GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

VENTILATION

 Breathing; the process of moving air into and out of the lungs.

Airflow

Nose/Mouth --> Pharynx (Throat) --> Larynx (Voice Box) --> Trachea (Windpipe) --> Right
Bronchus --> Right Lungs; --> Left Bronchus (Left Lungs) --> Bronchi --> Bronchioles -->
Alveoli

 Airflow requires pressure gradient from outside of the body to the alveoli.

Pressure Gradient

 Combined forces of all the gases that makes up the air we breathe, provided by
atmospheric pressure.

 From the opposite side, gases created by the components of respiratory system.

P1 − P2
𝑓=
𝑅
Where,

F = airflow in a tube (milliliters per minute)

P1 = pressure at point 1

P2 = pressure at point 2

R = resistance to airflow

Air moves through tubes because of pressure difference, from area of higher pressure to
lower pressure. The greater the pressure difference, the faster the flow rate.

PRESSURE AND VOLUME

The pressure of a gas in a container at a constant temperature follows Boyle’s law:

𝐾
𝑃=
𝑉
Where,

P = pressure

K = constant for a given temperature

V = volume of the container

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pressure and volume is inversely proportional.

AIRFLOW IN AND OUT OF ALVEOLI

Measurements used to describe airflow into and out of lungs are the ff.

1. Barometric Air Pressure (PB): measures atmospheric air pressure outside the body;
always designates as zero (0)

2. Intra-alveolar Pressure (PALV): measurement of air pressure inside an alveolus; relative to

the barometer air pressure.

Inhalation: 759 mm Hg, PALV is expressed as - 1 mm Hg

Exhalation: 761 mm Hg, PALV is expressed as + 1 mm Hg

Movement of air into and out of the lungs results from the changes in thoracic volume,
which causes the change in alveolar volume. Changes in alveolar volume produces
change in intra-alveolar pressure.

CHANGE IN ALVEOLAR VOLUME

 Caused by lung recoil and changes in pleural pressure.

Lung recoil: tendency of lungs to decrease size after they are stretched.

Upon exhalation, tension on the lungs is released causing it to shrink; alveoli is compressed
and volume is reduced.

Pleural pressure: pressure within the pleural cavity. Pleural pressure is normally less than
intra-alveolar pressure for alveoli to be able to expand.

During inhalation, pleural pressure is negative (below atmospheric pressure); when

thoracic cavity expands, lungs are "pulled" outward.

Transpulmonary pressure: difference between intra-alveolar pressure and pleural

pressure.

Alveoli expands when the pull of visceral pleural against parietal pleural is stronger than
the pull of lung recoil.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

PRESSURE CHANGES DURING VENTILATION

During inspiration, pleural pressure decreases to - 7 mm Hg and alveolar volume

increases. Intra-alveolar pressure decreases below barometric air pressure causing the
air to flow into the lungs.

As the air flows into the lungs, intra-alveolar pressure increases and becomes equal to
the barometric pressure at the end of inspiration.

During the expiration, pleural pressure increases due to the reduced thoracic volume
and decreased lung recoil. As pleural pressure increases, alveolar pressure decreases,
intra-alveolar volume increases above barometric air pressure, causing the air to flow out
of the lungs.

As the air flows out of the lungs, intra-alveolar pressure decreases and becomes equal to
barometric pressure at the end of expiration.

Compliance of Lungs and Thorax

Normal person: 0.18 l/mm Hg

Compliance: measure of ease with which the lungs and thorax expand; increase for
each unit of change in alveolar pressure.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pulmonary Volume and Capacity

Spirometry: process lf measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory
system.

Spirometer: device used to measure the following pulmonary volumes:

1. Tidal volume is the normal volume of air inspired and expired with each breath. At rest,
quiet breathing results in a tidal volume of approximately 500 ml.

2. Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after a
normal inspiration (approximately 3000 mL at rest).
3. Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a
normal expiration (approximately 1100 mL at rest).
4. Residual volume is the volume of air still remaining in the respiratory passages and lungs
after the most forceful expiration (approximately 1200 mL).

Pulmonary capacities: sum of two or more pulmonary volumes.

1. Inspiratory capacity is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. It is the
amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (approximately
3500 mL at rest).
2. Functional residual capacity is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume.
It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration
(approximately 2300 mL at rest).

3. Vital capacity is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the
expiratory reserve volume. It is the maximum volume of air a person can expel from the
respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration (approximately 4600 mL).
4. Total lung capacity is the sum of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the
tidal volume and the residual volume (approximately 5800 mL).

Minute Volume and Alveolar Ventilation

Respiratory rate: number of breaths per minute.

Minute volume: volume of air that is moved through the respiratory system per minute.

Minute Volume = Tidal Volume × Respiratory Rate

Alveolar ventilation: measure of amount of air available for gas exchange per minute.

Dead space: structures of respiratory system where gas exchange does not take place;
accounted to calculate alveolar ventilation.

Anatomical dead space: 1mL of dead space per pound of an individual's "ideal" body
weight; includes nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal
bronchioles.
BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Physiological dead space: anatomical dead space plus the volume of any alveoli in
which the gas exchange is less than normal.

During inspiration, much of the inhaled air fills the dead space first before reaching the
alveoli, thus, unavailable for gas exchange.

VA = F (VT ‒ VD)

Where,

VA = alveolar ventilation (milliliters per minute)

F = respiratory rate (frequency; breaths per minute)

VT = tidal volume (milliliters per respiration)

VD = dead space (milliliters per respiration)

GAS EXCHANGE

 Diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

Molecules of gases moves randomly down their partial pressure gradient from the air
into the blood for O2, and from the blood into the air for CO2.

Partial pressure: one measurement to express the amount a gas that is present in a
mixture.

Dalton’s Law: total pressure of a gas is the sum of individual pressure of each gas.

Diffusion of Gases Into and Out of Liquids

 Gas molecules move from air into liquid, or from liquid into air, down to their
partial pressure gradient.
 Moves from higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
 Equilibrium partial pressure of gases of air = partial pressure of gases of liquid.

Henry’s Law:
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 × 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

Diffusion of Gases through the Respiratory Membrane

 Oxygen diffuses across the respiratory membrane.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Four major factors influence the rate of gas diffusion through the respiratory
membrane:

Respiratory Membrane Thickness

 the average thickness of respiratory membrane is 0.6 µm

 Increasing thickness due to diseases decrease the rate of gas diffusion.
 Most common cause of increased respiratory thickness is an accumulation
of fluid in the alveoli, or pulmonary edema caused by the failure of left side
of the heart, inflammation of tissues from deceases such as tuberculosis,
pneumonia, advanced silicosis, can also cause pulmonary edema.

Diffusion Coefficient

 Measurement of the ease a gas can diffuse into and out of the liquid or
tissue.
 Accounts the solubility of gas in liquid and the size of gas molecule
(molecular weight).

Surface Area

 Approximately 70m2 in a healthy adult

 When the total surface are of respiratory membrane is decreased to one-
third or one-fourth of normal, the exchange of gases is restricted even
under resting condition.

Partial Pressure Gradient

 Determining factor of gas movement direction

 If partial pressure gradient of a gas is higher in alveolus, it will diffuse into the
blood.
 If the partial pressure gradient is higher in blood, in will diffuse into alveolus.
 From higher to lower pressure.
 Partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) is greater in alveoli than in the blood of
pulmonary capillaries; partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO 2)is greater in
the blood than in alveolar air.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD

Oxygen transport
- Once oxygen diffuses through the respiratory membrane into the blood about
98.5% of it combines with hemoglobin, and a smaller amount (1.5%) dissolves in
the plasma. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the pulmonary capillaries through
the blood vessels to the tissue Capillaries, where some of the oxygen is released.
The oxygen diffuses from the blood to tissue cells, where it is used in aerobic
respiration
- Hemoglobin with O2 bound to its heme groups are called OXYHEMOGLOBIN
- The ability of hemoglobin to bind to O2 depends on the P O2.
1. At high PO2 = hemoglobin binds to O2
2. At low PO2 = hemoglobin releases O2
 In the LUNGS PO2 normally, is sufficient high so that the hemoglobin holds as
much PO2 as it can.
 In the TISSUES PO2 is lower.
 The Hemoglobin releases O2 in the tissues. Oxygen diffuses into cells which us it
in CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
 At rest, approximately 23% of the O2 picked up by hemoglobin in the lungs is
released to the tissues.
 INCREASING FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF O2 RELEASED FROM
OXYHEMOGLOBIN.
1. LOW PO2
2. HIGHPcO2
3. LOW PH
4. HIGH TEMPERATURE
 Increased muscular activity = decreased PO2
 As the pH of the blood declines, the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin at
any given PO2 also declines. This occurs because decreased pH results from an
increase in H+, and the H+ combines with the protein part of the hemoglobin
molecule and changes its three dimensional structure, causing a decrease in the
hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen.
 Conversely, an increase in blood pH results in an increase in hemoglobin’s ability
to bind oxygen. The effect of pH on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is
called the Bohr effect, after its discoverer, Christian Bohr
 Effect of BPG
- As red blood cells metabolize glucose for energy, they produce a by-product
called 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG; formerly called diphosphoglycerate).
BPG binds to hemoglobin, reducing its affinity for oxygen, which increases its
ability to release oxygen. A potent trigger for increased BPG production is low
blood oxygen.
BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

- Consequently, during physical exercise, as much as 73% of the O2, picked up

by oxyhemoglobin in the lungs is released into skeletal muscles.

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood PH

Cells produce carbon dioxide during aerobic respiration. The carbon dioxide diffuses
from the cells where it is produced into the tissue capillaries.

Once carbon dioxide enters the blood, it is transported in three ways:

1. About 7% is transported as CO2 dissolved in the plasma

2. 23% is transported bound to blood proteins, primarily haemoglobin
3. 70% is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions

 An increase in PcO2 also decreases hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen because

of the effect of carbon dioxide on pH. Within red blood cells, an enzyme called
carbonic anhydrase catalyzes this reversible reaction:

Carbonic anhydrase

CO2 + H2O →← H2CO3 →← H+ + HCO3−

Carbon Water Carbonic Hydrogen Bicarbonate dioxide acid ion.

 As carbon dioxide levels increase, more H+ is produced, and the pH declines. As

carbon dioxide levels decline, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction,
resulting in a decrease in H+ concentration and an increase in pH.
 Thus, changes in carbon dioxide levels indirectly produce a Bohr effect by altering
pH.
 Carbon dioxide can directly affect hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen to a small
extent. When carbon dioxide binds to the α- and β-globin chains of hemoglobin,
hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen decreases.
 As blood passes through tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide enters the blood from
the tissues. As a consequence, blood carbon dioxide levels increase, pH
decreases, and hemoglobin has less affinity for oxygen in the tissue capillaries

CARBON DIOXIDE EXCHANGE IN TISSUES

 Removing HCO3 from inside the red blood cells promotes carbon dioxide
transport because, as the HCO3 concentration decreases, more carbon dioxide
combines with water to form additional HCO3 and H+

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 In a process called CHLORIDE SHIFT, antiporters exchange Cl− for HCO3. This
exchange maintains electrical balance in the red blood cells and plasma as
HCO3 diffuses out of, and Cl− diffuses into, red blood cells.

Hydrogen ions bind to hemoglobin resulting in three effects:

(1) The transport of carbon dioxide increases because, as H+ concentration

decreases, more carbon dioxide combines with water to form additional HCO3
and H+;
(2) the pH inside the red blood cells does not decrease because hemoglobin is a
buffer, preventing an increase in H+ concentration;

(3) the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen decreases. Hemoglobin releases oxygen
in tissue capillaries because of decreased PO2

 Hemoglobin’s decreased affinity for oxygen shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin

dissociation curve to the right (the Bohr effect) and results in an increase in
the release of oxygen from hemoglobin.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Approximately 23% of blood carbon dioxide is transported bound to

hemoglobin. Many carbon dioxide molecules bind in a reversible fashion to
the α- and β-globin chains of haemoglobin molecules (figure 23.19a, step
7). Carbon dioxide’s ability to bind to hemoglobin is affected by the
amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin.
 The smaller the amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin, the greater the
amount of carbon dioxide able to bind to it, and vice versa. This relationship
is called the HALDANE EFFECT. In tissues, as hemoglobin releases oxygen,
the hemoglobin gains an increased ability to pick up carbon dioxide.

CARBON DIOXIDE EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS

 Carbon dioxide diffuses from red blood cells and plasma into the alveoli.
 As carbon dioxide levels in the red blood cells decrease, carbonic acid is
converted to carbon dioxide and water. In response, HCO3 join with H+ to
form carbonic acid.
 As HCO3 and H+ concentrations decrease because of this reaction, HCO3
enters red blood cells in exchange for Cl−, and H+ is released from
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in pulmonary capillaries
because of increased PO2.
BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 The release of H+ from hemoglobin increases hemoglobin’s affinity for

oxygen, shifting the oxygen-hemoglobin curve to the left (Bohr effect).
 Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the pulmonary capillaries and into the
red blood cells, where it binds with hemoglobin.
 Carbon dioxide is released from hemoglobin and diffuses out of the red
blood cells into the alveoli.
 As hemoglobin binds to oxygen, it more readily releases carbon dioxide
(Haldane effect).

CARBON
DIOXIDE AND BLOOD PH
 Blood pH refers to the pH in plasma, not inside red blood cells.
 As plasma carbon dioxide levels increase, H+ levels increase, and blood pH
decreases.
 An important function of the respiratory system is to regulate blood pH by
changing plasma carbon dioxide levels.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Hyperventilation decreases plasma carbon dioxide, and hypoventilation

increases it.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

RHYTHMIC VENTILATION
 Normal rate of respiration
 Adult: 12-20 rpm
 Children: 20-40 rpm
 Controlled by neurons within the medulla oblongata that stimulate the muscles of
respiration
 Increased depth of respiration results from stronger contractions of the respiratory
muscles caused by recruitment of muscle fibers and increased frequency of
stimulation of muscle fibers.
 rate of respiration is determined by the number of times respiratory muscles are
stimulated

RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM

 processing (inspiration-expiration) is mainly in brainstem
 Medullary respiratory center
 Contains two groups each forming longitudinal column of cells located
bilaterally in either dorsal or ventral part of the medulla oblongata
 Two dorsal respiratory groups
 Two ventral respiratory groups – stimulates external and external
intercostal, and abdominal muscles
 Responsible for stimulating contraction of the diaphragm
 Generates basic pattern of spontaneous, rhythmic ventilation
 Pontine respiratory group
 Collection of neurons in the pons
 Has connections with the medullary respiratory center
 Appears to play a role in switching between inspiration and expiration

GENERATION OF RHYTMIC VENTILATION

 Involves integration of stimuli that start and stop inspiration
 Starting inspiration
 Neurons are actively promoting inspiration
 Receptors are actively receiving stimulations such as blood gas levels
and movements of muscles and joints
 When inputs reach threshold level, neurons that stimulate respiratory
muscles produce action potentials and inspiration starts
 Increasing inspiration
 More and more neurons are being activated
 Lasts for approximately 2 seconds
 Stopping inspiration

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 The stimulating inspiration neuron is also responsible for stimulating

expiration, thus it will also receive input from pontine respiratory neurons,
stretch receptors in the lungs, and other sources
 When inputs exceed, neurons stimulating respiratory muscles will be
inhibited
 Relaxation of respiratory muscles or expiration happens for about 3
seconds

MODIFICATION OF VENTILATION
 Medullary neurons’ activities can be influenced by input from other parts of the brain
and by input from peripherally located receptors

NERVOUS CONTROL OF VENTILATION

 Higher brain centers can modify the activity of the respiratory center
 Controlling air movements in and out of lungs (holding breath)
 when neurons signal that there is lack of oxygen in the body, the person
will breathe again automatically
 Reflexes such as sneeze and cough reflexes
 Hering-Breuer reflex support rhythmic respiratory movements by limiting
the extent of inspiration; through stretch receptors in the lungs
 When the action potentials from the lung stretch receptors are sent to
the medulla oblongata, they inhibit respiratory center neurons and
cause expiration
 Gasp as response (in splashing water or being pinched)
 Touch, thermal, and pain receptors in the skin stimulates respiratory
center

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF VENTILATION

 Carbon dioxide levels in the blood are the major driving force for regulating
respiration.
 Small increase in CO2 levels causes increase in ventilation
 Large increase in CO2 (holding breath) causes powerful urge to take a breath
 Hypercapnia – greater than normal amount of CO2 in the blood
 When CO2 levels changes, blood pH changes are being monitored because
changes in CO2 causes changes in pH.
 Two things are accomplished through the chemical regulation of ventilation:
1. Homeostatic levels of CO2 and O2 are maintained
2. pH homeostasis is maintained
 Chemoreceptors – sensitive to small changes in blood pH

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 When chemoreceptors detected increased blood pH level, the respiratory

center decreases ventilation, which decreases the removal of CO2 from the
blood
 When chemoreceptors detected decreased blood pH level, the respiratory
center increases ventilation, which increases the removal of CO2 from the
blood.
 Chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies – respond to changes in blood
oxygen
 This is important especially when hypoxia happens, a decline to low levels
 Examples: exposure to high altitudes, emphysema, shock, and asphyxiation –
these conditions have low level of O2 but with normal CO2 level
 When these happen, carotid and aortic bodies chemoreceptors send
action potentials to the respiratory center and produce an increase in
the rate and depth of respiration.
 Increased ventilation – oxygen diffusion increased from alveoli into the
blood – increased blood O2

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VENTILATION

Ventilation during exercise can be divided into two phases:

1. Ventilation increases abruptly

2. Ventilation increases gradually

 Aerobic exercise
 average arterial O2, CO2, and pH levels remain constant
 however, values either rise or fall more than at rest, causes signal for helping to
control ventilation
 Anaerobic threshold
 Highest level of exercise that can be performed without causing a significant
change in blood pH
 Lactic acid produced releases into the blood, decreasing blood pH; stimulates
carotid bodies, resulting in increased ventilation
 So much increased in ventilation  below normal level decreased arterial
CO2 – above normal increased arterial O2 levels

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 In response to training, athletic performance increases because the cardiovascular

and respiratory systems become more efficient at delivering oxygen and picking up
carbon dioxide.
 Ventilation does not limit performance in most individuals because ventilation can
increase to a greater extent than does cardiovascular function.
 After training, vital capacity increases slightly, and residual volume decreases slightly.
- Tidal volume at rest and during submaximal exercise does not change.
- At maximal exercise, however, tidal volume increases.
 After training, the respiratory rate at rest or during submaximal exercise is slightly lower
than in an untrained person but, at maximal exercise, the respiratory rate is generally
increased.
 Minute ventilation is affected by the changes in tidal volume and respiratory rate.
 After training, minute ventilation is essentially unchanged or slightly reduced at rest
and is slightly reduced during submaximal exercise.
 Minute ventilation is greatly increased at maximal exercise.
 For example, an untrained person’s minute ventilation of 120 L/min can increase to
150 L/min after training. Increases to 180 L/min are typical of highly trained athletes.
 Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood increases at maximal exercise
following training. The increased minute ventilation results in increased alveolar
ventilation. In addition, increased cardiovascular efficiency allows greater blood
flow through the lungs, especially the superior parts of the lungs.

CONCLUSION
Breathing is critical for homeostasis. It provides our bodies with crucial oxygen and
expels carbon dioxide, a potentially toxic waste product. Our respiratory system helps us
breathe. Breathing is formally called respiration. For complete exchange of oxygen (O2)
and carbon dioxide (CO2) in respiration, four steps occur simultaneously:

1. Ventilation. This is what most of us think of as breathing. It is the movements of

the thorax and certain muscles that cause air to go into and out of our lungs.

2. External respiration. Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs and CO2 exits the
blood in the lungs.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO
 GROUP 4 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

3. Gas transport. Carbon dioxide and O2 are circulated in the blood to and from
tissues.

4. Internal respiration. Gas exchange with the tissues involves the exit of O2 from
blood to move into the tissues, while CO2 exits the tissues to enter the blood.

It can be confusing to hear the term respiration alone because sometimes it also
refers to cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration; in fact, the two processes are related.
Breathing provides the O2 needed in cellular respiration to make ATP from glucose.
Breathing also rids the body of potentially toxic CO2, the waste produced during cellular
respiration.

In addition to respiration, the respiratory system performs the following functions:

1. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system can alter blood pH by

changing blood CO2 levels.

2. Production of chemical mediators. The lungs produce an enzyme called

angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which is an important
component of blood pressure regulation.

3. Voice production. Air moving past the vocal folds makes sound and
speech possible.

4. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are

drawn into the nasal cavity.

5. Protection. The respiratory system provides protection against some

microorganisms by preventing them from entering the body and
removing them from respiratory surfaces.

BUATES
CUNANAN
GANALON
LUCERO