: bipolar and unipolar.

Open Loop vs. Closed Loop Commutation

Steppers are generally commutated open loop, ie. the driver has no feedback on

where the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over

engineered, especially if the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load,

so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused

the system designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but

expensive servo system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.

A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback

(eg. an encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be made optimal for

torque generation according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor

into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with exceptional low speed torque

and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the motor

in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error
 becomes too large -- this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a

common servo problem.

Stepper motors are not just rated by voltage. The following elements

characterize a given stepper motor:

 Voltage

Stepper motors usually have a voltage rating. This is either printed directly on the

unit, or is specified in the motor's datasheet. Exceeding the rated voltage is

sometimes necessary to obtain the desired torque from a given motor, but doing

so may produce excessive heat and/or shorten the life of the motor.

 Resistance

Resistance-per-winding is another characteristic of a stepper motor. This

resistance will determine current draw of the motor, as well as affect the motor's

torque curve and maximum operating speed.

 Degrees per step

This is often the most important factor in choosing a stepper motor for a given

application. This factor specifies the number of degrees the shaft will rotate for

each full step. Half step operation of the motor will double the number of

steps/revolution, and cut the degrees-per-step in half. For unmarked motors, it is

often possible to carefully count, by hand, the number of steps per revolution of

the motor. The degrees per step can be calculated by dividing 360 by the

number of steps in 1 complete revolution Common degree/step numbers

include: 0.72, 1.8, 3.6, 7.5, 15, and even 90. Degrees per step is often referred to

as the resolution of the motor. As in the case of an unmarked motor, if a motor

has only the number of steps/revolution printed on it, dividing 360 by this

number will yield the degree/step value.

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS:

Stepper motors fall into two basic categories: Permanent magnet and

variable reluctance. The type of motor determines the type of drivers, and the

type of translator used. Of the permanent magnet stepper motors, there are

several "subflavors" available. These include the Unipolar, Bipolar, and

Multiphase varieties.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motors

Unipolar Stepper Motors

Unipolar motors are relatively easy to control. A simple 1-of-'n' counter circuit

can generate the proper stepping sequence, and drivers as simple as 1 transistor

per winding are possible with unipolar motors. Unipolar stepper motors are

characterized by their center-tapped windings. A common wiring scheme is to

take all the taps of the center-tapped windings and feed them +MV (Motor

voltage). The driver circuit would then ground each winding to energize it.

Unipolar stepper motors are recognized by their center-tapped windings. The

number of phases is twice the number of coils, since each coil is divided in two.

So the diagram below (Figure 3.1), which has two center-tapped coils, represents

the connection of a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor.

In addition to the standard drive sequence, high-torque and half-step drive

sequences are also possible. In the high-torque sequence, two windings are active

at a time for each motor step. This two-winding combination yields around 1.5

times more torque than the standard sequence, but it draws twice the current.

Half-stepping is achieved by combining the two sequences. First, one of the

windings is activated, then two, then one, etc. This effectively doubles the number

of steps the motor will advance for each revolution of the shaft, and it cuts the

number of degrees per step in half.

Bipolar Stepper Motors

Unlike unipolar stepper motors, Bipolar units require more complex driver

circuitry. Bipolar motorsare known for their excellent size/torque ratio, and

provide more torque for their size than unipolar motors. Bipolar motors are

designed with separate coils that need to be driven in either direction (the polarity

needs to be reversed during operation) for proper stepping to occur. This presents

a driver challenge. Bipolar stepper motors use the same binary drive pattern as a

unipolar motor, only the '0' and '1' signals correspond to the polarity of the voltage

applied to the coils, not simply 'on-off' signals. Figure 5.1 shows a basic 4-phase

bipolar motor's coil setup and drive sequence.

H-BRIDGE CIRCUIT

A circuit known as an "H-bridge" (shown below) is used to drive Bipolar stepper

motors. Each coil of the stepper motor needs its own H-bridge driver circuit.

Typical bipolar steppers have 4 leads, connected to two isolated coils in the

motor. ICs specifically designed to drive bipolar steppers (or DC motors) are

available (Popular are the L297/298 series from ST Microelectronics, and the

LMD18T245 from National Semiconductor). Usually these IC modules only

contain a single H-bridge circuit inside of them, so two of them are required for

driving a single bipolar motor. One problem with the basic (transistor) H-bridge

circuit is that with a certain combination of input values (both '1's) the result is

that the power supply feeding the motor becomes shorted by the transistors. This

could cause a situation where the transistors and/or power supply may be

destroyed. A small XOR logic circuit was added in figure 6.1 to keep both inputs

from being seen as '1's by the transistors.

Another characteristic of H-bridge circuits is that they have electrical "brakes"

that can be applied to slow or even stop the motor from spinning freely when not

moving under control by the driver circuit. This is accomplished by essentially

shorting the coil(s) of the motor together, causing any voltage produced in the

coils by during rotation to "fold back" on itself and make the shaft difficult to

turn. The faster the shaft is made to turn, the more the electrical "brakes" tighten.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors
Sometimes referred to as Hybrid motors, variable reluctance stepper motors are

the simplest to control over other types of stepper motors. Their drive sequence

is simply to energize each of the windings in order, one after the other (see

drive pattern table below) This type of stepper

motor will often have only one lead, which is the common lead for all the

other leads. This type of motor feels like a DC motor when the shaft is spun by

hand; it turns freely and you cannot feel the steps. This type of stepper motor is

not permanently magnetized like its unipolar and bipolar counterparts.

There are several standard stepper motor translation circuits which use discrete

logic ICs. Below you will find yet another one of these. The circuit in Figure

10.1 has not been tested but theoretically should work without problems.

WORKING OF STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL

CIRCUIT

In this project when we interface the data from the computer then firstly we

interface the circuit with the optocoupler. In optocoupler circuit we use ic 817

optocoupler. Here we use four optocoupler with this circuit. Output of the

optpcoupler is negative. So to convert this negative output to the positive we use

one inverter ic. In this project we use ic 4049 as a inverter. Pin no 3,5,7,9,11 is

the input pin and pin no 2,4,6,10, 12 is the output pin. . from the output pin we

interface the transistor circuit. Here we use NPN transistor. Emitter of the NPN
transistor is connected to the negative voltage. Collector of the NPN transistor is

connected to the coil of the stepper motor . Here we use total four transistor’s .

collector of the transistor is connected to the each coil of the stepper motor.
ELECTRONICS
PART OF
SYSTEM
WORKING OF INFRA RED TRANSMITTER AND RECIEVER
CIRCUIT
Photo Transistor
A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a normal bipolar transistor

that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the Base-Collector

diode. The phototransistor works like a photodiode, but with a much higher

sensitivity for light, because the electrons that tunnel through the Base-Collector

diode are amplified by the transistor function.

Phototransistors are specially designed transistors with the base region exposed.

These transistors are light sensitive, especially when infrared source of light is

used. They have only two leads (collector and emitter). When there is no light the

phototransistor is closed and does not allow a collector-emitter current to go

through. The phototransistor opens only with the presence of sufficient light

An auto electronic device that conducts current when exposed to light is the

PHOTOTRANSISTOR. A phototransistor, however, is much more sensitive to

light and produces more output current for a given light intensity that does a

photodiode. Figure 3-32 shows one type of phototransistor, which is made by

placing a photodiode in the base circuit of an NPN transistor. Light falling on the

photodiode changes the base current of the transistor, causing the collector

current to be amplified. Phototransistors may also be of the PNP type, with the

photodiode placed in the base-collector circuit.

Applications
Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than

visible light, but shorter than microwave radiation. The name means "below red"

(from the Latin infra, "below"), red being the color of visible light of longest

wavelength. Infrared radiation has wavelengths between 700 nm and 1 mm.

IR is often subdivided into near-IR (NIR, 0.7-5 µm in wavelength), mid-IR (MIR

(also intermediate-IR (IIR)), 5 - 30 µm) and far-IR (FIR, 30 - 1000 µm). However,

these terms are not precise, and are used differently in the various study. Infrared

radiation is often linked to heat, since objects at room temperature or above will

emit radiation mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band

Uses

Infrared is used in night-vision equipment, when there is insufficient visible light

to see an object. The radiation is detected and turned into an image on a screen,

hotter objects showing up brighter, enabling the police and military to chase

targets.

Smoke is more transparent to infrared than to visible light, so fire fighters apply

infrared imaging equipment when working in smoke-filled areas.

A more common use of IR is in television remote controls. In this case it is
used in preference to radio waves because it does not interfere with the
television signal. IR data transmission is also employed in short-range
communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants.
These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared
Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a
plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on
and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert
the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly
pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing
infrared radiation from sunlight, people and other warm objects.

The light used in fiber optic communication is typically infrared.

Diode

A diode functions as the electronic version of a one-way valve. By restricting the

direction of movement of charge carriers, it allows an electric current to flow in

one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction.

Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent

monochromatic light when electrically biased in the forward direction. This effect

is a form of electroluminescence. The color depends on the semiconducting

material used, and can be near-ultraviolet, visible or infrared. Nick Holonyak Jr.

(1928 - ) developed the first practical visible-spectrum LED in 1962.

LED Technology
A LED is a special type of semiconductor diode. Like a normal diode, it consists

of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to

create a structure called a pn junction. Charge-carriers (electrons and holes) are

created by an electric current passing through the junction, and release energy in

the form of photons as they recombine. The wavelength of the light, and therefore

its colour, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the pn

junction. A normal diode, typically made of silicon or germanium, emits invisible

far-infrared light, but the materials used for a LED have band gap energies

corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

Conventional LEDs are made of inorganic minerals such as:

 aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) - red and infrared

 gallium arsenide/phosphide (GaAsP) - red, orange and yellow

 gallium nitride (GaN) - green

 gallium phosphide (GaP) - green

 zinc selenide (ZnSe) - blue

 indium gallium nitride (InGaN) - blue

 silicon carbide (SiC) - blue

 diamond (C) - ultraviolet

 silicon (Si) - under development

LED development began with infrared and red devices, and technological

advances have made possible the production of devices with ever shorter

wavelengths.
The semiconducting chip is encased in a solid plastic lens, which is much tougher

than the glass envelope of a traditional light bulb or tube. The plastic may be

coloured, but this is only for cosmetic reasons and does not affect the colour of

the light emitted.

 Why Use Phototransistors?

Phototransistors are solid-state light detectors that possess internal gain. This

makes them much more sensitive than photodiodes of comparably sized area.

These devices can be used to provide either an analog or digital output signal.

This family of detectors offers the following general characteristics and features:

 Low cost visible and near-IR photodetection

 Available with gains from 100 to over 100,000

 Moderately fast response times

 Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy coated, transfer

molded, cast, hermetic packages and in chip form

 Usable with almost any visible or near infrared light source such as LEDs,

neon, fluorescent, incandescent bulbs, laser, flame sources, sunlight, etc....

 Same general electrical characteristics as familiar signal transistors (except

that incident light replaces base drive current)

 Can be specially selected to meet the requirements of your particular

application

Why Use IREDs?

IRED's are solid state light sources which emit light in the near-IR part of the

spectrum. Because they emit at wavelengths which provide a close match to the

peak spectral response of silicon photodetectors both GaAs and GaAlAs LEDs
are often used with phototransistors and photodarlingtons. Key characteristics

and features of these light sources include:

 Long operating lifetimes

 Low power consumption, compatible with solid state electronics

 Narrow band of emitted wavelengths

 Minimal generation of heat

 Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy coated, transfer

molded, cast and hermetic packages

 Low cost

 Can be specially selected to meet the requirements of your particular

application

Applications

Phototransistors can be used as ambient light detectors. When used with a

controllable light source, typically and LED, they are often employed as the

detector element for optoisolators and transmissive or reflective optical switches.

Typical configurations include:

Optoisolator
The optoisolator is similar to a

transformer in that the output is

electrically isolated from the input.

Optical Switch

An object is detected when it enters the

gap of the optical switch and blocks the

light path between the emitter and

detector.

Retro Sensor
The retrosensor detects the presence of

an object by generating light and then

looking for its reflectance off of the

object to be sensed.

Computer/Business Equipment

 track zero detector - floppy

drive

 margin controls - printers

  read finger position - touch

screen

 detect holes - computer card

 monitor paper position - copiers

Consumer

 coin counters

 position sensors - joysticks

 remote controllers - toys,

appliances, audio/visual

equipment

 games - laser tag

Industrial

 LED light source - light pens

 security systems

 safety shields

 encoders - measure speed and

direction

Medical
  provide electrical isolation

between patient and equipment

 monitor intravenous injection

rates

Basic of the ic 555 as a monostable timer.

The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation

as the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the

very first and only commercial timer IC available. It provided circuit designers

and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated

circuit for both monostable and astable applications. Since this device was first

made commercially available, a myrad of novel and unique circuits have been

developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby publications.

The past ten years some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of

competition or other reasons. Yet other companies, like NTE (a subdivision of

Philips) picked up where some left off.

CAPACITOR
Capacitance is the property of opposition to a change in voltage. Capacitance has
the same reaction to voltage as the inductance has to the current. That is the
voltage across circuit increases. Capacitor will resist the change and if the
voltage applied to a circuit is decreased and try to maintain the original voltage.

The property of capacitor is to store charge and release. The storing capacity of
capacitor is depend upon the value of capacitor as defined in micro farad.

A basic capacitor consists of two conducting metal plates separated by a layer of

air or other insulating material. The insulating layer is called dilectric layer. All
capacitor have two plates and seperating layer. In practice the dilectric layer are
often staked and even rolled into compact form. The capacitor areas classified
by the name of dielectric, used in the particular:

1. Paper capacitor
2. Mica capacitor
3. Ceramic capacitor
4. Electrolytic capacitor

All electrolytic capacitors are above 1 micro farad. All electrolytic capacitor
having two legs one is positive and second is negative , bigger leg is positive and
smaller leg is negative.

RESISTANCE
The unit being ohm, the greater the ohmic value the greater is the opposition to
the flow of current causes. The heating effect and causes a loss of electrical
energy in the form of heat energy, greater the ohmic value greater the loss.

Types of Resistance

1. Fixed value
2. Variable value
Normally fixed type of resistance are carbon resistance value of resistance in ohm
printed on the body of resistance in colour code.

TRANSISTOR
Transistor are tiny semiconductor device that provide current amplification. A
transistor has three leads indentified as emitter Base and collector. A small
current to say 1mA flowing between base and emitter produce a large current of
100ma or more in the widely used as a current amplifier circuit transistor are also
very useful in switching circuit.

We use normally two type of transistor one is NPN and second in PNP. In PNP
transistor conduction is conducting between emitter and collector with the help
of electron flow. In PNP transistor conduction is conducting between emitter and
collector with the help of holes.

We normally give a forward bias to the emitter point and reverse bias to the
collector point with the help of load resistance and for the base point. We give a
very low voltage by resistance or any other circuit control devices.
Working of
Complete
System
When any object comes in front of the vehicle, the IR rays emitted by LED are

reflected back to photo diode and also the radiations falling on photo diode faces

obstruction. This causes a negative pulse at the start of the IC resulting in its

actuation. Then the two autocouplers comes into act which generates a positive-

negative potential difference at meeting points of the ‘H’ Bridge terminals. This

potential difference starts the motor attached to the brakes.

Now at place of brake, a dynamo with a traction motor is fixed to generate

electrical energy by using the frictional energy generated during the application

of brakes. This energy can be directly used or it can also be stored in a battery for

future applications.
I.C. 555
The 555 timer IC was first introduced around 1971 by the Signetics Corporation

as the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the

very first and only commercial timer IC available. It provided circuit designers

and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated

circuit for both monostable and astable applications. Since this device was first

made commercially available, a myriad of novel and unique circuits have been

developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby publications.

The past ten years some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of

competition or other reasons. Yet other companies, like NTE (a subdivision of

Philips) picked up where some left off.

This primer is about this fantastic timer which is after 30 years still very

popular and used in many schematics. Although these days the CMOS version

of this IC, like the Motorola MC1455, is mostly used, the regular type is still

available, however there have been many improvements and variations in the

circuitry. But all types are pin-for-pin plug compatible. Myself, every time I see

this 555 timer used in advanced and high-tech electronic circuits, I'm amazed. It

is just incredible.

In this tutorial I will show you what exactly the 555 timer is and how to

properly use it by itself or in combination with other solid state devices without

the requirement of an engineering degree. This timer uses a maze of transistors,

diodes and resistors and for this complex reason I will use a more simplified
 (but accurate) block diagram to explain the internal organizations of the 555.

So, lets start slowly and build it up from there.

The 555, in fig. 1 and fig. 2 above, come in two packages, either the round metal-

can called the 'T' package or the more familiar 8-pin DIP 'V' package. About 20-

years ago the metal-can type was pretty much the standard (SE/NE types). The

556 timer is a dual 555 version and comes in a 14-pin DIP package, the 558 is a

quad version with four 555's also in a 14 pin DIP case.

The supply current, when the output is 'high', is typically 1mA or less. The initial

monostable timing accuracy is typically within 1% of its calculated value, and

exhibits negligible (0.1% / V) drift with supply voltage. Thus long-term supply

variations can be ignored, and the temperature variation is only 50ppm / °C

(0.005% / °C).

All IC timers rely upon an external capacitor to determine the off-on time

intervals of the output pulses. As you recall from your study of basic electronics,

it takes a finite period of time for a capacitor (C) to charge or discharge through

a resistor (R). Those times are clearly defined and can be calculated given the

values of resistance and capacitance.

The basic RC charging circuit is shown in fig. 4. Assume that the capacitor is

initially discharged. When the switch is closed, the capacitor begins to charge

through the resistor. The voltage across the capacitor rises from zero up to the

value of the applied DC voltage. The charge curve for the circuit is shown in fig.
6. The time that it takes for the capacitor to charge to 63.7% of the applied voltage

is known as the time constant (t).

That time can be calculated with the simple expression:

t=RXC

Assume a resistor value of 1 MegaOhm and a capacitor value of 1uF (micro-

Farad). The time constant in that case is:

t = 1,000,000 X 0.000001 = 1 second

Assume further that the applied voltage is 6 volts. That means that it will take one

time constant for the voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the applied

voltage. Therefore, the capacitor charges to approximately 3.8 volts in one

second.

Fig. 4-1, Change in the input pulse frequency allows completion of the timing

cycle. As a general rule, the monostable 'ON' time is set approximately 1/3 longer

than the expected time between triggering pulses. Such a circuit is also known as

a'Missing Pulse Detector'.

Operating Modes
The 555 timer has two basic operational modes: one shot and astable. In the

one-shot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator. A monostable is

said to have a single stable state--that is the off state. Whenever it is triggered

by an input pulse, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in

that state for a period of time determined by an RC network. It then returns to

its stable state. In other words, the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of

a fixed time duration each time it receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the

name one-shot. One-shot multivibrators are used for turning some circuit or

external component on or off for a specific length of time. It is also used to

generate delays. When multiple one-shots are cascaded, a variety of sequential

timing pulses can be generated. Those pulses will allow you to time and

sequence a number of related operations. The other basic operational mode of

the 555 is as and astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator is simply and

oscillator. The astable multivibrator generates a continuous stream of

rectangular off-on pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The frequency

of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent upon the RC network values.
 PRECAUTIONS

1. Mount the components at the appropriete places before soldering. Follow the
circuit discription and components details, leads identification etc. Do not start
soldering before making it confirm that all the component are mounted at the right
place.
2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.
3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.
4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you want it.
5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the
components or board.
6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry or a cold
joint.
7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sure abort the voltage either
do or ac while operating the gadget.
8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may short circuit
with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves at the components leads
or use sleeved wire for connections.
9. Do not use old dark colors solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all the joints
are clean and well shiny.10. Do make loose wire connections specially with cell
holder, speaker, probes etc. Put knots while connections to the circuit board,
otherwise it may get loose.
 ADVANTAGES
 This system can be installed at front of vehicle to prevent against ‘Head-On’

collision.

The two sensors installed detects the presence of a foreign object in front of

vehicle and applies the using the brake using an IC circuit.

 The response of this system is much higher than human response. So it

decreases the chances of accidents.

 It can be used as collision detection system in aircrafts, trains, etc.

 The regenerative braking system is used to produce electricity, which can be

used in brake lights and can be stored in batteries for horn and lighting.
 DISADVATAGES
 The dynamo installed at brake causes dis-balancing of vehicle.

 If this is not installed in all the vehicles on road it will not effectively reduce the

tendency of no-road accidents.

 APPLICATIONS

 In all on road vehicles like cars, tractors, busses, etc.

 In aero planes as collision detection system.

 In trains, but this system requires a large amount of space and expertise, as

large amount of power is required to apply brakes in trains. But in trains the

principle of regeneration is used at a very large scale.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. DIODE AND ITS APPLICATION - TURNER

2. ELECTRICITY AND GENERAL MAGNETISM - KEMP & YOUNG
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS - SUBRAHMANYAM AND
BRIJLAL.
4. BASIC RADIO (VOLUME - 5) - MARVIN TELER.
5. PHYSICS FUNDAMENTAL OF A B C - GUPTA
6. BASIC ELECTRONIC - T.T.T.I. CHANDIGARH