How electric discharge machine works

In the Electrical Discharge Machining process (EDM), metal is removed by generating high
frequency sparks through a small gap filled with a dielectric fluid. This technique allows
machining complicated shapes in hard metals, including refractory alloys. A necessary condition
for achieving a good surface finish is a well controlled gap between the electrode (tool) and the
workpiece. The sparking gap ranges from about 10 to 100 microns, respectively for finish and
roughing. The control problem is therefore the regulation of the gap, that is measured only
ielectrical discharge machining

It has been suggested that Spark erosion be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

Electrical Discharge Machine

Electrical discharge machining (or EDM) is a machining method primarily used for hard
metals or those that would be impossible to machine with traditional techniques. One critical
limitation, however, is that EDM only works with materials that are electrically conductive.
EDM can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours or cavities in extremely hard steel
and exotic metals such as titanium, hastelloy, kovar, inconel and carbide.

Sometimes referred to as spark machining or spark eroding, EDM is a nontraditional method

of removing material by a series of rapidly recurring electric arcing discharges between an
electrode (the cutting tool) and the work piece, in the presence of an energetic electric field. The
EDM cutting tool is guided along the desired path very close to the work but it does not touch
the piece. Consecutive sparks produce a series of micro-craters on the work piece and remove
material along the cutting path by melting and vaporization. The particles are washed away by
the continuously flushing dielectric fluid.

There are two main types of EDM machines: Conventional EDM (also called Sinker EDM and
Ram EDM) and Wire EDM.

Conventional EDM
Prototype production

The EDM process is most widely used by the mold-making tool and die industries, but is
becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts, especially in the
aerospace,automobile and electronics industries in which production quantities are relatively low.
In ram EDM, a graphite or beryllium copper electrode is machined into the desired (negative)
shape and fed into the workpiece on the end of a vertical ram.

Coinage die making

For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges by the coinage (stamping) process, the
positive master may be made from sterling silver, since (with appropriate machine settings) the
master is not significantly eroded and is used only once. The resultant negative die is then
hardened and used in a drop hammer to produce stamped flats from cutout sheet blanks of
bronze, silver, or low proof gold alloy. For badges these flats may be further shaped to a curved
surface by another die. This type of EDM is usually performed submerged in an oil-based
dielectric. The finished object may be further refined by hard (glass) or soft (paint) enameling
and/or electroplated with pure gold or nickel. Softer materials such as silver may be hand
engraved as a refinement.

EDM control panel (Hansvedt machine). Machine may be adjusted for a refined surface (electropolish)
at end of process.
Master at top, badge die workpiece at bottom, oil jets at left (oil has been drained). Initial flat stamping
will be "dapped" to give a curved surface

Small hole drilling EDM

Use to make a through hole in the hardend workpiece in order for wire use in Wire-cut to start
machining.

Wire Cut EDM

In wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), or wire-cut EDM, a thin single-strand metal
wire, usually brass, is fed through the workpiece. The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool,
is held between upper and lower guides. The guides move in the x–y plane, usually being CNC
controlled and on almost all modern machines the upper guide can also move independently
giving rise to the ability to cut tapered and transitioning shapes (circle on the bottom square at
the top for example). This gives the wire-cut EDM the ability to be programmed to cut very
intricate and delicate shapes. The wire-cut uses water as its dielectric with the water's resistivity
and other electrical properties carefully controlled by filters and de-ionizer units.

Indirectly by processing some secondary signals like ignition delays, average gap voltage, etc.

Advantages of edm
Some of the advantages of EDM include machining of complex shapes that would
otherwise be difficult to produce with conventional cutting tools, machining of
extremely hard material to very close tolerances, and machining of very small work
pieces where conventional cutting tools may damage the part from excess cutting
tool pressure.

Disadvantages of edm
Some of the disadvantages of EDM include the inability to machine non conductive
materials, the slow rate of material removal, and the additional time and cost used
for creating electrodes for ram EDM.

Chemical Machining

Chemical Machining aides in the manufacture of light gauge metal parts. The photo etching process (also called
chemical etching and chemical milling) allows people to produce intricate metal components with close tolerances
that are impossible to duplicate by other production methods. It is also known as chemical milling.

Applications -

Chemical Machining is utilized in the manufacturing of encoders, masks, filters, lead frames, flat springs, strain
gauges, laminations, chip carriers, step covers, fuel cell plates, heat sinks, shutter blades, electron grids, fluidic
circuit plates, reticles, drive bands, haptics, and shims.

Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

Abrasive Flow Machine (AFM) is a nontraditional machining

process that is used to deburr, polish, radius, and remove recast
layers of critical components in aerospace, automotive, electronic
and die-making industries. Extrude Hone patented the Abrasive Flow
Machining (AFM) process in the 1960's as a method to deburr,
polish and radius difficult-to-reach surfaces. AFM operates by
flowing an abrasive laden viscoelastic compound through a
restrictive passage formed by a workpart/tooling combination.
Inaccessible areas and complex contours both internal and external
can be finished economically and productively.

The workpiece is hydraulically clamped between two vertically

opposing media cylinders. The AFM process starts with the lower
cylinder filled with the proper volume of the abrasive laden media.
The media is then extruded through the work-piece and into the
upper media cylinder. The procedure is reversed as the media is fed
back through the part and into the lower cylinder. This combination of one upstroke and one
downstroke constitutes a complete AFM cycle.
AFM can work within areas that are inaccessible to conventional manual finishing methods.
Unlike conventional processes, AFM can be fully automated to provide a much more cost-
effective method of finishing extrusion dies and aircraft and aerospace components.

AFM is used in a wide range of finishing operations. It can simultaneously process multiple parts
or many areas of a single workpiece. Inaccessible areas and complex internal passages can be
finished economically and effectively. Automatic AFM systems are capable of handling
thousands of parts per day, greatly reducing labor costs by eliminating tedious handwork. By
understanding and controlling the process parameters, AFM can be applied to an impressive
range of finishing operations that provide uniform, repeatable, predictable results. Anywhere that
the media can be forced to flow represents a practical application.

Chemical Milling

Chemical Milling aides in the manufacture of light gauge metal parts. The photo etching process (also called
chemical etching and chemical milling) allows people to produce intricate metal components with close tolerances
that are impossible to duplicate by other production methods. It is also known as chemical machining.

Applications -

Chemical Milling is utilized in the manufacturing of encoders, masks, filters, lead frames, flat springs, strain gauges,
laminations, chip carriers, step covers, fuel cell plates, heat sinks, shutter blades, electron grids, fluidic circuit plates,
reticles, drive bands, haptics, and shims.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), also known as

spark erosion, employs electrical energy to remove metal
from the workpiece without touching it. A pulsating high-
frequency electric current is applied between the tool point
and the workpiece, causing sparks to jump the gap and
vaporize small areas of the workpiece. Because no cutting
forces are involved, light, delicate operations can be
performed on thin workpieces. EDM can produce shapes
unobtainable by any conventional machining process.

Ram EDM
A process using a shaped electrode made from graphite or copper. The electrode is separated by a nonconductive
liquid and maintained at a close distance (about 0.001"). A high DC voltage is pulsed to the electrode and jumps to
the conductive workpiece. The resulting sparks erode the workpiece and generate a cavity in the reverse shape of the
electrode, or a through hole in the case of a plain electrode. Permits machining shapes to tight accuracies without the
internal stresses conventional machining often generates. Also known as “die-sinker” or “sinker” electrical-
discharge machining.

Wire EDM

A process similar to sinker electrical-discharge machining except a small-diameter copper or brass wire is used as a
traveling electrode. The process is usually used in conjunction with a CNC and will only work when a part is to be
cut completely through. A common analogy is to describe wire electrical-discharge machining as an ultraprecise,
electrical, contour-sawing operation.

Applications -
EDM permits machining shapes to tight accuracies without the internal stresses conventional machining often
generates. Useful in diemaking.

Electrochemical Discharge Grinding (ECDG)

Electrochemical-discharge grinding is a combination of electrochemical grinding and electrical-

discharge machining. The process is very similar to conventional EDM except a grinding-wheel
type of electrode is used. Material is removed by both processes. Like any EDM process, the
workpiece and the grinding wheel never come into contact.

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

Electrochemical grinding combines electrical and chemical energy for metal removal with an
EDM finish. It is a non-abrasive process and, therefore, produces precise cuts that are free of
heat, stress, burrs and mechanical distortions. It is avariation on electrochemical machining that
uses a conductive, rotating abrasive wheel. The chemical solution is forced between the wheel
and the workpiece. The shape of the wheel determines the final shape.

Electrochemical Honing - ECH

A process similar to electrochemical grinding involving the use of honing stones rather than a
grinding wheel.

Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) also uses electrical energy to remove material. An electrolytic cell is created in
an electrolyte medium, with the tool as the cathode and the workpiece as the anode. A high-amperage, low-voltage
current is used to dissolve the metal and to remove it from the workpiece, which must be electrically conductive.
ECM is essentially a deplating process that utilizes the principles of electrolysis. The ECM tool is positioned very
close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high amperage DC current is passed between the two via an electrolyte.
Material is removed from the workpiece and the flowing electrolyte solution washes the ions away. These ions form
metal hydroxides which are removed from the electrolyte solution by centrifugal separation. Both the electrolyte and
the metal sludge are then recycled.
Unlike traditional cutting methods, workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for difficult-to-
machine materials. Takes such forms as electrochemical grinding, electrochemical honing and electrochemical
turning.

Electrochemical deburring is another variation on electrochemical machining designed to remove burrs and impart
small radii to corners. The process normally uses a specially shaped electrode to carefully control the process to a
specific area. The process will work on material regardless of hardness.

Advantages of Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

1. The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.
2. There is no tool wear during Electrochemical machining.
3. Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is no contact between the tool and
workpiece.

4. Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and accurately

5. Electrochemical machining is a time saving process when compared with conventional machining
6. During drilling, deep holes can be made or several holes at once.
7. ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
8. Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and also brittle material which tend to develop cracks during
machining can be machined easily through Electrochemical machining

9. Surface finishes of 25 µ in. can be achieved during Electrochemical machining

Electron-beam Machining - EBM

1. In electron-beam machining (EBM), electrons are accelerated to a velocity nearly three-fourths that of light
(~200,000 km/sec). The process is performed in a vacuum chamber to reduce the scattering of electrons by
gas molecules in the atmosphere. The electron beam is aimed using magnets to deflect the stream of
electrons and is focused using an electromagnetic lens. The stream of electrons is directed against a
precisely limited area of the workpiece; on impact, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into
thermal energy that melts and vaporizes the material to be removed, forming holes or cuts.
2. Typical applications are annealing, welding, and metal removal. A hole in a sheet 1.25 mm thick up to 125
micro m diameter can be cut almost instantly with a taper of 2 to 4 degrees. EBM equipment is commonly
used by the electronics industry to aid in the etching of circuits in microprocessors.

Ion Beam Milling - (IBM)

In simple terms ion beam milling can be viewed as an atomic sand blaster. The grains of sand are actually submicron
ion particles accelerated to bombard the surface of the work mounted on a rotating table inside a vacuum chamber.
The work is typically a wafer, substrate or element that requires material removal by atomic sandblasting or dry
etching.

A selectively applied protectant, photo sensitive resist, is applied to the work element prior to introduction into the
ion miller. The resist protects the underlying material during the etching process which may be up to eight hours or
longer, depending upon the amount to be removed and the etch rate of the materials. Everything that is exposed to
the collimated ion beam (may be 15" in diameter in some equipment) etches during the process cycle, even the
resist.

In most micromachining applications the desired material to be removed etches at a rate 3 to 10 times faster than the
resist protectant thus preserving the material and features underneath the resist.

Applications -

Ion Beam Milling is used in fabricating electronic and mechanical elements for a wide variety of commercial,
industrial, military and satellite applications including custom film circuits for RF and Microwave circuits

Laser-beam machining -- LBM

Laser-beam machining (LBM) is accomplished by precisely manipulating a beam of coherent light to vaporize
unwanted material. LBM is particularly suited to making accurately placed holes. It can be used to perform precision
micromachining on all microelectronic substrates such as ceramic, silicon, diamond, and graphite. Examples of
microelectronic micromachining include cutting, scribing & drilling all substrates, trimming any hybrid resistors,
patterning displays of glass or plastic and trace cutting on semiconductor wafers and chips.

Applications -
The LBM process can make holes in refractory metals and ceramics and in very thin materials without warping the
workpiece. The laser can scribe, drill, mark, and cut thin metals and ceramics, trim resistors, and process plastics,
silicon, diamond, and graphite with tolerances to one micron

Laser Cutting

Laser cutting is the process of vaporizing material in a very small, well-

defined area. The laser itself is a single point cutting source with a very small
point, (0.001" to 0.020" / 0.025mm to 0.5mm) allowing for very small cut
widths.

The advantages of cutting with a laser make it a preferred choice over

conventional cutting methods.
Laser Cutting Advantages

1. There is almost no limit to the cutting path; the point can move in any direction unlike other processes that
use knives or saws.
2. The process is forceless allowing very fragile or flimsy parts to be laser cut with no support.

3. Since the laser beam exerts no force on the part and is a very small spot, the technology is well suited to
fabricating high accuracy parts, especially flexible materials. The part keeps its original shape from start to
finish.

4. The laser beam is always sharp and can cut very hard or abrasive materials.
5. Sticky materials that would otherwise gum up a blade are not an obstacle for a laser.
6. Lasers cut at high speeds. The speed at which the material can be processed is limited only by the power
available from the laser.

7. Cutting with lasers is a very cost effective process with low operating and maintenance costs and maximum
flexibility.

Laser Drilling

Laser drilling is the process of repeatedly pulsing focused laser energy at a specific material.

The laser beam consistently drills holes down to 0.004" with little or no debris. Holes with
length-to-diameter ratios of up to 50 can be drilled with reliable, high quality results.

With lasers it is possible to drill in very difficult locations using mirrors to bend the beam. Laser
drilling at very high rates, 1000 pulses per second or greater, is also possible.

Laser Drilling Advantages --

1. Using laser system software, the operator instantly can control hole shape and size to produce round, oval
or rectangular holes, or any shape imaginable. This eliminates downtime due to tool changes.
2. Very small holes can be laser drilled in production. A focused spot can be as small as 0.1mm (0.004") in
diameter.

3. Since the tool is a beam of light, the tool never needs to be replaced eliminating downtime because of
punch breakage.

Photo Chemical Machining - (PCM)

Photochemical Machining - (PCM) components are produced by

the photo-etching technique using a wide array of metal and
alloys. This technique avoids burrs, no mechanical stresses are
built into the parts and the properties of the metal worked are not
affected. Hardened and tempered metals are machined as easily as
regular metals. The technique is ideal for machining thin metals
and foils. Parts with very precise and intricate designs can be produced without difficulty. The photo chemical
machining/milling processes can precisely etch lines and spaces on all types of metals (alloys: kovar, nickel, brass,
beryllium, copper, stainless steel, aluminum, and others) with detailed accuracies. This is used for creating specialty
flex circuits, plus in engineering of other rigid technologies. This results in a burr free part with very close
tolerances.

Applications -
The technique is ideal for machining thin metals and foils. Parts with very precise and intricate designs can be
produced without difficulty

Ultrasonic Machining

Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical material removal process used to erode holes and cavities in hard or
brittle workpieces by using shaped tools, high frequency mechanical motion, and an abrasive slurry. . A relatively
soft tool is shaped as desired and vibrated against the workpiece while a mixture of fine abrasive and water flows
between them. The friction of the abrasive particles gradually cuts the workpiece.

Materials such as hardened steel, carbides, rubies, quartz, diamonds, and glass can easily be machined by USM.
Ultrasonic machining is able to effectively machine all materials harder than HRc 40, whether or not the material is
an electrical conductor or an insulator

AbrasiveJet Machining

Abrasive waterjet cutting systems (abrasivejet) use a combination of water and garnet to cut
through materials considered "unmachineable" by conventional cutting methods. Using small
amounts of water while eliminating the friction caused by tool-to-part contact, abrasivejet cutting
avoids thermal damage or heat affected zones (HAZ) which can adversely affect metallurgic
properties in materials being cut. The ability to pierce through material also eliminates the need
and cost of drilling starter holes. Because abrasivejet cuts with a narrow kerf, parts can be tightly
nested thus maximizing material usage.

Abrasive waterjet can cut through materials ranging from 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) to 12 inches (305
mm) thick with an accuracy of ± 0.005 inch (0.13 mm). The typical orifice diameter for an
abrasivejet nozzle is 0.010" to 0.014" (0.25 mm to 0.35 mm). The orifice jewel may be ruby,
sapphire or diamond, with sapphire being the most common. Diamond is recognized to last
longer than the other two, but most operators find that it is not worth the additional cost. A
typical high-quality jewel assembly consisting of a sapphire orifice and a precision stainless steel
mount with integral abrasive feed chamber costs about $50. A similar assembly using a diamond
orifice would cost several hundred dollars and does not provide a reasonable payback.

Ruby and sapphire are very similar in their life expectancy, neither having a distinct advantage
over the other. In theory, a jewel orifice should operate reliably until dissolved solids and
minerals in the water build up next to the water passage. The jewel does not really fail, but it no
longer produces a straight, smooth stream of water because of scale build-up.
In reality, however, many jewels fail when struck by dirt or abrasive particles that have managed
to get upstream of the jet during nozzle changes or overhauls. This causes the jewel to crack or
pit, substantially altering water flow through the jewel. Once water flow through the jewel is
disturbed, the cut quality will be poor and the mixing tube life will be shortened dramatically. A
cracked $50 jewel assembly can quickly ruin a $150 ceramic mixing tube. Many operators
change the jewel orifice as a matter of course whenever they overhaul a nozzle.

Abrasive waterjet is excellent for the cutting of complex shapes, and in fragile materials such as
glass, the high failure rate due to breakage and chipping of corners during conventional
processing is virtually eliminated. Whatever your industrial need, abrasivejet is an accurate,
flexible, and efficient cutting system.

Materials

Abrasivejet cutting is used in the cutting of materials as diverse as:

Titanium
Brass
Aluminum
Stone
Inconel
Any Steel
Glass
Composites

http://www.engineershandbook.com/MfgMethods/waterjet.htm

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
General Physical Properties
Density
Density is one of the most fundamental physical properties of any material. It is defined as the ratio of an objects
mass to its volume. Because most designs are limited by either size and or weight density is an important
consideration in many calculations.

Density is a function of the mass of the atoms making up the materials and the distance between them. Massive,
closely packed atoms characterize high density materials such as Tungsten or Neptunium. In contrast light, relatively
distant atoms compose low density materials such as Beryllium or Aluminum. Density on a macroscopic level is
also a function of the microscopic structure of a material. A relatively dense material may be capable of forming a
cellular structure such as a foam which can be nearly as strong and much less dense than the bulk material.
Composites including natural constituents such as wood and bone, for example, generally rely on microscopic
structure to achieve densities far lower than common monolithic materials.

Availability/Manufacturability

Availability and manufacturability requirements are often unseen limiting factors in materials selection. The
importance of a material being available is obvious. Materials which are not available cannot be used. The
importance of processibility is not always so obvious.

Any other desirable qualities are useless if a material cannot be processed into the shape required to perform its
function. Most engineering materials in use today have well known substitutes which would perform better and
often at lower cost but processes for forming, cutting, machining, joining, etc. are not available or commercially
viable. There is often a period of time after a new material is introduced during which its application is severely
limited while processing techniques are developed which facilitate its use.

Cost

A materials cost is also generally a limiting factor. While cost is universally recognized and perhaps the easiest of all
properties to understand there are specific cost considerations for materials selection. Just as materials and their
processing go hand in hand so do material costs and processing costs. Understanding the entire processing sequence
is critical to accurately evaluating the true cost of a material.

Appearance

Because the appearance of many mechanical components seems fairly trivial it is also easy to overlook its
importance in the marketing and commercial success of a product.

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a material describe how it will react to physical forces. Mechanical properties occur as
a result of the physical properties inherent to each material, and are determined through a series of standardized
mechanical tests.
Strength

Strength has several definitions depending on the material type and application. Before choosing a material based on
its published or measured strength it is important to understand the manner in which strength is defined and how it is
measured. When designing for strength, material class and mode of loading are important considerations.

For metals the most common measure of strength is the yield strength. For most polymers it is more convenient to
measure the failure strength, the stress at the point where the stress strain curve becomes obviously non-linear.
Strength, for ceramics however, is more difficult to define. Failure in ceramics is highly dependent on the mode of
loading. The typical failure strength in compression is fifteen times the failure strength in tension. The more
common reported value is the compressive failure strength.

Elastic limit

The elastic limit is the highest stress at which all deformation strains are fully recoverable. For most materials and
applications this can be considered the practical limit to the maximum stress a component can withstand and still
function as designed. Beyond the elastic limit permanent strains are likely to deform the material to the point where
its function is impaired.

Proportional limit

The proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is linearly proportional to strain. This is the same as the
elastic limit for most materials. Some materials may show a slight deviation from proportionality while still under
recoverable strain. In these cases the proportional limit is preferred as a maximum stress level because deformation
becomes less predictable above it.

Yield Strength

The yield strength is the minimum stress which produces permanent plastic deformation. This is perhaps the most
common material property reported for structural materials because of the ease and relative accuracy of its
measurement. The yield strength is usually defined at a specific amount of plastic strain, or offset, which may vary
by material and or specification. The offset is the amount that the stress-strain curve deviates from the linear elastic
line. The most common offset for structural metals is 0.2%.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength is an engineering value calculated by dividing the maximum load on a material
experienced during a tensile test by the initial cross section of the test sample. When viewed in light of the other
tensile test data the ultimate tensile strength helps to provide a good indication of a material's toughness but is not by
itself a useful design limit. Conversely this can be construed as the minimum stress that is necessary to ensure the
failure of a material.

True Fracture Strength

The true fracture strength is the load at fracture divided by the cross sectional area of the sample. Like the ultimate
tensile strength the true fracture strength can help an engineer to predict the behavior of the material but is not itself
a practical strength limit. Because the tensile test seeks to standardize variables such as specimen geometry, strain
rate and uniformity of stress it can be considered a kind of best case scenario of failure.

Ductility

Ductility is a measure of how much deformation or strain a material can withstand before breaking. The most
common measure of ductility is the percentage of change in length of a tensile sample after breaking. This is
generally reported as % El or percent elongation. The R.A. or reduction of area of the sample also gives some
indication of ductility.

Toughness

Toughness describes a material's resistance to fracture. It is often expressed in terms of the amount of energy a
material can absorb before fracture. Tough materials can absorb a considerable amount of energy before fracture
while brittle materials absorb very little. Neither strong materials such as glass or very ductile materials such as taffy
can absorb large amounts of energy before failure. Toughness is not a single property but rather a combination of
strength and ductility.

The toughness of a material can be related to the total area under its stress-strain curve. A comparison of the relative
magnitudes of the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and percent elongation of different material will give a
good indication of their relative toughness. Materials with high yield strength and high ductility have high
toughness. Integrated stress-strain data is not readily available for most materials so other test methods have been
devised to help quantify toughness. The most common test for toughness is the Charpy impact test.

In crystalline materials the toughness is strongly dependent on crystal structure. Face centered cubic materials are
typically ductile while hexagonal close packed materials tend to be brittle. Body centered cubic materials often
display dramatic variation in the mode of failure with temperature. In many materials the toughness is temperature
dependent. Generally materials are more brittle at lower temperatures and more ductile at higher temperatures. The
temperature at which the transition takes place is known as the DBTT, or ductile to brittle transition temperature.
The DBTT is measured by performing a series of Charpy impact tests at various temperatures to determine the
ranges of brittle and ductile behavior. Use of alloys below their transition temperature is avoided due to the risk of
catastrophic failure.

Fatigue ratio
The dimensionless fatigue ratio f is the ratio of the stress required to cause failure after a specific number of cycles
to the yield stress of a material. Fatigue tests are generally run through 107 or 108 cycles. A high fatigue ratio
indicates materials which are more susceptible to crack growth during cyclic loading.

Loss coefficient

The loss coefficient is an other important material parameter in cyclic loading. It is the fraction of mechanical
energy lost in a stress strain cycle. The loss coefficient for each material is a function of the frequency of the cycle.
A high loss coefficient can be desirable for damping vibrations while a low loss coefficient transmits energy more
efficiently. The loss coefficient is also an important factor in resisting fatigue failure. If the loss coefficient is too
high, cyclic loading will dissipate energy into the material leading to fatigue failure

Thermal Properties
Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer through a material in steady state. It is not easily measured,
especially for materials with low conductivity but reliable data is readily available for most common materials.

Thermal diffusivity

The thermal diffusivity is a measure of the transient heat flow through a material.

Specific heat

The specific heat is a measure of the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a given mass of
material. Specific heat is measured by calorimetry techniques and is usually reported both as C V, the specific heat
measured at constant pressure, or CP, the specific heat measured at constant pressure.

Melting point

The melting point is the temperature at which a material goes from the solid to the liquid state at one atmosphere.
The melting temperature is not usually a design criteria but it offers important clues to other material properties.

Glass transition temp

The glass transition temperature, or Tg is an important property of polymers. The glass transition temperature is a
temperature range which marks a change in mechanical behavior. Above the glass transition temperature a polymer
will behave like a ductile solid or highly viscous liquid. Below Tg the material will behave as a brittle solid.
Depending on the desired properties materials may be used both above and below their glass transition temperature.

Thermal expansion coefficient

The thermal expansion coefficient is the amount a material will change in dimension with a change in temperature.
It is the amount of strain due to thermal expansion per degree Kelvin expressed in units of K-1. For isotropic
materials " is the same in all directions, anisotropic materials have separate "s reported for each direction which is
different.
Thermal shock resistance

Thermal shock resistance is a measure of how large a change in temperature a material can withstand without
damage. Thermal shock resistance is very important to most high temperature designs. Measurements of thermal
shock resistance are highly subjective because if is extremely process dependent. Thermal shock resistance is a
complicated function of heat transfer, geometry and material properties. The temperature range and the shape of the
part play a key role in the material's ability to withstand thermal shock. Tests must be carefully designed to mimic
anticipated service conditions to accurately asses the thermal shock resistance of a material.

Creep resistance

Creep is slow, temperature aided, time dependent deformation. Creep is typically a factor in materials above one
third of their absolute melting temperature or two thirds of their glass transition temperature. Creep resistance is an
important material property in high temperature design, but it is difficult to quantify with a single value. Creep
response is a function of many material and external variables, including stress and temperature. Often other
environmental factors such as oxidation or corrosion play a role in the fracture process.

Creep is plotted as strain vs. time. A typical creep curve shows three basic regimes. During stage I, the primary or
transient stage, the curve begins at the initial strain, with a relatively high slope or strain rate which decreased
throughout stage I until a steady state is reached. Stage II, the steady state stage, is generally the longest stage and
represents most of the response. The strain rate again begins to increase in stage III and rupture at t R generally
follows quickly.

Different applications call for different creep responses. In situations where long life is desired minimum creep rate
is the most important material consideration. Testing through stage II should be sufficient for determining minimum
creep rate. Is not necessary to proceed all the way to rupture. For this type of test the longer the test the more
accurate the creep rate will be. Unfortunately practicality limits most creep tests to times shorter than would be
desirable for high accuracy.

For short lived applications such as rocket nozzles the time to failure may be the only consideration. The main issue
is whether or not the component fails, not the amount of deformation it may undergo. For this application creep tests
may be run to completion but without recording any data but the time to rupture. In this case temperatures may be
elevated above expected conditions to provide a margin of safety.

The main objective of a creep test is to study the effects of temperature and stress on the minimum creep rate and the
time to rupture. Creep testing is usually run by placing a sample under a constant load at a fixed temperature. The
data provided from a complete creep test at a specific temperature, T, and stress includes three creep constants: the
dimensionless creep exponent, n, the activation energy Q, and A, a kinetic factor.

Ferrous Metals

As the most abundant of all commercial metals, alloys of iron and steel continue to cover a broad range of structural
applications. Iron ore is readily available, constituting about 5% of the earth's crust, and is easy to convert to a
useful form. Iron is obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen, sulfur, and other impurities. The ore is melted
in a furnace in direct contact with the fuel using limestone as a flux. The limestone combines with impurities and
forms a slag, which is easily removed.

Cast Iron
Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more than 2% carbon as the main alloying element. In addition to carbon,
cast irons must also contain from 1 to 3% silicon which combined with the carbon give them excellent
castability. Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature than steel and is more fluid and less reactive
with molding materials. However, they do not have enough ductility to be rolled or forged.

The precipitation of carbon (as graphite) during solidification is the key to cast iron's distinctive properties. The
graphite provides excellent machinability (even at wear-resisting hardness levels), damps vibration, and aids
lubrication on wearing surfaces (even under borderline lubrication conditions).

Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with carbon (C) as the main alloying element. Steels contain less than
2% and usually less than 1% C, while all cast irons contain more than 2% C. About 2% is the maximum C content at
which iron can solidify as a single phase alloy with all of the C in solution in austenite. Thus, the cast irons by
definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and always have more than one constituent in their microstructure.

In addition to C, cast irons also must contain appreciable silicon (Si), usually from 1–3%, and thus they are actually
iron-carbon-silicon alloys. The high C content and the Si in cast irons make them excellent casting alloys.

Range of Compositions for Typical Unalloyed Cast Irons

(Values in Percent (%))
Type of
Carbon Silicon Manganese Sulfur Phosphorus
Iron
Gray 2.5 - 4.0 1.0 - 3.0 0.2 - 1.0 0.02 - 0.25 0.02 - 1.0
Ductile 3.0 - 4.0 1.8 - 2.8 0.1 - 1.0 0.01 - 0.03 0.01 - 0.1
Compacted Graphite 2.5 - 4.0 1.0 - 3.0 0.2 - 1.0 0.01 - 0.03 0.01 - 0.1
Malleable (Cast White) 2.0 - 2.9 0.9 - 1.9 0.15 - 1.2 0.02 - 0.2 0.02 - 0.2
White 1.8 - 3.6 0.5 - 1.9 0.25 - 0.8 0.06 - 0.2 0.06 - 0.2

Carbon Steel
Carbon steel is a malleable, iron-based metal containing less than 2% carbon (usually less than 1%), small amounts
of manganese, and other trace elements. Steels can either be cast to shape or wrought into various mill forms from
which finished parts are formed, machined, forged, stamped, or otherwise shaped. Carbon steels are specified by
chemical composition, mechanical properties, method of deoxidation, or thermal treatment.

Alloy Steel
Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying elements -- other than carbon and the commonly accepted amounts
of manganese, copper, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus -- are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to
change mechanical or physical properties. A steel is considered to be an alloy when the maximum of the range given
for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of these limits: 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, or 0.60% Cu; or
when a definite range or minimum amount of any of the following elements is specified or required within the
limits recognized for constructional alloy steels: aluminum, chromium (to 3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum,
nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other element added to obtain an alloying effect. Technically,
then, tool and stainless steels are alloy steels
 Steel Alloy Designation System

AISI-SAE
Designation Type and Description
Number
Carbon steels
10xx Plain Carbon (Mn. 1.00% max.)
11xx Resulfurized
12xx Resulfurized and rephosphorized
15xx Plain Carbon (max. Mn. range 1.00-1.65%)
Manganese steels
13xx Mn 1.75
Nickel steels
23xx Ni 3.50
25xx Ni 5.00
Nickel-chromium steels
31xx Ni 1.25; Cr 0.65, 0.80
32xx Ni 1.75; Cr 1.07
33xx Ni 3.50; Cr 1.50, 1.57
34xx Ni 3.00; Cr 0.77
Molybdenum steels
40xx Mo 0.20, 0.25
44xx Mo 0.40, 0.52
Chromium-molybdenum steels
41xx Cr 0.50, 0.80, 0.95; Mo 0.12, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
43xx Ni 1.82; Cr 0.50, 0.80; Mo 0.25
43BVxx Ni 1.82; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.12, 0.25; V 0.03 min.
47xx Ni 1.05; Cr 0.45; Mo 0.20, 0.35
81xx Ni 0.30; Cr 0.40; Mo 0.12
86xx Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.20
 87xx Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.25
88xx Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.35
93xx Ni 3.25; Cr 1.20; Mo 0.12
94xx Ni 0.45; Cr 0.40; Mo 0.12
97xx Ni 1.00; Cr 0.20; Mo 0.20
98xx Ni 1.00; Cr 0.80; Mo 0.25
Nickel-molybdenum steels
46xx Ni 0.85, 1.82; Mo 0.20, 0.25
48xx Ni 3.50; Mo 0.25
Chromium steels
50xx Cr 0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65
51xx Cr 0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05
50xxx Cr 0.50; C 1.00 min.
51xxx Cr 1.02; C 1.00 min.
52xxx Cr 1.45; C 1.00 min.
Chromium-vanadium steels
61xx Cr 0.60, 0.80, 0.95; V 0.10, 0.15
Tungsten-chromium steels
72xx W 1.75; Cr 0.75
Silicon-manganese steels
92xx Si 1.40, 2.00; Mn 0.65, 0.82, 0.85; Cr 0.00, 0.65
High-strength low-alloy steels
9xx Various SAE grades
Boron steels
xxBxx B denotes boron steels
Leaded steels
xxLxx L denotes leaded steels

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is the generic name for a number of different steels used primarily for their resistance to corrosion.
The one key element they all share is a certain minimum percentage (by mass) of chromium: 10.5%. Although
other elements, particularly nickel and molybdenum, are added to improve corrosion resistance, chromium is
always the deciding factor. The vast majority of steel produced in the world is carbon and alloy steel, with the
more expensive stainless steels representing a small, but valuable niche market.

Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:

1. martensitic stainless steels

2. ferritic stainless steels
3. austenitic stainless steels,
4. duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
5. precipitation-hardening stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types 410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C wt% as the basic
composition. They are not as corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are extremely strong and tough as well as
highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and significant
amounts of carbon. Some grades include additional alloying elements in small quantities.

Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic stainless steels are
highly corrosion resistant, but far less durable than austenitic grades and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They
contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any. Typical applications may include
appliances, automotive and architectural trim (i.e., decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found in
this family (type 409).

Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 304 typically contain 18Cr and 8Ni wt% (aka 18/8 stainless).. Austenitic
stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a
minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. Other standard grades have different
preferred applications; for example, type 316 which contains up to 3 wt% Mo, offers an improved general and
pitting corrosion resistance, making it the material of choice for marine applications and coastal environments.

Duplex stainless steels are two-phase alloys based on the Fe-Cr-Ni system. The specific advantages offered by
duplex stainless steels over conventional 300 series stainless steels are strength (approximately twice that of
austenitic stainless steels), improved toughness and ductility (compared to ferritic grades), and a superior chloride
SCC resistance and pitting resistance. The high yield strength offers designers the use of thin-wall material (which
can lead to major reductions in weight) with adequate pressure-containing and load-bearing capacity. Duplex
stainless steels have found widespread use in a range of industries, particularly the oil and gas, petrochemical, and
pulp and paper industries.

Specialist grades include the precipitation hardened or oxide dispersion strengthened alloys.

Properties of Stainless Steel

(Tabulated in accordance with the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), Society of Automotive
Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1975. This reference contains the cross reference numbers for AISI, ASTM, FED, MIL
SPEC, and SAE specifications. All yield strengths are obtained using the 0.2 percent offset method. Multiply
strength in kpsi be 6.89 to get strength in MPa.)

Yield Tensile Brinell

UNS Elongation Reduction
Processing Strength Strength Hardness
Number in 2 in., % in Area, %
(Kpsi) (Kpsi) H_b

S20100 Annealed 55 155 55

S20100 1/4 hard 75 125 20

S20100 1/2 hard 110 150 10

S20100 3/4 hard 135 175 5

S20100 Full hard 140 185 4

S20200 Annealed 55 110 55

S20200 1/4 hard 75 125 12

S30100 Annealed 40 110 60 165

S30100 1/4 hard 75 125 25

S30100 1/2 hard 110 150 15

S30100 3/4 hard 135 175 12

S30100 Full hard 140 185 8

S30200 Annealed 37 90 55 65 155

S30200 1/4 hard 75 125 12

S30300 Annealed 35 90 50 55 160

S30400 Annealed 35 85 55 65 150

S31000 Annealed 40 95 45 65 170

S31400 Annealed 50 100 45 60 170

S41400 Annealed 95 120 17 55 235

S41400 Drawn 400 F 150 200 15 55 415

 S41400 Drawn 600 F 145 190 15 55 400

S41400 Drawn 800 F 150 200 16 58 415

S41400 Drawn 1000 F 120 145 20 60 325

S41400 Drawn 1200 F 105 120 20 65 260

S41600 Annealed 40 75 30 65 155

S41600 Drawn 400 F 145 190 15 55 390

S41600 Drawn 600 F 140 180 15 55 375

S41600 Drawn 800 F 150 195 17 55 390

S41600 Drawn 1000 F 115 145 20 65 300

S41600 Drawn 1200 F 85 110 23 65 225

S41600 Drawn 1400 F 60 90 30 70 180

S43100 Annealed 95 125 20 60 260

S43100 Drawn 400 F 155 205 15 55 415

S43100 Drawn 600 F 150 195 15 55 400

S43100 Drawn 800 F 155 205 15 60 415

S43100 Drawn 1200 F 95 125 20 60 260

S50100 Annealed 30 70 28 65 160

S50200 Annealed 30 70 30 75 150

Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types 410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C wt%
as the basic composition. They are not as corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are
extremely strong and tough as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat
treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and significant amounts of carbon. Some grades
include additional alloying elements in small quantities.
 Martensitic Stainless Steels

Grade C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo P S Comments/Applications
11.5- The basic composition. Used for cutlery, steam
410 0.15 1.0 0.5 - - 0.04 0.03
13.0 and gas turbine blades and buckets, bushings...
Addition of sulphur for machinability, used for
12.0-
416 0.15 1.25 1.0 - 0.60 0.04 0.15 screws, gears etc. 416 Se replaces sulphur by
14.0
selenium.
0.15- 12.0-
420 1.0 1.0 - - 0.04 0.03 Dental and surgical instruments, cutlery....
0.40 14.0
15.0- 1.25-
431 0.20 1.0 1.0 - 0.04 0.03 Enhanced corrosion resistance, high strength.
17.0 2.0
0.60- 16.0- Ball bearings and races, gauge blocks, molds
440A 1.0 1.0 - 0.75 0.04 0.03
0.75 18.0 and dies, cutlery.
0.75- 16.0-
440B 1.0 1.0 - 0.75 0.04 0.03 As 440A, higher hardness
0.95 18.0
0.95- 16.0-
440C 1.0 1.0 - 0.75 0.04 0.03 As 440B, higher hardness
1.20 18.0

Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic
stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, but far less durable than austenitic grades and
cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very
little nickel, if any. Typical applications may include appliances, automotive and architectural
trim (i.e., decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found in this family (type
409).

Ferritic Stainless Steels

Grade C Mn Si Cr Mo P S Comments/Applications
405 0.08 1.0 1.0 11.5-14.5 - 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.3 Al
409 0.08 1.0 1.0 10.5-11.75 - 0.045 0.045 (6xC) Ti min
429 0.12 1.0 1.0 14.0-16.0 - 0.04 0.03
430 0.12 1.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 - 0.04 0.03
446 0.20 1.5 1.0 23.0-27.0 - 0.04 0.03 0.25 N

Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 304 typically contain 18Cr and 8Ni wt% (aka 18/8 stainless).. Austenitic
stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a
minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. Other standard grades have different
preferred applications; for example, type 316 which contains up to 3 wt% Mo, offers an improved general and
pitting corrosion resistance, making it the material of choice for marine applications and coastal environments.
 Austenitic Stainless Steels

AISI C Si Mn
Cr Ni Mo Ti Nb Al V
grade max. max. max.
301 0.15 1.00 2.00 16-18 6-8
302 0.15 1.00 2.00 17-19 8-10
304 0.08 1.00 2.00 17.5-20 8-10.5
310 0.25 1.50 2.00 24-26 19-22
2.0-
316 0.08 1.00 2.00 16-18 10-14
3.0
5 x %C
321 0.08 1.00 2.00 17-19 9-12
min.
10 x %C
347 0.08 1.00 2.00 17-19 9-13
min.
E 1250 0.1 0.5 6.0 15.0 10.0 0.25
20/25-Nb 0.05 1.0 1.0 20.0 25.0 0.7
A 286 0.05 1.0 1.0 15.0 26.0 1.2 ~1.9 ~0.18 ~0.25
18.5- 17.5-
254SMO 0.02 0.8 1.0 6-6.5 ~1.9 ~0.18 ~0.25
20.5 18.5
23.5-
AL-6XN 0.03 1.0 2.0 20-22 6-7
25.5

Common Physical Constants

Acceleration of gravity, g 32.17 ft/s2 = 9.807 m/s 2

Speed of Light in a Vacuum 299,792,458 m/sec

62.4 lbm/ft3 = 1 g/cm3
Density of water
1 gal H2 O = 8.345 lbm
Gas Constant, R 1545 ft-lbf/pmole-R = 8.314 J/gmole-K
3
Gas volume (STP: 68°F, 1 atm) 359 ft /pmole = .02241 m3 /gmole
Joule's Constant, J 778 ft-lbf/BTU
Poisson's ratio, µ .3 (for steel)
6
Modulus of Elasticity (steel) 30 X 10 psi

Common Steel Densities:

3
Carbon & Low-Alloy Steels 0.283 lbm/in = 7.84 g/cm3
3
304 SS 0.29 lbm/in = 7.88 g/cm3
Tool Steels Carbon Steels X 1.000
Moly High Speed Carbon Steels X 1.035
Multiphase Alloys Carbon Steels X 1.074
Steel Tensile Strength (psi) ~ 500 X Brinell Number

Definitions of the SI / Metric Base Units

The meter is the length of the path travelled by

Unit of length meter light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to
Unit of mass kilogram the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram.
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the
Unit of time second transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
The ampere is that constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors
of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-
Unit of electric
ampere section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum,
current would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of
length.

Unit of The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic

temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic kelvin thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
temperature of water.
1. The mole is the amount of substance of a
system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
Unit of amount carbon 12; its symbol is "mol."
mole
of substance 2. When the mole is used, the elementary
entities must be specified and may be atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or
specified groups of such particles.
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a
Unit of given direction, of a source that emits
luminous candela monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x
intensity 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in
that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.

How to Use This Table - Example Unit Conversions

If you are given a measurement from the left hand side and want to convert to the units on the right hand side, just
multiply your number by the given conversion factor.

Example - Feet to Meters

(10 ft) X (0.304800 m/ ft) X (1/3 yd/ft) = 54.68066 yd

Conversely, you can convert units from the right hand side to those units on the left by dividing by the conversion
factor

Example - Millimeters to Inches

(50 mm) / (25.4 mm/in) = 1.97 in.

Common Engineering Design Conversion

Factors

Given Multiply by To Find

Length [L]

Foot (ft) 0.304800 Meter (m)

Inch (in) 25.4000 Millimeter (mm)

Mile (mi) 1.609344 Kilometer (km)

Area [L]2

ft2 0.092903 m2

in2 645.16 mm2

in2 6.45160 cm2

Volume [L]3 & Capacity

in3 16.3871 cm3

ft3 0.028317 m3

ft3 7.4805 Gallon

ft3 28.3168 Liter (l)

Gallon 3.785412 Liter

Energy, Work or Heat [M] [L]2 [t]-2

Btu 1.05435 kJ

Btu 0.251996 kcal

Calories (cal) 4.184* Joules (J)

ft-lbf 1.355818 J

ft-lbf 0.138255 kgf-m

 hp-hr 2.6845 MJ

KWH 3.600 MJ

m-kgf 9.80665* J

N-m 1. J

Flow Rate [L]3 [t]-1

ft3/min 7.4805 gal/min

ft3/min 0.471934 l/s

gal/min 0.063090 l/s

Force or Weight [M] [L] [t]-2

kgf 9.80665* Newton (N)

lbf 4.44822 N

lbf 0.453592 Kgf

Fracture Toughness

ksi sqr(in) 1.098800 MPa sqr(m)

Heat Content

Btu/lbm 0.555556 cal/g

Btu/lbm 2.324444 J/g

Btu/ft3 0.037234 MJ/m3

Heat Flux

Btu/hr-ft2 7.5346 E-5 cal/s-cm2

Btu/hr-ft2 3.1525 W/m2

cal/s-cm2 4.184* W/cm2

Mass Density [M] [L]-3

lbm/in3 27.68 g/cm3

lbm/ft3 16.0184 kg/m3

Power [M] [L]2 [t]-3

Btu/hr 0.292875 Watt (W)

ft-lbf/s 1.355818 W

Horsepower (hp) 745.6999 W

Horsepower 550.* ft-lbf/s

Pressure (fluid) [M] [L]-1 [t]-2

Atmosphere 14.696 lbf/in2

 (atm)

atm 1.01325 E5* Pascal (Pa)

lbf/ft2 47.88026 Pa

lbf/in2 27.6807 in. H20 at

39.2°F

Stress [M] [L]-1 [t]-2

kgf/cm2 9.80665 E-2* MPa

ksi 6.89476 MPa

N/mm2 1. MPa

kgf/mm2 1.42231 ksi

Specific Heat

Btu/lbm-°F 1. cal/g-°C

Temperature*

Fahrenheit (°F-32) /1.8 Celsius

Fahrenheit °F+459.67 Rankine

Celsius °C+273.16 Kelvin

Rankine R/1.8 Kelvin

Thermal Conductivity

Btu-ft/hr-ft2-°F 14.8816 cal-cm/hr-cm2-

°C

Metric Prefixes
To help the SI units apply to a wide range of phenomena, the 19th General Conference on Weights and Measures in
1991 extended the list of metric prefixes so that it reaches from yotta- at 1024 (one septillion) to yocto- at 10-24
(one septillionth). Here are the metric prefixes, with their numerical equivalents stated in the American system for
naming large numbers:

SI Unit Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Meaning Base Unit Multiplied by Factor

yotta- Y septillion 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1024

zetta- Z sextillion 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1021

exa- E quintillion 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta- p quadrillion 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera- T trillion 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga- g billion 1,000,000,000 109
mega- M million 1,000,000 106
kilo- k thousand 1,000 103
hecto- h hundred 100 102
deca- da ten 10 101
Base units, no prefix - Ex.- meter, liter, gram 100
deci- d tenth 0.1 10-1
centi- c hundredth 0.01 10-2
milli- m thousandth 0.001 10-3
micro- u millionth 0.000001 10-6
nano- n billionth 0.000000001 10-9
pico- p trillionth 0.000000000001 10-12
femto- f quadrillionth 0.000000000000001 10-15
atto- a quintillionth 0.000000000000000001 10-18
zepto- z sextillionth 0.000000000000000000001 10-21

yocto- y septillionth 0.000000000000000000000001 10-24

What's it all mean? A kilometer is a thousand meters, a kiloliter is a thousand liters, a kilogram
is a thousand grams; a centimeter is a hundredth of a meter, a centiliter is a hundredth of a liter, a
centigram is a hundredth of a gram. The prefixes can be applied to any kind of SI unit. Only
temperature degrees (Celsius or Kelvin in SI) seem to be exempt. Also, there is no accepted
metric time system in use.
 Basic Fluid Power Formulas / Hydraulics / Pneumatics
Variable Word Formula w/ Units Simplified Formula
Fluid Pressure - P (PSI) = Force (Pounds) / Area ( Sq. In.) P = F /A
Fluid Flow Rate - Q GPM= Flow (Gallons) / Unit Time (Minutes) Q=V/T
Fluid Power in Horsepower - Horsepower = Pressure (PSIG) × Flow (GPM)/ HP = PQ / 1714
HP 1714

Actuator Formulas
Variable Word Formula w/ Units Simplified Formula
Cylinder Area - A ( Sq. In.) = π × Radius (inch)2 A = π × R2
(Sq. In.) = π × Diameter (inch)2 / 4 A = π × D2 / 4
Cylinder Force - F (Pounds) = Pressure (psi) × Area (sq. in.) F = P×A
Cylinder Speed - v (Feet / sec.) = (231 × Flow Rate (gpm)) / (12 × v = (0.3208 × gpm) / A
60 × Area)
Cylinder Volume Capacity - V Volume = π × Radius2 × Stroke (In.) / 231 V = π × R2 × L / 231

(L = length of stroke)
Cylinder Flow Rate - Q Volume = 12 × 60 × Velocity (Ft./Sec.) × Net Q = 3.11688 × v × A
Area(In.)2 / 231
Fluid Motor Torque - T Torque (in. lbs.) = Pressure (psi) × disp. (in.3 / T = P × d / 6.2822
rev.) / 6.2822

Torque = HP × 63025 / RPM T = HP × 63025 / n

Torque = Flow Rate (GPM) × Pressure × T = 36.77 × Q × P / n
36.77 / RPM
Fluid Motor Speed - n Speed (RPM) = (231 × GPM) / Disp. (in.)3 n = (231 × GPM) / d
Fluid Motor Horsepower - HP HP = Torque (in. lbs.) × rpm / 63025 HP = T × n / 63025

Pump Formulas
Variable Word Formula w/ Units Simplified Formula
Pump Output Flow - GPM GPM = (Speed (rpm) × disp. (cu. in.)) / 231 GPM = (n ×d) / 231
Pump Input Horsepower - HP HP = GPM × Pressure (psi) / 1714 × Efficiency HP = (Q ×P) / 1714 × E
Pump Efficiency - E Overall Efficiency = Output HP / Input HP EOverall = HPOut / HPIn X 100
Overall Efficiency = Volumetric Eff. × EOverall = EffVol. × EffMech.
Mechanical Eff.
Pump Volumetric Efficiency - Volumetric Efficiency = Actual Flow Rate EffVol. = QAct. / QTheo. X 100
E Output (GPM) / Theoretical Flow Rate Output
(GPM) × 100
Pump Mechanical Efficiency - Mechanical Efficiency = Theoretical Torque to EffMech = TTheo. / TAct. × 100
E Drive / Actual Torque to Drive × 100
Pump Displacement - CIPR Displacement (In.3 / rev.) = Flow Rate (GPM) × CIPR = GPM × 231 / RPM
231 / Pump RPM
Pump Torque - T Torque = Horsepower × 63025 / RPM T = 63025 × HP / RPM
Torque = Pressure (PSIG) × Pump T = P × CIPR / 6.28
Displacement (CIPR) / 2π

General Fluid Power Guidelines:

Horsepower for driving a pump:
For every 1 hp of drive, the equivalent of 1 gpm @ 1500 psi can be produced.

Horsepower for idling a pump:

To idle a pump when it is unloaded will require about 5% of it's full rated power

Wattage for heating hydraulic oil:

Each watt will raise the temperature of 1 gallon of oil by 1° F. per hour.

Flow velocity in hydraulic lines:

Pump suction lines 2 to 4 feet per second, pressure lines up to 500 psi - 10 to 15 ft./sec., pressure lines 500 to
3000 psi - 15 to 20 ft./sec.; all oil lines in air-over-oil systems; 4 ft./sec.

Standard Drill Sizes

Decimal Equivalents

Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal

80 .0135" 70 .0280" 60 .0400" 51 .0670" 3/32 .0938"

79 .0145" 69 .0292" 59 .0410" 50 .0700" 41 .0960"

1/64 .0156" 68 .0310" 58 .0420" 49 .0730" 40 .0980"

78 .0160" 1/32 .0313" 57 .0430" 48 .0760" 39 .0995"

77 .0180" 67 .0320" 56 .0465" 5/64 .0781" 38 .1015"

76 .0200" 66 .0330" 3/64 .0469" 47 .0785" 37 .1040"

75 .0210" 65 .0350" 55 .0520" 46 .0810" 36 .1065"

74 .0225" 64 .0360" 54 .0550" 45 .0820" 7/64 .1094"

73 .0240" 63 .0370" 53 .0595" 44 .0860" 35 .1100"

 72 .0250" 62 .0380" 1/16 .0625" 43 .0890" 34 .1110"

71 .0260" 61 .0390" 52 .0635" 42 .0935" 33 .1130"

Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal

32 .1160" 23 .1540" 14 .1820" 5 .2055" E .2500"

31 .1200" 5/32 .1562" 13 .1850" 4 .2090" 1/4 .2500"

1/8 .1250" 22 .1570" 3/16 .1875" 3 .2130" F .2570"

30 .1285" 21 .1590" 12 .1890" 7/32 .2188" G .2610"

29 .1360" 20 .1610" 11 .1910" 2 .2210" 17/64 .2656"

28 .1405" 19 .1660" 10 .1935" 1 .2280" H .2660"

9/64 .1406" 18 .1695" 9 .1960" A .2340" I .2720"

27 .1440" 11/64 .1719" 8 .1990" 15/64 .2344" J .2770"

26 .1470" 17 .1730" 7 .2010" B .2380" K .2810"

25 .1495" 16 .1770" 13/64 .2031" C .2420" 9/32 .2812"

24 .1520" 15 .1800" 6 .2040" D .2460" L .2900"

Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal

M .2950" 23/64 .3594" 29/64 .4531" 41/64 .6406" 53/64 .8281"

19/64 .2969" U .3680" 15/32 .4688" 21/32 .6562" 27/32 .8438"

N .3020" 3/8 .3750" 31/64 .4844" 43/64 .6719" 55/64 .8594"

5/16 .3125" V .3770" 1/2 .5000" 11/16 .6875" 7/8 .8750"

O .3160" W .3860" 33/64 .5156" 45/64 .7031" 57/64 .8906"

P .3230" 25/64 .3906" 17/32 .5313" 23/32 .7188" 29/32 .9062"

21/64 .3281" X .3970" 35/64 .5469" 47/64 .7344" 59/64 .9219"

Q .3320" Y .4040" 9/16 .5625" 3/4 .7500" 15/16 .9375"

R .3390" 13/32 .4062" 37/64 .5781" 49/64 .7656" 61/64 .9531"

11/32 .3438" Z .4130 19/32 .5938" 25/32 .7812" 31/32 .9688"

S .3480" 27/64 .4219" 39/64 .6094" 51/64 .7969" 63/64 .9844"

T .3580" 7/16 .4375" 5/8 .6250" 13/16 .8125" 1 1.000"

 Millimeter Sizes
Decimal Equivalents

mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal

.35 .0138" .90 .0354" 1.45 .0571" 2.00 .0787" 2.55 .1004"

.40 .0157" .95 .0374" 1.50 .0591" 2.05 .0807" 2.60 .1024"

.45 .0177" 1.0 .0394" 1.55 .0610" 2.10 .0827" 2.65 .1043"

.50 .0197" 1.05 .0413" 1.60 .0630" 2.15 .0846" 2.70 .1063"

.55 .0217" 1.10 .0433" 1.65 .0650" 2.20 .0866" 2.75 .1083"

.60 .0236" 1.15 .0453" 1.70 .0669" 2.25 .0886'' 2.80 .1102"

.65 .0256" 1.20 .0472" 1.75 .0689" 2.30 .0906" 2.85 .1122"

.70 .0276" 1.25 .0492" 1.80 .0709" 2.35 .0925" 2.90 .1142"

.75 .0295" 1.30 .0512" 1.85 .0728" 2.40 .0945" 3.00 .1181"

.80 .0315" 1.35 .0531" 1.90 .0748" 2.45 .0965" 3.10 .1220"

.85 .0335" 1.40 .0551" 1.95 .0768" 2.50 .0984" 3.20 .1260"

mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal

3.25 .1280" 4.1 .1614" 4.9 .1929" 5.75 .2264" 6.6 .2598"

3.30 .1299" 4.2 .1654" 5 .1969" 5.8 .2283" 6.7 .2638"

3.40 .1339" 4.25 .1673" 5.1 .2008" 5.9 .2323" 6.75 .2657"

3.50 .1378" 4.3 .1693" 5.2 .2047" 6 .2362" 6.8 .2677"

3.6 .1417" 4.4 .1732" 5.25 .2067" 6.1 .2402" 6.9 .2717"

3.7 .1457" 4.5 .1772" 5.3 .2087" 6.2 .2441" 7 .2756"

3.75 .1476" 4.6 .1811" 5.4 .2126" 6.25 .2461" 7.1 .2795"

3.8 .1496" 4.7 .1850" 5.5 .2165" 6.3 .2480" 7.2 .2835"

3.9 .1535" 4.75 .1870" 5.6 .2205" 6.4 .2520" 7.25 .2854"

4 .1575" 4.8 .1890" 5.7 .2244" 6.5 .2559" 7.3 .2874"

mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal

 7.4 .2913" 8.25 .3248" 9.1 .3583" 9.9 .3898" 14.5 .5709"

7.5 .2953" 8.3 .3268" 9.2 .3622" 10 .3937" 15 .5906"

7.6 .2992" 8.4 .3307" 9.25 .3642" 10.5 .4134" 15.5 .6102"

7.7 .3031" 8.5 .3346" 9.3 .3661" 11 .4331" 16 .6229"

7.75 .3051" 8.6 .3386" 9.4 .3701" 11.5 .4528" 16.5 .6496"

7.8 .3071" 8.7 .3425" 9.5 .3740" 12 .4724" 17 .6693"

7.9 .3110" 8.75 .3445" 9.6 .3780" 12.5 .4921" 17.5 .6890"

8 .3150" 8.8 .3465" 9.7 .3819" 13 .5118" 18 .7087"

8.1 .3189" 8.9 .3504" 9.75 .3839" 13.5 .5315" 18.5 .7283"

8.2 .3228" 9 .3543" 9.8 .3858" 14 .5512" 19 .7480"

mm Decimal mm Decimal mm Decimal

19.5 .7677" 21.5 .8465" 23.5 .9252"

20 .7874" 22 .8661" 24 .9449"

20.5 .8071" 22.5 .8858" 24.5 .9646"

21 .8268" 23 .9055" 25 .9843"

Tap Drills Clearance Hole Drills

Machine Screw Aluminum, Brass Stainless Steel, All Materials
Size & Plastics Steels & Iron
Threads Minor
Per Inch Dia. Close Fit Free Fit
75% Thread 50% Thread
No. or Major Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal
Dia. Dia. Size Equiv. Size Equiv. Size Equiv. Size Equiv.
0 .0600 80 .0447 3/64 .0469 55 .0520 52 .0635 50 .0700
64 .0538 53 .0595 1/16 .0625
1 .0730 48 .0760 46 .0810
72 .0560 53 .0595 52 .0635
56 .0641 50 .0700 49 .0730
2 .0860 43 .0890 41 .0960
64 .0668 50 .0700 48 .0760
48 .0734 47 .0785 44 .0860
3 .0990 37 .1040 35 .1100
56 .0771 45 .0820 43 .0890
4 .1120 40 .0813 43 .0890 41 .0960 32 .1160 30 .1285
 48 .0864 42 .0935 40 .0980
40 .0943 38 .1015 7/64 .1094
5 .1250 30 .1285 29 .1360
44 .0971 37 .1040 35 .1100
32 .0997 36 .1065 32 .1160
6 .1380 27 .1440 25 .1495
40 .1073 33 .1130 31 .1200
32 .1257 29 .1360 27 .1440
8 .1640 18 .1695 16 .1770
36 .1299 29 .1360 26 .1470
24 .1389 25 .1495 20 .1610
10 .1900 9 .1960 7 .2010
32 .1517 21 .1590 18 .1695
24 .1649 16 .1770 12 .1890
12 .2160 28 .1722 14 .1820 10 .1935 2 .2210 1 .2280
32 .1777 13 .1850 9 .1960
20 .1887 7 .2010 7/32 .2188
1/4 .2500 28 .2062 3 .2130 1 .2280 F .2570 H .2660
32 .2117 7/32 .2188 1 .2280
18 .2443 F .2570 J .2770
5/16 .3125 24 .2614 I .2720 9/32 .2812 P .3230 Q .3320
32 .2742 9/32 .2812 L .2900
16 .2983 5/16 .3125 Q .3320
3/8 .3750 24 .3239 Q .3320 S .3480 W .3860 X .3970
32 .3367 11/32 .3438 T .3580
14 .3499 U .3680 25/64 .3906
7/16 .4375 20 .3762 25/64 .3906 13/32 .4062 29/64 .4531 15/32 .4687
28 .3937 Y .4040 Z .4130
13 .4056 27/64 .4219 29/64 .4531
1/2 .5000 20 .4387 29/64 .4531 15/32 .4688 33/64 .5156 17/32 .5312
28 .4562 15/32 .4688 15/32 .4688
12 .4603 31/64 .4844 33/64 .5156
9/16 .5625 18 .4943 33/64 .5156 17/32 .5312 37/64 .5781 19/32 .5938
24 .5114 33/64 .5156 17/32 .5312
11 .5135 17/32 .5312 9/16 .5625
5/8 .6250 18 .5568 37/64 .5781 19/32 .5938 41/64 .6406 21/32 .6562
24 .5739 37/64 .5781 19/32 .5938
11/16 .6875 24 .6364 41/64 .6406 21/32 .6562 45/64 .7031 23/32 .6562
10 .6273 21/32 .6562 11/16 .6875
3/4 .7500 16 .6733 11/16 .6875 45/64 .7031 49/64 .7656 25/32 .7812
20 .6887 45/64 .7031 23/32 .7188
13/16 .8125 20 .7512 49/64 .7656 25/32 .7812 53/64 .8281 27/32 .8438
7/8 .8750 9 .7387 49/64 .7656 51/64 .7969 57/64 .8906 29/32 .9062
14 .7874 13/16 .8125 53/64 .8281
 20 .8137 53/64 .8281 27/32 .8438
15/16 .9375 20 .8762 57/64 .8906 29/32 .9062 61/64 .9531 31/32 .9688
8 .8466 7/8 .8750 59/64 .9219
1 1.000 12 .8978 15/16 .9375 61/64 .9531 1-1/64 1.0156 1-1/32 1.0313
20 .9387 61/64 .9531 31/32 .9688
1-1/16 1.0625 18 .9943 1.000 1.000 1-1/64 1.0156 1-5/64 1.0781 1-3/32 1.0938
7 .9497 63/64 .9844 1-1/32 1.0313
1-1/8 1.1250 12 1.0228 1-3/64 1.0469 1-5/64 1.0781 1-9/64 1.1406 1-5/32 1.1562
18 1.0568 1-1/16 1.0625 1-5/64 1.0781
1-3/16 1.1875 18 1.1193 1-1/8 1.1250 1-9/64 1.1406 1-13/64 1.2031 1-7/32 1.2188
7 1.0747 1-7/64 1.1094 1-5/32 1.1562
1-
12 1.1478 1-11/64 1.1719 1.2031
1-1/4 1.2500 13/64 1-17/64 1.2656 1-9/32 1.2812
1-
18 1.1818 1-3/16 1.1875 1.2031
13/64
1-
1-5/16 1.3125 18 1.2443 1-1/4 1.2500 1.2656 1-21/64 1.3281 1-11/32 1.3438
17/64
1-
6 1.1705 1-7/32 1.2187 1.2656
17/64
1-
1-3/8 1.3750 12 1.2728 1-19/64 1.2969 1.3281 1-25/64 1.3906 1-13/32 1.4062
21/64
1-
18 1.3068 1-5/16 1.3125 1.3281
21/64
1-
1-7/16 1.4375 18 1.3693 1-3/8 1.3750 1.3906 1-29/64 1.4531 1-15/32 1.4688
25/64
1-
6 1.2955 1-11/32 1.3437 1.3906
25/64
1-1/2 1.500 12 1.3978 1-27/64 1.4219 1-7/16 1.4375 1-33/64 1.5156 1-17/32 1.5312
1-
18 1.4318 1-7/16 1.4375 1.4531
29/64
1-
1-9/16 1.5625 18 1.4943 1-12 1.500 1.5156 1-37/64 1.5781 1-19/32 1.5938
33/64
1-
1-5/8 1.625 18 1.5568 1-9/16 1.5625 1.5781 1-41/64 1.6406 1-21/32 1.6562
37/64
1-
1-11/16 1.6875 18 1.6193 1-5/8 1.6250 1.6406 1-45/64 1.7031 1-23/32 1.7188
41/64
1-3/4 1.750 5 1.5046 1-9/16 1.5625 1-5/8 1.6250 1-49/64 1.7659 1-25/32 1.7812

Surface Roughness Table - Shows the roughness average for different manufacturing processes
in micrometers and microinches. The values are shown with a typical range and a less frequent
range for each manufacturing process.
 Average Range
Less Frequent Range

Manufacturing Roughness Average

Process
Top Number - Micrometers
Bottom Number - (Microinches)
50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
(2000) (1000) (500) (250) (125) (63) (32) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1) (.5)

Flame Cutting
Snagging
Sawing
Planing, Shaping
Drilling
Chemical Milling
Elect Discharge
Machining
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Electron Beam
Laser
Electro-Chemical
Boring, Turning
Barrel Finishing

50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
(2000) (1000) (500) (250) (125) (63) (32) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1) (.5)

Electrolytic Grinding
Roller Burnishing
Grinding
Honing
Electro-Polish
Polishing
Lapping
Super Finishing
Sand Casting
Hot Rolling
Forging
Permanent Mold
Casting
Investment Casting
Extruding
Cold Rolling, Drawing
Die Casting

50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
(2000) (1000) (500) (250) (125) (63) (32) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1) (.5)