Spoon Injection Project Report

INJECTION MOULDING PROCESSING ANALYSIS OF POLYLACTIC
ACID AND LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC SPOON
WONG QIN YAN
A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of Bachelor of Engineering
(Hons.) Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Science

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
September 2012
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project report is based on my original work except for
citations and quotations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it
has not been previously and concurrently submitted for any other degree or award at
UTAR or other institutions.
Signature : _________________________
Name : _________________________
ID No. : _________________________
Date : _________________________
iii
APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION
I certify that this project report entitled “INJECTION MOULDING

PROCESSING ANALYSIS OF POLYLACTIC ACID AND LOW-DENSITY
POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC SPOON” was prepared by WONG QIN YAN has
met the required standard for submission in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of Bachelor of Engineering (Hons.) Chemical Engineering at Universiti
Tunku Abdul Rahman.
Approved by,
Signature : _________________________
Supervisor : Dr. Lee Tin Sin
Date : _________________________
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The copyright of this report belongs to the author under the terms of the
copyright Act 1987 as qualified by Intellectual Property Policy of University Tunku
Abdul Rahman. Due acknowledgement shall always be made of the use of any
material contained in, or derived from, this report.
© 2012, Wong Qin Yan. All right reserved.

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Specially dedicated to
my beloved mother, father, and my brothers
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of
several individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their
valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. It has been a
great privilege to spend few years in the Department of Chemical Engineering at
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman.
First and foremost, my utmost gratitude goes to Dr. Lee Tin Sin, who has
been an excellent supervisor, and has supported me in every way through the one
whole year. He has been a real inspiration for taking a creative and innovative
approach to injection moulding simulation problems. Besides that, he patiently
provided me the encouragement and advises in order to allow me to complete my
dissertation.
I would also like to thank all my dearest friends for their kindness, friendship
and support. This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support
from you all.
Last but not the least, I would like to extent my deepest thanks for my family
constant support, especially my parents Wong Ah Chee and Phua June Yeang.
Without them, I couldn’t overcome difficulties during tough times. Their love
provided my inspiration and was my driving force. I hope that this work makes you
proud.
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INJECTION MOULDING PROCESSING ANALYSIS OF POLYLACTIC

ACID AND LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC SPOON
ABSTRACT
In this study, the injection moulding processability of polylactic acid (PLA) and low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) were investigated with the aid of Moldflow® software.
The effects of the process conditions for both polymeric materials were studied and
compared by varying the process parameters. PLA was claimed to be one of the
biodegradable polymers which would replace for most of the non-biodegradable
petrochemical-derived monomers. Plastic spoon (PLSN) design was selected in
determine the processability for PLA (PLSN001) and LDPE (PLSN002). The
optimum processing behaviour for both work piece designs was characterized
according to injection temperature and pressure, mould temperature, volumetric
shrinkage and frozen layer fraction. As conclusion, the simulation outcomes showed
PLSN001 required longer fill time, higher injection temperature and pressure due to
its high viscosity. However, PLSN002 possessed semicrystalline properties exhibited
higher volumetric shrinkages as compared to PLSN001 which possessed amorphous
properties. This was due to the higher transition of specific volume and extensive
crystallization occurred in PLSN002 upon cooling. Besides that, PLSN001 exhibited
higher TPW (37.525 g) as compared to PLSN002 (27.2341 g) due to the differences
of compressibility and molten-solid density in both polymeric materials. Moldflow®
simulation analyses also showed PLSN001 exhibited higher FLFT corresponds to the
moulding period compared to PLSN002 due to its higher viscosity in PLA. The
higher differences in mould temperature and fresh injected molten polymer
temperature led to higher heat transfer and thus higher frozen layer fraction. In order
to achieve stable and economical production, both PLSN001 and PLSN002 required
at least 30 s holding time.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ii
APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
ABSTRACT vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS xiii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statements 4
1.3 Objectives 5
1.4 Scopes 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 7
2.1.1 Physical Properties of PLA 8
2.2 Injection Moulding Technology 13
2.2.1 Injection Moulding Design 14
2.2.2 Injection Moulding Stages 17
2.3 Gate Design 20
2.3.1 Positioning Gates 20
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2.4 Warpage and Residual Stresses 21
3 METHODOLOGY 23
3.1 Procedure 23
3.1.1 Look-up for Plastic Spoon Design 23
3.1.2 Drawing of Plastic Spoon Geometry 24
3.1.3 Collect Required Models Information of Materials 24
3.1.4 Simulation and Analysis of Results 24
3.2 Plastic Spoon Design and Modelling 25
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 28

4.1 Injection moulding simulation of Plastic Spoon (PLSN) 28
4.2 Simulation Analysis of PLSN001 29
4.2.1 Injection Temperature 30
4.2.2 Mould Temperature 32
4.2.3 Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) 34
4.3 Simulation Analysis of PLSN002 35
4.3.1 Injection Temperature 36
4.3.2 Mould Temperature 38
4.3.3 Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) 41
4.4 Filling and packing simulation 41
4.4.1 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at filling stage
42
4.4.2 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at packing
stage 46
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 50

5.1 Processability of PLSN001 and PLSN002 50
5.2 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at filling stage 51
5.3 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at packing stage 52
5.4 Recommendations 52
REFERENCES 53
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
4.1 Fill Time and TPW for Various Melt Temperature

during Constant Mould Temperature (25 ℃) and
VPSO (125 MPa) 30

during Constant Melt Temperature (210 ℃) and
VPSO (125 MPa) 33
‎4.3 Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during

Constant Melt Temperature (210 ℃) and Mould
Temperature (25 ℃) 35

during Constant Mould Temperature (25 ℃) and
VPSO (8 MPa) 37
4.5 Fill Time and TPW for Various Mould

Temperature during Constant Melt Temperature
(200 ℃) and VPSO (8 MPa) 39
4.6 Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during

Constant Melt Temperature (200 ℃) and Mould
Temperature (30 ℃) 41
‎4.7 Basic Simulation Setting of PLSN001 and

PLSN002 42
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
‎1.1 Major Applications of Moulded Plastic Parts

(Stevens, 2002) 1
2.1 Polymerizaton Routes to Polylactic Acid (PLA)

(Henton et al., 2005) 8
2.2 DSC Scan of PET and PLA (Blackburn et al., 2005)

10
‎2.3 Comparison of Glass Transition and Melting

Temperatures of PLA with Other Thermoplastics
(Lim et al., 2008) 10
‎2.4 Glass Transition Temperature for PLAs of

Different Ratio Distribution of D- and L- Isomers
in the Polymer Chains as a Function of Molecular
Weight (Lim et al., 2008). 11
‎2.5 Pressure Affected Shear Viscosity Data of

PLA4060D at Temperatures of 170 ℃, and 190 ℃;
Symbols Stand for Experimental Data, while the
Solid Lines Represent Data Fitting by the Carreau-
Yasuda Model (Piyamanocha et al., 2011) 12
3.1 3D Geometrical View of Plastic Spoon (PLSN)

with Dimension 26
3.2 Fusion Meshed for Plastic Spoon (PLSN) 27
3.3 Duplication of Four Cavities for PLSN 27
4.1 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN001 when Melt

Temperature at 210 ℃, Mould Temperature at
25 ℃ and VPSO at 125 MPa 29
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‎4.2 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN001 when Melt

25 ℃, VPSO at 125 MPa 31
4.3 Viscosity Model for Polylactic Acid (PLA) 31
4.4 Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship

Model for Polylactic Acid (PLA) 32
4.5 Volumetric Shrinkage Illustrations at Mould

Temperature (a) 20 ℃ (b) 25 ℃ 34
4.6 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN002 when Melt

30 ℃ and VPSO at 8 MPa 36
4.7 Viscosity Model for Low-Density Polyethylene

(LDPE) 37
4.8 Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship

Model for Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 38
4.9 Volumetric Shrinkage Illustration at Mould

Temperature (a) 20 ℃ (b) 25 ℃ (c) 30 ℃ (d)
35 ℃ 40
4.10 Filling Simulation Screen Outputs of (a) PLSN001

and (b) PLSN002 44
4.11 FLFE Illustrations (a) PLSN001 and (b) PLSN002

at Their Optimum Process Condition 45
4.12 Volumetric Shrinkages Illustrations for (a)

PLSN001 and (b) PLSN002 at Optimum Process
Conditions 47
4.13 Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN001

Corresponds to Moulding Period 49
4.14 Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN002

Corresponds to Moulding Period 49
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LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS
Tg glass transition temperature, ℃

Tm melting temperature, ℃
s seconds
shear viscosity
VPSO velocity/pressure switch over, MPa
3D three dimensional
AI an intelligent
CAE computer aided engineering
CBRS cased based reasoning system
DOE design of experiment
DSC differential scanning calorimetry
FLFE frozen layer fraction at end fill
FLFT frozen layer fraction
LDPE low-density polyethyene
MPI moldflow plastic insight
PET poly(ethylene terephathlate)
PLA polylactic acid
PLSN plastic spoon
PLSN001 PLA plastic spoon
PLSN002 LDPE plastic spoon
PP polypropylene
PS polystyrene
PVOH polyvinyl alcohol
xiv
PVT pressure-volume-temperature
RBS rule-based expert system
TPW total part weights
CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Plastic industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Over the past
decades, the versatility of polymer materials permits the creativity in product
innovations and replacement for conventional materials such as paper, glass, ceramic,
and metals. Plastic materials with the chemical and physical properties that can be
changed certainly make it possesses higher possibility in making conceivable and
usable commodity. These unique properties and characteristics also makes plastic
moulded parts widely used in various applications such as building, consumer
products, transportation and agricultures (Stevens, 2002).
Figure 1.1: Major Applications of Moulded Plastic Parts (Stevens, 2002)

2
Recently, the studies and development of naturally occurring biodegradable

polymeric materials has been widely focused due to the increasing awareness on
environmental issues. The conventional synthetic polymer which obtained from
petrochemical-derived monomers is non-biodegradable resulted to the environmental
issues. In combatting the issues arise; polylactic acid (PLA), a linear aliphatic
biodegradable polyester is introduced, in which it can fully produce from renewable
resources such as corn and sugarcane (Blackburn et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2008).
PLA which is biodegradable promises to reduce the CO2 level in the Earth’s (Oever
et al., 2010; Blackburn et al., 2005). In addition, PLA is a bio-based polymer
equipped with unique properties that are competitive with other polymeric materials
such as polyolefin.
Injection moulding is one of the ideal and economically processing

technologies used in most of the plastic production today. The technology is suitable
for various types of polymeric materials and it has high capability in fabricating
plastic parts with complex geometry and shapes with high dimensional steadiness,
low manufacture and low costs (Chen et al., 2009). The plastic injection moulding
process involves three significant stages in each cycle. First, the mould cavity is
filled with melt hot polymeric material at an injection temperature (filling and post-
filling stage). The heat of polymer is removed in the cooling channels (cooling stage)
and last stage where the solidified part is ejected (ejection stage) (Hassan et al.,
2009). Many researchers found that the injection moulding parameters have the
crucial effects on designing the economical and good quality of mould for
thermoplastic product (Kwong et al., 1997; Lotti et al., 2002; Chen et al., 2005;
Patcharaphun and Mennig, 2007). Correspondingly, moulding personnel with depth
experience, rheology studies and heuristic knowledge is required to avoid the
production of defective products. There are many approaches used to optimizing the
parameters in injection moulding such as on-line trial and error method, design of
experiment (DOE) (Sofuoglu, 2006; Chen et al., 2009; Yang, 2006), case based
reasoning (CBRS) (Kwong et al., 1997) and simulation to ensure the mould designed
fabricated in good quality in terms of appearance and mechanical properties.
3
Traditionally, most of the industries employed on-line trial and error method,
where the moulding personnel might take a period of time in optimizing the
moulding parameters. As in modern industries, the time consuming non-simulation
approaches are substituted with computer aided engineering (CAE) analysis software
such as Moldflow®, C-MOLD™, and Moldex3D®. These CAE software assisted in
injection moulding simulation by providing output results such as flow pattern, fill
time, air traps, frozen layer fraction, orientation at skin, weld lines, etc. which
virtually explained the flow pattern of the melted polymer in the mould during filling,
packing and cooling stages (Moldflow Corporation, 2004). Moreover, injection
moulding simulation not only helps in modelling the process and flow pattern
analysis, it also developed the visual and numerical feedback interpretation results as
the guidance in achieving optimum moulding parameters, compatibility of materials
used, and reduced the process cycle time and cost expenses in mould modification.
Rahman et al. (2008) performed the studied and comparison between solid
and hollow design of window frame fabrication by injection moulding process with
the aid of Moldflow® software. The hollow design window frame was chosen due to
it lower thickness and thus lower material and operation cost required in production.
However, the shortcoming was the high tonnage machine required for injection
moulding. Lee et al. (2012) used Moldflow® to investigate the processing parameters
for a name tag article design using polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) – starch polymer with
different composition (PV55 and PV46). PV55 and PV46 were compared in the
research. The analysis found that PV55 required higher injection pressure compare to
PV46. Besides that, PV55 also showed higher volumetric shrinkage than PV46. In
order to achieve stable production, both of the design required minimum 20 s holding
time. Imihezri et al. (2006) performed the aid of Moldflow® to designed the
polyamide 6,6 reinforced for 30% glass for polymeric composite automotive clutch
pedals. The finding for the “X” and “V” rib pattern showed “V” rib was more
compatible to be incorporated as the composite clutch pedal due to the lower cost
and ease of mould manufacturing.
4
In this study, the aim was to determine of the processability of PLA

biodegradable polymer and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) using Moldflow®
Plastic Insight (MPI) 5.0 where the optimum processing condition can be obtained.
The simulation analysis results obtained for both different polymeric materials were
then compared using the same mould. This injection moulding simulation analysis is
important in providing the preliminary decision making regarding the processability
of the material, particularly in mould design. Initially, the thermal properties and the
rheology data of the material are embedded into MPI database before the injection
moulding simulation analysis. The thermal properties such as heat capacity, linear
thermal expansion coefficient, thermal conductivity, and pressure-volume-
temperature (PVT) relationship is important for a CAE program for higher accuracy
in the melt flow behaviour for the material (Rahman et al., 2008), where the shortage
of these basis data and information, the flow analysis simulation are hardly to
continued (Cichocki and Thomason, 2002). For the plastic spoon three dimensional
(3D) geometrical drawing was done by SolidWorks®. The drawing was further
imported into MPI 5.0 for injection moulding simulation analysis where the
mechanical properties and processing parameters were compared for PLA and LDPE.
These results will be helpful in initiating the optimum processing of PLA products by
injection moulding process in future.
1.2 Problem Statements
In injection moulding simulation, the process condition of the moulded parts can be
affected by different processing parameters. There were problem statements found in
processing plastic spoon (PLSN) for different polymeric materials. The problem
statements were as followed:
1. What are the effects of injection temperature on processability for PLA

Plastic Spoon (PLSN001) and LDPE Plastic Spoon (PLSN002)?
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2. What are the effects of mould temperature on the processability of PLSN001

and PLSN002?
3. What are the effects of Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) on the

processability of PLSN001 and PLSN002?
4. What are aspects that determine the differences between the processability of
PLSN001 and PLSN002 during filling and packing stages?
1.3 Objectives
There were objectives established to carry out the injection moulding simulation of
PLSN with different polymeric materials (PLSN001 and PLSN002) using
Moldflow®. The objectives were as followed:
1. To investigate the effects of injection temperature on processability for

PLSN001 and PLSN002.
2. To investigate the effects of mould temperature on the processability of

PLSN001 and PLSN002.
3. To determine the effects of Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) on the

processability of PLSN001 and PLSN002.
4. To determine and compare the aspects that affects the processability of

PLSN001 and PLSN002 during filling and packing stages.
6
1.4 Scopes
In order to achieve the objectives within the scheduled time frame, following scopes
are formed.
1. Literature studies and selection on the design of plastic spoon (PLSN).
2. 3D geometrical drawing of PLSN designed and done by SolidWorks® 2010.
3. Designed 3D geometrical drawing of PLSN saved in IGES format and

imported into Moldflow® programme.
4. Injection moulding of simulation analysis on PLSN001 and PLSN002

includes flowing and packing analysis, where the cooling assumed to be
perfect cooling in 20 s.
CHAPTER 2
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
Polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the well-known aliphatic polyesters that fully derived
from renewable resources such as corn and sugar beets (Hamad et al., 2011).
Recently, there were more studies on PLA, the biopolymer as the alternative for
conventional polymeric materials due to its properties. The studies and findings
shows that PLA are readily biodegradable into nontoxic compounds and comprises
properties similar to polystyrene (PS) (Rao et al., 2011; Balakrishnan et al., 2010);
poly(ethylene terephathlate) (PET) (Ahmed et al., 2009; Auras et al., 2003); and
performs like polypropylene(PP), a polyolefin (Henton et al., 2005). Garlatto (2001)
found that PLA can be further processed into usable commodity using injection
moulding, compression moulding, thermoforming and etc.
PLA can be synthesized by direct condensation of lactic acid or the ring-

opening polymerization of the cyclic lactide dimer as shown in Figure 2.1 (Henton et
al., 2005). Most studies focus on the ring-opening polymerization routes instead of
direct condensation route due to the difficulties in water removal during last stages of
polymerization which relatively limits the final molecular weight attainable. Henton
et al. (2005) mentioned that Cargill Dow LLC has first developed the low cost
continuous process and patented in PLA production.
8
Figure 2.1: Polymerizaton Routes to Polylactic Acid (PLA) (Henton et al., 2005)
PLA possess good mechanical properties, high modulus, biocompatibility,

good heat sealability, thermal plasticity and is readily fabricated which thereby
making PLA a promising biopolymers for different applications and plastic
commodity (Fang and Hanna, 1999; Balakrishnan et al., 2010). In future, PLA will
be one of the favourable biopolymer used in commodity plastic industry. In spite of
these favourable features, there are deficiencies which limit the application of PLA
such as low toughness, flexural, impact, inherent brittleness, and thermal stability
(Balakrishnan et al., 2010; Rao et al., 2011; Way et al., 2012). Therefore, PLA had
to enhance its physical properties and processability through various approaches such
as copolymerization, blending and incorporation of filler materials to widen its
application in commodity plastic and compete with other conventional polymer such
as PP and PET (Ahmed et al., 2010; Balakrishnan et al., 2010).
2.1.1 Physical Properties of PLA
Commercially, high molecular weight PLA is obtained from the lactide ring-opening
polymerization route where its physical characteristics are greatly depend on its glass
transition temperature (Tg) for merits such as thermal properties, crystallization
behaviour, and mechanical and rheological properties (Henton et al., 2005). The
pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) and rheology data of PLA were fitted into
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mathematical model which embedded into Moldflow® database for injection

moulding simulation analysis later.
2.1.1.1 Thermal Properties
Henton et al. (2005) stated that both glass transition temperature (Tg) and melting
temperature (Tm) of semi-crystalline PLA are important to determine the temperature
used in fabricate different plastic parts. PLA is rubber when its temperature is above
Tg (~58 ℃) and became glass when its below Tg. When the PLA below Tg are cooled
to its transition temperature (~-45 ℃), it capable to creep and behave as a brittle
polymer.
The Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) scans obtained from PET and
PLA were compared and shown in Figure 2.2 (Blackburn et al., 2005). The DSC
scan showed the endothermic peaks (Tm) for PET and PLA are 254 ℃ and 166 ℃
respectively. PLA exhibits lower melting point compared to PET indicates that there
were limitations for PLA in fabricating various plastic commodities. The Tg and Tm
of PLA also compared with other thermoplastics as shown in Figure 2.3 (Lim et al.,
2008). It shows that PLA exhibiting high Tg and low Tm compared with other
polymers.
The properties of PLA is greatly depends on the molecular weights and the
optical purity of the polymer. The properties can be modified in which the D- and L-
isomers distribution ratio in the chain are changed. Figure 2.4 shows the different
ratio distribution of D- and L- isomers in the polymer chains as a function of
molecular weight, where it can be seen that the PLA with high content of L- lactide
exhibits higher Tg compared to the D- lactide (Lim et al., 2008). According to
Farrington et al. (2005), the melting points can be range from 130 ℃ to 220 ℃. Tsuji
and Ikada (1996) reported the similar relationship.
10
Figure 2.2: DSC Scan of PET and PLA (Blackburn et al., 2005)
Figure 2.3: Comparison of Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures of PLA

with Other Thermoplastics (Lim et al., 2008)
11
Figure 2.4: Glass Transition Temperature for PLAs of Different Ratio

Distribution of D- and L- Isomers in the Polymer Chains as a Function of
Molecular Weight (Lim et al., 2008).
2.1.1.2 Rheology Properties
The rheology data of PLA was mathematically model fitted before it is embedded
into Moldflow® database for injection moulding simulation analysis. The shear
viscosity, η plays an important role on the effect of thermal processes such as
injection moulding.
A viscosity function (or model) is essential to model the injection moulding

processes where it aims to match the observed behaviour of PLA as similar as
possible. Koszkul and Nabialek (2004) studied the numerical simulation of the
injection moulding by using various the rheological models such as power law
models, Moldflow second order model, Moldflow matrix data, Ellis model, Carreau
model and Cross Model for a processed polymer. In Lehermeier and Dorgan (2001)
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studied, they developed Carreau-Yasuda model in modelling the viscosity and shear
rate relationship of linear PLA and linear-branched PLA blends.
Fang and Hanna (1997) had studied the effects on melt viscosity by varying
the resin type, temperature and shear rate. They found that PLA chain with higher
tacticity exhibited higher melt viscosity under the same conditions. Relatively,
amorphous PLA has lower melt viscosity compared with senicrystalline PLA.
Moreover, the observed of melt viscosity of PLA decreased during higher shearing
rate and temperature.
Piyamanocha et al. (2011) found that the shear viscosities of PLA melts are
greatly affected by temperature and pressure. The temperature and pressure
sensitivity coefficients were determined through the viscosity data fitting with the
Carreau –Yasuda model. As shown in Figure 2.5, the flow behaviours of various
PLA at different mean temperature and pressure are observed (Piyamanoch et al.,
2011).
Figure 2.5: Pressure Affected Shear Viscosity Data of PLA4060D at

Temperatures of 170 ℃, and 190℃; Symbols Stand for Experimental Data,
while the Solid Lines Represent Data Fitting by the Carreau-Yasuda Model
(Piyamanocha et al., 2011)
13
Moreover, the rheological behaviours of PLA melts also depend on the chain
branching and molecular weight distributions. PLA is a pseudoplastic, non-
Newtonian fluid. This is due to the ring-opening polymerization route yield the high
molecular weight of PLA results from the high amount of entanglement and longer
relaxation time. As the increase number of entanglement per chain, the higher the
molecular weight of PLA which induced the higher melts viscosity.
2.2 Injection Moulding Technology
Plastic injection moulding technology is the most common polymer processing

technology in plastic industry today as it is economical viable in producing complex
plastic parts with high volume. Generally, injection moulding is the process of
heating the polymeric pellets up to melting point before injecting the molten polymer
through a nozzle into the mould at high pressure. The newly formed plastic part is
ejected once the plastic is cooled. In significant, there are three main stages of
injection moulding (filling and post-filling, cooling, and ejection) will be discussed
and studied later.
The most challenging in this technology was the skills in mould making and
controlled of the process conditions. With the absence of depth knowledge in mould
design and polymer processing field, it consequently would produce plastic parts
possess defects such as shrinkage, warpage, excessive air traps spot and irregular
residual stress (Tang et al., 2007). Thus, many approaches such as on-line trial and
error method, injection moulding simulation, design of experiments (DOE) and an
intelligent (AI) system had been introduced to shorten the times used in optimize the
mould design for a particular new product. In this project, injection moulding
simulation was employed to study the effects of process condition on making plastic
spoon for filling and post-filling stages.
14
2.2.1 Injection Moulding Design
In general, plastic injection moulding embody with three main stages in a cyclic
process. The feed stock of plastic pellets is melted first, and transfer into mould
cavity under pressure to produce the particular plastic parts. In order to produce a
good quality of plastic parts through injection moulding, the most crucial part is to
control the processing parameters such as mould temperature, melt temperature,
packing pressure, packing time and etc. used in the processes. An experience
expertise with depth knowledge required to determine the proper moulding
parameters according the types of polymeric material used and moulding geometry.
If there were any variations or defects shown, necessary iterative corrective actions
must be taken to achieve the quality requirements.
Most of the time, the iterative corrective actions used to optimize the
moulding condition was time consuming. Over the past decades, researchers studied
many different economical and effective ways to optimize the injection moulding
process in shorter time such as using CAE software. Other than injection moulding
simulation analysis using CAE software, another approaches was the system called
an intelligent (AI) system. In this project, injection moulding simulation analysis was
chosen where AI system was also briefly discussed.
2.2.1.1 Injection Moulding Simulation
Computer aided engineering (CAE) analysis software has plays an influential role in
today plastic industries. These analysis software including Moldflow®, C-MOLD®,
Moldex3D® developed the simulation approaches in assisting the injection moulding
simulation by providing the details such as filling time, flow pattern, frozen layer
fraction, air traps, orientation at skin, warpage and etc. (Lee et al., 2012). The
simulation analysis virtually explained the flow pattern of the polymer in filling,
packing, and cooling stages (Moldflow Corporation, 2004). Besides the visual
analysis, simulation approaches also provided numerical feedback interpretation
results in guiding the moulding personnel in developed the optimum moulding
15
parameters, compatibility of materials, reduce in process cycle time and cost

expenses in modification.
Over the years, there were increased numbers of researches in injection

moulding simulation. Nardin et al. (2002) studied showed that the geometrical and
technological data provided in simulation results. The paper showed evidence that
the optimum results in design work suitable for the used in laboratory environment
and real production. Rahman et al. (2008) had compared the injection moulding
analysis between hollow and solid frame design using Moldflow® software. Lower
operation cost and least materials required for the hollow frame design was proven
from the simulation results. Lotti et al. (2002) performed the study on the parameters
affecting the shrinkage of polypropylene plaques and found that mould temperature
and holding pressure directly contributing shrinkage for the plastic parts. Lee et al.
(2012) also developed an investigation of the processing parameters for a name tag
article design with the aid of Moldflow®. A different composition polyvinyl alcohol
(PVOH) blends with starch (PV55 and PV46) were compared, and the simulation
results showed that PV55 shows higher volumetric shrinkage and both design
required minimum 20s holding time.
Chen et al. (2005) studied the optimal moulding parameters of gas assisted
injection moulding process using the Moldflow® and Taguchi method. The
polystyrene product was selected in the manufacturing. The simulation results
showed that the product with lesser warpage can be obtained from the condition such
as slower gas injection speed, longer gas packing time, higher melt temperature and
gas pressure. Song et al. (2007) compared the effects of various moulding parameters
such as injection pressure, melt temperature, part thickness and etc. for ultra-thin
wall plastic parts by using two different methods (Taguchi method and Moldflow®).
16
2.2.1.2 Design of Experiments (DOE)
Chen et al. (2009) studied the simulation and experimental study in determining the
moulding parameters for a thin-shell plastic part in injection moulding via
experiments analysis. By using Mold-Flow, the analyses were carried out by
simulation results and the three level of L18 orthogonal array table. In this study, the
design of experiments (DOE) approach was utilize in determine the optimal
moulding parameters at the same time. The two approaches was compared and
studied.
Besides that, the design of moulding parameters using DOE method had been
satisfied in numerous industrial applications such as optimizing in manufacturing
processes and others (Puertas and Luis, 2004; Sofuoglu, 2006; Yang, 2006; Tong et
al., 2004).
2.2.1.3 Expert System
Although injection moulding simulation possesses an easy and economical viable

way in designing the complex process condition, there are many manufacturers
preferred other ways. It was because the simulation software very depends on the
expertise and often it was expensive. Expert system is the system where the
researchers embody the experience in setting moulding conditions and heuristic
knowledge (Kwong et al., 1997). However, the system is not well represented and
acquired the conditions easily due to the nature of experience and heuristic
knowledge was not well structure. Moreover, a knowledgeable engineer required to
build this system by interviewing the experienced moulding personnel and apply the
appropriate of background knowledge into the form of rules. Thus, there were
limitations in constructing this expert system as the related knowledge was hard to be
fully discovered.
Rule-Based expert system (RBS) is one of the expert systems introduced in

modelling in injection moulding process. There are several studies that implemented
17
rule-based expert system in modelling the injection moulding simulation (Bernhardt,

1991; Menig, 1986; Jan, 1991) proven the reduce dependency on expert in moulding
personnel. The Rule-Based expert systems represent the knowledge in IF-THEN
format and suggest generalized solutions. However, the system unable to consider
the effects of moulding parameters in terms of the filling pattern, cavity geometry
and etc. which often required expertise. Throughout the problem solving stages,
expertise adapt a solution by recalling the studied of previous situations. There are
limitations in fitted all the expertise reasoning of injection moulding process as the
experiences cannot be easily transform into simple rules format.
Besides RBS, cased based reasoning system (CBRS) is another approach

adopted. CBRS found to be an alternative for most of the traditional model-based
and rule-based reasoning techniques (Schank, 1982). CBRS developed the moulding
parameters by referring the old solutions. In general, in order to meet the new
requirements, the older cases were referring to explain, criticize and adopt the new
solutions for the situation. The application of CBRS allowed the moulding
parameters design to be faster as the reasoned able to propose the solution faster by
recalling the previous experiences. The process learning of CBRS allowed the
previous experience to be useful and ensure that there was no repetition of mistakes.
Moreover, CBRS had been successfully developed satisfied results in various
engineering applications such as manufacturing system design (Pankakoski, 1991),
model based diagnosis (Feret, 1992), and process planning (Marefat, 1992). Shelesh-
Nezhad and Siores (1997) adopted An Intelligent (AI) System in which the CBRS
used in a system in conjunction with the RBS to model the process condition in
injection moulding process. This Hybrid System also able to simulate the moulding
personnel strategies by recalling and applying the previous experience.
2.2.2 Injection Moulding Stages
Injection moulding process known to be a cyclic process in which the molten

polymer was flow into the mould cavity which then solidifies to the desired plastic
part. In every cycle, it consists of three significant stages. Firstly, the melted polymer
18
at the injection temperature was filled the mould cavity (filling and post-filling stage).
Secondly, the heat of the polymer was removed from the mould to cooling channels
(cooling stage). Lastly, the solidified plastic part is ejected out from the mould
(ejection stage) (Hassan et al., 2009).
In this paper, there will be only filling and post-filling stages discussed and
studied. The second stage was assumed to be perfect cooling at 20 s. Although the
processing parameters and simulation analysis results will be only focussed in this
paper, the background of cooling stage and ejection stage would also important for
the injection moulding process analysis.
2.2.2.1 Filling and Packing Stage
In order to model the injection moulding process for a particular polymer, a viscosity
function (or model) is required. In filling phase, viscosity model of a polymer was
one of the significant factors in affecting the moulding parameters. The high
viscosity polymers flow laminar into the cavity was recommended. This was because
the turbulence which generated may cause the process out of control which relatively
developed multiple flaws on the surface or within the solidified plastic parts.
Once the polymer flowing in and contact with the mould surface with lower
temperature compared to melt temperature, the local viscosity will significantly
increase and developed no flow of polymer against the mould wall. This non-flowing
polymer insulates the continuous flow in polymer from the cold mould wall. The
frozen layer continued increase in thickness where it greatly depends on the shear
between the stagnant layer and flowing polymer. High shear in between the mould
wall and the stagnant layer formed and the continuous flows in polymer heats it and
decrease the viscosity. The concern was to make sure the frozen layer as thin as
possible as the increase thickness in frozen layer will probably increase the local
flow resistance.
19
2.2.2.2 Cooling Stage
In injection moulding process, the cooling starts once the polymeric materials
touches the wall of the mould. These results in a formation of stagnant layer which
would be insulate the flowing polymers from the wall of the mould. As the polymer
stop flowing, the cooling is carried out by conduction between the polymer and the
wall of the mould. These results in the polymer within the cavity having similar
temperature as melt temperature except for the polymer near the wall of the mould.
Generally, the moulding cycle of injection moulding process would

significantly affect the cost-efficiency of the production line. Among the three
significant stages of injection moulding, cooling phase plays significantly roles
among three as it critically determines the production rate of the plastic parts. The
production rate would relatively increase with the time reduction spent over cooling
phase of the plastic part. Correspondingly, the increase in production rate which
reduce the costs. Therefore, the understanding in optimising the heat transfer
processes within the mould is greatly important in achieving higher production rate.
Over the years, there have been studies and researches on the reduction time
of cooling stages which enable the more products can be produced under the same
time frame. Dimla et al. (2005) studied both injection moulding tools (finite element
analysis and thermal heat transfer analysis) in achieving the optimum cooling/heating
channels and predict the efficient location for such channels in the configuration.
Smith et al. (2008) performed the studied of different approaches and techniques
used in analyse the cooling phase. By comparing the computational model
approaches with the experimental approaches, they found that the computational
model provided accurate results and validated for modelling in optimising the
cooling phase for injection moulding process.
20
2.2.2.3 Ejection Stage
Ejection is the last stage in injection moulding process where the plastic part is
removed from the cavity and core upon cooling. The plastic parts would shrinks on
the enclosed core after it cools. The pins are designed on strategic surfaces of the
mould in order to strip the plastic part off from the core. In order to minimize the
ejection forces used, draft is designed on the mould surfaces which parallel to the
line of the mould opening. It would be easier to eject the plastic part with greater
draft angle and cause less damage to the parts from the force generated by pins
especially during the plastic part in still warm.
2.3 Gate Design
The gate is the connection between the runner system and part. Theoretically, it is a
restricted area which enables the separation between the runner and the part. In order
to successfully mould a product, the shape, size and locations of gate are the
important factors. The desired features of gate are to permit an easy, automatic, and
separation between the runner system and the plastic part, where the filling and
packing can be done in the meantime.
As to easily remove the part from the gate, the cross section of the gate was
recommended to be relatively small. However, the gate which is too small would
results the flow restriction during the packing stage, over shearing of the polymeric
material and other potential defects. Normally, the desired diameter of the gate
would be 30 % to 70 % of the wall thickness where the gate is attached to.
2.3.1 Positioning Gates
There are several concerns in positioning the gate location in order to produce the
satisfied plastic parts. Firstly, it is important to consider the moulded parts with
21
variations in the wall thickness. The gate should be located at the thickest wall
section as the gating at thinner wall would limit the control of packing at the thicker
region. There would be shrinkage, warpage, and other defects appeared relatively.
Secondly, the effect of core deflection must be considered as the unbalanced filling
around the central could lead to deflect.
If there are more than one gate locations, the weld lines might be created if
there are inappropriate gate locations. Moreover, the locating of gate location must
also consider the effect on the flow pattern and the effects of shrinkage. The
symmetrical parts which able to balance the flow and reduce the potential flow that
might induce vary orientations that causes non-uniform shrinkage which lead to the
formation of warpage and residual stresses. Moreover the gate should position away
from the load bearing areas as the melted polymer injected into mould because
highly stress and velocity at the area of flow which probably lead the mould wear out.
2.4 Warpage and Residual Stresses
The occurrence of warpage could render the plastic part into useless. The main
reason of this was due the variations in shrinkage within the parts. Therefore, the
elimination of variation in shrinkage during injection moulding required to produce
the warp-free plastic parts. The statement was easily stated, but in fact it is
impossible to accomplish during the real production of plastic parts using injection
mould. There are various factors which affecting the variations of orientation-induce
and volumetric shrinkage (Beaumont et al., 2002).
The mould temperature is one of the important factors that cause variations of
shrinkage. It was important to assured that the mould temperature across the surface
of mould cavity is equally constant. There were studies proven that the differences in
mould temperature results in problematic plastic parts like warpage (Beaumont,
2004) Theoretically, polymer at low temperature exhibits less intensive shrinkage
than higher temperature, thus the part cooled with temperature differences across the
mould can probably cause the part distortion (Bociᶏga et al., 2010). Besides that, the
22
unbalanced mould temperature also greatly affected in multicavity mould. These will
results different properties and structure plastic parts in manufacturing process
(Bociᶏga and Jaruga, 2007; Jaruga and Bociᶏga, 2007; Jaruga and Bociᶏga, 2008),
especially the semicrystalline polymers which crystallize when undergo
solidification. The concern of vary properties among the parts was during the case of
many cavities in moulding small parts.
Besides that, processing conditions also the factor in warpage. Chuang and
Yang (2009) studied the warpage minimization with the aid of computer simulation
program. The results showed that melt temperature and holding pressure were the
processing conditions which mainly cause warpage for thin-shell parts. For
semicrystalline polymer such as POM, the shrinkage can be minimized by adjusting
the holding pressure. Moreover, the differences in the plastic part thickness also one
of the main factors that cause warpage (Bociᶏga et al., 2010).
Other than warpage, the differential shrinkage also allowed the plastic parts
exhibit residual stress. Both warpage and residual stress also the results from
variation shrinkage, but warpage resulted when sufficient stress was created in
overcome the mechanical strength of the plastic part. Some of the residual stresses
will be relieved once the plastic part warps. The rigidity of the structure and material
of a plastic part will probably resist the residual stress to a point where the magnitude
of the stress is insignificant (Beaumont et al., 2002).
CHAPTER 3
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Procedure
A guideline plan had been established at the early stage to achieve the objectives of
the project. In this project, the geometrical 3D layout of plastic spoon (PLSN) was
drawn using SolidWorks®. The geometrical 3D layout was imported into Moldflow®
software for injection moulding simulation analysis for both PLA (PLSN001) and
LDPE (PLSN002). Following are the details procedure of this project:
3.1.1 Look-up for Plastic Spoon Design
Primarily, the idea of plastic spoon designs was inspired and collected from internet.
The pros and cons of different designs were investigated and compared. Among the
design, the most suitable and common dimensions demanded by the consumer was
selected. The dimensions of plastic spoon were measured using vernier calliper and
the material and processing technique were revised later to ensure there were no
difficulties during injection moulding.
24
3.1.2 Drawing of Plastic Spoon Geometry
The PLSN layout was drawn by commercial CAD software – SolidWorks®. The
geometrical 3D layout in IGES format was created using CAD software.
SolidWorks® also used to check the every dimensions of the plastic spoon more
wisely. Once the designed layout accomplished the conditions and qualification
which does not prompt any errors in CAD, the drawing was saved into IGES format
and then imported into Moldflow® for further undergoes simulation analysis. One
plastic spoon design was created and used for two different polymeric materials and
compared in injection moulding simulation analysis. Several modifications were
made for the original design in order to enhance the processability of injection
moulding.
3.1.3 Collect Required Models Information of Materials
LDPE and PLA were compared in injection moulding simulation analysis. The
literature studies and researches on rheology of PLA and LDPE were studied. The
prerequisite models for simulation programme were studied and obtained. The
parameters such as viscosity model, PVT model, heat capacity model, thermal
conductivity model, and etc. must be obtained and embedded into simulation
programme database. PLA database provided by Cargill Dow LLC with trade name
NatureWorks PLA was collected and keyed into Moldflow® database for injection
moulding simulation; LDPE database provided by Eastman Chemical Products with
trade name Tenite LDPE 811A was used to undergo the injection moulding
simulation analysis.
3.1.4 Simulation and Analysis of Results
The 3D geometrical drawing of plastic spoon which drawn by SolidWorks® in IGES

format was imported into Moldflow® environmental for meshing process. The
25
meshing step is essential to converting the large element of the geometrical design
into the simpler elements. The simulation of two different polymeric materials for
plastic spoon in Moldflow® was done and compared on filling and packing stages.
There are several parameters must be defined before the simulation can be run. The
attribute settings are as below:
1. Define gate location

2. Define filling materials
3. Repair meshes those under requirement
4. Define processing parameters
3.2 Plastic Spoon Design and Modelling
The basic width, length and thickness measurements of the plastic spoon were based
on the products which are available in market. From the measured dimensions of the
plastic spoon, the values measured using vernier calliper were adjusted in order to
suit the design of plastic spoon used in injection moulding simulation analysis. The
polymeric plastic spoon was designed with 1.2 mm in thickness. The ribs were
designed to the holder in order to enhance the strength when holding material. One
design of the plastic spoon was created using SolidWorks® for two different
polymeric materials in injection moulding simulation analysis.
Once the desired conditions of plastic spoon was designed, the 3D

geometrical drawings which saved in IGES format at the earlier stage was then
transferred into Moldflow® for mesh generation. Before undergoes the simulation
process, the meshing process is the prerequisite to model the particular solid features
design. There are three types of meshing format to be chosen by users which are
Midplane, Fusion, and 3D. The Fusion format was selected only for flowing and
filling stages analysis. The 3D geometrical design of the plastic spoon was shown in
Figure 3.1 which then undergone meshing stage. The meshed plastic spoon was
shown in Figure 3.2. Finally, the plastic spoon was duplicated into four cavities as
shown in Figure 3.3.
26
Figure 3.1: 3D Geometrical View of Plastic Spoon (PLSN) with Dimension

27
Figure 3.2: Fusion Meshed for Plastic Spoon (PLSN)
Figure 3.3: Duplication of Four Cavities for PLSN

CHAPTER 4
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Injection moulding simulation of Plastic Spoon (PLSN)
The plastic spoon (PLSN) was studied and analysed using injection moulding
simulation, where the Moldflow® Plastic Insight 5.0 was used. The analysis of PLSN
was further categorized into filling and packing analysis. There were two major
polymeric materials chosen in this studied, polylactic acid (PLA) and low-density
polyethylene (LDPE). The sample name was given to PLA and LDPE were
PLSN001 and PLSN002 respectively. The main objective was to determine and
compare the injection moulding processability of PLSN001 and PLSN002. The
design of PLSN was initially drawn by SolidWorks® and imported to Moldflow®.
Before the injection moulding simulation analysis can be started, the imported PLSN
design was undergo Fusion meshing process where the original surface of PLSN
been divided into small surface triangles. The PLSN shows up 2214 small surface
triangles after transformed in meshing step, where the average mesh aspect ratio is
2.003353. This achieved the requirement which recommended by Moldflow
Corporation (2004) where the desired mesh aspect ratio should be less than 6.
Once the meshing process has completed, the PLSN was transformed into a
complete four-cavities design in which the runner system designed where the sprue
(circular, start diameter 4.9 mm, end diameter 7.5 mm), runner (half circular,
diameter 8 mm, height 4 mm), and gate (half circular, diameter 1.5 mm, height 1.5
mm). The completed PLSN model was now ready for injection moulding simulation
analysis. The selection of basic setting of process parameters for both PLSN001 and
29
PLSN002 was done where the simulation analysis results obtained and discussed.
The discussion and comparison between PLSN001 and PLSN02 for the optimum
process conditions obtained individually from the simulation analysis results.
4.2 Simulation Analysis of PLSN001
In order to obtain the simulation free with errors, several trials have been done in
Moldflow® to achieve the optimum process condition of PLA in making PLSN. For
PLSN001, the optimum process conditions achieved when the mould temperature set
at 25 ℃, melt temperature set at 210℃, and velocity pressure switch over (VPSO) at
125 MPa, where it shown in Figure 4.1 below.
Figure 4.1: Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN001 when Melt Temperature at

210 ℃, Mould Temperature at 25 ℃ and VPSO at 125 MPa
30
4.2.1 Injection Temperature
Firstly, the selection of injection temperature was based on the melting point found
in specific heat capacity curve. It shows that the PLA required minimum 200 ℃ in
order to reach molten state. However higher temperature at 210 ℃ was selected to
achieve lower viscosity melts for better flowability. The simulation analysis by
varying the melt temperature under constant mould temperature and VPSO were
carried out, where the process condition of PLSN001 found to be affected. The Table
4.1 shows the simulation results from varies of melt temperature under constant
mould temperature and VPSO.
Table 4.1: Fill Time and TPW for Various Melt Temperature during Constant
Mould Temperature (25 ℃) and VPSO (125 MPa)
Melt Temperature Fill Total Part Average Volumetric
(℃) Time (s) Weight (TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
180 1.245 35.7447 3.6294
190 1.229 37.1163 3.4740
200 1.106 37.4264 3.0483
210 1.074 37.5259 2.7902
220 1.078 37.5248 2.7932
230 1.081 37.4879 2.8850
The optimum melt temperature at 210 ℃ was chosen. From the results, the
short shots error was occurred when the melt temperature was lower than 200 ℃
subsequently yield to low TPW. Besides that, the Figure 4.2 showed PLSN001 at
low melt temperature (T = 190 ℃) also takes longer filling time in the process due to
the weak flowability due to its high viscosity which can be obtained for the viscosity
model shows in Figure 4.3 below. The too low melt temperature condition also
demonstrated the typically high average volumetric shrinkage at end of packing stage.
31

190 ℃, Mould Temperature at 25 ℃, VPSO at 125 MPa
Figure 4.3: Viscosity Model for Polylactic Acid (PLA)

32
In contrast, the condition higher melt temperature was compared. When the
melt temperature was above 210 ℃, the fill time and average volumetric shrinkage
increased with increasing temperature. These unfavourable results can cause low
production rate due to long fill time and high possibility in defects of parts due to
high volumetric shrinkage. From the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT)
relationship graph shows in Figure 4.4, the melt temperature increase will gradually
increase the transition of specific volume between the molten state and solid state,
and in cooling stage, it lead to extensive crystallization (Lee et al., 2012).
Figure 4.4: Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship Model for

Polylactic Acid (PLA)
4.2.2 Mould Temperature
Mould temperature is one of the important processing parameters in obtained error

free simulation outputs. Analyses were carried out by varying mould temperature at
the constant injection temperature at 210 ℃ and VPSO at 125 MPa. Table 4.2 shows
the results obtained from the simulation were discussed.
33
Melt Temperature (210 ℃) and VPSO (125 MPa)
Mould Temperature Fill Total Part Average Volumetric
(℃) Time (s) Weight (TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
20 1.075 37.5428 2.7469
25 1.074 37.5259 2.7902
30 1.074 37.5092 2.8338
From the results obtained, the mould temperature at 25 ℃ was chosen due to
its short fill time and low total part weight (TPW). In long term production, the short
fill time is favourable where resulting the higher production rate which higher profit.
Moreover, the low TPW indicates that the lesser material required in the processing
of PLSN001 when compared the TPW values at mould temperature 25 ℃ with 20 ℃.
The lesser material cost from the materials used in production which also favourable
to the high profit. However, the average volumetric shrinkages increase with the
increasing mould temperature. Although the volumetric shrinkages at 25 ℃ was
higher compared to 20 ℃, Figure 4.5 which illustrated that the volumetric shrinkages
of PLSN001 at mould temperature of 20 ℃ and 25 ℃ shows there were only slightly
different. Both of the temperature results low variation in volumetric shrinkages
which reduce the possibility of warpage occurrence.
When the mould temperature set to be 30 ℃, the fill time of the process
remain the same as the mould temperature at 25 ℃. Although there was lower TPW
which needed less material in the production, the higher average volumetric
shrinkage was unfavourable. Besides that, the high mould temperature hard to
maintain in the process compared to 25 ℃ at the room temperature. Moreover, the
higher mould temperature will increase the probability in yielding plastic parts defect
such as mould release defect and sink marks.
34
Figure 4.5: Volumetric Shrinkage Illustrations at Mould Temperature (a) 20 ℃

(b) 25 ℃
4.2.3 Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO)
The VPSO plays an important role in processing PLSN. The inappropriate setting of
VPSO may cause defects in the moulded plastic parts such as short shots, sink marks,
mould release defects, cracking and others. Different simulation analysis of VPSO
35
under constant mould temperature and melt temperature were undergoes and
compared in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3: Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during Constant Melt
Temperature (210 ℃) and Mould Temperature (25 ℃)
Total Part Weight Average Volumetric
VPSO (MPa) Fill Time (s)
(TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
120 1.098 37.4300 3.0387
125 1.074 37.5259 2.7902
130 1.077 37.5571 2.7091
From the simulation analysis results, the VPSO at 125MPa was chosen after
compared with the VPSO at 120MPa and 130MPa. The too low VPSO takes longer
fill time as there will be frozen layer due to the low mould temperature which creates
flow resistance. In contrast, the too high VPSO required higher material costs due to
higher TPW. Besides that, the longer fill time which reduces the production rate
when VPSO was too high. Thus, the optimum VPSO was selected at 125MPa as
lower fill time and TPW.
4.3 Simulation Analysis of PLSN002
Other than PLA, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was also studied in processing
plastic spoon, where PLSN002 indicates LDPE plastic spoon. The optimum process
condition in making PLSN002 was obtained through several trials and error in
simulation analysis using Moldflow®. For LDPE, the optimum process condition for
PLSN002 can be obtained when the mould temperature at 30 ℃, melt temperature at
200 ℃ and VPSO at 8 MPa, where filling time illustrations can be shown in Figure
4.6.
36

200 ℃, Mould Temperature at 30 ℃ and VPSO at 8 MPa
4.3.1 Injection Temperature
Initially, the injection temperature for PLSN002 was selected according the melting
point shown in the specific heat capacity curve. It shows that LDPE required at least
149 ℃ to reach molten state. In order to obtained better flowability, higher
temperature was considered in achieving melts polymer with low viscosity.
Simulation analyses were carried out by varying melt temperature under constant
mould temperature and VPSO. It found that the process condition of PLSN002 was
affected consequently, where the simulation results was shown in Table 4.4 under
constant mould temperature at 25 ℃ and VPSO at 8 MPa.
37
Mould Temperature (25 ℃) and VPSO (8 MPa)
Melt Fill Total Part Average Volumetric
Temperature (℃) Time (s) Weight (TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
170 0.6665 26.6746 4.1521
180 0.3328 27.0389 4.8355
190 0.0436 27.0249 4.8854
200 0.0361 27.2912 3.9479
210 0.0403 27.2508 4.0905
From the result, the most favourable process conditions can be obtained when
the melt temperature at 200 ℃. The least fill time and volumetric shrinkage achieved
allowed the higher production rate with least deformation of moulded plastic parts.
When the melt temperature below the require melting point, the longer the filling
time of the process due to its viscosity which demonstrated clearly in the viscosity
model shows in Figure 4.7. If the injection temperature too low, the polymer tends to
cool faster and form the frozen layer which resist the flow of injected polymer.
Figure 4.7: Viscosity Model for Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

38
Besides that, the high melt temperature condition also compared and
discussed. For the case where the melt temperature at 210 ℃, the fill time was much
higher compared to the case where melt temperature at 200 ℃. Although the TPW
was lower, but the part exhibit higher volumetric shrinkage during melt temperature
at 210 ℃. By referred to the PVT relationship graph of LDPE shown in Figure 4.8,
the increase in melt temperature will gradually increase the transition of specific
volume between the molten state and solid state which cause extensive crystallization
during cooling stages.
Figure 4.8: Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship Model for Low-

Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
4.3.2 Mould Temperature
The selection of optimum mould temperature based on several simulation trials

where the mould temperature varies under constant melt temperature at 200 ℃ and
VPSO at 8 MPa. The simulation results shows at Table 4.5 was compared and
discussed.
39
Table 4.5: Fill Time and TPW for Various Mould Temperature during
Constant Melt Temperature (200 ℃) and VPSO (8 MPa)
Mould Fill Total Part Average Volumetric
Temperature (℃) Time (s) Weight (TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
20 0.0362 27.2693 4.0252
25 0.0361 27.2912 3.9479
30 0.0359 27.2341 4.1484
35 0.0358 27.1628 4.3999
From the results, the selection of mould temperature mainly based on the
volumetric shrinkages variations in the simulation analysis. The fill time and TPW
will be considered later. From the Figure 4.9, the four volumetric shrinkages were
compared at mould temperature at (a) 20 ℃ (b) 25 ℃ (c) 30 ℃ (d) 35 ℃ under
constant melt temperature 200 ℃ and VPSO 8 MPa. Figure 4.9 (a) and Figure 4.9 (b)
shows there was high variation in volumetric shrinkages and both exhibit high fill
time and TPW in the processing. The mould temperature at 35 ℃ was not chosen as
it exhibit higher variation volumetric shrinkages than 30 ℃ which shown in the
figure and analysis results. This can reduce the possibility in deformation of moulded
part and warpage occurrence.
40
Figure 4.9: Volumetric Shrinkage Illustration at Mould Temperature (a) 20 ℃

(b) 25 ℃ (c) 30 ℃ (d) 35 ℃
41
4.3.3 Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO)
Lastly, the VPSO was selected. Table 4.6 shows the simulation analysis results at
different VPSO under constant melt temperature 200 ℃ and mould temperature 30 ℃.
Table 4.6: Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during Constant Melt
Temperature (200 ℃) and Mould Temperature (30 ℃)
Fill Time Total Part Average Volumetric
VPSO (MPa)
(s) Weight (TPW) Shrinkage (End of Packing)
7 0.1356 26.9824 5.0352
8 0.0359 27.2341 4.1484
9 0.1291 27.0670 4.7374
Based on the results, VPSO by injection pressure at 8 MPa was selected

based on the simulation analysis results found. At lower VPSO, the fill time was
longer as the high flow resistance caused by the frozen layer where the low injection
pressure slow down the speed of flow in polymer. In contrast, the simulation results
shows the too high VPSO was undesired due to longer fill time and higher
volumetric shrinkage.
4.4 Filling and packing simulation
The selection of some basic simulation setting for both plastic spoon (PLSN001 and
PLSN002) were shows in the Table 4.7 below after the simulation trials done in
Moldflow® to achieved error free simulation. There were pros and cons for both of
the work piece design, they were compared and discussed later in the following
sections. The comparison of both design were categorise into filling stage and
packing stage. The cooling stage was not been discussed as the simulation was
assume the perfect cooling in both design with the cooling time of 20 s.
42
Table 4.7: Basic Simulation Setting of PLSN001 and PLSN002

Basic simulation setting of PLSN001 and PLSN002
Work piece design
PLSN001 PLSN002
Material Polylactic acid (PLA) Low-density Polyethylene
(LDPE)
Mould Temperature (℃) 25 30
Melt Temperature (℃) 210 200
Velocity/ Pressure 125 8
Switch Over (MPa)
Cooling Time (s) 20 20
4.4.1 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at filling stage
The screen outputs of the filling stage for PLSN001 and PLSN002 are shown in
Figure 4.10 below. Firstly, there was great extent of fill time different for both of the
work pieces was observed. From the simulation outcomes, PLSN001 (1.074 s)
required longer time to fill up the mould cavities compared to PLSN002 (0.0359 s).
The main reason of this was because the polymeric material for both design have
distinct in their properties. The material used in PLSN001, PLA possesses
amorphous structure, whereas LDPE possesses semicrystalline structure for
PLSN002. Amorphous and semicrystalline polymer structures demonstrate different
effects on the process condition and moulded part properties. By comparing the
viscosity model for both material in Figure 4.3 (PLA) and Figure 4.7 (LDPE), for the
same temperature setting for both model, PLA found to be about 100 times higher
viscosity than LDPE. The high viscosity of molten PLA increase flow which
explained the longer fill time needed in filling the mould. LDPE having semi-
crystalline structure with low crystanillity due to its chain branching. Upon heating,
the long chain branching in LDPE make it flow easily.
43
The optimum mould temperature was selected for both work piece designs.
As the mould temperature introduced was too high, it will increase the time of
solidification for both PLA and LDPE materials. In contrast, the introducing mould
temperature too low probably induced warpage especially at the thicker wall regions.
This happened because of the poor heat removal upon solidification when compared
to the thin wall regions. Besides that, the optimum VPSO was also chosen.
According to Lee et al. (2011), VPSO playing the roles where ram speed control
switchover to packing pressure before mould cavity filled. This is to assured an over-
pressurized error can be avoided which may threaten the machine lifespan. Short shot
error could happened when switchover done too earlier. This was because the longer
cycle times and insufficient ram displacement. However, flashing may happened as if
the switching was too late which possibly can endanger the mould life.The high
viscosity of PLA in PLSN001 required higher pressure (125 MPa) compared with
low viscosity LDPE in PLSN002.
Moreover, the frozen layer fraction at end fill (FLFE) for both work piece
design were compared. During the filling period, the frozen layer formed as the
incoming high temperature molten polymer exhibit heat loss to the lower temperature
at the surface of mould. In order to maintain the continuous flow, the thickness of the
frozen layer at this stage must maintain constant (Moldflow Corporation, 2004). The
heat loss through the thickness domination once the molten polymer stops flow. As
referring to the Figure 4.11, it shows the FLFE illustration (a) PLSN001 and (b)
PLSN002 at their optimum process condition. From the illustration shown, PLSN001
(i.e. refer the green colour zone values) exhibited higher frozen layer fraction
compared to PLSN002 (i.e. refer the yellow colour zone values) due to its higher
viscosity properties. The high viscosity in PLSN001 induced strong flow resistance
compared to PLSN002, thus it takes longer time in process. In PLSN001, the
prolonged of injection time allowed greater amount of heat loss to the surface where
subsequently lead to higher FLFE formed in the work piece. In order to reduce the
FLFE in PLSN001, higher pressure 125 MPa was introduced which balanced the
heat loss between the surface of the mould and the incoming upstream molten
polymer.
44
Figure 4.10: Filling Simulation Screen Outputs of (a) PLSN001 and (b)
PLSN002
45
Figure 4.11: FLFE Illustrations (a) PLSN001 and (b) PLSN002 at Their
Optimum Process Condition
46
4.4.2 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at packing stage
From the simulation results at packing stage, PLSN001 and PLSN002 demonstrated
the total part weight (TPW) of 37.525 g and 27.2341 g respectively. The TPW is the
overall weight for the four pieces of PLSN without including the weight portions in
sprue, runner and gate. The simulation analyses were done with the same volume of
mould cavity, but interestingly found that PLSN001 and PLSN002 possessed
different TPW. This can be explained by the differences materials possessed
differences compressibility and molten-solid density. By comparing the both PVT
curves for both materials, LDPE used in PLSN002 has higher specific volume (i.e.
lower density) and larger thermal transition than PLA used in PLSN001.
With referred to TPW, PLSN002 having a benefit over PLSN001 in terms of

materials saving in the process. However, PLSN002 exhibited high volumetric
shrinkage than PLSN001, where the volumetric shrinkage illustrations for (a)
PLSN001 and (b) PLSN002 at optimum condition were shown in Figure 4.12. It was
because that the transition of specific volume of PLSN002 was higher than PLSN001.
Besides that, the semicrystalline structure of LDPE in PLSN002 undergoes extensive
crystallization upon cooling. During the cooling process, the long chain in LDPE
stretched out and folded back to form stacks called lamella. These enhanced the
moulded part to be more compact compare to PLSN001 which use amorphous
structure PLA. However, the PLSN002 observed to be low variations in volumetric
shrinkages as favourable in process. Design with low variations in volumetric
shrinkages minimizes the possibility of warpage occurrence.
Generally, the volumetric shrinkages obtained through the simulation analysis

results only able to act as a preliminary guideline for the actual production condition.
In the real production, the volumetric shrinkages can show up to 5 % deviation
compared to the simulation results obtained in Figure 4.12. The main reason of these
was because the uncorrected residual stress used as the shrinkage model during the
simulation analyses were carried out. The usage of universal model (uncorrected
residual stress model) as shrinkage trend prediction when the unavailability of
experimental residual stress model. Subsequently these cause substantial errors in
comparing with the absolute values in actual production.
47
Figure 4.12: Volumetric Shrinkages Illustrations for (a) PLSN001 and (b)
PLSN002 at Optimum Process Conditions
Moreover, the frozen layer fraction (FLFT) were compared and discussed.
Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14 show the frozen layer fraction (FLFT) corresponds to the
moulding period of PLSN001 and PLSN002. Once the fresh hot injected molten
polymer in contact with the lower temperature mould surface, the FLFT starts to
increased. From the simulation outcomes, the PLSN001 observed to be higher FLFT
48
at corresponding period over PLSN002. This was because the PLSN001 has higher
viscosity than PLSN002. Besides that, the PLSN001 exhibited higher differences
between the melting temperature and mould surface temperature in compared with
PLSN002. The formation of frozen layer was due to the faster cooling rate induced
by the higher heat transfer between the melting temperature and mould surface
temperature. Furthermore, PLA in PLSN001 has lower specific capacity than LDPE
in PLSN002. This explained that the PLSN001 wouldn’t store heat for longer time
before removing the heat and thus it exhibited higher cooling rate which
subsequently lead to higher formation of frozen layer.
During filling stage, the formation of frozen layer was unfavourable as the
flow resistance will increased with increasing frozen layer. However, the formation
of frozen layer during packing stage was favourable as it can reduce the packing and
cooling time. For a more profitable production line, the reduction of cycle time and
utilities used for cooling stage were important. However, in most of the actual
injection moulding production, unacceptable long period needed for cooling to
carried out due to the thickness of the moulded part. Especially for polymer that
possessed low thermal conductivity inside the thicker moulded part, it takes long
duration in cooling process due to slow heat transfer. According to Moldflow
Corporation (2004) the ejection stage can be carried out once the moulded part
possessed 0.8FLFT and undergo cooling out of the mould. In injection moulding
process, fully cooling of moulded parts in the mould was undesired due to long time
required, especially for thicker part. This was because the thicker part exhibited low
thermal conductivity as the injected molten polymer shows a distance away from
mould surface, where subsequently cause lower heat transfer. It believed that
0.8FLFT have sufficient possibility to withstand warpage occurred in the thicker
moulded part. In the simulation analysis FLFT results, in order to achieve
economical and stable production for both PLSN001 and PLSN002, both of the
processes required at least 30 s holding time in order to achieve 0.8FLFT.
49
Figure 4.13: Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN001 Corresponds to

Moulding Period
Figure 4.14: Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN002 Corresponds to

Moulding Period
CHAPTER 5
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Processability of PLSN001 and PLSN002
Both PLSN001 and PLSN002 processability analyses were carried out using
Moldflow® Plastic Insight 5.0. Process conditions such as melt temperature, mould
temperature and VPSO were selected where the cooling time was assumed to be
perfect cooling at 20 s. The optimum conditions in process PLSN001 can be
achieved where melt temperature at 210 ℃, mould temperature at 25 ℃ and VPSO at
125 MPa. Nevertheless, the optimum process condition for PLSN002 can be
achieved where the melt temperature at 200 ℃, mould temperature at 30 ℃ and
VPSO at 8 MPa.
Initially the injection temperature was selected based on the viscosity of melt.
The selected injection temperature was slightly higher than the melting temperature
for both materials in order to obtain a better flowability. When the injection
temperature was too low, it will cause short shots error occurred. The increase of
injection temperature induced to shorter filling time due to better flowability.
However, the too high injection temperature may lead to higher filling time and
higher volumetric shrinkage. These can be explained as the melt temperature
increase, the transition of specific volume between molten-solid states also increase,
where the extensive crystallization occurred.
Secondly, the mould temperature was selected upon several trials of

simulation analyses done. When the mould temperature too low, it required longer
51
fill time and higher TPW. However, the lower mould temperature will lead to lower
average volumetric shrinkage. The selection of mould temperature was selected
based on the low fill time to enhance the production rate, low variations of
volumetric shrinkage to reduce the possibility of defects occurrence, and low TPW
where the least material used to reduce the material cost and increase the profit.
Lastly, the optimum VPSO was selected. During filling, frozen layer occurred
due to the heat transfer between the hot fresh injected molten polymer and cold
mould wall. The frozen layer induced strong flow resistant for the incoming molten
polymer. When the lower VPSO was set, it takes longer time to fill the mould
cavities. However, the too high VPSO can cause high volumetric shrinkage in which
the higher possibility of deformation of the moulded parts.
5.2 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at filling stage
From the simulation analyses results, PLSN001 with 1.004 s fill time exhibited high
distinct in compared with PLSN002 with 0.0359 s fill time. This was because the
differences properties possessed by both PLA (PLSN001) and LDPE (PLSN002).
Both polymeric materials possessed different in their structures, where amorphous
for PLA and semicrystalline for LDPE. The semicrystalline structure allowed the
long chain branching in LDPE to flow easily upon heating. The viscosity model
explained well the PLSN001 exhibited around 100 times higher viscosity compared
with PLSN002 in which the higher fill time required for PLSN001. Besides that, the
higher viscosity in PLSN001 also required higher VPSO (125 MPa) compared to
PLSN required lower VPSO (8 MPa).
At end of filling, the frozen layer (FLFE) for both PLSN001 and PLSN002
were compared. PLSN001 exhibited higher FLFE compared to PLSN002 due to the
higher flow resistance caused by the high viscosity. The FLFE was reduced by
introduced higher pressure for VPSO in which the heat loss was balanced in between
the fresh hot incoming molten polymer and low temperature of mould surface.
52
5.3 Analysis of PLSN001 and PLSN002 at packing stage
When the same volume of mould cavities was used, it found that the TPW for both
PLSN001 (37.525 g) and PLSN002 (27.2341 g) were different. This can be
explained where the differences polymeric materials composed of different
compressibility and molten-solid density. The PVT curves showed that LDPE has
higher specific volume and thermal transition than PLA. In terms of material saving,
PLSN002 was more favourable. However, PLSN002 exhibited higher volumetric
shrinkages as compared with PLSN001 due to its higher transition of specific volume
in LDPE and extensive crystallization upon cooling. Both designs also exhibited low
variations in volumetric shrinkages. These can minimize the possibility of warpage
occurrence.
In terms of FLFT, PLSN001 showed higher FLFT at corresponding period

over PLSN002 due to its higher viscosity in PLA. Besides that, higher differences
between mould temperature and melt temperature were used in PLSN001 which the
higher heat transfer led to faster cooling within the mould cavities. Moreover, PLA
which has lower specific capacity compared with LDPE. For both work piece
designs, the process required at least 30 s holding time in achieving 0.8FLFT for
economical production.
5.4 Recommendations
In future, the simulation analysis can be improved by introducing cooling stage. The
cooling efficiency of plastic moulded parts can be improved by introduction cooling
stage. Besides that, different gate location can be introduced to obtained different
simulation results and thus better process conditions for PLSN. Moreover, the
warpage analysis can be done to assured the production of good quality of moulded
parts. The analytical results can be obtained in determining the possibility of
deformation of moulded parts, where the process parameters can be further improved.
53
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INJECTION MOULDING PROCESSING ANALYSIS OF POLYLACTIC

ACID AND LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC SPOON

WONG QIN YAN

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Faculty of Engineering and Science

APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

I certify that this project report entitled “INJECTION MOULDING

Supervisor : Dr. Lee Tin Sin

© 2012, Wong Qin Yan. All right reserved.

INJECTION MOULDING PROCESSING ANALYSIS OF POLYLACTIC

2.4 Warpage and Residual Stresses 21

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 28

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 50

TABLE TITLE PAGE

4.1 Fill Time and TPW for Various Melt Temperature

4.2 Fill Time and TPW for Various Melt Temperature

‎4.3 Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during

4.4 Fill Time and TPW for Various Melt Temperature

4.5 Fill Time and TPW for Various Mould

4.6 Fill Time and TPW for Various VPSO during

‎4.7 Basic Simulation Setting of PLSN001 and

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

‎1.1 Major Applications of Moulded Plastic Parts

2.1 Polymerizaton Routes to Polylactic Acid (PLA)

2.2 DSC Scan of PET and PLA (Blackburn et al., 2005)

‎2.3 Comparison of Glass Transition and Melting

‎2.4 Glass Transition Temperature for PLAs of

‎2.5 Pressure Affected Shear Viscosity Data of

3.1 3D Geometrical View of Plastic Spoon (PLSN)

3.2 Fusion Meshed for Plastic Spoon (PLSN) 27

3.3 Duplication of Four Cavities for PLSN 27

4.1 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN001 when Melt

‎4.2 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN001 when Melt

4.3 Viscosity Model for Polylactic Acid (PLA) 31

4.4 Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship

4.5 Volumetric Shrinkage Illustrations at Mould

4.6 Filling Time Illustrations of PLSN002 when Melt

4.7 Viscosity Model for Low-Density Polyethylene

4.8 Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationship

4.9 Volumetric Shrinkage Illustration at Mould

4.10 Filling Simulation Screen Outputs of (a) PLSN001

4.11 FLFE Illustrations (a) PLSN001 and (b) PLSN002

4.12 Volumetric Shrinkages Illustrations for (a)

4.13 Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN001

4.14 Frozen Layer Fraction (FLFT) of PLSN002

LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS

Tg glass transition temperature, ℃

VPSO velocity/pressure switch over, MPa

Figure 1.1: Major Applications of Moulded Plastic Parts (Stevens, 2002)

Recently, the studies and development of naturally occurring biodegradable

Injection moulding is one of the ideal and economically processing

In this study, the aim was to determine of the processability of PLA

1.2 Problem Statements

1. What are the effects of injection temperature on processability for PLA

2. What are the effects of mould temperature on the processability of PLSN001

3. What are the effects of Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) on the

1. To investigate the effects of injection temperature on processability for

2. To investigate the effects of mould temperature on the processability of

3. To determine the effects of Velocity/Pressure Switch Over (VPSO) on the

4. To determine and compare the aspects that affects the processability of