Modern Railway Track

Second Edition
MODERN RAILWAY TRACK
Second Edition

Coenraad Esveld
Professor of Railway Engineering
Delft University of Technology

2001
MRT-Productions
 Delft University of Technology

Editing: Dior Zwarthoed-van Nieuwenhuizen

Layout: Jan van ’t Zand, TU Delft
Drawings: TU Delft
Production: Koninklijke van de Garde BV

ISBN 90-800324-3-3
SISO 696.3 UDC 625.1

© Copyright 2001 C. Esveld

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the right of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitations, broadcas-
tings, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publi-
cation or parts thereof is only permitted under the Dutch Copyright Law.

This book can be ordered from:

MRT-Productions . P.O. Box 331 . NL-5300 AH Zaltbommel . The Netherlands
Tel.: +31 418 516369 . Fax: +31 418 516372 . Email: [email protected]
Internet: www.esveld.com
Major contributions to this Second Edition were made by the following persons:

Norbert Frank, Voest Alpine Schienen

Stanislav Jovanovic, TU Delft

Anton Kok, TU Delft

Amy de Man, TU Delft

Valeri Markine, TU Delft

Rainer Oswald, VAE

Peter Scheepmaker, TU Delft

Rainer Wenty, Plasser & Theurer

Gerard van der Werf, TU Delft and Arcadis

Jan van ‘t Zand, TU Delft

Arjen Zoeteman, TU Delft

Jan Zwarthoed, TU Delft and Volker Stevin Rail & Traffic

Modern Railway Track
Second Edition
To my grandchildren
Thomas
Maud
Fieke
and
Douwe
Publication of this book has been made possible thanks to the sponsoring of the following companies:

Main Sponsors
Delft University of Technology,The Netherlands
BAM NBM Rail bv, The Netherlands
German Track Systems Projektgesellschaft mbH, Germany

Sponsors
Plasser & Theurer, Austria
Vossloh Rail Fastening Systems, Germany

Advertisers
Elektro-Thermit, Germany
Speno International, Switzerland

Front Cover Sponsor

Vossloh Rail Fastening Systems, Germany

Spine Sponsor
Pandrol, England
Modern Railway Track PREFACE

Acknowledgement
With the preparation of this Second Edition many experts have assisted to provide and check existing
material and to write additional sections. In the first place I would like to thank my staff of the railway
engineering group of Delft University of Technology: Jan van ‘t Zand, Peter Scheepmaker, Gerard van
der Werf, Anton Kok, Valeri Markine, Ivan Shevtsov, Pedja Joksimovic and the secretaries Jacqueline
Barnhoorn and Sonja van den Bos. I am most indebted to my Ph.D. students: Akke Suiker, Amy de
Man, Arjen Zoeteman, Søren Rasmussen, Stanislav Jovanovic and Jan Zwarthoed for their invalua-
ble ideas, suggestions and contributions. Those who have drafted significant parts have been men-
tioned explicitly in the outset of the book. From TU Delft I would like to mention in particular Jan van ‘t
Zand who made the entire layout of the book in Framemaker.

I would also like to express my gratitude to my colleagues of the management team of the Section for
Road and Railway Engineering at the Civil Engineering Department of TU Delft: André Molenaar,
Peter Scheepmaker, Lambert Houben, Martin van der Ven and Abdol Miradi for their support in pro-
ducing this Second Edition.

For the high-speed section I would like to thank the Korean High Speed Rail Corporation for contribu-
ting information of the high-speed project between Seoul and Pusan. In this respect I would also like
to refer to the many interesting discussions in the Special International Track Advisory Committee
(SITAC), comprised of Dr. Kee-Dong Kang, Dr. Yoshihiko Sato, Mr. Serge Montagné, Prof. Klaus
Riessberger, Mr. Gerhard Kaess and myself, with the active assistance of Mr. Arne Svensoy, Mr. Ber-
told Pfeifer and Mr. Ki-Jun Son.

Valuable information was received from my Japanese colleagues Dr. Yoshihiko Sato from the Railway
Track System Institute, Dr. Katsutoshi Ando and Mr. Noritsugu Abe from the Railway Technical
Research Institute (RTRI) and Mr. Tetsuhisa Kobayashi from the Japan Railway Construction Public
Corporation (JRCPC) for which I would like to express my gratitude.

I very much appreciated the indirect contributions by the companies and members participating in the
Coordinating Committee for Railway Engineering of the Information and Technology Centre for Trans-
port and Infrastructure (CROW) in The Netherlands.

I also owe much gratitude to Mr. Rainer Wenty from Plasser and Theurer for revising the section on
track maintenance and renewal, and providing information on various other related subjects.

I highly appreciated the input on stone blowing from Mr. Peter McMichael of Railtrack and Mr. David
Hill-Smith of AMEC Rail.

The section on rail grinding was checked by Mr. Wolfgang Schöch for which I would like to express
my thanks.

For the section on rails I am very grateful for the contribution of Dr. Norbert Frank from Voest Alpine
Schienen, who revised large parts of the original text.

I very much appreciated the assistance of Mr. Paul Godart of NMBS/SNCB for providing the informa-
tion on the work of CEN and UIC concerning new rail standards.

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Hugo Goossens of TUC Rail for the many interesting dis-
cussions on track maintenance.

I owe much gratitude to Mr. Rainer Oswald from VAE, for his suggestions on revising the section on
switches and crossings.

I would like to thank Dr. Frank Kusters of Elektro-Thermit for checking the section on ET welding.

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PREFACE Modern Railway Track

Thanks to Dipl.-Ing. Hans Bachmann, Dipl.-Ing. Jens Kleeberg and Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Martin Kowalski of
Pfleiderer I was able to incorporate the latest information of the Rheda system in the chapter on slab
track.

Furthermore essential information on track components were provided by the suppliers, for which I
would like to thank in particular Mr. Gerrien van der Houwen of Edilon, Mr. Dirk Vorderbrück from
Vossloh, Mr. Chris Eckebus from Phoenix Benelux, Mr. David Rhodes from Pandrol, Mr. Patrick
Carels of CDM and Mr. Olaf Unbehaun of Cronau.

For the parts on inspection systems we received many contributions from the industry. I would like to
express my thanks in particular to Mr. Anton Weel and Mr. Han Wendt of Eurailscout, Mr. Jaap Roos
and Mr. Erwin Giling of TNO-TPD, Mr. Aad van der Linden and Mr. Jan van der Schee from Konink-
lijke BAM NBM, Mr. Wido de Witte from Erdmann Softwaregesellschaft, Mr. Kevin Kesler of Ensco,
Mrs. Danuše Marusicová of Czech Railways (CD), Prof. Willem Ebersohn of Amtrack, Mr. Charles
Penny of Balfour Beatty, Mr. Paolo Redi of S.E.I. Sistemi Energetici Integrati and Mr. Ted Slump of NS
Rail Infrabeheer.

Finally I would like to thank Dior van Nieuwenhuizen for her magnificent work to check and correct the
English text.

I would like to conclude with expressing the hope that this Second Edition will once again prove to be
a useful contribution to the training of students and railway engineers.

Coenraad Esveld

x
Modern Railway Track PREFACE

PREFACE
After the success of Modern Railway Track this Second Edition is an extension and complete revision
of the original book, in which the developments of the last ten years have been incorporated. The
research projects carried out at the Railway Engineering Group of Delft University of Technology have
played a central role. The theory of railway track and vehicle track interaction has been substantially
enhanced and much more attention has been given to dynamics. Undoubtedly one of the most impor-
tant extensions was the part on slab track structures. But also track management systems have been
given much more attention. Numerical optimization and testing, as well as acceptance are new chap-
ters.

When revising the lecture notes for the railway course at the Civil Engineering Department of TU Delft
in the period 1994 - 2000 the first edition of this book was taken as a starting point. The first edition
and the TU Delft lecture notes, together with various publications and research reports, mainly of the
railway engineering group of TU Delft, were then forming the base for the second edition.

The staff of the railway engineering group at TU Delft has made a great contribution to the composi-
tion and revision of the various chapters. Also the industry provided some important contributions,
specifically on the chapters dealing with rail manufacturing, track components, maintenance and
renewal, as well as inspection systems.

The first seven chapters are dealing with the basic theory of the wheel rail interface and track design.
In the design attention is given to both static and dynamic aspects, whereby a number of examples is
given of results obtained from computer models like RAIL, GEOTRACK and ANSYS. In the part on
stability and longitudinal forces the CWERRI program is extensively discussed.

The discussion of track structures has been split up into a chapter on ballasted track and one on slab
track. The first one is dealing with the conventional structures and modern ballasted designs,
whereas the slab track chapter focuses on developments of the last decades. Both continuous slabs
and prefabricated solutions are addressed in combination with discretely supported and continuously
supported rails.

The chapter on rails has been brought to the state of the art, with introducing the new EN standards
and discussing the latest inspection systems. Also the latest information on bainitic rail steels has
been incorporated.

For switches and crossings high-speed turnouts are discussed, together with the geometrical design
criteria, and also modern inspection systems for controlling switch maintenance.

In railway engineering practice track maintenance and renewal forms a key factor. The latest track
maintenance methods and the associated machines are presented, being a major extension com-
pared to the first edition of this book. The part on track deterioration has now been incorporated in this
chapter.

Optimization was one of the issues very much underestimated in railway engineering. Such tech-
niques are not only applicable to components and structures, but also to decision support systems
and resource optimization. A separate chapter has been added called numerical optimization with the
main emphasis on structural components.

From the outset railway engineering has always had a strong component in experimental work.
Therefore a new section has been added on testing and acceptance, in which also the issue of
acceptance criteria for new railway components is addressed.

The chapter on noise and vibration is describing the fundamentals and has been taken over from the
first edition with only a few modifications.

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PREFACE Modern Railway Track

The chapter on inspection and detection methods has been completely revised. The original chapter
was primarily based on NS experience. Now the state of the art inspection systems have been intro-
duced. However the fundamental parts of the first edition have been left in tact.

The chapter on high-speed tracks contains some applications of high-speed projects and some dedi-
cated issues such as pressure waves in tunnels. Also a section is devoted to magnetic levitation.

In track maintenance management systems various issues on track maintenance and renewal deci-
sion support are described, as well as monitoring of phenomena relevant to the various maintenance
processes. Special attention is given to the ECOTRACK system, developed under the auspices of
UIC and maintained and supported by TU Delft.

Railway assets involve a large capital and need to be managed carefully. The chapter on this issue
deals with the general principles of asset management and the way in which such systems can be set
up.

The final chapter is dealing with life cycle cost analysis. After describing the general principles a
number of case studies are discussed.

Zaltbommel, Summer 2001

Coenraad Esveld

xii
Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historic development.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Railways ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Tramways and metro.......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Operational aspects ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Functions of a railway company.................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Infrastructure................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.3 Rolling stock.................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.4 Personnel...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.5 Electrification................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4.6 Catenary systems ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.7 Road crossings ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.4.8 Major rail infrastructure projects.................................................................................................... 9
1.4.9 Developing countries .................................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Geometry of a railway line ................................................................................................................ 10
1.5.1 Clearances.................................................................................................................................. 10
1.5.2 Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.6 General track considerations............................................................................................................ 13
1.6.1 Track requirements..................................................................................................................... 13
1.6.2 Load-bearing function of the track .............................................................................................. 14
1.6.3 Indication of rail forces and displacements................................................................................. 15
1.6.4 Track geometry components ...................................................................................................... 15

2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE
2.1 Wheel-rail guidance.......................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Wheelset and track dimensions ....................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Conicity............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.4 Lateral movement of a wheelset on straight track ............................................................................ 19
2.4.1 Theory according to Klingel ........................................................................................................ 19
2.4.2 Hunting movement...................................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Equivalent conicity............................................................................................................................ 21
2.6 Worn wheel profiles .......................................................................................................................... 22
2.7 Wheel-rail contact stresses .............................................................................................................. 23
2.7.1 Hertz theory ................................................................................................................................ 23
2.7.2 Hertz spring constant.................................................................................................................. 24
2.7.3 Single and two-point contact between wheel and rail ................................................................. 25
2.7.4 Spreading forces ......................................................................................................................... 26
2.7.5 Wheel-rail creep.......................................................................................................................... 27
2.7.6 Spin............................................................................................................................................. 28
2.7.7 Creepage coefficients ................................................................................................................. 29
2.8 Train resistances .............................................................................................................................. 30
2.8.1 Types of resistances ................................................................................................................... 30
2.8.2 Required pulling force................................................................................................................. 31
2.8.3 Adhesion force............................................................................................................................ 32

3 CURVES AND GRADIENTS

3.1 General considerations .................................................................................................................... 35

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3.2 Curvature and superelevation in horizontal curves .......................................................................... 35

3.2.1 Curve radius/curvature................................................................................................................ 35
3.2.2 Curve effects............................................................................................................................... 35
3.3 Superelevation................................................................................................................................. 36
3.3.1 General considerations ............................................................................................................... 36
3.3.2 Cant deficiency ........................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.3 Effect of suspension on lateral acceleration ............................................................................... 38
3.3.4 Effect of body tilt coaches on cant deficiency ............................................................................. 38
3.3.5 Switches and other constraints ................................................................................................... 39
3.3.6 Cant excess ................................................................................................................................ 39
3.3.7 Maximum cant............................................................................................................................. 39
3.4 Transition curves .............................................................................................................................. 39
3.4.1 General remarks ......................................................................................................................... 39
3.4.2 Clothoid ....................................................................................................................................... 40
3.4.3 Cubic parabola ............................................................................................................................ 41
3.4.4 Curve displacement .................................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Cross level transitions ...................................................................................................................... 42
3.5.1 Relation with the transition curve................................................................................................ 42
3.5.2 Length of normal transition curve................................................................................................ 43
3.5.3 Adjacent curves .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.6 Curve resistance............................................................................................................................... 43
3.7 Gradients .......................................................................................................................................... 44
3.7.1 Gradient resistance ..................................................................................................................... 44
3.7.2 Magnitude of gradient ................................................................................................................. 44
3.7.3 Vertical transition curves ............................................................................................................. 45
3.7.4 Guidelines for permissible quasi-static accelerations ................................................................. 45
3.8 Alignment in mountainous areas ...................................................................................................... 46
3.9 Computer-aided track design ........................................................................................................... 48
3.10 PASCOM - software to estimate passenger comfort...................................................................... 51
3.10.1 Numerical model....................................................................................................................... 51
3.10.2 Case 1: Investigation of dynamic effects .................................................................................. 52
3.10.3 Case 2: Track HSL-Zuid (NL) ................................................................................................... 53

4 TRACK LOADS
4.1 In general.......................................................................................................................................... 55
4.2 Axle loads ......................................................................................................................................... 55
4.3 Line classification ............................................................................................................................. 55
4.4 Tonnages.......................................................................................................................................... 56
4.5 Speeds ............................................................................................................................................. 56
4.6 Causes and nature of track loads..................................................................................................... 57
4.7 Vertical rail forces. ............................................................................................................................ 57
4.7.1 Total vertical wheel load ............................................................................................................. 57
4.7.2 Tilting risk. ................................................................................................................................... 58
4.8 Lateral forces on the rail................................................................................................................... 59
4.8.1 Total lateral wheel load ............................................................................................................... 59
4.8.2 Derailment risk ............................................................................................................................ 59
4.8.3 Lateral force on the track ............................................................................................................ 60
4.9 Longitudinal forces. .......................................................................................................................... 61
4.9.1 Causes ........................................................................................................................................ 61
4.9.2 Temperature forces..................................................................................................................... 61
4.9.3 Track creep ................................................................................................................................. 61

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.9.4 Braking load ................................................................................................................................ 62

4.10 Influence of higher speeds and increased axle loads .................................................................... 62
4.10.1 Speed ....................................................................................................................................... 62
4.10.2 Increase in axle loads ............................................................................................................... 63
4.11 Wheel flats...................................................................................................................................... 67
4.12 Forces due to bad welds ................................................................................................................ 68
4.13 Axle box accelerations ................................................................................................................... 69

5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 71
5.2 Supporting models ........................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.1 Winkler support model ................................................................................................................ 71
5.2.2 Discrete rail support .................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.3 Exercise: Spring constant determination .................................................................................... 72
5.2.4 Continuous rail support ............................................................................................................... 73
5.2.5 Approximation of discrete rail support......................................................................................... 73
5.3 Beam on elastic foundation model ................................................................................................... 74
5.3.1 Solution of the differential equation............................................................................................. 74
5.3.2 Several wheel loads.................................................................................................................... 76
5.3.3 Two-axle bogie ............................................................................................................................ 77
5.3.4 Negative deflection ..................................................................................................................... 77
5.3.5 Beam with hinge (jointed track)................................................................................................... 78
5.3.6 Alternative expressions for characteristic length L ...................................................................... 79
5.3.7 Fast determination of vertical elasticity constants....................................................................... 79
5.3.8 Order of magnitude of elasticity constants.................................................................................. 79
5.4 Double beam model ......................................................................................................................... 80
5.5 Pasternak foundation model............................................................................................................. 81
5.6 Rail stresses ..................................................................................................................................... 83
5.6.1 Stresses in rail foot centre .......................................................................................................... 83
5.6.2 Dynamic amplification factor....................................................................................................... 83
5.6.3 Maximum bending stress in rail foot centre ................................................................................ 84
5.6.4 Stresses in the rail head ............................................................................................................. 86
5.6.5 Rail stresses due to a combined Q/Y load.................................................................................. 88
5.6.6 Rail tables ................................................................................................................................... 90
5.7 Sleeper stresses............................................................................................................................... 91
5.8 Stresses on ballast bed and formation ............................................................................................. 92
5.8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 92
5.8.2 Vertical stress on ballast bed ...................................................................................................... 92
5.8.3 Vertical stress on formation ........................................................................................................ 93
5.8.4 Odemark's equivalence method ................................................................................................. 93
5.8.5 Classification of the quality of soils ............................................................................................. 96
5.9 Some analytical exercises ................................................................................................................ 97
5.9.1 Fatigue rail foot ........................................................................................................................... 97
5.9.2 Fatigue rail head ......................................................................................................................... 97
5.9.3 Sleeper ....................................................................................................................................... 98
5.9.4 Ballast bed .................................................................................................................................. 98
5.9.5 Temperature effects.................................................................................................................... 98
5.10 Computer models ......................................................................................................................... 100
5.10.1 GEOTRACK program ............................................................................................................. 100
5.10.2 The ANSYS program .............................................................................................................. 102
5.11 Two Case ERS designs ............................................................................................................... 104

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

5.11.1 Testing of the UIC54 ERS....................................................................................................... 104

5.11.2 Testing of the SA42 ERS........................................................................................................ 105
5.11.3 Input and output of static model.............................................................................................. 106
5.11.4 Results.................................................................................................................................... 106

6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 107
6.2 Dynamic principles ......................................................................................................................... 108
6.2.1 In general.................................................................................................................................. 108
6.2.2 One-mass spring system .......................................................................................................... 108
6.2.3 Wheel/rail forces due to dipped rail joints ................................................................................. 112
6.2.4 Track excitation origins ............................................................................................................. 113
6.3 Track modelling.............................................................................................................................. 113
6.3.1 General considerations ............................................................................................................. 113
6.3.2 Transfer function between track load and track displacement.................................................. 113
6.3.3 Beam on an elastic foundation.................................................................................................. 114
6.3.4 Discrete support........................................................................................................................ 121
6.4 Vertical wheel response ................................................................................................................. 121
6.4.1 Hertzian contact spring ............................................................................................................. 121
6.4.2 Transfer functions between wheel and rail ............................................................................... 122
6.5 Linear vehicle model....................................................................................................................... 124
6.5.1 Schematisation ......................................................................................................................... 124
6.5.2 Response to irregularities in level ............................................................................................. 125
6.5.3 Combination of level results ...................................................................................................... 128
6.5.4 Response to irregularities in alignment..................................................................................... 129
6.5.5 Response to irregularities in cant.............................................................................................. 129
6.5.6 Combination of cant results ...................................................................................................... 131
6.5.7 ISO weighting of car body accelerations................................................................................... 132
6.5.8 Calculated transfer functions for the NS measuring coach ....................................................... 133
6.6 Estimate of transfer functions using measured data ...................................................................... 137
6.6.1 General concept........................................................................................................................ 137
6.6.2 Basic principles for 1 input and 1 output ................................................................................... 137
6.6.3 Multiple input single output (MISO)........................................................................................... 140
6.6.4 Statistical reliability.................................................................................................................... 141
6.6.5 Numerical aspects .................................................................................................................... 143
6.6.6 Applications............................................................................................................................... 144
6.6.7 Comparison between transfer functions estimated by MISO and calculated with models ........ 151
6.7 Vehicle response analysis in real time ........................................................................................... 152
6.8 Relation between Sperling's Ride Index Wz and ISO-weighted accelerations............................... 155
6.9 Applications of advanced dynamic models..................................................................................... 157
6.9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 157
6.9.2 The RAIL-model........................................................................................................................ 157
6.9.3 A comparison of several different track types ........................................................................... 158
6.9.4 Transitions in railway track on embankments and bridges ....................................................... 162
6.10 Track response to a moving axle load .......................................................................................... 164
6.10.1 Track response at the critical train velocity ............................................................................. 164
6.10.2 Dynamic response of a ballast layer....................................................................................... 167
6.10.3 Stiffness transitions................................................................................................................. 168
6.10.4 Brief discussion....................................................................................................................... 170

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 171
7.1.1 Straight track and elastic lateral resistance .............................................................................. 172
7.1.2 Track with misalignment and constant lateral shear resistance................................................ 174
7.2 Track stability: finite element modelling.......................................................................................... 176
7.2.1 General considerations............................................................................................................. 176
7.2.2 Finite element model................................................................................................................. 176
7.2.3 Results...................................................................................................................................... 180
7.2.4 Continuous welded switches..................................................................................................... 183
7.3 Longitudinal forces: analytical modelling ........................................................................................ 184
7.3.1 General considerations............................................................................................................. 184
7.3.2 Axial rail model.......................................................................................................................... 184
7.3.3 Modelling of the longitudinal interaction problem...................................................................... 186
7.4 Longitudinal forces: finite element modelling ................................................................................. 189
7.4.1 General considerations............................................................................................................. 189
7.4.2 Finite element model................................................................................................................. 189
7.4.3 Examples of longitudinal force calculations .............................................................................. 191
7.5 Advanced numerical models of track buckling ............................................................................... 194
7.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 194
7.5.2 Analysis of track behaviour using CWERRI.............................................................................. 195
7.5.3 Analysis of longitudinal forces................................................................................................... 195
7.5.4 Track lateral behaviour ............................................................................................................. 197
7.5.5 Vertical stability of track ............................................................................................................ 198
7.5.6 Buckling mechanism ................................................................................................................. 198
7.5.7 Approach in order to determine the allowable temperature T ALL ............................................ 199
7.5.8 Study case: Stability of tram track............................................................................................. 201

8 BALLASTED TRACK
8.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 203
8.2 Formation ....................................................................................................................................... 204
8.3 Ballast bed...................................................................................................................................... 205
8.4 Rails ............................................................................................................................................... 206
8.4.1 Functions .................................................................................................................................. 206
8.4.2 Profile types .............................................................................................................................. 206
8.4.3 Geometry of flat-bottom rail ...................................................................................................... 207
8.5 Rail joints and welds....................................................................................................................... 208
8.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 208
8.5.2 Fishplated joints........................................................................................................................ 208
8.5.3 Expansion joints and expansion devices .................................................................................. 209
8.5.4 Bridge transition structures ....................................................................................................... 210
8.5.5 Insulated joint............................................................................................................................ 210
8.6 Sleepers ......................................................................................................................................... 212
8.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 212
8.6.2 Timber sleepers ........................................................................................................................ 213
8.6.3 Concrete sleepers..................................................................................................................... 214
8.6.4 Steel sleepers ........................................................................................................................... 216
8.7 Improvements in ballasted tracks ................................................................................................... 216
8.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 216
8.7.2 Wide sleeper ............................................................................................................................. 217
8.7.3 Frame sleeper........................................................................................................................... 218

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

8.7.4 Local ballast stabilisation by means of a chemical binder ........................................................ 219

8.8 Fastening systems......................................................................................................................... 219
8.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 219
8.8.2 Subdivision of fastenings .......................................................................................................... 220
8.8.3 Baseplates ................................................................................................................................ 220
8.8.4 Elastic fastenings ...................................................................................................................... 221
8.8.5 Rail pads ................................................................................................................................... 222
8.9 Track on structures with a continuous ballast bed and sleepers .................................................... 223
8.9.1 Ballast mats .............................................................................................................................. 223
8.10 Reinforcing layers......................................................................................................................... 225
8.11 Level crossings ............................................................................................................................. 226
8.12 Tramway Track ............................................................................................................................. 227
8.12.1 Tramway track characteristics ................................................................................................ 227
8.12.2 Examples of paved-in tramway track...................................................................................... 229
8.13 Crane Track .................................................................................................................................. 230

9 SLAB TRACK
9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 231
9.2 Ballasted track versus slab track .................................................................................................... 231
9.2.1 Ballasted track .......................................................................................................................... 232
9.2.2 Slab track .................................................................................................................................. 232
9.3 Designs of slab track superstructures ............................................................................................ 233
9.4 Sleepers or blocks embedded in concrete ..................................................................................... 234
9.4.1 Rheda 2000 .............................................................................................................................. 235
9.4.2 Züblin ........................................................................................................................................ 242
9.5 Structures with asphalt-concrete roadbed...................................................................................... 245
9.6 Prefabricated slabs......................................................................................................................... 246
9.6.1 Shinkansen slab track............................................................................................................... 247
9.6.2 Recent design of Shinkansen slab track ................................................................................... 248
9.6.3 Bögl slab track .......................................................................................................................... 251
9.7 Monolithic slabs and civil structures ............................................................................................... 252
9.8 Embedded Rail............................................................................................................................... 253
9.8.1 The characteristics of embedded rail ........................................................................................ 253
9.8.2 Construction of embedded rail track ......................................................................................... 254
9.8.3 Experiences with embedded rail ............................................................................................... 255
9.8.4 DeckTrack ................................................................................................................................. 257
9.9 Flexural stiff slabs on top of soft soil............................................................................................... 258
9.10 Clamped and continuously supported rail structures.................................................................... 261
9.10.1 CoconTrack............................................................................................................................. 261
9.10.2 Continuously supported grooved rail ...................................................................................... 263
9.10.3 Web-clamped rails .................................................................................................................. 264
9.11 EPS as subbase material in railway slab track structures ............................................................ 265
9.11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 265
9.11.2 Slab track structures with an EPS subbase ............................................................................ 265
9.11.3 Static performance.................................................................................................................. 265
9.11.4 Dynamic performance............................................................................................................. 266
9.11.5 Applications............................................................................................................................. 267
9.12 Track resilience ............................................................................................................................ 267
9.13 System requirements.................................................................................................................... 268
9.13.1 Requirements for the substructure.......................................................................................... 269
9.13.2 Requirements for slab track in tunnels.................................................................................... 271

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.13.3 Requirements for slab track on bridges .................................................................................. 271

9.13.4 Requirements for transitions ................................................................................................... 272
9.14 General experiences with slab track systems .............................................................................. 273
9.15 Maintenance statistics of slab track.............................................................................................. 274

10 THE RAIL
10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 275
10.2 Modern rail manufacturing............................................................................................................ 275
10.2.1 Blast furnace ........................................................................................................................... 275
10.2.2 Steel-making ........................................................................................................................... 277
10.2.3 Vacuum degassing and argon flushing ................................................................................... 279
10.2.4 Continuous casting ................................................................................................................. 279
10.2.5 Rolling mill............................................................................................................................... 281
10.2.6 Finishing shop ......................................................................................................................... 282
10.2.7 Inspection and acceptance ..................................................................................................... 286
10.2.8 Rail profiles ............................................................................................................................. 288
10.2.9 Indication of profile types according to CEN ........................................................................... 288
10.3 Rail properties .............................................................................................................................. 292
10.3.1 Metallurgical fundamentals ..................................................................................................... 292
10.3.2 Heat treatment........................................................................................................................ 294
10.3.3 Rail grades.............................................................................................................................. 296
10.3.4 Wear resistance ...................................................................................................................... 299
10.3.5 Fatigue strength ...................................................................................................................... 300
10.3.6 Fracture mechanics ................................................................................................................ 300
10.4 Rail welding .................................................................................................................................. 306
10.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 306
10.4.2 Flash butt welding ................................................................................................................... 306
10.4.3 Post-processing of flash butt welds in the NS welding depot ................................................. 309
10.4.4 Thermit welding....................................................................................................................... 310
10.4.5 Cooling rates........................................................................................................................... 314
10.4.6 Improvement of weld geometry............................................................................................... 316
10.4.7 Weld geometry standards....................................................................................................... 316
10.5 Rail failures................................................................................................................................... 317
10.5.1 Defects in rail ends ................................................................................................................. 317
10.5.2 Defects away from rail ends.................................................................................................... 318
10.5.3 Weld and resurfacing defects ................................................................................................. 323
10.5.4 Rail defect statistics ................................................................................................................ 326

11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

11.1 The standard turnout .................................................................................................................... 333
11.1.1 Set of switches........................................................................................................................ 334
11.1.2 Common crossing ................................................................................................................... 335
11.1.3 Closure rail.............................................................................................................................. 337
11.1.4 Rails and sleepers in turnouts................................................................................................. 337
11.2 Geometry of the turnout ............................................................................................................... 337
11.3 High-speed turnouts.................................................................................................................... 338
11.3.1 General................................................................................................................................... 338
11.3.2 Traditional turnout design method .......................................................................................... 338
11.4 Vehicle dynamic ........................................................................................................................... 338
11.4.1 Examples of modern high-speed turnouts .............................................................................. 339

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

11.5 Notations used for switches and crossings .................................................................................. 340

11.6 Types of turnouts and crossings................................................................................................... 340
11.7 Cross-overs .................................................................................................................................. 341
11.8 Switch calculation ......................................................................................................................... 344
11.8.1 Relation between curve radius and crossing angle ................................................................ 344
11.8.2 Calculation of main dimensions ............................................................................................. 345
11.8.3 Geometrical design of switches and crossings...................................................................... 347
11.9 Production, transport and laying of switches................................................................................ 347

12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 349
12.2 General maintenance aspects...................................................................................................... 350
12.3 Spot maintenance of track geometry............................................................................................ 350
12.4 Rail grinding and reprofiling .......................................................................................................... 352
12.4.1 Rail grinding machines............................................................................................................ 352
12.4.2 Rail reprofiling machines......................................................................................................... 354
12.5 Correcting weld geometry............................................................................................................. 356
12.5.1 STRAIT principle..................................................................................................................... 356
12.5.2 Mobile weld correction ............................................................................................................ 357
12.6 Tamping machines ....................................................................................................................... 357
12.6.1 General considerations ........................................................................................................... 357
12.6.2 Tamping principle.................................................................................................................... 359
12.6.3 Levelling and lining ................................................................................................................. 363
12.6.3.1 Smoothing principle of modern tamping machines ........................................................... 363
12.6.4 ALC ......................................................................................................................................... 366
12.6.5 EM-SAT .................................................................................................................................. 367
12.7 Stone blowing ............................................................................................................................... 369
12.7.1 General principle..................................................................................................................... 369
12.7.2 Measuring philosophy used for the stone blower.................................................................... 370
12.7.3 Stone blowing applications ..................................................................................................... 371
12.7.4 Results of track geometry measurements .............................................................................. 373
12.7.5 Stone blowing future ............................................................................................................... 373
12.8 Design overlift tamping ................................................................................................................. 374
12.9 Ballast profiling and stabilization .................................................................................................. 375
12.10 Mechanised track maintenance train .......................................................................................... 377
12.11 Ballast cleaner ............................................................................................................................ 377
12.12 Formation rehabilitation machines.............................................................................................. 379
12.13 High temperatures...................................................................................................................... 383
12.14 Maintenance of the track structure ............................................................................................. 383
12.15 General observations on track renewal ...................................................................................... 384
12.16 Manual track renewal ................................................................................................................. 385
12.17 Mechanical track renewal ........................................................................................................... 386
12.17.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 386
12.17.2 Track possession .................................................................................................................. 386
12.17.3 Gantry crane method ............................................................................................................ 386
12.17.4 Track section method............................................................................................................ 386
12.17.5 Continuous method ............................................................................................................... 388
12.17.6 Track renewal trains.............................................................................................................. 392
12.18 Switch renewal ........................................................................................................................... 393
12.19 Track laying ................................................................................................................................ 396
12.19.1 General considerations ......................................................................................................... 396

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

12.19.2 Track construction trains ....................................................................................................... 396

12.19.3 Platow system ....................................................................................................................... 397
12.19.4 TGV tracks ............................................................................................................................ 397
12.20 Deterioration of Track Geometry ................................................................................................ 399
12.20.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 399
12.20.2 Historical records .................................................................................................................. 399
12.20.3 Factors influencing the deterioration of track geometry ........................................................ 400
12.20.4 Deterioration rates of geometry ............................................................................................ 402
12.20.5 Effects of tamping ................................................................................................................. 403
12.20.6 Effect of weld straightening................................................................................................... 403
12.20.7 Development of corrugation.................................................................................................. 405
12.20.8 Effect of stone blowing.......................................................................................................... 406
12.20.9 Development of lateral track resistance................................................................................ 406

13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

13.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 409
13.2 Elements of structural optimization .............................................................................................. 410
13.2.1 General optimization problem ................................................................................................. 410
13.2.2 Solution process ..................................................................................................................... 411
13.2.3 Approximation concept .......................................................................................................... 411
13.3 MARS method .............................................................................................................................. 413
13.4 Optimal design of embedded rail structure (ERS)........................................................................ 415
13.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 415
13.4.2 Requirements for optimum design of ERS.............................................................................. 416
13.4.3 Optimization problem .............................................................................................................. 420
13.4.4 Remarks and conclusions ....................................................................................................... 426
13.5 Determination of ballast lateral resistance using optimization technique ..................................... 426
13.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 426
13.5.2 Measuring the lateral resistance of track ................................................................................ 428
13.5.3 Ballast parameter identification............................................................................................... 430
13.5.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 435
13.6 Identification of dynamic properties of railway track..................................................................... 435
13.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 435
13.6.2 Hammer excitation test ........................................................................................................... 436
13.6.3 Numerical model ..................................................................................................................... 437
13.6.4 Track parameter identification................................................................................................. 438
13.6.5 Numerical results .................................................................................................................... 439
13.6.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 440

14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 441
14.2 Component testing and acceptance............................................................................................. 441
14.2.1 Mechanical properties............................................................................................................. 441
14.2.2 Elasticity properties ................................................................................................................. 442
14.2.3 Strength properties ................................................................................................................. 446
14.2.4 Stability properties .................................................................................................................. 447
14.2.5 Durability and fatigue properties ............................................................................................. 448
14.2.6 Specific component properties................................................................................................ 449
14.3 Structural testing and acceptance ................................................................................................ 451
14.3.1 Noise and vibration testing of track structures ........................................................................ 451

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

14.3.2 Passenger comfort and ride quality ........................................................................................ 453

14.3.3 Dynamic properties of track structures ................................................................................... 454

15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 459
15.2 Some definitions........................................................................................................................... 459
15.3 Ground vibrations ......................................................................................................................... 460
15.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 460
15.3.2 Wave propagation in soils....................................................................................................... 462
15.3.3 Human perception................................................................................................................... 464
15.3.4 Measured vibrations................................................................................................................ 466
15.3.5 Vibration reduction .................................................................................................................. 468
15.3.6 Measures for ballasted tracks................................................................................................. 469
15.3.7 Measures for slab tracks......................................................................................................... 469
15.3.8 Measures for tracks in the open.............................................................................................. 470
15.4 Railway noise ............................................................................................................................... 470

16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.1 Railway Infrastructure Monitoring ................................................................................................. 475
16.2 Tunnel monitoring......................................................................................................................... 475
16.3 Bridge monitoring and management ............................................................................................ 476
16.4 Substructure Monitoring ............................................................................................................... 477
16.4.1 Substructure condition parameters......................................................................................... 478
16.4.2 Ground Penetrating Radar...................................................................................................... 479
16.4.3 Track Stiffness Measurement ................................................................................................. 480
16.4.4 Infrared thermographic inspection data .................................................................................. 484
16.4.5 Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) Cone Penetrometer measurement.................................. 484
16.4.6 Non-invasive moisture monitoring........................................................................................... 485
16.5 Monitoring and management of switches and crossings .............................................................. 486
16.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 486
16.5.2 Switches and crossings monitoring by EURAILSCOUT ......................................................... 487
16.5.3 SwitchView.............................................................................................................................. 488
16.5.4 Condition monitoring and maintenance management of switches.......................................... 489
16.5.5 CEDIAS - Railway Lines Diagnostic System .......................................................................... 494
16.6 Ultrasonic rail inspection............................................................................................................... 495
16.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 495
16.6.2 The EURAILSCOUT ultrasonic train....................................................................................... 496
16.6.3 Architecture of the URS .......................................................................................................... 497
16.6.4 Probe system .......................................................................................................................... 498
16.6.5 Sensor electronics .................................................................................................................. 500
16.6.6 Incident Processor .................................................................................................................. 501
16.6.7 On-line control and data interpretation.................................................................................... 501
16.6.8 Off-line data analysis and report generation........................................................................... 503
16.6.9 NS Ultrasonic inspection program .......................................................................................... 504
16.7 Track Recording Cars................................................................................................................... 506
16.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 506
16.7.2 Track recording systems......................................................................................................... 506
16.7.3 Rail recording systems............................................................................................................ 508
16.7.4 Overhead wire recording......................................................................................................... 509
16.7.5 Video inspection...................................................................................................................... 510

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

16.7.6 Processing and recording the measured data ........................................................................ 510

16.7.7 Track recording cars ............................................................................................................... 511
16.8 Track recording systems .............................................................................................................. 513
16.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 513
16.8.2 Some aspects of geometry recording ..................................................................................... 513
16.8.3 Assessment of track quality for maintenance decisions ......................................................... 515
16.9 Universal measuring coach EURAILSCOUT ............................................................................... 515
16.9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 515
16.9.2 Track geometry measurement................................................................................................ 516
16.9.3 Overhead wire measurement.................................................................................................. 517
16.9.4 Rail Profile measurement........................................................................................................ 520
16.9.5 Rail Check System.................................................................................................................. 521
16.9.6 Video inspections systems...................................................................................................... 522
16.9.7 Data processing and storing ................................................................................................... 523
16.10 The NS track recording system BMS ......................................................................................... 526
16.10.1 Short-wave recording via axle box accelerations.................................................................. 526
16.10.2 Inertial measuring principle ................................................................................................... 526
16.10.3 Dynamic signals .................................................................................................................... 527
16.10.4 Quasi-static signals ............................................................................................................... 530
16.10.5 Signal combination for determining track parameters........................................................... 531
16.10.6 Signal analysis ...................................................................................................................... 534
16.11 Vehicle response analysis according to VRA ............................................................................. 543
16.11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 543
16.11.2 Principle of calculation .......................................................................................................... 543
16.12 Results from BMS campaigns .................................................................................................... 544
16.12.1 NS distribution functions ....................................................................................................... 544
16.12.2 Results from the ORE D 161 Europe Tour ........................................................................... 544
16.12.3 Track geometry spectra ........................................................................................................ 545
16.13 T-16: FRA's High Speed Research Car ..................................................................................... 547
16.13.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 547
16.13.2 Instrumentation and measurement capabilities .................................................................... 547
16.14 Rail Profile Management ............................................................................................................ 548
16.15 Rail Defect Management........................................................................................................... 549
16.15.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 549
16.16 Ballast monitoring and management.......................................................................................... 551
16.17 Hand-held inspection equipment................................................................................................ 552
16.17.1 Ultrasonic Hand Equipment MT 95....................................................................................... 552
16.17.2 Hand-held Georadar ............................................................................................................. 552
16.17.3 AUTOGRAPH ....................................................................................................................... 553
16.17.4 MINIPROF ............................................................................................................................ 554
16.17.5 RAILPROF ............................................................................................................................ 561
16.18 Pandrol Jackson SYS-10 Rail Flaw Detector ............................................................................. 565

17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS
17.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 567
17.1.1 Vehicle reactions..................................................................................................................... 567
17.1.2 Track geometry ....................................................................................................................... 568
17.1.3 Rail geometry and weld geometry .......................................................................................... 570
17.1.4 Track quality standards for 300 km/h ...................................................................................... 570
17.2 The Korean High Speed Railway Project..................................................................................... 574
17.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 574

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

17.2.2 Civil Works .............................................................................................................................. 574

17.2.3 Track Characteristics.............................................................................................................. 575
17.2.4 Track Laying ........................................................................................................................... 575
17.2.5 Track Installation..................................................................................................................... 575
17.2.6 Catenary and Systems............................................................................................................ 576
17.3 Dimensions of railway tunnels ...................................................................................................... 577
17.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 577
17.3.2 Air resistance in the open field situation ................................................................................. 577
17.3.3 Tunnel situation....................................................................................................................... 578
17.3.4 Basic design criteria for tunnels.............................................................................................. 579
17.3.5 Calculations of external air pressures on the train.................................................................. 580
17.3.6 Modeling of the tunnel............................................................................................................. 580
17.3.7 Calculation of air-pressure variations in trains ........................................................................ 581
17.3.8 Criteria .................................................................................................................................... 583
17.3.9 Results of calculations for tunnels in the HSL in The Netherlands ......................................... 584
17.4 Maglev Applications...................................................................................................................... 584
17.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 584
17.4.2 The Japanese system............................................................................................................. 584
17.4.3 The German Transrapid system ............................................................................................. 586

18 TRACK MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

18.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 591
18.2 Basic data for prediction and planning ......................................................................................... 592
18.3 Track geometry............................................................................................................................. 593
18.4 Prediction of geometry deterioration............................................................................................. 593
18.5 The basics of the analysis principle.............................................................................................. 594
18.6 Monitoring system for wheel defects ............................................................................................ 596
18.7 Rational rail management............................................................................................................. 596
18.8 ECOTRACK.................................................................................................................................. 596
18.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 596
18.8.2 Overview................................................................................................................................. 597
18.8.3 System functions and process ................................................................................................ 598
18.8.4 Features of the ECOTRACK system ...................................................................................... 602

19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

19.1 Railway Asset Management System concept .............................................................................. 604
19.2 Development of an AMS............................................................................................................... 604
19.3 Railway Assets Locating............................................................................................................... 605
19.3.1 Method using ortho-photo technology..................................................................................... 605
19.3.2 Method using laser, video and GPS technology ..................................................................... 606
19.3.3 Video Surveying...................................................................................................................... 607
19.3.4 Method using Satellite Imagery............................................................................................... 610
19.4 Integrating a Railway Asset Management System ....................................................................... 611
19.5 AMS subsystems.......................................................................................................................... 612

20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

20.1 Life Cycle Costing......................................................................................................................... 615
20.1.1 Life Cycle Costing principles................................................................................................... 615
20.2 Track Life Cycle Cost DSS ........................................................................................................... 620
20.3 Recent studies.............................................................................................................................. 625

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Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

20.3.1 Track design for a high-speed line.......................................................................................... 625

20.3.2 M&R strategies for tracks and switches.................................................................................. 627
20.3.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 629

xxv
TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

xxvi
Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historic development

The rail as supporting and guiding element was first utilised in the sixteenth century. In those times
the mines in England used wooden roadways to reduce the resistance of the mining vehicles. The
running surface was provided with an uprising edge in order to keep the vehicles on the track.
During a crises as a result of overproduction in the iron industry in England in 1760, the wooden rails
were covered with cast iron plates which caused the running resistance to diminish to such an extent
that the application of such plates soon proliferated. About 1800 the first free bearing rails were
applied (Outtram), which were supported at the ends by cast iron sockets on wooden sleepers.
Flanged iron wheels took care of the guiding, as we still practice now. In the beginning the vehicles
were moved forward by manpower or by horses.

The invention of the steam engine led to the first steam locomotive, constructed in 1804 by the Eng-
lishman Trevithick. George Stephenson built the first steam locomotive with tubular boiler in 1814. In
1825 the first railway for passengers was opened between Stockton and Darlington. On the mainland
of Europe Belgium was the first country to open a railway (Mechelen - Brussels). Belgium was quick
to create a connection with the German hinterland bypassing the Dutch waterways. The first railway
in The Netherlands (Amsterdam - Haarlem) came into existence much later: only in 1839. Here the
railway was regarded as a big rival of the inland waterways.

The railways formed a brand new means of transportation with up till then unknown capacity, speed,
and reliability. Large areas were opened which could not be developed earlier because of the primi-
tive road and water connections. The railways formed an enormous stimulus to the political, econo-
mical and social development in the nineteenth century. Countries like the United States and Canada
were opened thanks to the railways and became a political unity. In countries like Russia and China
the railway still plays a crucial roll.

The trade unions originated when the railways were a major employer (railway strikes in England in
1900 and 1911 and in The Netherlands in 1903). The railway companies were also the first line of
business which developed careful planning, organisation and control systems to enable efficient man-
agement. Moreover, they gave the impulse to big developments in the area of civil engineering (rail-
way track building, bridges, tunnels, station roofing).

1.2 Railways

While the railways found themselves in a monopoly position up to the twentieth-century, with the
advent of the combustion engine and the jet engine they had to face strong competition in the form of
buses, cars and aeroplanes.

Mass motorization after World War II expressed by the growing prosperity brought about many prob-
lems, especially in densely populated areas: lack of space, congestion, lack of safety, emission of
harmful substances and noise pollution. Exactly in these cases railways can be advantageous as they
are characterized by the following:

– Limited use of space compared to large transport capacity;

– Reliability and safety;

– High degree of automation and management;

– Moderate environmental impact.

1
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3 CURVES AND GRADIENTS Modern Railway Track

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3.10.2 Case 1: Investigation of dynamic effects

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Modern Railway Track 5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5.1 Introduction

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5.11 Two Case ERS designs

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Modern Railway Track 6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6.1 Introduction

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7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7.1 Introduction

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8 BALLASTED TRACK

8.1 Introduction

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9 SLAB TRACK

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 Modern Railway Track 10 THE RAIL

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10 THE RAIL Modern Railway Track

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Modern Railway Track 10 THE RAIL

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Modern Railway Track 11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

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11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS Modern Railway Track

11.1.1 Set of switches

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Modern Railway Track 12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12.1 Introduction

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Figure 12.6: Grinding units with rotating stones Figure 12.7: Principle of pivoting the Speno grinding units

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Figure 12.44: Stoneblower operated at RAILTRACK

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12.10 Mechanised track maintenance train

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Modern Railway Track 13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

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Figure 13.26: Hammer Excitation Test on classical track (a) and Embedded Rail Structure (b)

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Modern Railway Track 14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.1 Introduction

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14.2 Component testing and acceptance

14.2.1 Mechanical properties

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Elasticity Strength Stability Durability

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Table 14.1: Overview of the most important track properties of each component


Modern Railway Track 14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.2.4 Stability properties

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Figure 14.9: Longitudinal resistance test of an embedded Figure 14.10: Longitudinal resistance test of a fastening
rail section system mounted on sleeper

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14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE Modern Railway Track

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Figure 14.24: Recording properties of embedded rail Figure 14.25: Extracting embedded rail dynamic properties by means
test sample in laboratory of curve-fitting of the recorded transfer function

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Figure 14.26: (a) Simulated and recorded transfer functions of embedded rail structure at rail head

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Modern Railway Track 15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15.1 Introduction

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15.2 Some definitions

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Figure 15.2: Relationship between dB scale and linear scale


15 NOISE AND VIBRATION Modern Railway Track

Silent steel bridges

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Figure 15.20: Silent bridge cross section and view of a bridge

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Figure 15.21: Measured noise

energy levels at silent bridge and at
conventional bridge


Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.1 Railway Infrastructure Monitoring

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Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

Rail surface

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Figure 16.49: Real-time diagram of the rail cross-section

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Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.7.7 Track recording cars

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16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

Recording cars for standard speeds

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– UFM 120 on Netherlands railways

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– EM 130 on Belgium railways

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Figure 16.53: Track recording car UFM 120 Figure 16.54: Track recording car EM 130 of SNCB

Recording cars for smaller networks

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Figure 16.55: Track recording car EM 130 of SNCB


Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

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16.10.3 Dynamic signals

Vertical

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16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

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Figure 16.101: Psd-functions for vertical track geometry based on BMS measurements carried out for ORE D 161

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Modern Railway Track 17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

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17.2 The Korean High Speed Railway Project

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20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

20.1 Life Cycle Costing

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Modern Railway Track INDEX

INDEX
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SRLQWOLQLQJSULQFLSOH 365 %UDNLQJORDG 62
SRLQWPHDVXUHPHQW 364 %ULGJHPRQLWRULQJ 476
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$721 517 &ORVXUHUDLO 337
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Modern Railway Track REFERENCES

REFERENCES
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