RESEARCH PROJECT

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
‘’DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ADVERTISEMENTS’’
SUBMITTED TO:
SIR WAJID

CLASS:
M.PHIL APPLIED LINGUISTICS (1)

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

Sargodha campus
 CONTENTS
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 LITERATURE REVIEW
 DEFINING ADVERTISEMENTS AS A GENRE
 METHODOLOGY
 PROCEDURE
 FAIRCLOUGH’S 3D MODEL
 KRESS AND VAN LEEUWEN’S MODEL OF
VISUAL DESIGN

 7 NON-PRODUCTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS
 6 PRODUCTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS
 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
 REFERENCES
Abstract
This study is related with the advertisements published in different aspects of hidden ideologies
and their effects which have significant role in showing the objectives of rules and regulations
of advertisements .Critical discourse analysis is a great field which have effects of socialization
and cultural elements .Socio political changes which are highly significant in to this aspect
.Research methodology which is a great tool to observe the aftermath effects of
advertisements .For data analysis and grammar of visual design which was represented by Kress
and Leeuwen is a clear source to observe the real and hidden meanings of advertisements .The
shifting of different ideologies from one comparative study to other study is severely affected
by the mental capabilities of human beings .This reflects the human mind’s capabilities
according to various contexts .The different socio and economical contexts which are
considered as indispensable commodity in varying the situational analysis .The conductivity of
different situational and analytical theories of different substances either these are imaginative
or none imaginative are just focused by the viewers .So we can say that FAIRCLOUGH’S model
of interpretation and explanation is highly valid in this context .So we have to focus in this
context by figuring out the situational contexts.

Introduction
Language is an essential part in human being’s life. These specific messages mostly aim to
persuade people to buy certain products or services. Language in advertising is very important
because it helps people to identify the product and remember it and it is not necessary that
advertisement is only for selling something but advertisement is used for conveying an
important message to the public and for imposing one’s ideology on other this type of
advertisement is often called non- product advertisement. In order to know the meaning, the
purpose, the message, and the implication behind the advertisement the structure and the
language of advertisement as well as the verbal sign and non-verbal sign of the advertisements
are analyzed. This study also includes the non-verbal advertisement along with verbal
advertisement and in this study we will focus on both product and non-product advertisement.

To find the ideologies and the certain objectives of different advertisements I have applied the
Fairclough’s model of critical discourse analysis .Fairclough has elaborated the different steps
which cover the features and elemental points of the advertisements .To elaborate the
systematic views of different ideologies in certain aspects there are some rules and regulations
which are highly accessive by a common discourse user .The emergence of advertising leads to
the previous age 1950 to 1960.From these agesit has been become a permanent field in the line
of discourse analysis .Advertising has been a subject in analyzing of advertising is of growing the
importance .To buy a special product discourse categories are very essential components
though it may be justified that these functions are somehow the main service of functioning the
discursive elements .For most people discourse plays a major role in showing off the hidden
ideologies of different categorical components of postmodernist approach .There are certain
types of advertisements which are productive and none productive .Productive advertisements
are very conscious about the earning of the money.

If we observe then we can say that discourse has been explained by GEE as ‘’language in use
with more socio politically oriented meaning’’.Fairclough’s model has described that it is’’ just a
particular form of social practice.

Literature Review
Advertising is very common in our society nowadays. These days it has changed into common
useful equipment through this equipment different companies persuade us to buy their
product. By using verbal, non-verbal signs and the tricky use of language force us to buy a
specific product because language is important part of our life either written or spoken form. In
advertising language uses as a tool to reach a specific message to the buyer and the purpose of
this is to make the people aware of something. Mostly the ads convey specific qualities of any
product but often ads are made to convey a very important message to the people. This may be
a serious message or may be to make aware of people for some very serious issue. It often
contains a lot of hidden meanings then advertisement often encourage, inform, misinform,
warn, amuse and many other functions. And now there is other side of coin is also present
there is also non-product advertisement the aim of this advertisement is to change the action/
behaviour of people. According to Wodak the purpose of CDA is to clear ideologically hidden
and often unclear structure of power, political control as well as strategies of discriminatory
inclusion and exclusion in language in use. We can define ideology as a set of beliefs, customs
and values which provide a restricted view about any specific society because ideology changes
from society to society. Van Dijk (1995: 17) remarks that “ideologies are typically, though not
exclusively, expressed and reproduced in discourse and communication, including non-verbal
semiotic messages, such as picture, photographs and movies.” every person has his/her own
ideology and every person is affected by his/her own ideology perspectives and he/she
perceives things according to his/her own ideology. And then a person who is advertising can
impose his/her ideology on the other people through advertising. From Hall's theory (1973) of
encoding/decoding we can explain this type of activity.

Fairclough (1989, 1992, 1995a, 1995b) gave a model for CDA which include three-dimensional
boxes. The inner box presents the text, the box in the middle presents the discourse practice,
and the outer box presents the socio-cultural practice. ‘’In the discourse of advertising, text
refers to the language itself. Context, on the other hand, is the setting in which the language is
used, such as substance or the physical material of the text, music and pictures, paralanguage,
situation, and co-text’’. Because CDA largely concerns language as social practice, it must take
into consideration the context of language use (Wodak, 2001). ‘’This is supported by Cook
(2001) who asserts that a study of language should always take context into account.
Accordingly, ad can be considered as a kind of discourse that in its center power and ideology
interact and can be used to express and impose one’s ideology’’. As a result CDA could be used
to analyze this type of discourse to show the hidden ideologies behind it.

Methodology
Models for analysis

• Fairclough’s 3D model.

• Kress and van Leeuwen’s grammar of visual design.

(a) Procedure:
Since the analysis is based on Fairclough’s 3D model and Kress and van Leeuwen’s grammar of
visual design, the procedure for each advertisement was as follow: at first each advertisement
was analyzed based on the three dimensions of Fairclough’s 3D model, i.e. description,
interpretation, and explanation; then based upon Kress and van Leeuwen’s model each
advertisement was analyzed. However, as mentioned, identifying the position of the producer
is not an easy task. As a result, finding the position of the producers of these advertisements
cannot be done. Therefore, only the position of the receiver was defined for each
advertisement.

Explanation of these two models:

(b) Fairclough‟s 3D Model:

For every discursive event Fairclough(2003) has elaborated 3 dimensions. Which are as follows:

• A spoken or written text

• A practice which is related with the production and interpretation of the text

• A piece of social practice:

(Inner square= 1st dimension, middle square= 2nd dimension, outer square= 3rd dimension)

By introducing Faircluogh’s concept of the interrelated three-dimensions of discourse JANKS

told the function of CDA as a research tool.The first dimension tells’’ the object of
analysis(including verbal,visual or visual and verbal texts’’). Text is the term is not only the
linguistic units of clauses and sentences. Text is of wide range including images,different
colours, Sounds ,signs etc.

The second dimension can be explained as the ‘’ process by which the object is produced and
received(writing,designing,redaing.listening.viewing etcby human subjects(JANKS,1997:26).This
will be done by questioning like ‘’ who are the producers? And what are their purposes to do
this sort of work?And finally the explanation of third dimension of discourse is this that we have
to find out the power behind the discourse’’or as social practices, because it is consisted of
some social behaviours and some social historical works and conditions that lead these
methods of production and reception.

Different type of analysis has to be conducted for each dimension:

• Text analysis or description is related to the first dimension.

• Processing of analysis and interpretation is related with the second dimension.

• Social analysis and explanation of the mentioned analysis is related with the third
dimension ofFirclough’s 3D model.

These all interpretation were given by JANKS. He explained this model according to the points
of Fairclough’s 3d model.He said that all dimensions are interdependent and it does not matter
of having the relation with different each other.
(c) Kress and Van Leeuwen‟s Grammar of Visual Design:
Like that of linguistic structure , grammar of visual design can be interpreted through analysis of
cues and signs that have individual meaning and may join together to create a larger layered
effect. By using different modes meaning is conveyed through design interpretation and
production.

Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) defined two components for visual discourse:

• Represented participants.

• Interactive participants.
Due to this, we can say that there are four main relations in the advertising discourse. These
relations mix with each other and are not completely separable.

• The first relation is concerend to the relations between the images (or between the
represented participants).

• The next two are concerned to the position of the producer and then the position of the
receiver towards the image.

• The last part is attached to these processes as a whole in social level.

So to elaborate and to show the results and system of presenting the ideologies we will discuss
some public advertisements here.We will check the ideology and way of presenting these
ideologies in certain ways.We ‘ll see that how productive and non-productive are being
presented and what are their influences on common public.
NON-PRODCUTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS

This is a highly focused non-productive advertisement according to the current political situation of
PAKISTAN.This is an advertisement to show the real face of a media institution of PAKISTAN.This
is some type of social awareness which was presented on social media some days before.The secret
behind a specific media group (GEO) is exposed in this advertisement.

The colour scheme used in this advertisement is also very interesting the man who is cutting is
highlighted by the word ‘’GEO’’ and black colour is the representation of axe and at the bottom
INDIAN flag with red arrow is present.This red coloured arrow is showing the dangerous secret
and it is revealing the facts.

If we notice then we can conclude that GEO is the responsible for all the anarchy and sectarianism
in PAKISTAN because if we check the image then we find that INDIA is the big supporter of GEO to
create violence between political institutions and army in PAKISTAN.There are three trees with
some words on them.Middle tree is wholly dominant over other two trees and it is showing the
reflection of whole PAKISTANI society in which religion culture,norms and values are included and
all these features are directly related to our solidarity.A man with an axe(GEO)is cutting the middle
dominant tree to ruin our identity and he(GEO) is performing this task with the support of INDIAN
intelligence agencies as shown in the figure.So we can say that this figure is a complete
representation of furious role of GEO.
The above image is shown very clearly.It is a non- productive advertisement and it has some
social meanings.This image is constructed on the road as a warning for the over speed vehicle
drivers.It has very significant meanings to understand its deepness.A man is shown in the figure
which is behind the prison rods, is a big symbol for the warning.

The real purpose of this warning is to alarm the harms of the over speed at this particular
point.It is also a strict warning for the people who show their violent nature at this point.Before
showing the prison there are some words like’’DON’T SPEED’’. This is the primary warning for
the drivers and after this the image of the prison is presented in case of violence.Besides this
there are some cars which are highly shown in a line.This image of cars is the representation of
next main road which is usually of great rush.This is also an alarming situation.

The colour scheme used in this advertisement is highly visible.The prison is highlighted with
white colour and the writing is of yellow color which depicts that before this point drivers
should stop.Different colors of cars show the different types of traffic.Inshort the purpose of
this non- productive advertisement is to create an awareness about the harms of overspeed
among the people.

This is also a non- productive advertisement presented by an organization related to water

sources of all over the world.This image is a highly constructed figure of arousing the mentality
of people towards the extinction of water sources.The figure is the good representation of
recently occurred water problems in all over the world.
A mirror jar with water and fish in it is shown in the figure.The volve which is attached outside
the jar is not fully closed due to some carelessness.Volve is excreting continuously water in the
form of drops.Though the plenty of excreting water is very less but it is a continuous process
and due to this carelessness the life of the fish in the jar is also finishing due to deficiency of
water.This shows that due to our non- serious attitude towards this great natural source,lives
are becoming very cheap.In the image there is written some words also like ‘’SAFE WATER SAFE
LIFE’’. These words show the direct relation between the water and life.

The colour scheme used in this advertisement is of very light dark and white colour.These light
colours show the dangerous situation towards our life.Fish is highlighted with the red and
yellow light colour.Which is very significant because the main focus of this advertisement is on
the life of all the living worlds.Inshort all the aspects of this advertisement are fabulous to
arouse the thinking pattern towards positive ways.

This non-productive advertisement is presented by a very popular and worldwide organization

‘’UNICEF’’. This image has very deep meanings in it.This advertisement is constructed to
promote the sense of a social family problem which is related to the small children.This very
meaningfull advertisement is a good representation of natural relations.

Natural features about the family life are shown in this figure.UNICEF is the organization of
disable and parentless children from all over the world.In the figure there is a child who is
standing between two statues in a shop and he is hoping these statues as his parents because
statutes are of both genders.If we ponder on thismeaningfull figure then we observe that this
is a natural process and no one can ignore this requirement. A parentless child feels a great
deficiency of these two major family aspects in his life.There are some words on the image
which are like ‘’EVERY CHILD NEEDS A FAMILY’’.These words are highly significant to promote
the idea of taking parentless children among the people.
The colour scheme is used in this advertisement is very fabulous. The above mentioned words
are written in the rough writing style to show the significant feature of this sentence.The capital
letter ‘’A’’ is the representation of mother and and ‘’I’’ is the depiction of father.Inshort the
purpose of this great social advertisement is to create a high status sense among the people of
elite class and also in common public.

A very conductive and non-productive advertisement is shown above.This advertisement was

presented by a world well known organization WWF. This organization is related to the world
wild life.Its has been doing work on the same task since last 30 years.The main focus of this
advertisement is to save the wild life.

Above figure is highlighted by constructing lungs shaped forest.Lungs are related with our
breathe and atmosphere and without these lungs our life finishes.Therefore the organization
has used this part to take our attention towards the safety of world wild life.The lung shaped
forest is badly effected and and its half part has been ruined.This sorrowfull condition depicts
that it is very dangerous for animals living in the focused forest so far as the next image is
concerned ,it is about the ‘’PANDA’’ which is very beautiful animal in this universe but due to
our carelessness towards these natural territories of animals,this very beautiful animal is in
dangerous condition of extinction.So this advertisement is an alarming situation.

The colour scheme used in this advertisement is mostly of three types.i.e green,brown and
white.Green colour is the representation of the natural territory of animals and brown shows
that this natural source of animal is now going towards the ‘’dead condition’’ and these sources
are finishing rapidly due to our ignorance and it is very pitiable condition for the animals and
besides this our atmosphere is also in danger due to the elimination of fresh oxygen
sources.Inshort it is a point to be highly focused by us.And if we ignore this then our natural
environment will be destroyed and a larger scale extinction will be occurred.
Above image is a non-productive advertisement related to our social awareness.This
advertisement was presented by a world best health organization ‘’W.H.O’’. This organization
has played a very important role for health awareness in all over the world.The main objective
of this organization is to create a sense of maintaining our natural health for our better
existence.The colour scheme used in this advertisement is very common.This colour has a great
resemblance to our cold drinks which are consisted of a large number of alcoholic products.The
basic purpose of this advertisement is to produce a positive sense among our young generation
to keep themselves away from these alcoholic products.The colour of line which is written with
its logo in the bottom of the picture,is a short term alarming sentence.The ideology which lies
in this advertisement is highly aimed.There is a young man inside the glass,who is being shown
as ‘’drowning’’ in this harmful drink.This represents the warning from the organization that
young people have got an addiction of such alcoholic products .So they should not use these
non-conductive products for the betterment of their health and life.So we can say that this
advertisement has great and sacred meaning in it according to the present

A worldwide problem which is spreading all over the world is the problem of un-safe driving
due to certain reasons.Among these reasons ‘’DRINKING’’is the major reasons for this harmful
condition and it is increasing day by day.Therefore an organization has constructed an
advertisement to convey a silent message to the common public.
The colour scheme is used in this advertisement shows all the events before and after the
driving with whisky.Bottle is covered with a clinical white strip due to wound and red colour is
the representation of the blood.If we focus on the line which is written below then we find that
last word ‘’RISKY’’ is fully written with red colour ink because red colour indicates the danger
and harm.

Above shown advertisement is a highly ideological figure of present age. We see that it has
become a fashion to drive a car after drinking.The basic purpose of this image is to show the
reality after driving with’’ WHISKY’’. A sentence which is written in bottom of the image is
‘’AFTER WHISKY,DRIVING RISKY’’ is the great depiction of the reality.When a man drinks and
drives a car then he becomes a very danger sign for himself and as well as for others.So it is a
good step when we construct such meaningful advertisements for the betterment of our social
evilnesses.

PRODUCTIVE ADVERTISEMENTS
Now we will discuss the same features of some productive advertisements.These
advertisements are wholly based on the purpose of earning the money.Different companies of
different products when want to sell their products,they construct some types of ads to show
the power and significance of that specific product.To see these all features we take some
examples as follows:
Above mentioned image is the advertisement for the NIVEA hair cream.It is an advertisement
which is completely related with the productive features of ads.The main objective of this
advertisement is to show the best properties of this cream.To get the focus of the viewers it is
constructed with some interesting features.This image shows that how the related company
has focused to show its influential importance to the viewers.

The colour scheme which is used in the image is showing three features.Soliy colour shows the
scene of a grave and the skeleton of face has white colour to show the extinction of the lady
person.If we deeply observe then we find that the hair are still red even after her death.At the
corner the logo of Nivea cream is mentioned which shows that the mentioned lady used to use
this product for her hair when she was alive.So after a long time of her death her hair are still
fantastic while her whole body has changed into a skeleton.

If we check the ideology behind this image then we can see that this is highly constructed and
intersesting advertisement to sell the product.When a common observer see this image then
surely effected by its powerfull features of maintaining the hair’s outlook.As a result he or she
buys this product to fulfill his or her desire.So by this way it is ’’socially’’ practiced in common
public.

It is also a very interesting image presented by a company of ‘’SCOTH MAGIC’’.This is an

advertisement which is totally based on productive puposes.If we see this image then we will
observe that a heavy dumper which is full of a large quantity of sugarcane and it has been
batrayed from its way.The position of the vehicle is shown as one sided and it is has lost its
balance.The large quantity of sugarcane is tied with the scoth magic tape.So due to the firmly
capturing capability of this tape the sugarcane’s bundles have no danger of disordering from
the dumper.A cow which is also shown has no danger from these heavy bundles.

The colour which are used in this image are very common and natural.Vehicle is represented
with the red colour and sugarcane’s bundles are represented with the brown colour while the
colour of scoth tape is shown as red to specify its outlook in all over the image.Besides this a
cow which is in its natural colour is the big representation of ‘’no danger’’.At right upper corner
of the image the monogram of the company is presented with different colours to highlight its
significance with respect to the whole image.

The ideology which effects the human mind is very well established by this image.A common
observer when sees this image he definitely receive a magical image of this scoth tape due to
the original presentation of the product.So whenever he will feel the requirement of tieing the
things firmly then he will think about this tape’s significance.As a result he will buy and
company’s requirements to present this advertisement will be completed.So this is a socially a
practicising feature.

Required image is the productive advertisement to fulfill the hidden purposes of a multi
national company selling demands.This advertisement is related with the spare parts of HONDA
company.The main purpose of this image is to tell the significance of original spare parts.In the
image a man’s face with an attachment of monkey’s mouth is shown.This is not looking good
half face is original but remaining is of monkey sketch.So company wants to improve its
product’s demand.

The colour scheme which is used in this image is usually of dark brown.While the lines are
wriiten with white colour to make these lines prominent and to elaborate its objectives.The
words which are wriiten as ‘’USE ORIGINAL PARTS’’ show the thematic meaning of the
image.Besides this the monkey’s mouth is also of brown colour to show the bad image of using
imitative parts other than original.

The ideology behind this image is a big cause of ‘’SOCIAL PRACTICE’’.The line ‘’USE ORIGINAL
PARTS’’ and the word ‘’HONDA’’ are fulfilling the company requirements. These are creating
the influential sense among the people with showing the bad impact of using the non-original
spare parts. So in this way this advertisement inspires the people to sell the HONDA genuine
spare parts.
The productive commercial advertisement of ‘’ORAL-B’’ tooth paste and brush is shown as
above.This advertisement is highly constructed to show the importance of ‘’ORAL-B’’. No doubt
the image is showing the element of exaggeration but it is the company requirement to show
such type of image.In the image different eatables like apple,burger,a piece of chicken and a
skeleton of fish are tied with a string.This string is made of ‘’ORAL-B’’ products.Thes all products
are shown with their half pieces.Which shows that this string has great power to crush these
into pieces at same time

The colour scheme by which image is filled is very natural. All the eatables are shown with their
natural colours and the pack of ORAL-B is filled with blue colour.Whole image is generally
consisted ofvery light dark colour and the sentence which is written with black colour is started
from the word ‘’ORAL-B’’ but there are three dots after some space .These dots are creating the
suspential effect of the significance of the mentioned product.

If we talk about the ideology behind this image then we come to know that the line ‘’…CAN’T
FIND DESSERT’’ after the word ORAL-B is a good infuensive statement which means that the
teeth which are cleaned by ORAL-B are much strong then the dessert.So there is no need to use
this dessert.This statement also a big cause to attract the people to fulfill the element of
FAIRCLOUGH’S element of ‘’SOCIAL PRACTICE’’.
The above image is a very meaningfull advertisement which is presented by a helmet company
‘’LAZER’’ to improve the ratio of its products.The pupose of the above image is very clear. A
person is shown in the figure who was severely effected by an accident and his whole body
damaged except his head.Head was covered with the helmet. And due to helmet the life of
shown person was saved.He is still alive after having this great injury of whole parts of body but
his head has been saved due to wearing of helmet of ‘’LAZER’’ company.

Colour scheme in the above image is of great significance. The injured man is full of strips which
are of white colour. Its shows that the whole body is damaged due to the inujury while his
head’s colour is natural.At the bottom the right corner is filled with the name of the company
as ‘’LAZER’’.This word is highlighted with the red colour to make this word very
prominent.Below this word, two words as ‘’BIKE HELMET’’ are present.These are of black colour
and these are identifying about the company.

The ideology behind this image is very simple. The company wants to improve the ratio of its
mentioned product.For this purpose it constructed this advertisement to elaborate the two
meanings.First meaning is the element of ‘’essentialness’’. Its mean that the bike riders should
always wear a helmet on their heads to save it from severe injury in case of any unexpected
accident. Secondly for this purpose they should use the helmet of only ‘’LAZER’’
company.Company has shown its strength as discussed inimage.So by this the company
improve the ratios for its product as ‘’SOCIAL PRACTICE’’ among the common public.

The above figure is the productive advertisement of ‘’WRANGLER’’ jenes.The company wants to
enhance the product ratio by presenting an interesting image of this pent.The figure is the great
elaboration to show the positive point of this jenes pent.Actually this image shows the strength
and quality of the ‘’WRANGLER’’ jenes pent.Two damaged and burnt feet are shown in the
figure.These feet are highly damaged by some accidents but the legs are covered with this
mentioned pent.Due to the high quality strengthness of this pent his legs are saved.
The colour scheme of this image is highly simple .The burnt part of the body is highlighted with
black colour to show the real image of damaging.While the colour of pent is shown as blue
which is its common colour. At the right corner of the bottom of the image a line is written as
‘’WE ARE ANIMALS’’ This line is filled with white colour to highlight its purpose.While the word
‘’WRANGLER’’ is written in ‘’free style script’’ to highlight the company name.

The ideology and purpose of this advertisement is very prominent to the common viewers. The
line which is wriiten at the bottom as ‘’WE ARE ANIMALS’’ is a highly presenting feature to
complete the company desires of increasing its product ratio. These three words has a great
impact on the mentality of common people. These are very inspirational words to improve the
mentality of the viewers towards this mentioned company as ‘’WRANGLER’’.So for as ‘’SOCIAL
PRACTICE’’ is concerned then we can say that when a common man sees this image with its full
features then he becomes inspirative and makes an intention to buy this very strong product.So
this is the way by which different companies sell their products to the common public.

Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to analyze some advertisements, i.e. productive ads and non-
productive ads, in order to see when the producers use their power to imply something to
viewers. Fairclough‟s 3-dimensional model and Kress and Van Leeuwen‟s grammar of visual
design for print ad-/mass media communication were used to analyze SEVEN NON-
PRODUCTIVE advertisements as: (a). GEO secret exposes (b).Do not speed (c). Save water
(d).UNICEF’s children (e).W.H.O (f). W.W.O (g). SAFE DRIVING.

Besides this we also analyzed the ideological power behind the SIX PRODUCTIVE
advertisements as follows: (a). NIVEA hair cream (b). SCOTH magic tape (c).HONDA spare parts
(d). ORAL-B tooth brush and paste (e). LAZER helmet (f). WRANGLER jenes pent.

In order to better understanding of the conclusion, we need to take a look at terms such as
power and ideology in discourse.

To explain the relation between power and discourse we need to look at Fairclough‟s (1989)
work language and power, where he distinguishes between power in discourse and power
behind discourse. Power in discourse as a form of social practice is exercised in various ways –
for example in face-to-face encounters or in the discourse of the mass media. Power behind
discourse describes the formation of the orders of social practices, which are themselves
shaped and constituted by power relations.
References:
Fairclough, N. 1989 . Language and Power. London and New York : Longman.

Fairclough, N. 1992 . Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Fairclough, N. 1995 . Media Discourse . London, New York, Sydney, Auckland: Arnold.

Kress, G., y Van Leeuwan T. 2006 (1996). Reading Images. The Grammar of Visual Design.
London and New York: Routledge.

Woodak, R., 1996. Disorders of Discourse . . London Longman.

Van, D., T . A. , 1985. The handbook of discourse analysis . . London : Academic Press.