Automotive Service PDF

Automotive Service – Study Guide
Table of Contents
CAREERS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE FIELD....................................................................................................... 2
SOLVENTS, SOAPS, AND CLEANING SOLUTIONS ...................................................................................... 5
LUBRICANTS AND SPECIALTY CHEMICALS ................................................................................................ 9
TYPES OF WRENCHES ............................................................................................................................. 13
TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS AND PLIERS ................................................................................................... 19
TYPES OF HAMMERS, PUNCHES, AND CHISELS ...................................................................................... 22
SPECIALTY TOOLS.................................................................................................................................... 24
FASTENERS .............................................................................................................................................. 28
MEASURING TOOLS ................................................................................................................................ 34
POWER TOOLS ........................................................................................................................................ 38
SHOP EQUIPMENT .................................................................................................................................. 44
VEHICLE SERVICE INFORMATION ........................................................................................................... 50
CUSTOMER SERVICE, WORK ORDERS, AND VEHICLE PREPARATION ..................................................... 51
BRAKE SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................................................... 55
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS ................................................................................................................. 63
AUTOMOTIVE BATTERIES ....................................................................................................................... 66
BATTERY CHARGE AND TESTING ............................................................................................................ 74
ENGINE OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................. 84
©2012 Melior, Inc.

Automotive Service – Study Guide ©2012 Melior, Inc.
CAREERS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE FIELD
The Automotive Technology Career

Opportunities in the Automotive Field
According to statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor, over 800,000 people in the United States are
employed as automotive service technicians and mechanics. Most are employed in the following
businesses:
• Automotive repair and maintenance shops

• Automobile dealers
• Retailers and wholesalers of automotive parts, accessories,
and supplies
Others work in the following businesses or organizations:
• Gas stations
• Home and automotive supply stores
• Automotive equipment rental and leasing companies
• Federal, state, and local governments
Over 16% own their own business.
Many job opportunities are available that relate directly and indirectly to the automotive technology
field.
Opportunities directly related to automotive technology:
• Automotive technician
• Automotive technician's apprentice
• Repair shop supervisor
• Exhaust and emissions technician
• Tune-up technician
• Service writer
• Mechanical unit repairer
• Technician in automotive manufacturing plants
• Air conditioning technician
• Engine technician
• Diesel technician
• Bus inspector
• Tractor technician
• Parts salvager
• Teacher or trainer
Note: Many graduates of automotive technology programs qualify to pursue a career as a teacher or
trainer with little or no extra training required for an entry-level position.
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Opportunities indirectly related to automotive technology:

• Farm equipment technician
• Aircraft technician
• Office equipment service technician/service representative
• Machinist apprentice
• Air conditioning and heating service apprentice
• Industrial machine maintenance technician
• Small engine technician
• Marine equipment technician
• Motorcycle technician
Training and Certification

Repairing and maintaining today's sophisticated vehicles requires knowledge in many diverse systems
and technologically advanced areas. The days of getting a job based on performing automotive repair as
a hobby or tinkering in the garage are gone. Most job opportunities require formal training in
automotive technology in high school or a postsecondary school or college.
Certifying organizations
As stated on their Web site, the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is a nonprofit
organization that aims to "improve the quality of vehicle repair and service through the testing and
certification of repair and service professionals." Automotive technicians can be certified in one or more
of the eight areas below.
• Brakes
• Electrical/electrical systems
• Engine performance
• Suspension and steering
• Automatic transmission and transaxle
• Engine repair
• Heating and air conditioning
• Manual drive train and axles
To be certified, technicians must have at least 2 years of experience and pass an ASE written
examination. They must retake the exam every 5 years to maintain their certification.
The National Automotive Technicians

Education Foundation (NATEF), an arm of
ASE, reviews training programs to ensure
they are meeting ASE standards and
staying up-to-date with the continuously
changing automotive technology and
repair methods.
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Training programs request the review process on a voluntary basis. If a program passes the review,
NATEF recommends it to ASE for certification. Programs must be reviewed again every 5 years to be
recertified. In ASE's automobile specialty, training programs can be certified in the eight areas listed
previously.
To stay current with changes and advancements in the field, automotive technicians will need to attend
training classes throughout their careers. Technicians may receive training at their workplace or may
need to attend classes at a technical school or college.
Job Prospects in the Automotive Technology Field

Prospects are very good for individuals with training and skills in diagnosis, problem solving, electronics,
and mathematics. Knowledge in electronics has become crucial because most vehicle concerns involve
working with or analyzing the electrical system. According to the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers,
"electronics now control more than 86% of all systems in a typical vehicle."
Many employers in the industry have reported that there is a shortage of automotive technicians and
they have difficulty hiring individuals with education and experience in the areas desired. According to
the Occupational Outlook Handbook, published by the U.S. Department of Labor, job opportunities for
automotive technicians are expected to increase 9% to 17% through the year 2014. The growth will be
due to the increased number of vehicles on the road and the loss of technicians because of retirement
or advancement to specialized positions. Work for automotive technicians is generally steady
throughout the year and not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Therefore, layoffs are not
a big concern.
Common Methods Used to Pay Automotive Technicians

• Hourly – The technician is paid for the time he or she puts in.
• Salary – A salary is a set amount of money, usually 40 hours per week, regardless of the volume
of work performed.
• Flat rate – The technician is paid his or her hourly wage multiplied by the time listed for a
specific job in a factory flat-rate manual or an aftermarket labor time guide. These guides are
sometimes called parts and labor estimating guides. Technicians refer to these as "book hours."
The technician is paid this flat rate regardless of the time spent on a job.
• Hourly plus a percentage of labor and parts
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Other Facts About Working as an Automotive Technician

Automotive technicians use many different tools and equipment, including those in the following list.
Technicians usually purchase their own hand tools, whereas the shop provides the more expensive
power tools and equipment.
• Common hand tools

• Power tools
• Machine tools
• Welding and oxyfuel cutting equipment
• Lifts and jacks
• Computers to perform administrative tasks and access service information
• Computerized diagnostic equipment
• Measuring tools
• Test instruments
• Other specialty tools, depending on the automotive technology area
Some shops are unionized, which means that technicians employed there are subject to union rules
regarding pay and other issues. For example, the technician may be required to work for 2 years as an
apprentice before advancing to the journey level. The union also functions to help employees negotiate
with their employers regarding salaries and working conditions.
SOLVENTS, SOAPS, AND CLEANING SOLUTIONS
General Rules for Using Chemicals

There are many different types of chemicals used in automotive technology. This lesson will look
specifically at some of the more common types of solvents, soaps, and cleaning solutions. First, let's look
at some basic rules that apply to working with any type of chemical.
• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

• Carefully read the product label for correct uses and hazards.
• Work to prevent spills, damage to the vehicle, or unsafe situations/conditions.
• Properly store chemicals and used rags.
• Use chemicals only for the intended purposes.
CAUTION: Consult the instructor before using an unfamiliar product.
Types and Uses of Solvents

Parts-washing solvent (petroleum-based) - Petroleum-based parts-washing solvent dissolves oil,
grease, and varnish from engine components and other parts of the vehicle. It is usually dispensed in a
parts-washing tank that filters and recycles the solvent.
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This solvent contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that give off toxic vapors and must be
managed as a hazardous waste. Parts-washing solvent is not as flammable as some other solvents, but
can burn and does present a fire hazard. Keep electrical devices, sparks, and any hot material away from
the parts-washing tank. The solvent tank should be equipped with a safety link, which will melt should
the solvent ignite. When the safety link melts, the lid on the washer tank will close and smother the fire.
Parts-washing solvent presents a hazard to the eyes and skin, especially when the solvent is fresh.
Breathing solvent vapors is also a health risk. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) when working
with the solvent.
CAUTION: Some technicians may have a severe allergic reaction to the parts-washing solvent.
Petroleum-based parts-washing solvent can melt some shoe rubber and should never be splashed or
poured on the shop floor. If a solvent spill is not immediately wiped up from the floor, it can cause
people to slip and fall. Never put units such as electric motors in the solvent tank. Such units may sustain
insulation damage; they may also be hard to dry on the inside. To extend the usable life of the solvent
and to prevent clogging the tank, remove most of the grease, gasket material, and dirt from parts before
washing. Never pour other liquids into the solvent tank.
Parts-washing solvent (aqueous based) - Aqueous-based parts-washing solvent is used for the same
purposes as the petroleum-based solvents, but it is typically nonflammable and contains less than 5%
VOCs. Besides water, the ingredients in aqueous-based solvents generally include a detergent, corrosive
substance, or alkaline agent and a rust inhibitor. Rather than dissolving grease and solids with chemicals,
aqueous solvents use heat, agitation, and detergents to clean automotive parts.
Special cleaning equipment is required that heats the aqueous solvent and sprays it with great force.
Spray cabinets, which are totally enclosed, are best for cleaning heavily soiled parts or a large number of
parts. Sink-top units are used for more lightly soiled parts or fewer parts.
The life of the solvent can be prolonged by using filters, maintaining the solvent's concentration, and
skimming grease from the solution. Aqueous solvent may become hazardous waste through use. Waste
disposal professionals must analyze the solution to determine how to dispose of it safely.
Choke and throttle body cleaner is an aerosol product that is more aggressive than parts-washing
solvent in cleaning oil, grease, and varnish from carburetor components and other small precision-
machined parts. It is a petroleum-based product.
Choke and throttle body cleaner is extremely flammable and presents a dangerous fire hazard. Never
spray the cleaner on hot engine parts or around sparks or fire. The cleaner can also damage paint. Do
not spray the cleaner near the body of the vehicle or other painted components. Choke and throttle
body cleaner can damage eyes and irritate skin. Breathing its vapors is also hazardous. Always wear PPE
and spray the cleaner away from the body so that vapors are not inhaled and the cleaner does not
contact the skin. Observe the safety warnings on the cleaner can. Do not expose the cleaner can to heat
under any circumstances because heat will cause the cleaner can to explode.
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Brake cleaner is an aerosol product that is extremely effective in removing grease and oil from brake
drums, rotors, and engine flywheels. Brake cleaner is extremely flammable and presents a severe fire
hazard because the cleaner is sprayed from an aerosol can. Brake cleaner can damage paint. Do not
spray the cleaner near the body of the vehicle or other painted components. Brake cleaner can damage
eyes and irritate skin. Breathing its vapors is also hazardous. Always wear PPE and spray the cleaner
away from the body so that vapors are not inhaled and the cleaner does not contact the skin. Observe
the safety warnings on the cleaner can. Do not store brake cleaner in a hot area. Do not expose the can
to heat under any circumstances because heat will cause the cleaner can to explode.
Gasket remover is an aerosol product that loosens gasket material that may be tightly stuck to engine
components with sealers or glue. Gasket remover is extremely flammable and presents a serious fire
hazard because the gasket cleaner is sprayed from an aerosol can. Gasket remover can damage paint.
Do not spray the remover near the body of the vehicle or other painted components. Gasket remover
can damage eyes and irritate skin. Breathing its vapors is also hazardous. Always wear PPE and spray the
cleaner away from the body so that vapors are not inhaled and the cleaner does not contact the skin.
Observe the safety warnings on the gasket remover can. Do not store gasket remover in a hot area. Do
not expose the can to heat under any circumstances because heat will cause the gasket remover can to
explode.
Digestive-type carburetor cleaner is an aggressive chemical agent that is usually stored in a 1- or 5-

gallon container. The chemical dissolves organic material, leaving only clean metal that is then rinsed
with water. Digestive-type carburetor cleaner reacts vigorously with organic material. It presents severe
hazards to the eyes and skin. Always wear PPE. Do not splash digestive-type carburetor cleaner.
CAUTION: Digestive-type carburetor cleaner will quickly burn skin that it contacts, so flush afflicted
areas immediately with water.
To clean parts, gently submerge the basket of parts into the can. When the solvent has finished cleaning,
carry the basket with its lid in place to the sink. The basket of clean parts should be placed in the sink
and the parts rinsed in a gentle stream of water. Any spills must be cleaned up immediately. Rags or
towels used in the cleanup should be discarded.
Because digestive-type cleaner reacts with organic and some nonorganic substances, use it only on
metallic parts. Parts made of rubber, fiber, or plastic may be ruined by digestive-type carburetor
cleaner. The cleaner may even remove anodized coatings along with paint and varnish. Never use any of
these chemicals for purposes other than those listed on the product can or container.
To keep fumes and evaporation to a minimum, add a 1-in layer of water on top of the cleaner and cover
the can with a lid. Digestive-type carburetor cleaner is an expensive chemical and should be used only to
clean small precision components. Larger components can be cleaned with other solvents.
Gasoline - Gasoline is intended for use as a fuel, not as a cleaner for automotive parts. Do not use
gasoline as a solvent.
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CAUTION: Never use gasoline or other chemicals for purposes other than those listed on the product
can or container. Consult with the instructor before using any solvent or chemical.
Gasoline fumes can cause similar health problems as cleaning solvents and contribute to hydrocarbon
emissions. The fumes are also extremely flammable and, if ignited, can cause severe burns or death.
Prolonged exposure to liquid gasoline has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. Gasoline
additives can leave harmful deposits on important engine components.
Types and Uses of Soaps and Cleaning Solutions

Soaps and cleaning solutions are water-soluble agents used for cleaning dirt and grease.
Liquid detergent, or dishwashing liquid, is a mild detergent that is convenient to use. Liquid detergent is
suitable for washing engine blocks after honing or glaze breaking.
Glass cleaner and windshield washer fluid are available in aerosol, pump spray, or liquid form. The best
results are obtained when glass cleaner is used with paper towels rather than shop towels. Shop towels
almost always retain grease and leave lint.
CAUTION: When filling the windshield washer fluid reservoir in the winter time, read the label on the
solution to see if it contains the necessary antifreeze. Freezing can result in a cracked reservoir tank due
to expansion.
Hand soaps that are typically used contain an abrasive to help clean ground-in grease. These soaps can
cause rawness or cracking of the skin.
CAUTION: Never use abrasive hand soaps on vehicle finishes or plastics because scratches can occur.
Hand-cleaning creams are more effective than ordinary hand soaps on grease and dirt. Hand-cleaning
creams are also available with abrasives for tough cleaning jobs. These can be used in conjunction with
hand soaps. Hand-protecting creams that are applied before work are effective in preventing dirt and
grease from staining the hands and arms. Use of ordinary hand soap will remove the hand-protecting
cream.
Cleaning shop floors

According to EPA guidelines, shop workers should keep the shop floor as dry as possible to minimize the
amount of wastewater that is generated. Ways to keep the floor dry and clean include the following:
• Keep spills off the floor by using dedicated containers for substances like used oil and antifreeze.
• Clean up spills immediately to prevent workers from slipping in the substance and tracking it to
other areas.
• Use rags to clean up small spills and dispose of the soiled rags properly.
• Use absorbent pads or mops to clean large spills and wring the substance from the pads or mops
into a dedicated container for recycling or disposal.
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• Use floor sweep (granules that absorb liquids) only when cleaning up hazardous waste spills
such as gasoline or solvents.
• Sweep the floor with a broom every day to prevent the buildup of dirt and contaminants.
• Do not hose down the floor with water or dump mop water because the contaminants will go
into the storm drain or sewer, causing pollution.
• Use water, a mop, and a mild detergent only if necessary after the spill has been removed.
Check with local authorities for the proper disposal procedure.
Specialty cleaning agents

There are many specialty cleaning agents that may be used in automotive technology. As with all
chemicals, follow the manufacturer's recommendations and only use the cleaners for their intended
purpose. Some examples include the following:
• Spot remover
• Bug and tar remover
• Upholstery cleaner
• Carpet cleaner
• Vinyl cleaner and conditioner
• Battery cleaner
• Wire wheel cleaner
• White sidewall cleaner
LUBRICANTS AND SPECIALTY CHEMICALS
General Rules for Using Oils

Oil is a petroleum-based or synthetic product that lubricates parts or acts as a hydraulic fluid. When
using oil, follow the precautions below.
CAUTION: Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) when working with oils.
All types of oils can represent a significant fire hazard. Spontaneous combustion, fire initiated without
flame, can and does occur with rags soaked in any type of oil. Oil must be stored in a designated area
away from heat, flame, or sparks. Oily rags must be stored in a metal safety container with an airtight lid
built for this purpose. Oil can ignite at any temperature above 0° when mixed with pure oxygen. Oil
must never be applied to oxyacetylene welding equipment. Immediately use or discard bottles and cans
that are leaking oil.
If oil is dripped or spilled on the shop floor, clean it immediately to prevent slipping. Wipe up small spills
or drips with a towel. Larger spills may need to be absorbed with sawdust or oil absorbent granules and
then swept up and discarded. If necessary, scrub remaining slickness with soap and water. Drain pans
help to prevent oil spills.
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Avoid prolonged contact with oils. Short-term contact can cause irritation, chapping, or drying of the
skin. Long-term contact can cause a variety of skin diseases that includes cancer.
Types and Uses of Oils

Light or penetrating oils are aerosol products that include rust-penetrating oil, silicone lubricant, liquid
graphite, and belt dressing. Light oils are used to lubricate precision parts because the lubricant gets into
tight clearances and does not attract as much dust and dirt as heavier oils. Because they can dissolve
some rust, rust-penetrating oils are used to aid in the removal of rusty bolts and fasteners. Liquid
graphite dries to a slick, black coating that does not attract any dust or dirt. This makes it desirable for
components with tiny moving parts, such as locks. Belt dressing is sprayed on drive belts to prevent
slippage and quiet belts that dry out and get noisy.
CAUTION: Aerosol cans are pressurized. The can must not be punctured or crushed, even when empty.
The can should not be stored near heat or sparks. Never spray these products towards the body.
Standard and heavy oils are motor oil, automatic transmission fluid, power steering fluid, and gear lube.
Motor oils are used in vehicle engines and classified by viscosity or weight (e.g., 10W-30) and a two-
letter grade (e.g., SJ and SL). Refer to the manufacturer's recommendation for the correct viscosity and
service classification for the vehicle being serviced. Refer to the vehicle service information for the
proper interval for changing the motor oil.
Automatic transmission fluid (ATF) is available in three main types: Type F, Dexron III, and Mercon V.
ATF is used in all automatic transmissions and some manual-shift, front-wheel-drive transaxles. Some
vehicle manufacturers recommend using only their products that include specific additives. Refer to the
manufacturer's recommendation when selecting and using ATF.
Power steering fluid is similar to ATF. Refer to the manufacturer's recommendation when selecting and
using power steering fluid.
Gear lube is thicker than motor oil or ATF and provides superior lubrication between the large and highly
stressed gears of manual gear boxes and differentials.
Hydraulic fluids include hydraulic jack oil and brake fluid.
Hydraulic jack oil is used in shop equipment that has a hydraulic cylinder, such as jacks, engine hoists, lift
racks, and forklifts.
CAUTION: Do not add hydraulic jack oil to shop equipment without the permission and supervision of
the instructor.
Brake fluid is added to the master cylinder reservoir and clutch master cylinder in a hydraulic clutch
system. In America, brake fluids must be rated at DOT-3 (Department of Transportation Specification #3)
or DOT-4. Using the incorrect brake fluid can result in brake fade, the deterioration of rubber seals, or
complete brake failure.
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Most hydraulic fluids, especially brake fluid, attack and dissolve paint. Cover fenders when adding brake
fluid. Thoroughly wash hands immediately after contact with brake fluid.
Note: If you suspect that brake fluid has contacted a painted surface, immediately wash that surface
with soap and water.
Hydraulic fluids, especially brake fluid, must be capped tightly to prevent dirt and moisture from
contaminating the fluid. Small amounts of moisture can turn to steam when brake fluid becomes hot
during brake application. The steam reduces the effectiveness of the brakes. Hydraulic fluids must be
stored in a designated area away from heat, flame, or sparks. Never substitute other types of oil for
hydraulic oil. Non-hydraulic oil may harm rubber seals or fail under the heat generated by the brake
system.
General Rules for Working With Grease

Grease is used when a lubricant must stay on parts for a long period of time and endure high pressure.
When working with grease, follow the precautions below.
CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with greases.
Greasy rags are subject to spontaneous combustion. Greasy rags must be stored in a metal safety
container with an airtight lid built for this purpose. Grease products must be stored in a designated area
away from heat, flame, or sparks. Wipe up grease spills and clean the area immediately with soap and
water. Avoid prolonged contact with greases. Short-term contact can cause skin irritation, chapping, or
drying of the skin. Long-term contact can cause a variety of skin diseases that includes cancer.
Types and Uses of Greases

Multipurpose grease is suitable for lubricating such items as steering linkage components and wheel
bearings. Multipurpose grease can also be used as assembly glue when packing bearings into a manual-
shift transmission. Read the information on the lubrication label before using multipurpose grease to be
sure that it is recommended for the planned application.
Wheel bearing grease is suitable for steering linkage components as well as wheel bearings. If packing
wheel bearings in a disc brake or high heat application, use an extreme-pressure (EP) wheel bearing
grease compatible with the disc brakes.
Brake grease is applied in small amounts to the backing plate on vehicles equipped with drum brakes.
Cam lubricant is sometimes included with a new camshaft. The lubricant can help with breaking in the
camshaft.
White lithium grease is a general-purpose lubricant available in a tube or aerosol can. Uses of white
lithium grease include hood hinges, door hinges, cables, linkage, and shop equipment maintenance.
Stick lubricants are used on door strikers because they do not stain clothes.
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Some light-colored greases, such as white lithium grease, are not compatible with ATF and should not be
used as an assembly glue or as a pre-lube for internal transmission parts.
CAUTION: If non-compatible grease is used during automatic transmission assembly, components in the
valve body of the transmission can become stuck, resulting in shifting problems.
Dielectric grease, available in a tube, is used to seal electrical connections to prevent voltage leakage
and keep out dirt, corrosion, and moisture.
Brake system silicone compound is a grease-like lubricant that comes in a tube. It is used to lubricate
sliders, rubber parts, or plastic parts on brake systems.
Types and Uses of Specialty Additives

Specialty additives include oil treatment, gas treatment, transmission conditioner, and starting ether.
Refer to the container label for hazard warnings and handling procedures.
CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with specialty additives.
Oil treatments are used to raise motor oil viscosity or to free sticking valves or lifters. Raising the motor
oil viscosity can extend engine life by increasing oil pressure.
Note: Adding too much oil treatment can result in poor lubricating properties or oil that exceeds the
proper viscosity, especially in cold weather.
Gas treatment is used to help reduce moisture in gasoline and eliminate buildup of carbon, gum, and
varnish in fuel lines. Gas treatment usually contains alcohol. Excessive amounts of methanol can destroy
rubber carburetor or fuel system components and damage the lining of the fuel tank.
Transmission conditioner is added to automatic transmission fluid to prolong the life of the fluid and
improve the shifting performance of worn transmissions.
Starting ether is sometimes used to start an engine in extreme cold. The directions for using starting
ether must be followed carefully.
CAUTION: Starting ether is extremely flammable and can create an explosion if the engine backfires.
Types and Uses of Specialty Chemicals

There are numerous specialty chemicals used in automotive technology. Common specialty chemicals
include sealers, locking and antiseize compound, and adhesives.
CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with specialty chemicals.
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Sealers - The two types of sealers are hardening and nonhardening. Hardening sealers form a hard seal
between components. They are used to seal permanent assemblies and to fill gaps in irregular surfaces.
Nonhardening sealers remain pliable. They are used in areas that are exposed to vibration, expansion,
and contraction.
Room temperature vulcanizing sealer RTV, typically available in a tube, is a special rubber that sets up at
room temperature and forms a seal between components. RTV is used instead of a rubber or fiber
gasket. It is aerobic, which means it cures when exposed to air.
Note: Some RTVs cannot be used on engines in vehicles equipped with components such as oxygen
sensors or automatic transmissions.
Gasket sealers, applied with a brush or from a tube, help to ensure a good seal between gaskets and
irregular surfaces. These sealers are anaerobic, which means they will cure only in the absence of air.
Thread sealant is used to seal threads and bolts that are exposed to liquids, usually either lubricating oil
or coolant.
Locking and antiseize compounds - Locking compounds prevent a fastener from loosening by acting as a
lock washer. Locking compounds have various strengths that range from "wrench removal" to
"permanently bonded."
Antiseize compounds prevent threaded fasteners from becoming permanently bonded to another
component and are used when the fastener is made of a different type of metal from the component to
which it is attached.
Adhesives - Two common adhesives are weather strip and gasket adhesive and rearview mirror
adhesive. Weather strip and gasket adhesive is used to glue gaskets to metal and weather strips to the
vehicle's doors and trunk. Rearview mirror adhesive is used to glue inside rearview mirrors to the
windshield.
TYPES OF WRENCHES
Metric and U.S. Customary System (USCS) Wrenches

All technicians should have a set of both metric and USCS (also called SAE) wrenches for loosening and
tightening bolts and nuts.
Metric wrenches are sized per the measurement in millimeters (mm)

of the jaw opening, from face to face. The jaw size is actually a little
larger than the bolt or nut of the same size to allow the jaw to fit
around the bolt or nut.
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USCS wrenches are sized per the measurement in fractions of an

inch of the jaw opening, from face to face. The jaw size is actually a
little larger than the bolt or nut of the same size to allow the jaw to
fit around the bolt or nut.
Metric and USCS wrenches are not interchangeable. For example, if removing a 14-mm nut, a 9/16-in
wrench is close in size but is not the proper size to effectively remove the nut. The 9/16-in wrench may
slip and round off the sides of the nut. A 14-mm wrench should be used.
Common Wrenches
The open-end wrench turns nuts and bolts that have
already been loosened. If too much torque or turning
action is applied, it can round off the corners of nuts or
bolts. The ends of the wrench are set at a 15° angle to
reduce the distance the wrench is moved to grip the next
side of the hex head.
The box wrench completely encircles the nut or bolt to

grip all the corners, which allows considerably more
torque to be applied without stripping the nut or bolt. This
wrench is particularly useful for loosening tight bolts and
nuts. More time is required to turn loose bolts with the
box wrench.
The combination-end wrench is a combination open-end

and box wrench. It is a favorite of technicians because of
its multiple uses.
A tubing wrench, or flare nut wrench, has ends with a

portion of one side cut away so that the wrench may be
slipped over a steel line. Each end partially encircles the
hex head of a nut or bolt. Steel line fittings are usually
brass and require this type of wrench to loosen a tight
fitting without causing damage.
Note: In addition to the tubing wrench, an open-end wrench is used to firmly hold the fitting while
attaching it to the steel line. Do not allow the steel line to become twisted.
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Maintenance
• Wrenches should be kept free of dirt and grease and stored in a dry place to prevent rust.
• Wrenches with distorted jaws should be discarded.
Safety
• Always use the proper size wrench. Do not use metric wrenches on USCS bolts or vice versa.
• Do not use a wrench as a hammer or pry bar.
Socket Wrenches
This wrench is so named because it has a cylindrical socket (in the size of the bolt) that fits down over
the bolt, much like a box-end wrench. The socket wrench is the preferred tool of most technicians when
they work with nuts and bolts. Socket wrenches can be used in places that are inaccessible to common
wrenches and are faster at removing bolts.
The two basic parts of a socket wrench are the socket and bar
or handle. Sockets come in metric and USCS sizes and are sized
according to the size of the bolt head they fit and the size of
the bar they take. They are available in four point types: 4
point, 8 point, 6 point, and 12 point, with the 6-point and 12-
point sockets being the most commonly used.
• A shallow 12-point socket is used for turning hexagonal

bolt heads in tight places because it offers twice as many
starting positions.
• A shallow 6-point socket is used for turning hexagonal
bolt heads because it offers better grip and less chance
of rounding off the bolt head when excess torque is used.
• A deep-well 12-point socket is used to turn nuts when a
bolt or stud protrudes through the nut enough to
prohibit the use of the shallow socket.
• A deep-well 6-point socket is used in the same situation
as described above. It is particularly useful when there is
a risk of rounding off tight nuts.
Swivel sockets, or universal sockets, have a universal joint

built into the socket drive end that allows bolts and nuts to be
turned when it is not possible to get straight onto the head.
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Impact sockets are designed to withstand the great torque and

impact delivered by air impact tools. An impact socket has
thicker construction than a standard socket. Note that impact
sockets that are used for pneumatic tools are black and not
chrome - using a chrome socket with a pneumatic tool might
damage the tool and could potentially be unsafe for the
mechanic.
CAUTION: Do not use standard sockets on air impact guns because the socket may shatter.
Bars and handles are used to turn the sockets. The drive end is square and available in 1/4-in, 3/8-in,
1/2-in, and 3/4-in sizes.
Note: The 3/4-in size is used for large, heavy-duty bolts that are found in trucks. The 1/2-in size is used
on large automotive bolts. The 3/8-in size is the most commonly used by technicians. For very small
work, the 1/4-in size is used because of its compactness.
The breaker bar is a sturdy handle that is used when

great torque is required to loosen bolts and nuts. The end
of the breaker bar can swing to allow clearance.
Note: The length of the handle on the breaker bar

provides superior leverage for tight nuts and bolts.
The ratchet is the most commonly used handle for

turning sockets. By rotating back and forth, the ratchet
turns nuts and bolts in areas of limited access without
being removed after each partial turn.
The ratchet is not intended for use under extreme torque

because the teeth on the ratchet mechanism may strip.
Some ratchets have heads that swivel, which allows
clearance while turning.
Extension bars aid in reaching recessed bolts and nuts by
extending the ratchet drive end. Common extension
lengths include 3 in, 6 in, and 12 in. Many other lengths
are also available.
Speed handles and T-handles are occasionally used to

speed assembly. One advantage of these handles is they
do not place side stress on the extension and socket.
These handles are not used for the final tightening.
Page 16 of 99
A torque wrench is a special handle that indicates the

amount of twisting force (torque) that is being applied in
tightening a bolt.
A torque wrench is necessary when the torque of bolts must meet manufacturer's specifications. Some
models have a scale or dial to indicate torque. Others click or release momentarily when the preset
torque is reached. Most recently, electronic versions are available that have easily programmable and
accessible torque settings and indicate torque by vibrating, producing an audible signal, and providing a
digital display.
Note: Specifications for the torque of bolts are extremely important. If too much torque is applied, the
surfaces being joined or the bolt/nut will be damaged. If too little torque is applied, the bolt may work
loose.
Occasionally, the technician must use a socket adapter on a socket to ease bolt removal.
Note: The torque capacity of the socket and ratchet must be considered so that the tool is not damaged
or broken.
A size adapter allows the technician to use a different drive size socket on the ratchet or torque wrench.
Note: Care must be exercised when adapting large breaker bars down to smaller drive sockets because
the torque capacity of the small socket may be exceeded.
A universal adapter operates best when a socket has limited access that prevents the ratchet and
extension from engaging straight onto the socket. These adapters cannot withstand great amounts of
torque.
Maintenance
• Sockets and handles should be kept free of dirt and grease and stored in a dry place to avoid
rust.
• Ratchet handles can become worn and should be reconditioned if the ratchet starts to slip.
Page 17 of 99
Safety
• Ratchet handles can turn both
counterclockwise and clockwise and the lever
that switches the direction should be firmly
and fully placed into its proper position.
• Do not use a ratchet handle as a hammer or
pry bar.
• The exact size socket must always be used.
Damaged sockets should be discarded,
because they can slip off a bolt.
• When using a socket on a damaged bolt head, be especially careful so the wrench does not slip
off and cause an injury to the knuckle or hand.
• Always be sure the socket is completely over the bolt head. If the bolt head is so damaged that
the socket cannot fit completely over the head, use another method of removal.
Other Wrenches
An Allen wrench is used on hex head fasteners, which
contain a cavity with six sides. A torx wrench is used on
torx bolts, which contain a cavity of six rounded points.
This design reduces the risk of stripping or disengaging
the threads of small fasteners.
An adjustable wrench has a screw that allows the jaw

to adjust to different sizes. Under normal
circumstances, technicians do not use an adjustable
wrench for turning nuts and bolts. It has the
disadvantage of not gripping as solidly as box-end
wrenches, and unless properly adjusted and in good
condition, may not grip as solidly as open-end
wrenches. An adjustable wrench may be used if the
technician does not have immediate access to the
proper wrench and if torque requirements are not too
high.
Standard wrenches cannot be used on pipes because of

the round shape of pipes. The pipe wrench has teeth
that dig in as the wrench turns the pipe. The risk of
scarring the pipe can be reduced by placing a leather
strap between the pipe and the wrench teeth.
Page 18 of 99
TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS AND PLIERS
Screwdrivers
The standard screwdriver has a straight blade
for turning screws with a slot that is the same
width and length as the screwdriver blade.
CAUTION: The standard screwdriver is not

intended for use as a pry bar, chisel, or gasket
scraper. These misuses of the screwdriver can
damage the tool and injure the technician.
The Phillips screwdriver fits the crossed slot of a

Phillips screw. One advantage this screwdriver
has over the standard one is when it is inserted
in the slot, it is self-centering. Phillips
screwdrivers are available in various tip sizes
(e.g., #0, #1, #2, #3, #4) with the lower number
being the smallest. A technician should not
attempt to use a standard screwdriver to turn a
Phillips screw. A good deal of pressure must be
applied when using a Phillips screwdriver or the
tip may disengage the slot, damaging the screw
or the tool. If the slot of a Phillips screw is
stripped, it will have to be drilled out.
The Pozidriv screwdriver is similar to the Phillips
in that it is used on a cross-slotted screw.
However, the Pozidriv screwdriver and screw
head have four additional points of contact.
More torque can be applied with the Pozidriv

screwdriver because the blade will not slip out
of the screw head as easily as the Phillips
screwdriver will. Although not recommended
because of improper fit, a Phillips screwdriver
will turn a Pozidriv screw. A Pozidriv
screwdriver, however, will not turn a Phillips
screw.
Page 19 of 99
The torx screwdriver has a 6-point tip that is

used on torx-head screws.
Nut drivers have a handle and shaft like a

screwdriver but have a socket at the end of the
shaft that is not removable. Because nut drivers
can be operated with greater speed than socket
wrenches, they are ideal for loosening and
tightening the small nuts and bolts found on
vehicles.
Maintenance
• Keep screwdrivers free of dirt and grease and store them in a dry place to prevent rust.
• Keep the heads in good condition and free from nicks.
Safety
• The right size screwdriver should be used for each job. The screwdriver should be the right
length for access to leverage. The head of the screwdriver should match the head of the screw
(both type and size of the screw).
• Do not try to use another tool, such as locking pliers, to grab the handle of the screwdriver and
get more leverage. If it cannot be turned by hand, another tool is needed.
• Use screwdrivers with insulated handles to prevent electric shock.
• Do not use a screwdriver as a punch or chisel.
Pliers
Standard slip-joint pliers are one of the most common
types of pliers used by technicians. These grip irregular
parts and hold work during drilling.
Page 20 of 99
Locking pliers are very similar to standard slip-joint pliers.

By turning a knob and then clamping the handles in place,
the locking pliers hold work securely.
CAUTION: When clamping or removing locking pliers,

keep a proper grip on the handles. The handles snap
together and snap apart with considerable force.
Adjustable-joint pliers have a long slot with a wide

variety of adjustment positions. The offset jaws of the
adjustable-joint pliers offer a reach advantage.
Long-nose pliers, or needle-nose pliers, are useful for

gripping tiny pins and parts during the service of
carburetors and other small assemblies.
Diagonal-cutting pliers are used to cut electrical wire and

tape as well as a variety of other material. Diagonal-
cutting pliers are well-suited for removing cotter pins on
front-end components.
CAUTION: Do not use on live electrical circuits.
CAUTION: Do not cut spring steel with diagonal-cutting

pliers because the pliers will be nicked and ruined.
Snap-ring pliers come in many styles and types. Snap-ring

pliers are required for spreading or compressing springy
snap rings found in transmissions. Snap-ring pliers are
available that can remove internal snap rings, external
snap rings, or both.
Maintenance
• Pliers should be kept free of dirt and grease and stored in a dry place to prevent rust.
• If the jaws of the pliers are held by a screw, the screw should be kept snug.
Safety
• When working near electrical equipment, use pliers with insulated handles.
• Do not use pliers as a hammer.
• Do not hammer on the handles.
Page 21 of 99
TYPES OF HAMMERS, PUNCHES, AND CHISELS
Hammers
CAUTION: Wear protective eyewear at all times when using a hammer, punch, or chisel to protect the
eyes from flying metal chips. Never strike one hammer with another, because hammer heads are very
brittle and metal chips can fly off.
The ball peen hammer is the most common hammer

used for driving punches and chisels. It has a domed head
on one side and a flat head on the other.
A hand-held sledgehammer can be used when a great

deal of driving power is required.
A soft-faced hammer can be used to avoid damage to the

work being driven. The head can be made of brass,
bronze, rubber, or rawhide as these materials do minimal
damage to iron and steel components.
A plastic-tip hammer is used when light driving power is

needed and a brass hammer could cause damage.
CAUTION: Do not use this hammer to drive punches and

chisels. It will destroy the plastic tip.
A rubber mallet is useful for installing wheel covers.
Always strike the wheel cover evenly around the
perimeter.
Maintenance
• Hammers should be kept free of dirt and grease, with the faces smooth and free of all foreign
matter.
• Hammers should be stored in a dry place to prevent rust.
Safety
• Always be sure the head is secured firmly on the handle.
• Be sure the handle is in good condition.
• Strike a flat-surfaced hammer flat against the object being struck, not at an angle.
Page 22 of 99
Punches
A taper punch or starting punch is the most commonly used
punch. This punch is designed to drive out rivets after the
heads have been removed. It is also used to punch out straight
and tapered pins.
A pin punch is used when a small roll pin must be driven

through a hole.
The center punch is used to make a small dimple in metal prior

to drilling. This mark helps ensure that the hole will be drilled
in the proper place and that the drill bit will not move.
A brass punch or bronze punch is used when in an area where

flammable liquid or gasoline is present. This ensures that no
sparks will be created.
Chisels
The standard cold chisel is used to cut and remove
metal. The end of the chisel should be ground to a
sharp point on a 60° angle.
Different chisel shapes are available for particular

jobs. The shapes include the round nose, diamond
point, and half round. These chisels are used to cut
or chip metal.
Page 23 of 99
Maintenance for punches and chisels

• When the head of the punch or chisel mushrooms, the mushrooming must be ground off with a
grinding wheel.
• When the cutting edge of the punch or chisel becomes dull and chipped, it must be sharpened
with a grinding wheel.
• After a certain amount of maintenance with the grinding wheel, the punch or chisel becomes
too short or the edge becomes too blunt. When this happens, it should be discarded.
• Punches and chisels should be kept free of dirt and grease and should be stored in a dry place to
prevent rust.
Safety for punches and chisels

• Always wear heavy gloves and safety glasses when working with punches and chisels.
• Grind down a mushroomed head immediately. The mushroomed metal may fly off and cause
injury. Also, the hammer slips off of a mushroomed head more easily.
• Punches should be tapped gently rather than with brute force. Usually several light hits on the
head work better for all purposes than a heavy hit.
• Use a chisel holder to minimize the risk of missing the chisel and hitting a hand.
SPECIALTY TOOLS
Special Cutting Tools

Hacksaws cut metal parts to size or shape and
remove damaged fasteners. The hacksaw cuts on the
forward stroke only and is lifted on the return
stroke. Hacksaws are sized according to blade
length. When installing the blade, point the teeth
away from the handle and tightly secure the blade.
CAUTION: Always wear safety glasses and heavy

gloves when using a hacksaw. The blade can break.
In addition, be sure to firmly secure the object being
sawed.
Tubing cutters cut without bending, kinking, or

scarring the tubing. The cutter is placed on a piece of
tubing and tightened as it is rotated. Tubing cutters
vary in size according to the diameter of the tube
they are designed to cut.
Page 24 of 99
A hand reamer smooths or enlarges holes. Both

straight and tapered reamers are used. Straight
reamers may be either fixed in size or adjustable
through a specific cutting range.
Files smooth or shape metal. Files are designed in

various shapes for different tasks and have different
teeth designs for fine or rough work.
CAUTION: Use a handle on the file to prevent hand injury. Never hammer on or use a file as a pry bar.
Files are brittle and can shatter with dangerous results.
CAUTION: Always wear safety goggles and heavy gloves when working with a file.
Electrical System Tools

The digital multimeter (DMM) checks the
condition of electrical system components. This
test device is a voltmeter, ohmmeter, and
ammeter all in one. A DMM has two leads, one
black and one red. One end of the lead is plugged
into the DMM. The other end is a probe.
Page 25 of 99
A scan tool is used to diagnose electrical problems.

The tool is connected to the vehicle's data link
connector(DLC) to retrieve diagnostic trouble
codes (DTCs) and engine sensor information that
are generated by the vehicle's on-board diagnostics
system.
An oscilloscope, or scope, is a voltmeter that

displays voltage in relation to time, showing
voltage vertically and time horizontally. Its
connections are similar to a DMM. It produces a
line on a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal
display (LCD) when connected to circuit voltage. A
circuit problem can be found by comparing the line
"pattern" to a known good pattern.
The continuity light checks power in various

circuits. One end of the light is grounded and the
other end is pressed into the electrical device.
Note: The continuity light should never be used to

check the power supply of electronic components.
A timing light determines if the ignition system is

delivering electric charge to the spark plugs at the
correct time.
The remote starter switch allows the technician to

use the starter to crank the engine without actually
being in the vehicle.
Page 26 of 99
A cable puller removes the cable from the battery

terminal without breaking the cable or battery
posts.
Terminal and post cleaners clean the posts and

terminal ends.
A battery lifting tool and carrying strap lifts and

transports the battery safely.
Lubrication Specialty Tools

A transmission funnel is a funnel with a
long, small, flexible neck that is ideal for
adding transmission fluid.
An oil filter removing tool is a wrench or

socket adapter that fits around an oil filter
to remove it.
A grease gun forces grease into fittings.

Pressure is created by hand action on the
gun's lever.
Page 27 of 99
Miscellaneous Specialty Tools

A blowgun uses compressed air to clean or dry
various items in the shop.
The C-clamp is a holding device that is commonly

used to compress the calipers on floating caliper
disc brake systems.
A puller set functions to remove objects (e.g.,

gears, bearings) that are pressed onto a shaft, pull
objects (e.g., retainers, oil seals) from various
openings, and remove shafts (e.g., pinion shafts,
transmission shafts ) from another object.
Pressure gauges test the air and fluid pressure in

various components such as the tires, oil pump,
and fuel pump.
Vacuum gauges check the condition of the engine

and various vacuum-operated components.
Gauges compare the pressure in a component to
atmospheric pressure at sea level.
FASTENERS
Common Vehicle Fasteners

Note: Vehicles use many types of fasteners to hold various components together and technicians need
to be familiar with each type. Some of the more common types of threaded fasteners include nuts and
bolts, washers, screws, and studs. Other common fasteners include snap rings, rivets, and adhesives.
Note: American automobile manufacturers have largely switched to the metric system of sizing
fasteners and threads.
Page 28 of 99
Nuts and bolts in the U.S. Customary System (USCS)

Bolt diameters come in increments of 1/16
in, starting with 1/4 in. The measurement
is the overall diameter of the bolt threads.
Note: It is easiest to measure the

unthreaded or shank portion of the bolt.
The length of a bolt is its effective length measured from under the head to the end of the threads. Bolt
lengths usually come in 1/4-in increments, starting from 1/2 in. The longest bolts normally used in the
field are 6 in. Thread type is either fine or coarse. Do not thread fine-threaded bolts into coarse threads
or vice versa.
Note: Nuts are very difficult to measure for diameter, so it is usually best to trial fit the nut onto a bolt
and then measure the bolt.
Thread size is determined by measuring

the number of threads per inch. A thread
gauge, available in both metric and USCS,
can be used to determine the thread size
of bolts.
The strength of a bolt is important. A bolt that is not strong enough can break. The strength or hardness
of a bolt is determined by counting the points or slashes on the head of the bolt.
CAUTION: Never substitute a bolt with one of less strength. A lower strength bolt may break and cause
injury and system failure.
Grade 1 or 2 bolts have no points and are unsuitable for

automobile assembly due to their unknown and possibly
low strength. Grade 5, or 3-point, bolts have three points
on the head. These bolts are the most common in
automobile assembly. Grade 8, or 6-point, bolts have six
points on the head. These bolts are expensive but very
strong and are used in high-stress conditions. Examples of
grade 8 bolts include harmonic balancer bolts, flywheel
bolts, and steering linkage bolts. Never substitute a lower
grade bolt for a grade 8.
Right-hand thread nuts and bolts are the most common and turn clockwise to tighten. Left-hand thread
nuts and bolts also are available that turn the opposite way. Left-hand nuts and bolts have notches cut
at the corners of the hex head or the letter "L" stamped on them.
Page 29 of 99
Note: Very old automobiles (built before 1960), Chrysler products up until the early 1970s, and Ford
vans up through the mid 1980s have left-hand thread wheel lugs only on the driver's side.
Nuts and bolts in the metric system

The diameter of a metric bolt or nut is measured in the same
way as in the USCS; however, the diameter of a metric bolt is
expressed in millimeters. The bolt is measured for its
effective length from under the head to the end of the
threads. Thread size in the metric system is determined by
measuring the distance from the crest of one thread in
millimeters to the crest of the next thread. Metric bolt
strength is indicated by a number stamped on the bolt head.
This number is called the property class. Examples of
property class numbers include 4.6, 4.8, 5.8, 8.8, 9.8, and
10.9. The higher the number, the stronger the bolt.
CAUTION: Never substitute a bolt with one of less strength. A lower strength bolt may break and cause
injury and system failure.
Washers
Washers are frequently used with threaded
fasteners. They fit onto a bolt or screw between
the surface being fastened and the nut, or under
the bolt or screw head. Washers have two main
functions. They improve the fastening ability by
increasing the area that is clamped, and they
prevent the bolt or nut from damaging the part
surface.
Types of screws
Many sizes and types of screws are used to fasten automotive parts. Two of the more common types are
the following:
Machine screws are used in threaded holes to

clamp small parts together.
Page 30 of 99
Self-tapping screws (also called sheet metal

screws) have hard, tapering threads that make
their own threads when driven into a surface.
Studs
Studs have threads on each end and no head. Some studs
have threads throughout their length. Fastening with
studs is accomplished by threading one end of the stud
into a part, placing another part over the stud, and
fastening the other end of the stud with a nut. Studs are
useful for achieving accurate alignment of parts.
Snap rings
Snap rings (also called retaining rings) are used to hold
components such as shafts, bearings, and gears in
place. Internal snap rings fit in a groove inside an
opening and external snap rings fit in a groove on the
outside of a part. Snap-ring pliers are required for
installing and removing snap rings.
Rivets
A rivet is a nonthreaded metal pin with a head on one end.
Rivets are available in different designs and are typically
made of copper, steel, or aluminum. Rivets are used to
fasten parts that are not usually taken apart. Parts are
joined together with a rivet by putting the rivet through a
hole in the parts and hammering the headless end with a
ball peen hammer or hammer and rivet set until the end is
rounded. Rivets are removed by cutting off the head with a
chisel and driving out the pin with a punch.
Adhesives
Various types of adhesives, or glues, are used to bond parts together. Parts that may be glued include
trim, moldings, and various plastic and rubber parts.
CAUTION: When using adhesives, it is important to follow the manufacturer's specifications because
some adhesives are toxic, flammable, and harmful if inhaled.
Page 31 of 99
Cutting Threads, Repairing Threads, and Removing Broken Bolts

Types of taps
The taper tap is the most commonly used tap
because the taper allows easy starting. It
cannot cut threads to the bottom of a blind
hole, a hole that does not go completely
through the metal. The plug tap cuts threads
part of the way to the bottom of a blind hole.
A bottoming tap cuts threads all the way to
the bottom of a blind hole but cannot start the
cutting process. A taper tap must be used
before the bottoming tap. The machine screw
tap cuts the small-diameter threads of
numbered screw sizes.
The sequence for cutting threads with a tap is

shown below.
General procedure for using a tap

CAUTION: Before drilling a hole to cut threads, choose the correct drill bit size for the thread size.
Failure to use the correct drill bit size can result in a broken tap or inadequate thread depth.
First apply a thread cutting oil.
Start the handle with the tap straight and

then make a half turn.
After each partial turn, back the tap off until

the metal chips begin to break loose.
Repeat this process until all of the needed

threads are cut. Add oil as needed during the
process.
Page 32 of 99
Using a die to cut threads onto a rod

A special die stock holds the die for the cutting
process.
Dies are selected in the same manner as taps, but

the die can be improperly placed in the die stock.
The die should be positioned in the die stock so
that the tapered end engages the rod first.
General procedure for using a die

• First apply a thread cutting oil.
• Put the tapered side of the die on the rod.
• Start the die stock with the die straight and then make a half turn.
• After each partial turn, back the die off until the metal chips begin to break loose.
• Repeat this process until all of the needed threads are cut. Add oil as needed during the process.
Procedures for repairing damaged or stripped threads

Chasing threads involves using a standard tap or die to run through existing threads of the same size.
The purpose of this procedure is to correct small imperfections that interfere with the threading of the
nut or bolt.
Note: Use a thread cutting oil during this procedure.
When threads in a hole are so severely damaged that they cannot be adequately repaired by chasing, a
helicoil can be installed to restore the threads back to their original sizes. The basic steps for this
procedure are as follows:
• Completely drill out the old, damaged threads with a drill bit supplied in the helicoil kit.
• Tap with a special tap from the kit.
• With a special handle, screw in an insert that looks like a spring or coil. The inside of this coil is
the same as the original thread of the hole.
A thread insert can also be used to repair damaged threads. The insert is almost identical to the helicoil
but is somewhat larger. It is retained in place by driving down four pins around the insert.
Thread repair cement can be used on low-torque applications. The cement is applied to the bolt, and
the bolt is then placed back into the damaged hole. New threads are molded as the glue-like substance
hardens.
Page 33 of 99
Procedures for removing a bolt that is broken off in a threaded hole because of
overtightening
A screw extractor can be used to remove bolts. The screw extractor has flutes or grooves that spiral in a
counterclockwise direction.
• Drill a hole in the center of the broken bolt.

• Insert a screw extractor in the hole.
• Use the tap handle to rotate the extractor and bolt counterclockwise and remove them as a unit
from the bolt hole.
Use the following procedure to remove a bolt that is not bound to the threaded hole.
• Drive a sharp punch into the center of the bolt.

• Use pliers to retrieve the bolt.
Note: Breakage due to the wrong thread design, a cross-threaded bolt, or a bolt that is bottomed out in
the hole can make removal difficult. Drill out the bolt and retap the hole. Use the correct bolt and start it
into the hole with the fingers.
MEASURING TOOLS
Types and Uses of Common Measuring Tools

Note: Some vehicle components, particularly in the engine and transmission, contain precision-
machined parts that require precise measurements for inspection or replacement.
The outside micrometer is used when an

outside measurement must be accurate to .001
in or less. Parts requiring these measurements
include crankshafts, pistons, valves, and
camshafts.
The inside micrometer is used when a

measurement of the diameter of a hole must
be accurate to less than .001 in. Examples of
such holes are cylinder bores and main bearing
bores.
Page 34 of 99
The depth micrometer makes precise depth

measurements of holes or cavities. For
example, it can be used to measure the
distance from the center of the crankshaft to
the top of the engine block (deck height) and
the distance from the top of the piston to the
top of the engine block (piston deck clearance).
The dial indicator tool measures thrust, back-

and-forth movement, and runout (side-to-side
play). These measurements are made on
valves, crankshafts, and flywheels. The dial
indicator can also measure the backlash or
movement between gear teeth.
A feeler gauge measures air gaps and clearance

between moving parts and has numerous flat
leaves of different specific thicknesses.
A dial caliper is used for inside, outside, and

depth measurements. One application is
measuring bolts and small machined parts.
Plastigage is a tiny strip of clay-like material that measures clearances such as between engine bearings
and their journals and main bearings and connecting rod bearings. The strips are color coded according
to the clearance range.
Procedures for the Use and Care of Measuring Tools

CAUTION: The proper care and use of precision measuring tools are critical to the accuracy and long life
of the tool. An incorrect measurement can result in expensive component failure.
Page 35 of 99
Using an outside micrometer

Before using an outside micrometer, become
familiar with its parts. See the illustration below.
Note: The outside micrometer does not readily

display the measurement. Some addition is
required in order to arrive at the micrometer
reading. The technician must develop a feel for the
outside micrometer in order to achieve accurate
results.
• Place the object to be measured between the anvil and spindle and turn the thimble until the
object is lightly contacted by the anvil and spindle. Lock the spindle and remove the micrometer
from the object.
• Read the number indicated on the micrometer sleeve (upper scale). Each number represents
one tenth (.100) of an inch.
• Add 25 thousandths (.025) of an inch for each additional line showing on the sleeve (lower scale)
past the number.
• Add the number of thousandths (.001) of an inch indicated on the thimble.
• Add the number of inches of the minimum dimension that the micrometer can read 0 in through
5 in.
Reading an inside micrometer and depth micrometer is similar to reading an outside micrometer. Be
sure to add the correct figure for the minimum measurement.
Using a dial indicator

• Securely attach the dial indicator so it will
not move and give inaccurate readings. The
dial indicator is positioned with a clamp-on
base or with a magnetic base.
• Position the plunger against the part being
measured.
• Rotate the indicator until the needle is on
zero. If making a thrust measurement, the
shaft or gear that is to be measured must
first be pried one way.
• Rotate the part for runout measurements or
pry the gear or shaft for thrust
measurements, and note the reading in
thousandths of an inch on the dial.
Page 36 of 99
Using a feeler gauge

• Select a sample leaf and make a trial fit between the two surfaces.
Note: The thickness of the leaf is printed on the leaf.
• If the leaf is too loose or too tight, try another leaf.

• When there is a slight, smooth drag as the feeler gauge is removed, the correct leaf has been
found. The size printed on the feeler gauge is the clearance.
• After use, put a little oil on the leaves to prevent rust.
Using a dial caliper

Note: A dial caliper is accurate to approximately +
or - 0.002 in. When more precision is required, use
a micrometer.
Before using a dial caliper, become familiar with its

parts. See the illustration below.
• Adjust the dial caliper with the roll knob until the jaws lightly contact the work.
• Read the measurement on the linear scale and add the reading on the dial.
Using Plastigage
• Select a small piece of Plastigage material.
• Place the Plastigage material on the crankshaft journal. The Plastigage piece must span the full
width of the journal and be centered with the bearing cap.
• Install the bearing cap and tighten to the proper torque.
• Remove the bearing cap and inspect the Plastigage. It should appear somewhat smashed.
Compare the width to the paper gauge on the Plastigage package.
Care of measuring tools

• Adjust precision measuring tools carefully. For example, only very slight pressure is needed to
tighten the thimble on a micrometer. Overtightening can destroy the adjustment.
• Do not attempt to adjust measuring tools with the lock on.
• Always store measuring tools in their case or in a safe place to protect them from damage, grease,
dirt, and moisture.
• Check the calibration of precision measuring tools frequently. Consult the manufacturer's
instructions for the proper procedure.
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POWER TOOLS
Principles of Using Power Tools
Electric tools
Note: Electric hand tools are still in use in shops, but some have been replaced by pneumatic (air-
operated) equipment, which is usually lighter.
Electric tools are driven by an electric motor. Using electrical equipment is a matter of common sense
and using good safety practices.
Safety
• As with any electrical devices, be aware of the
dangers of electric shock.
• Do not stand on wet ground or a wet surface
when operating an electric tool.
• Always check that the power cord will not be
damaged by the operation of the equipment
and do not run over power cords with any
heavy object.
• Always check that the power cord is not frayed or worn.
• All electric tools must have a three-pronged plug unless the tool is double insulated. Double-
insulated tools cannot short to the outside case and require only a two-prong plug.
• Do not eliminate the ground terminal of a three-prong plug by using an adapter or clipping the
terminal.
• Do not put cords in water or across moving machinery.
• Wrap up cords carefully after use and store them properly.
• Keep hands and clothing away from the moving parts of electrical equipment.
• When inspecting or making adjustments to electric tools, always disconnect them from the power
supply.
Maintenance
• Check the service manual for the equipment being used.
• Electrical equipment should be kept free of dirt and grease and should be stored in an area that is
dry and free of dust.
Pneumatic tools
Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Pneumatic tools have advantages over electric tools.
They are lighter and, unlike electric tools, are not damaged by overloading or stalling. Although there
are dangers associated with compressed air, the dangers are not as great as those associated with
electricity.
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Safety
• Operate air tools only for their intended purpose.
• Air impact guns, air hammers, and air drills can create flying metal chips that are dangerous to the
eyes. Wear protective eyewear at all times when working with or around air tools.
CAUTION: Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) when flying metal chips are possible.
• Pneumatic tools produce a great deal of power. Using an improper attachment or placing the
attachment on the tool incorrectly can result in breakage. Use only impact sockets on air impact
guns.
• Water and oil can accumulate in air compressors. These should be drained daily. It is possible for
compressed air to carry infection even with daily draining.
CAUTION: Do not play with compressed air blowguns or hoses. The high-pressure air stream on the skin
can cause severe infection, require the amputation of a limb, and cause death.
• Pneumatic tools create a great deal of noise. Wear ear plugs, ear muffs, or other types of ear
protection.
• Do not look into the air-outlet valve or nozzle on any piece of air-powered equipment.
• Do not grab the movable portion of an air-powered tool with the hand when it is hooked up to the
air line.
• When inspecting or making adjustments to pneumatic tools, always disconnect them from the air
supply.
Maintenance
• Before any new air tool is used, three or four squirts of air tool oil should be applied to the air inlet
to flush any dirt or moisture from the rotor and to lubricate the moving parts. Do not use air tool
oil around an open flame as it is highly flammable.
• Oil pneumatic tools regularly according to manufacturer recommendations.
• Pneumatic equipment should be kept free of dirt and grease and should be stored in an area that
is dry and free of dust.
• Care should be taken that no foreign matter enters the nipple opening of the couplings on
pneumatic equipment.
Basic designs of pneumatic tools

Rotary — The air drives a rotor (turbine) that spins a shaft and provides the power.
Reciprocating — The air drives a piston that is forced back and forth by the compressed air.
Note: The exceptions to the above two kinds are blowguns and paint-spraying equipment, which use a
direct stream of air.
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Pneumatic couplings
Pneumatic equipment is connected to air supply equipment through quick couplers. The quick coupler is
on the end of the air supply hose and connects into a nipple on the equipment. On some tools, the
manufacturer recommends attaching a short leader hose to the tool and installing the nipple at the end
of the leader hose. The quick coupler operates by pulling back a collar on the coupler, which allows the
nipple to be inserted into the coupler. When the collar is released, it locks the nipple into the coupler.
Cordless tools
These tools use a battery cell as the power supply, instead of electricity from a wall outlet. They are
convenient in shops due to portability and the absence of power cords; however, frequent recharging is
necessary.
Safety
• Always disconnect a cordless tool from its battery before inspecting it and making adjustments to
it.
• Use only the battery specified by the manufacturer for the tool being used.
• Always store battery packs safely so that no metal can come in contact with the terminals.
Contacting the terminal can short-circuit the battery and cause sparks, fire, or burns.
Hydraulic tools
Note: Most hydraulic tools fit in the category of shop equipment, which is discussed in the next lesson.
Hydraulic tools use pressurized fluid within a cylinder to create great pressure. The fluid is hydraulic
fluid, a petroleum product that is much like oil. The hydraulic pressure within the tool is created by air
pressure or the manual pumping of a handle. Common hydraulic tools and equipment used in the shop
include jacks, lifts, hoists, and presses.
Safety
• Before operating a hydraulic tool, inspect its parts to make sure none are damaged or
deteriorated.
• Keep hydraulic hoses away from potential damage such as grease, oil, sharp objects, and hot
surfaces.
• Before using a hydraulic tool, consult the manufacturer's information to be sure it is appropriate
for the task and that the task will not exceed the tool's load limit.
• Check hydraulic tools frequently for leaks. Leaks can cause the tool to fail, with dangerous results.
Maintenance
• Check the service manual for the tool being used.
• Inspect tool components and report any damage, leaks, or deterioration to the instructor.
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Power Drills
Electric drills can be used interchangeably with
pneumatic drills. Drills are used with drill bits to drill
holes or with special attachments to remove rust or
gasket material.
Electric drills use an electric motor to drive a chuck, a

device that holds the drill bit in place and aligns it
properly. Pneumatic tools use a rotor, which drives
the chuck. A chuck key is used to loosen and tighten
the chuck. Drills are also available with keyless
chucks.
The size of the drill is determined by the maximum diameter of the drill bit shaft that the chuck holds.
For example, a 1/4-in drill holds a drill bit with a shaft diameter no larger than 1/4 in. The most popular
sizes are 1/4 in, 3/8 in, and 1/2 in.
Drill bits
Drill bits come in various sizes and lengths and are interchangeable between electric and pneumatic
drills. When looking for a particular size of drill bit, use a drill gauge. Drill bits are made of high-grade
steel and, if used properly, they seldom need sharpening. Drill bits are sized according to the size of hole
they drill. Do not use metric drills in place of United States Customary System (USCS) drills or vice versa.
If a 12-mm hole is required, use a 12-mm bit.
Safety for power drills

• Make sure the bit is tightly seated in the chuck, securing it by turning the chuck key in each hole.
Be sure to remove the chuck key before starting the drill.
• Make sure the work is firmly secured before starting to drill.
• Keep a firm grip on the drill and be ready to shut it off if it jams. Drills often jam just as they are
about to penetrate what they are cutting.
• If an electric drill jams, turn the drill off and pull it back out, then start it and continue to drill the
hole. The same procedure should be performed for restarting a pneumatic drill. Such jamming may
damage an electric drill.
• Remove the bit from the drill when the work is completed.
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Power Wrenches
Impact wrench
Impact wrenches can be either pneumatic or electric and are used
to drive impact sockets to loosen or tighten nuts and bolts. They
use sockets that are specially made to have greater strength than
standard sockets.
The wheel torque socket, also called a torque stick, is a type of

socket commonly used with impact wrenches. Torque sticks are
long-shafted sockets that work in combination with an impact
wrench to install lug nuts on wheels. They are designed to flex when
the proper torque is reached, helping to prevent the damage that
can result from overtorquing. The sticks are color coded per socket
diameter and torque limit.
CAUTION: Torque sticks are designed for tightening lug nuts, not loosening them; using torque sticks to
loosen lug nuts will damage the sticks.
Using impact wrenches

• A built-in regulator allows for adjustments in speed and torque. However, do not rely on the
regulator to adjust the amount of torque accurately. Final tightening should be done with a torque
wrench.
• Hold the wrench with a slight forward pressure on the bolt or nut.
• Soak rusty bolts and nuts with penetrating oil before using an impact wrench to loosen them.
• A switch can change the impact wrench from counterclockwise to clockwise operation.
Air ratchet
The air ratchet is a smaller version of the impact
wrench and usually uses a 1/4-in or 3/8-in drive
lug. It delivers less force than the impact wrench
and standard sockets may be used with it. The air
ratchet has a switch to change it from clockwise to
counterclockwise rotation.
Note: An air ratchet should be used only to snug a bolt. A conventional ratchet or torque wrench should
be used to complete the tightening of a bolt.
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Air chisel (air hammer)

The air chisel uses reciprocating motion to provide rapid
impact force, much like a rapid series of short hammer
blows. Available attachments include cutters, chisels, and
punches. The air chisel is often used to break welds loose,
cut rivets, punch holes, and shear sheet metal.
Safety for power wrenches

• Always wear PPE when using power wrenches.
• When operating an impact wrench, only use sockets that are made for impact wrenches. If a
standard socket is used, it may break or be damaged and fly off of the tool.
• Be sure that the chisel in the air chisel is firmly secured and that the cutting edge is sharp.
Miscellaneous Power Tools

Heat gun
Heat guns are hand-held heaters that use forced
air passing through heated coils. They are used in
various repair procedures to soften, loosen, and
thaw vehicle components. Specific uses include
softening vinyl; loosening sleeves/trim and
adhesives; thawing frozen locks, wipers, and
weather strips; and heating decals for easy
removal.
The tire burnishing tool is used for tire repair.

The wheel makes the rubber on the inside of the
tire rough. This prepares the rubber for the
application of a tire patch.
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Mini die grinder

A mini die grinder is used for cutting metal;
removing gasket material; and cleaning brake
rotors, backing plates, and pad mounts. The
grinder illustrated has a head angled at 90Â° for
easy access and handling.
Blowgun
A blowgun is a pneumatic attachment that directs
a small, powerful stream of air. A blowgun is used
to clean and dry surfaces to be painted and to
clean dust from shop equipment.
CAUTION: Only blowguns that have an approved

pressure limiter should be used in the shop. A
proper blowgun attachment limits the maximum
pressure to 30 pounds per square inch (psi).
SHOP EQUIPMENT
Electrical Equipment
Note: The term "shop equipment" refers to large or expensive pieces of equipment or tools, which are
generally provided by the shop owner.
Wheel balancer
Shops equipped to mount tires have a wheel
balancer. Many shops now use computerized
wheel balancers. Wheel balancers are used to
equally distribute weight around the wheel's
centerline.
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Safety
• Consult the instructor before using the wheel balancer.
• As with any electrical devices, be aware of the dangers of electric shock.
• Do not stand on wet ground or a wet surface when operating electrical equipment.
• Ensure the guards are in place before operating the wheel balancer. Be aware of the rotating mass
that could cause injury if contact is made.
Bench grinder
A bench grinder is a common piece of shop
equipment. A bench grinder is generally used to
maintain tools that have become dull and to grind
sharp edges from metal pieces. The grinder is
mounted to a bench and is powered by an electric
motor. In addition to the grinding wheel, the
grinder can be used with a wire wheel that cleans
rust and dirt off parts.
Safety
• As with any electrical devices, be aware of the dangers of electric shock.
• Always wear safety glasses and a particle mask when working with a bench grinder. Wear a
respirator, as needed, for grinding certain materials.
• Be sure that clothing, hair, and other combustibles in the area are protected from the sparks given
off by the grinder.
• The bench grinder should have a tool rest platform in front of each abrasive wheel, in addition to a
wheel guard and an eye shield.
• Do not put excessive pressure on the wheel because it could break apart. Do not use wheels that
are broken or worn.
• Follow the bench grinder manufacturer's recommendations for removing and replacing grinding
wheels. Do not overtighten the spindle nut.
• When grinding small parts, never hold the parts by hand. The parts can be very hot and easily
propelled through the air by the wheel. Use standard slip-joint pliers to hold small parts.
• Abrasive wheels are designed for specific types of metals. Do not grind aluminum on grinding
wheels designed for steel. Aluminum chips will clog the wheel's surface.
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Drill press
Some shops have a drill press for drilling holes in metal parts.
Maintenance
• Inspect bits regularly. Sharp bits cut better and are less
likely to break.
• Oil the bit as needed to prevent binding.
Safety
• As with any electrical devices, be aware of the dangers
of electric shock.
• A full face shield and protective eyewear should be
worn.
• Parts drilled by the press must be securely held by a vise
or standard slip-joint pliers. This prevents the work from
spinning out of control and cutting hands.
• When using the drill press, do not wear loose clothing or
jewelry. Do not allow long hair to hang freely.
Test and service equipment

A variety of electrical test and service equipment can be found in the shop. Each piece of equipment has
its unique safety considerations. Consult the instructor before using a new piece of equipment.
General maintenance guidelines for electrical equipment
• Check the service manual for the equipment being used.

• Electrical equipment should be kept free of dirt and grease and should be stored in an area that is
dry and free of dust.
Pneumatic Equipment
Pneumatic equipment can be permanently attached to the shop air compressor or temporarily attached
to the compressor by rubber hoses.
Air compressor
An air compressor provides the compressed
air needed to operate pneumatic hand tools
and equipment in the shop.
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Compressors are usually operated by an electric motor and are composed of the following three main
parts.
• Motor
• Compressor
• Storage tank
The motor drives a compressor that takes in the air around it, compresses it into a smaller volume (thus
increasing pressure), and then stores the compressed air in a large storage tank.
Maintenance
• Check the oil each week and maintain the oil at the proper level.
• Drain water from the tank and check the air-safety valve each day.
• Change the oil, check the belt condition and tension, and clean the air-intake breather per
manufacturer's recommendations.
Safety
• Always disconnect an air compressor from the power before inspecting or making adjustments to
it.
• Before operating an air compressor, inspect its parts to make sure none are damaged.
• Make sure the electrical outlet for the air compressor is properly grounded.
• Water and oil can accumulate in air compressors. These should be drained daily. It is possible for
compressed air to carry infection even with daily draining.
CAUTION: Do not play with compressed air blowguns or hoses. The high-pressure air stream on the skin
can cause severe infection, require the amputation of a limb, and cause death.
• Air hoses should not be run over with vehicles or equipment and should not be used to pull tools
across the shop floor.
• Air hoses should be kept free of grease and oil and neatly coiled for storage at the end of the
workday.
Tire machine
The tire machine uses great force to manipulate tires. Its uses include
removing and reinstalling the tire onto the wheel and inflating the tire
to the proper pressure.
Safety
• The tire machine is one of the most dangerous pieces of shop
equipment. Do not use the tire machine without proper training.
• Truck tires that use the split rim type of mounting are very
dangerous. These must be inflated in a special cage. Consult the
instructor before attempting to mount a truck tire or any type of
tire.
• Wear protective eyewear when working with a tire machine.
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Pneumatic jack
A pneumatic jack can raise a vehicle by the bumper or axle. Special
instruction is required to use a pneumatic jack. The vehicle must be
lowered onto safety stands before a technician can work under a
vehicle supported by a jack.
Safety
• Never work under a vehicle supported only by a jack.
• Consult the instructor and repair manual when placing safety
stands for the proper locations of the stands.
• Be sure that the load-capacity rating for the safety stands is
sufficient to safely support the vehicle.
• Do not lift vehicles with passengers inside or with the doors, hood, or luggage lid open.
General maintenance guidelines for pneumatic equipment
• Consult the maintenance instructions provided by the equipment manufacturer.

• Keep the piece of equipment free of dirt and grease and store it in an area that is dry and free of
dust.
• Care should be taken that no foreign matter enters the nipple opening of the couplings on
pneumatic equipment.
Hydraulic Equipment
Hydraulic equipment develops pressure as a result of the closing of a valve and the pumping of a handle
or as a result of a combination of air pressure over hydraulic fluid.
Hydraulic floor jack

The hydraulic floor jack has a cylinder that raises the front, rear, or
side of a vehicle by pumping a handle. A floor jack is mounted on
four wheels for portability. It should only be used after thorough
instruction. The vehicle must also be supported by safety stands.
Hydraulic lift
A hydraulic lift raises the entire vehicle off the
ground. Most lifts use air pressure to pressurize
hydraulic fluid, which is then pumped into one or
more large cylinders.
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Hydraulic press
A hydraulic press is found in most shops. It uses a
powerful pushing force to press bearings and gears
onto and off of shafts. Pulling a handle on the
press raises or lowers a ram. The ram presses the
part against a table.
Safety
• Consult the instructor for the procedure for properly setting up and using the hydraulic press.
• Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) while using a hydraulic press.
Engine hoist
The engine hoist, or portable engine crane, is
used to raise heavy engines and transmissions.
After turning a valve, a handle is pumped to raise
the hoist. A hoist is simply a hydraulic jack that is
designed for attaching onto the top of an object
and pulling it upward, instead of getting
underneath of an object and pushing it upward.
The engine hoist is not intended to support an

engine while it is being serviced. The engine
should be mounted on an engine stand during
service.
Safety
• Consult the instructor before using the engine hoist.
• Stand clear of any object being raised in case the hoist fails or topples, or the object being lifted
comes loose.
• When moving an object that is suspended from the crane, move the crane very slowly.
• Do not work on any object while it is suspended from the crane. Lower it to a workbench or the
floor (or into an engine stand for a motor).
General maintenance guidelines for hydraulic equipment

• Consult the maintenance instructions provided by the equipment manufacturer.
• Inspect equipment components and report any damage, leaks, or deterioration to the instructor.
Page 49 of 99
VEHICLE SERVICE INFORMATION

Sources
Note: Vehicles have become so technologically advanced that service information is used on every job.
This information contains diagnosis procedures, specifications, and service procedures. Technicians
must know how to locate and use the information that is available.
Vehicle manufacturers publish service information for each model year of the vehicles they
manufacture. This service information is the most comprehensive and the best source of information for
a specific vehicle. It includes vehicle specifications, diagnostic and repair procedures, parts diagrams,
and special tools required. Because many technical changes occur after the service information is
published, manufacturers provide technical service bulletins (TSBs) to update the information. The
information in the TSBs also appears in the next edition of the service information. Sites on the Internet
are available to find information that a shop may not have in its library, such as more up-to-date
information, recall information, or information about a hard-to-diagnose repair issue.
Professional general service manuals are used by independent repair shops because one manual can
contain information for many domestic or foreign cars produced over several years. These books
summarize the most important information and do not include all the specifics.
Aftermarket specialty manuals are often sold at bookstores and may cover one model of vehicle
produced over several years. These manuals are written for individuals with and without experience in
the automotive repair profession and are popular with the "do-it-yourself" individual.
An owner's manual, prepared by the vehicle manufacturer, is provided to the purchaser of the vehicle
and is usually stored in the glove compartment. It includes basic information about the location and
function of vehicle accessories, starting the vehicle, and maintaining the vehicle.
Formats
Besides printed manuals, service information is available for use on computer hard drives, networks,
and CD-ROMs. Using computerized information rather than printed materials saves space. In addition,
accessing the information on a computer is easier and saves time.
Using the Manufacturer's Service Information

Get familiar with the components of the service information and how they are organized. Doing so will
help in finding information quickly. The general information section includes vehicle information such as
identification (e.g., reading the vehicle identification number (VIN) to get data about the vehicle), basic
maintenance, and lubrication. The repair sections, which cover each system of the vehicle, have detailed
procedures for diagnosing, inspecting, testing, and repairing the systems. These sections also include the
following features:
• Illustrations of exploded views of parts or steps in the procedure
• Diagrams showing the layout of hoses or circuits
• Diagnostic or troubleshooting charts for systematically finding the source of a problem
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Before performing a procedure, read it through once to get an understanding and overview of what is
required. Be careful to do all steps in a procedure and perform them in the correct order. Missing steps
or performing them out of order may cause unsuccessful results.
Locating and Reading the Vehicle Codes

In the early 1980s, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration began requiring vehicle
manufacturers to identify each vehicle made for highway use with a vehicle identification number (VIN).
A vehicle's VIN is a code with 17 characters (letters and numbers) that is permanently affixed to the
vehicle. The VIN is typically found in several locations on a vehicle. Some of the more common locations
are listed below.
• Dashboard near the lower part of the windshield on the driver's side
• Certification label on the driver's door frame
• Engine compartment
The VIN uniquely identifies a

vehicle and provides a great
deal of information about the
vehicle's origin and features.
See the sample VIN below for a
breakdown of the code.
For help in reading the VIN for a

specific vehicle, check the
general service information
section of the service
information for that vehicle.
An engine serial number and identification number or code is generally stamped on the engine block.
The exact location of these numbers depends on the manufacturer. Engine codes provide technicians
with specifications for the vehicle's engine, such as the horsepower rating and whether the engine was
designed for a manual or automatic transmission.
CUSTOMER SERVICE, WORK ORDERS, AND VEHICLE PREPARATION
Proper Customer Relation Procedures

Note: Studies have shown that more people are fired for their inability to get along with others than for
a lack of technical expertise. The behavior of the technician and other workers can jeopardize the
financial stability of the shop.
Note: The amount and degree of customer contact required in an automotive technician position will
vary depending on shop organization and policy.
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All employees in the shop should greet the customer when appropriate and act in a friendly, courteous
manner. Refer to the customer by using "Mr." or "Ms." and the person's surname.
Listen carefully and patiently. After the customer has explained the problem, ask questions that may
help in the diagnosis. People communicate at different paces and in different styles.
Note: The customer is likely to be upset that the vehicle he or she depends on is unavailable and that
the repair may be expensive.
• It is important to verify the complaint. Some customers unknowingly give a false diagnosis.
• Give the customer an estimate. A customer will likely be very upset if presented with a large repair
that was not expected. Obtain the customer's phone number and call the customer before
beginning the repairs.
• Look for potential problems other than those described by the customer. Explain any new
problems to the customer in a professional manner.
Note: In most shops, the service manager/writer usually has the responsibility of calling the customer.
• Perform the repair in a professional manner. Remember that the customer is paying for a repair.
The outcome of the job performed makes a statement to the customer and employer about the
technician's skills and professionalism.
• Verify the repair. One of the most common complaints of vehicle owners is that they paid to have
a repair performed only to experience the same problem after the repair was to have been made.
Preparing a Vehicle Before and After Service

Another important part of customer service is
making sure each customer's vehicle stays clean
and free of damage during its time in the shop.
Place fender covers on the fenders, front grille,

and other areas as needed to protect the
vehicle from grease, scratches, and dents.
Use floor protectors to ensure dirt and grease

from technicians' shoes do not soil the carpet.
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Use seat covers to ensure that dirty or greasy

hands and clothing do not soil the seats.
Cover the steering wheel with a steering wheel

cover to protect it from greasy hands and
fingerprints.
After service, follow the shop's policy on preparing the vehicle to return it to the customer. Some shops
may require that all protective covers are removed, whereas others may want covers such as the floor
protectors left in. Ensure that the customer's vehicle is as clean as when he or she dropped it off. Clean
off any dirt or grease that may have gotten on the vehicle's exterior or interior.
Functions and Components of a Work Order

The automotive technician should be familiar with the functions and components of a work order.
• The work order serves several functions.
• Itemizes the repairs by listing the cost of parts and labor
• Can be used to authorize the repair
• Has the necessary information on how to contact the owner and serves as documentation for
future reference
• May also specify limited warranties and liabilities of the shop
• May serve as a reference for recent service history for warranty or legal purposes
A work order typically has the following components.

• Customer name, address, and phone number (home or work with extension number)
• Date
• Invoice number
• Year, make, model, vehicle identification number (VIN), and mileage of the vehicle
• Name/initials of the service writer and technician
• Customer authorization signature to allow repairs
• Description of customer concern
• Vehicle service history information
• Related technical service bulletins (TSBs)
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• Technician's notes that includes diagnostic procedures performed, the results of diagnosis, and any
important observations or remarks
• Component or system defect responsible for the concern
• Service performed to successfully correct the concern
• Labor procedures and costs based on the parts and labor estimation guides
• Outside labor procedures and costs that include if a shop sent a particular part out to another shop
for repairs
• Listing of each part that includes name, description, and cost
• Sales tax, which is usually calculated on parts only
• Total that represents the final price that the customer will pay for all charges related to the repair
Work orders may be handwritten or prepared by entering codes in a computer terminal and then
printed.
Depending on the part, the following information may be required for ordering repair parts.
• Make, model, and model year (found on the driver's side door jamb) of the vehicle
• VIN
• Engine information that includes engine size, in cubic inches or liters, the number of cylinders, and
the type of fuel system
• Wheelbase
• Number of doors
• Diagnosing a Vehicle Problem
Use the three Cs (concern, cause, and correction) to diagnose the vehicle problem.
Identify the concern. If possible, ask the owner/driver the following questions.
• Under what conditions does the problem occur?
• Are there unusual sounds?
• How long has the problem existed? Is it getting worse?
Test drive the vehicle under the conditions that the problem has been observed.
CAUTION: Always obtain instructor's approval before conducting a road test. Conduct the road test in an
area with little or no traffic. Never exceed the legal speed limit during the road test. Always wear safety
belts. An assistant should record all observations made during the road test. Do not attempt to drive
and record results at the same time.
Isolate the cause of the problem.
Locate and interpret vehicle and major component identification numbers.

• VIN
• Vehicle certification labels
• Calibration decals
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Research applicable vehicle and service information.

• Applicable components and their operation
• Vehicle service history
• Service precautions
• Technical service bulletins
Perform a visual inspection of the applicable system.

• Look for damaged or broken components.
• Look for worn or misaligned components.
• Check fluid levels.
• Inspect related electrical sensors, corrector, controls, and wiring.
Test the systems and components that could cause the problem. Eliminate good components until the
cause is found.
Determine the necessary action and correct the problem.
BRAKE SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

Automotive brakes are designed to slow and stop a vehicle by transforming kinetic energy (motion
energy) into heat energy. As the brake linings contact the drums/rotors they create friction which
produces the heat energy. The intensity of the heat is proportional to the vehicle speed, the weight of
the vehicle, and the quickness of the stop. Faster speeds, heavier vehicles, and quicker stops equal more
heat.
Principles of Friction
Friction is the resistance to movement that results from two objects moving or rubbing against each
other. There are two types of friction: kinetic and static.
Kinetic friction occurs between two objects, one of which is moving. Kinetic friction always produces
heat. The more kinetic friction produced, the more heat produced. Automotive braking systems use
kinetic friction to convert the energy of a moving vehicle into heat.
Static friction occurs between two objects that are stationary. Automotive braking systems use static
friction to hold a vehicle while it is parked. Static friction produces no heat.
Various factors affect the amount of friction produced between two objects. The rougher the surfaces of
two objects, the more friction they produce. Extremely rough surfaces create the most friction, but
rough surfaces also wear down quickly. Therefore, automotive brakes use relatively smooth surfaces to
avoid rapid wear. In order to compensate for their smooth surfaces, automotive brakes are applied with
a great amount of pressure over a relatively large contact area.
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The greater the pressure bringing the objects together, the more friction they produce. Therefore, the
greater the pressure applied to the brakes, with all other factors equal, the greater their stopping
power.
The greater the amount of shared contact area between two

objects, the greater the amount of friction the objects produce.
Automotive braking systems use the largest contact area
possible. The greater the contact area of a brake shoe or pad,
the less heat the shoe or pad generates. Less heat allows for
more friction, which makes the brakes more efficient.
The greater the contact area of a brake shoe or pad, the less heat the shoe or pad generates.
Note: On drum brake systems, a brake shoe is applied to a brake drum to create friction. On disc brake
systems, a brake pad is applied to a disc to create friction.
The hotter the friction surface of two objects, the less friction produced. (Rub your hands together and
feel the heat!)
All heat that the brake system creates must dissipate as rapidly as it is created. The brake system can
store little or no heat. Brake friction surfaces are made of a material that can conduct heat easily.
Braking system components that produce friction (brake shoes or brake pads) are positioned so that air
cools them. In some braking systems, forced air cools the components.
The amount of friction that two objects produce when rubbing against each other is called the
coefficient of friction.
Heat and Brake Linings

An important brake friction surface is the brake lining that is mounted on either a brake shoe or brake
pad. The brake lining produces friction by directly contacting another friction surface, either a brake
drum or disc. The brake lining and the material that it touches must have the following special
characteristics.
The brake drum or disc must conduct heat easily, hold its shape under extremely high heat, withstand
rapid temperature changes, resist warping and distortion, and wear well in general. Therefore, brake
drums and discs are typically constructed of iron or steel combined with aluminum.
The brake lining must be somewhat softer than the brake drum or disc. At present, most brake linings
are made of organic materials, metallic particles, and other minerals held together by a bonding agent.
Note: For years, asbestos was commonly used in brake linings. Because asbestos is a cancer-causing
substance, federal law prohibits its use in brake systems.
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When the brake lining is applied to a drum or disc, it is important that the proper coefficient of friction is
produced in order to ensure that the brakes are effective.
• If the friction coefficient is too great, the brakes may be "grabby" or overly sensitive. Overly
sensitive brakes may cause the vehicle to skid too easily.
• If the friction coefficient is too low, brake application requires excessive pressure. Applying the
brakes with excessive pressure creates excessive heat that could result in brake failure.
Note: Heat always reduces the coefficient of friction between two objects. Hence, high temperatures
may cause brakes to fail. The loss of brake effectiveness due to heat created during prolonged hard
braking is called brake fade.
• If the brakes create more heat than they can

dissipate, the friction coefficient reduces, which
causes the brakes to fade.
• Excessive heat also causes bonding agents in the
lining to melt and flow to the surface, which
produces a glaze on the shoe lining. This glaze
reduces the brake's friction coefficient and
causes more brake fading. Brake application
then requires more pressure, thus creating more
heat and more glazing.
The amount of friction that two objects produce when rubbing against each other is called the
coefficient of friction.
Weight and Speed

Vehicle weight
The more weight a moving vehicle has, the more kinetic energy it possesses. Brake systems must
convert kinetic energy into heat; therefore, any increase in vehicle weight puts more demand on the
brakes.
If a vehicle's weight doubles, the amount of kinetic energy that the brakes must convert into heat
doubles. The amount of heat energy resulting from the conversion also doubles. Brakes on an
overloaded vehicle may therefore become ineffective due to overheating.
Vehicle speed
When the speed of a vehicle doubles, the brakes must convert four times the amount of kinetic energy
into heat. Speed greatly increases the demand on a vehicle's brakes.
A combination of high speed and excessive weight may push a vehicle's brakes beyond their
performance limit, resulting in a serious loss of stopping power.
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Friction Between Tire and Road

The point where a vehicle's tire contacts the road is called the tire footprint. Changes in the tire
footprint affect a vehicle's ability to stop. Below is a discussion of the factors affecting the tire footprint.
The larger a tire's diameter is, the larger its footprint is. The larger the tire footprint is, the more
stopping power can be applied at the tire's contact point with the road. However, it is important to
realize that the greater a tire's diameter is, the more braking power is needed to stop the vehicle.
Note: A general rule is that the larger a tire's diameter is, the more braking power is required.
The greater the width of a tire is, the larger the tire footprint is. The larger the tire footprint is, the more
stopping power can be applied at the tire's contact point with the road. However, it is important to
realize that the greater a tire's width is, the more braking power is needed to stop the vehicle.
Note: A general rule is that wide tires require large brakes.
Excessive vehicle weight can distort tire tread and thereby reduce the tire's hold on the road. Tires that
cannot hold the road reduce the vehicle's ability to stop.
High vehicle speed can aerodynamically lift a vehicle as it moves. This lifting reduces the tire's hold on
the road and reduces the vehicle's ability to stop.
Note: Aerodynamic lift merely adds to the stopping problems that high speed creates. Remember that
every time a vehicle's speed doubles, the vehicle's required stopping power quadruples, even if there is
no aerodynamic lift.
Note: To control the vehicle, friction must occur at the tire footprint. If this friction is lost, the vehicle is
out of control.
Tires grip the road more securely and can stop better if the wheels are moving. Therefore, the stopping
power decreases if the brakes lock up the wheels. Automotive engineers carefully avoid designing brake
systems that are too powerful for the cars in which they are installed. If a brake system locks up the
wheels too easily, this significantly reduces stopping power and vehicle control.
Service Brakes & Parking Brakes

Automotive brake systems fall into two major categories: service brakes (hydraulic brakes) and parking
brakes.
Service brakes stop the vehicle when it is in motion.
A parking brake holds the vehicle while it is parked. A parking brake is not designed to stop a moving
vehicle.
Note: Parking brakes often use the same friction surfaces as service brakes.
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Base Brake Components

Base brake components are the parts of the brake system found on all vehicles. The term ''base brakes''
does not include antilock brakes or traction control systems.
Base brake components include:
• Brake pedal and linkage

• Power brake boost system
• Master cylinder, hoses and pipes
• Brake rotors and pads
• Brake drums and shoes
• Brake balance controls
(proportioning valve and
metering valve), if equipped
• Red brake warning and other
warning systems
Parking brake pedal and linkage
Brake Subsystems
Automotive brake systems can be broken down into several different sub-systems:
• Apply system
• Boost system
• Hydraulic system
• Wheel brakes
• Balance control system
Warning system
Hydraulic Principles
An important principle of hydraulics is Pascal's law of hydraulics. Blaise Pascal was a French
philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Pascal's law of hydraulics states that when pressure is
applied to a fluid in an enclosed space, the fluid exerts the same pressure equally in all directions.
If two cylinders are filled with liquid and connected by a tube, pressure from one cylinder transfers to
the other.
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Fluids are virtually incompressible.
When put under pressure, fluid does not compress or produce any measurable friction. Pressure does
not diminish when transferred through fluid.
A second hydraulic principle states that a relationship exists between:

• Force and piston area
• Piston travel and piston area
From the first principle, if a master cylinder generates 500 psi, it also transfers 500 psi to the pistons in
each wheel cylinder (remember that fluid pressure remains constant).
In the second principle, when pressure from a one-square-inch master cylinder piston exerts 500 psi on
a wheel cylinder piston, which also has one-square-inch surface area, the wheel cylinder piston transfers
500 pounds of force to the brake shoe (500 psi x 1 in. sq. = 500 lbs.)
However, if the same one-square-inch master cylinder piston exerts 500 psi on a wheel cylinder piston
that has a two-square-inch area, the wheel cylinder piston will transfer 1,000 pounds of force to the
brake lining (500 psi x 2 in. sq. = 1 ,000 lbs.)
Additionally, different piston sizes not only affect the amount of brake force applied, they also
determine the travel distance of the different pistons. For instance, if the one-square-inch master
cylinder piston moves one inch, a one-square-inch wheel cylinder piston will also move one inch (with
the same force).
If that same one-square-inch master cylinder piston moves one inch, then a two-square-inch wheel
cylinder piston (twice the size) will move just one-half inch (half the distance) but with twice the force.
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Split Hydraulic Systems

Brakes are generally applied through force transmitted via a hydraulic system. The master cylinder
converts brake pedal movement into hydraulic pressure to operate the brakes.
A partial loss of brake pressure makes it difficult or even impossible to apply the brakes. Therefore,
federal law requires that all vehicles have two separate and independent hydraulic systems. In this way,
the failure of one system will not result in a complete brake loss even though braking will still be
severely reduced.
The two split systems used almost exclusively are:
• Diagonally split â€“ used on most front wheel drive vehicles

• Front/rear split â€“ used on most rear wheel drive vehicles
Diagonal Split Hydraulic System

In a diagonal split hydraulic system, the left-
front and right-rear brakes (LF/RR) are
connected to one channel of the master
cylinder while the right-front and left-rear
brakes (RF/LR) are connected to the other
channel of the master cylinder. This system is
typically installed on front wheel drive vehicles
because they have a front-heavy weight
distribution and approximately 70% of the
braking occurs at the front brakes.
As such, if one part of a diagonal system failed, the overall braking would only be reduced to 50% rather
than to 30% if both front brakes were lost. Diagonally-split systems also use proportioning valves either
in the master cylinder circuits or in the rear brake lines to maintain the proper front to rear pressure
balance. Proportioning valves will be covered in a later section.
Front/Rear Split Hydraulic System

In a front/rear split hydraulic system,
both front wheel brakes work
together on one system (channel)
while both rear wheel brakes work
together on a separate system.
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Regenerative Braking
Hybrid vehicles use the kinetic energy of the vehicle in motion to generate electricity. The electric
motor(s) that are used to power the vehicle become electrical generators when the vehicle is
decelerating.
When the driver pushes the brake pedal, a signal is sent to the onboard computer(s), but instead of
applying the hydraulic brakes, the electric motor(s) are used to slow the vehicle. The wheels of the
vehicle drive the electric motors, which generate electrical current that is sent to the hybrid storage
battery and stored for later use to power the vehicle. In emergencies or high-speed stops, the vehicle's
hydraulic brakes are used to slow the vehicle.
The components of the regenerative braking system include the onboard computer(s) used to control
the hybrid and brake systems, the hybrid electrical motor(s), the hybrid electrical circuits, and the hybrid
storage battery.
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Electrical Properties
Electricity involves three basic properties: voltage, current, and resistance. Each of these properties has
its own unit of measurement: voltage is measured in volts, current is measured in amperes (or "amps"),
and resistance is measured in ohms. Most students have no doubt used these terms and probably
measured for them, but often they are used interchangeably even though they are in fact all different.
To ensure that we are all talking about the same thing, a brief description of each is in order.
Another electrical characteristic you need to understand is magnetism. Magnetism, or

electromagnetism, is caused by current flow through a conductor, and is the property that makes
generators and starters work.
Voltage
Voltage can easily be described as electrical pressure. A comparison to a household water hose will be
useful in discussing voltage. If you have a water hose with a closed nozzle on the end and the spigot has
been opened, there is water pressure in the hose even though no water is able to escape through the
nozzle.
When there are more electrons in one place as compared to another (such as between the positive and
negative plates of a car battery) there is said to be a "difference of potential" or voltage. The greater the
difference between the number of electrons on one battery plate and the number on the other plate,
the higher the voltage. A dead battery has the same number of electrons on the positive plates as on the
negative plates. Batteries will be discussed in the following section.
The base unit for voltage is the "volt." Keep in mind that voltage is merely a "pushing" force and does
not perform the real work in an electrical circuit.
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Current
Current is the movement of electrons in a circuit. In our voltage and water pressure analogy from
before, current would be compared to the actual water moving through the hose. It is current, rather
than voltage, which causes the motors to turn, the lights to shine, and the fuses to blow.
Voltage is defined as electrical pressure, and current is the flow of electrons through a conductor.
Unlike voltage, which is the presence of electrons, current is the movement of electrons through some
sort of conductor. The greater the number of electrons past a certain point, the greater the current or
amperage. The base unit for current is the "amp."
Various automotive electrical systems may use either a very high or a very low current. For instance, the
starter system typically is high current, in excess of 100 amps, whereas spark plug current is very low
(many confuse high voltage with high current in ignition coils) at much less than one amp.
DC and AC
The current in any circuit will be one of two types: direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Direct
current always flows in the same direction in a circuit. Alternating current flows in one direction, then
reverses itself and moves in the opposite direction.
Batteries and other steady state devices produce DC, whereas alternators and wheel speed sensors
produce AC. In order for a current to be AC, the current flow must actually change direction. The starting
and charging systems, and the vast majority of automotive circuits operate on DC.
The automotive industry normally uses conventional flow theory. Most automotive circuits operate on
DC. Remember that voltage is measured in volts, and current is measured in amps.
Resistance
The base unit of measure for resistance is known as the "ohm" and is given the Greek symbol Omega
(O). An ohm is defined as the amount of resistance that when applied to a one volt circuit, will limit the
current to one amp. Thus, one volt through one ohm equals one amp.
Resistance is anything that opposes the flow of electrons.
As the resistance in a circuit is decreased, the amount of current increases. As the resistance increases,
the current decreases. Comparing this again to our water hose analogy, we find that if we use a larger
diameter hose (less resistance) we will carry more water (more current). Conversely, a smaller hose
(higher resistance) carries less water (lower current).
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Resistance is affected by a substance's composition, the length and cross sectional area of the
conductor, and temperature. A longer wire will have a higher resistance, and the larger the
circumference of a conductor is, the less its resistance. For example, a 1.0 mm wire (16 Ga.) has less
resistance than a .35 mm wire (22 Ga.). Also, as a substance is heated, its resistance increases (there are
some exceptions to this rule).
Other factors also affect the resistance in a circuit, such as loose connections, corrosion, broken wire
strands, etc. In contrast to the useful applications of resistance mentioned before, these will cause a
circuit to operate inadequately or not at all.
Shorts and Opens

A short circuit is a circuit that's "shorter" than it's supposed to be. Something provides an electrical
pathway that shouldn't be there. A short to ground before a load will prevent the component (load)
from operating, and cause the live part of the circuit to have insufficient resistance. This may cause
excessive heat in the wiring, or cause fuses to blow. A short circuit across a switch may cause the
switched component to operate when it is not supposed to, as will a short to power after a switch. An
open is an unintended break in a circuit. A common cause of an open is a broken wire.
Voltage Drop
Voltage drop is very important in the diagnosis of electrical circuits. To explain voltage drop, let's return
to our water hose analogy once again. At one time or another, we've all folded a hose in half to stop the
water flow so we could relocate a sprinkler or as a joke on someone trying to wash their car. When that
happens, the water pressure remains the same between the kink in the hose and the faucet, while the
pressure on the other side of the kink is zero or almost zero. This difference is called the pressure drop
and it is principally the same as in electrical applications. Comparing that value to a written
specification will assist the technician in determining the fault with a system. Voltage drop is then
defined as the difference between the voltage on the inlet side of a device compared to the voltage on
the outlet side.
A DVOM can be used to check voltage drop, as well as many other starting and charging system tests.
Other equipment also can be used to test batteries, starter current draw, and generator charging rate.
These testers use a carbon pile or other resistor to place a load on the battery or generator. Testing
methods will be covered in later sections.
Battery and Starting/Charging System Test Equipment

Several manufacturers produce specially designed units
dedicated to testing batteries, and starting and charging
systems. The carbon pile or resistor we have discussed is the
distinguishing component of these machines. Pictured above
is the Snap-on MT3750 model AVR, which uses a carbon pile.
The control panel of the MT3750 is illustrated below.
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Machines of this type use an inductive

amps probe, eliminating the need to break
into the circuit for series starting and
charging testing. The contacts of the
inductive amps probe should be inspected
periodically for dirt build-up, and to
ensure the jaws close together fully. For
best accuracy, place the probe away from
strong magnetic fields such as those near
generators or motors.
AUTOMOTIVE BATTERIES
Battery Function
An automotive battery is an electrochemical device that converts electrical energy into chemical energy
and stores it until needed. When called upon, the battery converts the stored chemical energy back into
electrical energy.
The battery serves four purposes in an automobile:
• It supplies electricity to the accessories when the engine is not running

• It supplies high current to the starter, and system voltage to the ignition system during cranking
• It provides current to the electrical systems when the demand exceeds the output of the generator
• It acts as a voltage stabilizer in the electrical system
Automobiles generally use what is

classified as a wet cell, lead-acid
battery. Batteries produce current
through a chemical reaction
between the active materials of
the plates and sulfuric acid in the
electrolyte.
Throughout the life of a battery, it is either charging or discharging. When a battery is supplying current
to accessories or to the starter, it is said to be discharging. When the engine is running at sufficient
speed, the generator carries the electrical load and charges the battery, and both are said to be
charging.
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A battery is discharging when:
• The engine is not running (parasitic loads or self-discharging)

• The engine is running at a low rpm with conditions of high electrical demand
• There is a fault in the charging system
A battery that is nearly or completely discharged is commonly said to be "dead," "flat," or "run down." A
battery in this condition should be recharged to full capacity to provide proper service. Although a
generator will charge a battery, it is not designed as a "battery charger." Requiring a generator to
recharge a completely dead battery may cause overheating and damage to the generator.
Unlike "deep cycle" batteries used in some RV and marine applications, an automotive battery is
designed to remain at or near a full state of charge, and not to be completely discharged.
Deep cycle batteries are designed to be more deeply discharged many times. While completely
discharging an automotive battery does not ruin a battery that is in good condition, it may shorten the
life of the battery.
Battery Construction
A battery is made up of individual cells, electrically connected in series for a cumulative voltage effect.
Each battery cell contains an element made up of positive and negative plates, separators, and
connecting straps.
Each plate consists of a stiff mesh grid of a lead

alloy, coated with porous lead on the negative
plates, and lead peroxide or lead dioxide on the
positive plates. A strap of lead connects the
negative plates to form a group, and another strap
connects the positive plate group. On each end of
the battery, the straps are extended to form
battery terminals or posts. The plates are
submerged in an electrolyte solution.
Acid fumes and water vapor are formed and released during the chemical reactions of charging. This
gassing causes the loss of electrolyte. Conventional batteries have removable vent caps, permitting the
electrolyte levels to be checked and topped off, as well as to allow chemical testing. "Maintenance free"
batteries are designed to minimize gassing.
Between the positive and negative plates are separators, which are constructed to keep the plates from
touching each other and shorting. The separators are porous, to allow electrolyte to circulate freely and
permit the chemical process to take place.
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Each battery cell is a separate unit that produces 2.1 volts. A "12 volt" automotive battery contains six
cells connected in series for a total of 12.6 volts. Many diesel applications use two 12 volt batteries,
connected in parallel, to provide the high current required to crank a diesel engine. Batteries connected
in this fashion still supply 12 volts, but have twice the current capacity of a single battery.
Battery cells are housed in a durable, vented, plastic case, and have terminals on the top ("top post") or
side (side terminal). Many aftermarket batteries are equipped with both types of terminal
arrangements.
Negative battery cables are usually grounded to the engine block. On some applications, a small pigtail
wire also connects the negative terminal to the vehicle body. The pigtail connects the body ground to
the engine ground, and it must be connected for the starting and charging system to work properly.
When installing batteries equipped for both top and side terminal arrangements, leave the plastic
covers in place on the unused terminals to prevent corrosion or accidental shorting.
Low Maintenance and Maintenance Free Batteries

Many batteries are marketed as "maintenance free," meaning water should not need to be added
during the life of the battery. The plates in these batteries tend to be slightly shorter to allow them to be
submerged deeper in electrolyte.
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Some maintenance free batteries do not have

removable covers or caps. Others do, to allow for
the addition of water in case of overcharging or
severe conditions, and to permit hydrometer
testing. These batteries should not require
additional water, but if the electrolyte can be
checked, it should be checked approximately
every six months.
Gel Cell and Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) Batteries

Recent innovations in battery technology include gel cell, and absorbent glass mat designs. These
designs do not have free electrolyte. Gel cell batteries were developed for use in mining equipment and
have good resistance to shock and vibration.
In AGM batteries, the elements are compressed. The plates are thinner, allowing for more plates per
cell. They are heat-resistant, and may last three times longer than wet cell batteries. The gel cell and
AGM designs have not yet seen widespread usage, due to their higher cost.
On some batteries, it may not be readily apparent that the cell covers are removable, so check carefully.
Electrolyte and Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is a measure of the density or weight of a fluid, using water as a baseline. Water has a
specific gravity of 1.000, and pure sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, meaning it is 1.835 times
heavier than water.
Electrolyte contains 64% water and 36% acid,

which gives it a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.270 in
a fully charged battery (this is often expressed as
"twelve seventy," etc.).
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If the electrolyte is accessible, it can be checked with a hydrometer. As a battery is discharged, the
electrolyte contains less acid and more water, so a hydrometer float will not rise as high in the
hydrometer barrel, or fewer balls will float. Many maintenance free batteries have a hydrometer built
into one of the cells. We will cover those, and hydrometer testing, later in the section. For now, keep in
mind that the acid is heavier than water, and a discharged battery has more water in its electrolyte.
Chemical Reactions while Discharging and Charging

In a fully charged battery, the active materials in the positive and negative plates is distinctly different in
chemical composition, and the electrolyte has a high acid content. Positive plates contain a compound
of lead and oxygen (PbO2), while negative plates contain lead (Pb). The electrolyte is composed of water
(H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid is a compound of hydrogen, sulfur and oxygen.
As a battery begins to discharge, the composition of the plates becomes more similar, and the water
content of the electrolyte increases. Lead sulfate (PbSO4) is formed on both the positive and negative
plates, trapping the oxygen and sulfur, and leaving water molecules behind (left side of illustration). The
voltage potential of a battery is dependent on the dissimilarity of the active materials in the positive and
negative plates. As the lead sulfate content in the plates increases, the voltage and available current
decreases.
This process is reversed to charge the

battery. Current applied to the battery
causes the lead sulfate residing on the plates
to release its oxygen into the electrolyte.
This release increases the acid content of the
electrolyte, and returns the plates to their
original compositions (right side of
illustration).
Battery Safety
There are important safety concerns to keep in mind when working on or around
automotive batteries. Batteries can explode, and have enough power to arc weld.
Always respect the power of a battery, even a "dead" battery. The sulfuric acid in
electrolyte is extremely corrosive, and can cause severe chemical burns to the skin
and eyes. It will also damage painted surfaces and many other materials, including
clothing. Always wear approved safety glasses when working around batteries and
the use of rubber gloves is recommended when working with electrolyte.
You should know the locations of fire extinguishers and the first aid kit. First aid
kits should contain a bottle of sterile, acid-neutralizing eyewash. Larger facilities
often have an emergency shower and eyewash station located in the battery
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storage and service area.

Batteries release explosive hydrogen and oxygen gasses. A battery can explode
with a sound like a shotgun discharging, rupturing the case and spraying acid in all
directions. Avoid creating sparks around a battery. The following guidelines will
help to reduce the chance of arcing or sparks:
• The ground terminal of a battery should always be disconnected first and reconnected last.
• Connect battery chargers to a battery before plugging in the charger.
• When jump-starting a vehicle, follow the proper procedure. Do not connect the jumper cable to
the negative battery terminal of the vehicle you are jump-starting. The procedure to follow will be
presented later in this section.
• Do not attempt to charge, jump-start, or load test a battery with a broken or loose post, a cracked
case, or one in which the electrolyte is frozen.
Accidental shorting of the positive battery terminal or any system voltage source to ground with a
tool or metal object can cause severe burns. Metal jewelry can be heated to its melting point in
seconds. Even a brief short of this nature can damage the PCM and other electronic components.
Never hammer on a battery terminal or cable

end, or attempt to remove a cable by prying. To
avoid damage to the battery or terminals, and
possible personal injury, use a clamp spreading
tool if the clamp doesn't seat at the bottom of the
post, and use a cable clamp puller to remove
stubborn clamps. Avoid contact with the white,
flaky or powdery corrosion that builds up around
battery terminals and trays. This substance is
sulfate and/or sulfide; it is corrosive and can cause
chemical burns.
Always follow all general safety guidelines for

servicing motor vehicles with regards to adequate
ventilation, working around hot or moving parts,
proper use of parking brake, gear selector, wheel
blocks, and disabling fuel or ignition systems.
Refer to equipment User's Manual and vehicle
Service Manual.
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Battery Temperature and Efficiency

As temperatures fall, chemical reactions in the battery are slowed, and available power is reduced. At
the same time, the current required by the starter to crank the engine increases, due to thickening of
the motor oil.
• At 80° F, 100 percent of the battery's starting power is available

• At 32° F, 65 percent of the battery's power is available, but current draw may be increased to 200
percent of normal
• At 0° F, 45 percent of the battery's power is available, but the starting power required may be 300
percent of normal
• At -20° F, only about 20 percent of the battery's power is available, while the starting power
required can be over 300 percent of normal
At this point, it is obvious

that it is especially
important to have clean,
tight connections and a
fully charged battery in
cold weather. Keep in
mind that cold
temperatures have the
same effect on charging
rates, that is, it takes
longer to recharge a
battery in cold
temperatures.
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Excessive heat can also

have an adverse effect on
batteries. Batteries will
self-discharge faster in a
hot environment. In
addition, higher-
compression engines
require more current to
start when they are hot.
Battery Ratings
Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)
The Cold Cranking Amps rating indicates how much current (in amps) a battery can provide for 30
seconds at 0° F, while maintaining a minimum terminal voltage of at least 7.2 volts. This is the most
important rating of a battery and it is used both in application specifications and in battery testing. The
cold cranking rating is usually provided on a label or stamped into the battery case. Ratings from 350
CCA to 1000 CCA are common. The higher the number, the more powerful the battery, and the longer it
takes to recharge.
Cranking Amps (CA)

The Cranking Amps rating is similar to the Cold Cranking Amps rating, except the rated temperature is
32° F, instead of 0° F. Naturally, this will yield a higher number than the CCA. This rating may be useful in
comparisons of cold weather operation between batteries.
Reserve Capacity (RC)

The Reserve Capacity rating is the time (in minutes) required for a fully charged battery to reach a
terminal voltage of 10.5 volts, at 80° F, when placed under a constant load of 25 amps. This rating is
useful in determining how long a vehicle with a fully charged battery can travel at night with zero
generator output. Typical ratings range from 90 to 200 minutes. The battery in a vehicle, with a charging
system failure, will become too weak to start the engine before the reserve capacity is reached. It may,
however, provide enough voltage to keep the spark plugs firing for a few minutes after this time.
Reserve Capacity ratings usually appear on a battery's label.
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Ampere-Hour Rating (AH)

This rating has been largely replaced by the other ratings, but is still sometimes used to calculate
recharging times. The Ampere-Hour rating is a measurement of how much current a battery can
produce for 20 hours at 80° F without the voltage dropping below 10.5 volts.
BATTERY CHARGE AND TESTING
How Batteries Lose Power

Several factors contribute to the discharging or weakening of a battery. These factors may include:
• Normal aging
• Overcharging or undercharging
• Parasitic loads and phantom drains
• Self-discharging
• Inoperative or missing hold-downs
Normal Aging
Any lead-acid battery will eventually wear out, due to normal cycling, overcharging, and undercharging.
A new battery that has never been in service has not yet developed its full power potential, although
normal cycling soon brings the battery to its capacity.
The voltage difference between cells in a new battery is zero or negligible. As a battery ages, the voltage
difference increases. When the voltage difference reaches .05 volts, the battery must be replaced. The
cell with the lowest voltage will drain the other cells.
Load testing a new battery at its rated capacity may result in false test failures.
Years of cycling will finally take their toll on any battery. Small amounts of the active material on the
positive plates are shed during cycling, and fall to the bottom of the battery. If the sediment at the
bottom of the battery builds up enough to bridge the positive plates to the negative plates, a shorted
cell will result.
Overcharging
Overcharging, either by the vehicle's charging system
or an external battery charger, speeds the shedding
of plate materials, shortening battery life. Excessive
gassing also carries away water from the electrolyte.
In a sealed battery, the water cannot be replaced,
and the battery will fail prematurely. In a
conventional battery, the water can be replaced, but
if the level is far enough below the tops of the plates
to allow them to become dry, they harden and
become chemically inactive.
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Overcharging promotes corrosion on the plates, and may cause the battery to heat up. Severe
overcharging can cause a battery to swell, puffing the ends out noticeably. A strong acidic or sulfurous
smell may also be noticed.
Use care when working around a battery that has been overcharged as an overflow or residue of
concentrated electrolyte is likely to be present. The battery tray and hold down should be cleaned and
treated to prevent deterioration. A mixture of baking soda and water, or a commercially available
treatment, are effective for this purpose.
Shedding of Plate Material -- Overcharging has caused active material (brown) to shed from this plate,
reducing capacity and powder. Note the exposed grid.
Undercharging and the Result: A Sulfated Battery

A battery that is less than fully charged is obviously not storing its capacity of energy. More importantly,
it will be permanently damaged if left in this condition very long.
A battery that remains in a discharged condition for longer than approximately 30 days will begin to
sulfate. Sulfating occurs when the lead sulfate on the plates crystallizes, becoming dense and hard, and
difficult to break down. If the process has not gone too far, the battery may be restored to a serviceable
condition by recharging at a reduced rate. A long, slow charge at half the normal rate may succeed in
recharging the battery. A battery in this condition will not accept a normal charging rate and will simply
overheat.
Parasitic Loads
In modern vehicles, batteries are constantly being discharged by very small current loads needed to
power the memory circuits of electrical devices such as electronic control modules and digital clocks.
These are known as parasitic loads, because the circuits involved are always connected to the battery
and continue to drain small amounts of current, even when the ignition is turned off. One or more
control modules may, at some time, exhibit a failure mode that causes a high parasitic drain. The total
parasitic draw for a particular vehicle varies according to the level of electrical equipment on the
automobile. For example, a fully equipped luxury car would normally have a much greater parasitic draw
than a smaller economy car. The table shows examples of typical parasitic draws, measured in milliamps
(mA), for various automotive components.
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Component Typical Milliamp (mA) Draw

Adaptive Lamp Motor 0.5
Blower Control Module 1.0
ELC (After 7 Minute Time Out) 0 to 1.0 max
Electronic Brake (& Traction) Control Module 1.0
After 4 Minute Time Out
Generator 2.0
Heated Seat Control Module (LH/RH) 0.5
HVAC Programmer 0.5
Instrument Panel 4.0
Digital Cluster
Gages Cluster
Lamp Control Module 0.5
Oil Level Module 0 to 1.1 max
PCM 5.0
Pull-Down Unit 1.0
RAC Module 0 to 3.8 max
(Retained Accessory Power)
(Illuminated Entry)
(Remote Keyless Entry)
Radio 7.0
CD 1.8
Parasitic draw can be measured by connecting an ammeter in series with the battery, or by using an
ammeter with an inductive pickup that closes around a battery cable. All of the leads going to the
battery terminal must be enclosed in the probe. The inductive amps probe on starting and charging test
equipment is typically accurate to only about .1 amps, so in most cases an ammeter in series, accurate in
the milliamps range, is needed. Current draw from 5 to 30 milliamps is usually considered normal
parasitic draw; however, some RV applications may have a normal parasitic load of up to 60 milliamps.
To properly test for parasitic loads with an ammeter connected in series requires a special tool. The tool
maintains continuity through the system until you are ready to take the reading. This is necessary
because current drain may not occur after the battery is disconnected to install an ammeter.
Cycling the ignition key to the RUN and then to the OFF
position may cause the drain to recur, but there may be
drains that will not recur unless the vehicle systems are
reactivated in a road test. The key must not be turned to
the START position with an ammeter installed (except with
a high-current shunt installed, such as when checking
starter draw). The special tool does enable the vehicle to be
driven to assure that all systems are ready for testing.
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When using a hand-held DVOM, be sure to use the highest

amperage range to prevent blowing the meter's fuse in a
lower range. Furthermore, be sure not to cause a current
overload by opening a door (courtesy lights) or by any other
means with the tool in the OFF position. When testing is
complete, turn the special tool to the ON position
(continuity through battery cable) to guard against current
overload. Do not turn the tool to the OFF position with the
vehicle's engine running. To do so could damage the meter
and the vehicle's electrical system.
Any time the battery is disconnected from the system, you may want to use a memory saver. This device
plugs into the vehicle cigarette lighter receptacle, and provides voltage to the system when the battery
is disconnected. Using a memory saver will prevent driver-programmed information from being lost
(radio station presets, clock, etc.) as well as possibly avoiding drivability problems associated with the
control modules having to relearn information. It can take up to one hundred miles of driving to relearn
everything (ideal ignition timing, injector pulse width, etc.) and operate normally.
The service manual provides the procedure for Battery Electrical Drain/Parasitic Load testing using an
ammeter in series, and the special tool. Follow the procedure exactly, to avoid damage to the vehicle or
meter.
Phantom Drains
A phantom drain is an abnormal parasitic load caused by a component such as a trunk or glove box light
bulb that stays on all the time. This can be caused by maladjustment, a bad switch, or a short. A
phantom drain can draw up to several amps, and will discharge the battery faster than a normal
parasitic load.
Once it has been established that there is an excessive parasitic load, the problem can be isolated by
pulling fuses or disabling circuits until the circuit causing the drain is identified. The fuse is then replaced
and each component on that circuit is checked one at a time until the trouble is isolated. It may be
necessary to remove the fuse for the interior lights so the doors can be opened.
Self-Discharging
When a battery is stored, a slow chemical
reaction causes the battery to self-discharge.
A significant amount of power is lost after
one month, and after four months of storage
at 80° F, a battery can be 50% discharged.
For this reason, stored batteries must be
recharged periodically, before they become
significantly discharged.
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Self-Discharge Rates
Cold temperatures, on the other hand, slow the rate of self-discharge. A battery can be stored at 0° F for
an extended period without self-discharging.
Dirt and/or electrolyte residue between the battery terminals can speed self-discharging. Current can
track across the residue, to ground, so the area between the terminals should be clean. This is more
prevalent with top post batteries.
Contrary to popular myth, setting a battery on a cement or concrete floor has no effect on the rate of
self-discharge.
Inoperative or Missing Hold-Down

Many batteries fail prematurely due to an inoperative or missing hold-down. It is very important that
the hold-down be securely tightened, and that the tray is intact and holds the battery level. Without the
hold-down, the battery can slam into other components and suffer internal or external damage. In some
cases, the battery can even tip over or contact a metal object and short out. Because of the strong
chemical reactions in the battery, the battery tray and nearby components are prone to corrosion. Most
applications now use trays and hold-downs made of corrosion-resistant materials.
Corrosion
Corrosion forms on and around the battery cable ends, between the cable ends, on the battery
terminals, and inside the battery. The positive terminal is particularly susceptible to corrosion build-up,
which can creep down the cable where it is not visible. Look for a swollen cable or discolored insulation.
Corrosion --The positive terminal of this battery corroded so badly it

became fused to the cable and broke. Note the internal corrosion
on the strap and plates.
For best battery performance and longest life, the cables should be
disconnected, cleaned, and inspected about once a year. Excessive
corrosion can be removed and neutralized with a baking soda and
water solution. Battery terminals and cable ends should be cleaned
with a battery terminal brush. The surface of the cable end that
mates to a side terminal battery is prone to a build-up of very hard,
bluish-white sulfide. All of this stubborn corrosion must be
removed. The use of a small screwdriver or awl may be necessary.
After reconnecting, the cable ends can be protected with a light
coating of petroleum jelly or wheel bearing grease.
Cleaning Terminals with a Terminal Brush.
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“Universal” terminals are not recommended.
Note: Avoid replacing corroded cable ends with units that splice to the end of the cable. These invite
corrosion at the splice. The splice also tends to come loose and cause a poor connection. Replace the
cable, if at all practical.
Battery Testing and Service

There are several methods for determining the condition of a battery. A battery that fails these tests can
often be condemned immediately.
Electronic battery testers that run a series of tests on a battery are available. These testers are simple to
use, and can determine the condition of batteries without having to take the time to recharge them.
However, these testers may return a result of "Charge and Retest." This means the battery is
insufficiently charged to be tested. A battery must be fully charged in order to be accurately load
tested.
Initial Assessment
Battery testing begins with a visual inspection of
the battery, connections, and cables. A battery
with a cracked case, broken or loose posts, or a
sealed battery with insufficient electrolyte must be
replaced. No testing is necessary; do not attempt
to test such a battery. During your visual
inspection, also note the general condition and
age of the battery.
Battery Condition – This battery is leaking from a
loose positive post and should not be tested. The
battery is finished.
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Despite marketing claims, many batteries do not

last the length of their extended, prorated
warranty period. The normal lifetime of most
batteries is from three to five years.
The date of manufacture is stamped into the

battery case, and/or punched out of the label.
Most manufacturers use a date code with a letter

corresponding to the month, and a number
corresponding to the last digit of the year. For
example, a date code of "A-1" means the battery
was produced in January of 2001. Battery Information
Open Circuit Voltage

Open circuit voltage is the voltage in a battery without any loads connected. Checking the open circuit
voltage will give you a quick check of a battery's state of charge.
Remove the surface charge by turning on the headlights for one minute, then connect a voltmeter
across the battery. The reading should be 12.6 volts or more for a fully charged battery.
A weak or discharged battery is often a symptom of a problem elsewhere in the vehicle. Regardless of
the testing method used, be sure the battery is bad, and not merely discharged before recommending a
replacement.
Hydrometer Testing
Hydrometers are used to measure the
specific gravity of electrolyte. A
hydrometer with a single float and a
numerically graduated scale is
recommended. This type of hydrometer
usually has a built-in thermometer to
make necessary temperature Battery Hydrometer
corrections. Smaller hydrometers that
use multiple, colored balls are generally Hydrometer floats and barrels are made of thin glass and are
not reliable. The hydrometer pictured is fragile. Handle with care!
a Snap-on BB4A.
This chart shows the charge level and voltage for specific gravity readings taken with a hydrometer.
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Change Level, Specific Gravity, and Voltage
Charge Level Specific Gravity Voltage (12) Voltage (6)

100% 1.270 12.60 6.3
75% 1.225 12.45 6.2
50% 1.190 12.24 6.1
25% 1.155 12.06 6.0
Discharged 1.20 11.89 6.0
Built-In Hydrometers
Many maintenance free batteries are equipped with a built-in hydrometer. Hydrometers will indicate
the state of charge in only one cell of the battery, and therefore have limited diagnostic value. The built-
in hydrometer contains a ball (usually green) and a round sight window or "eye" on top of the battery.
Information on interpreting built-in hydrometer readings is printed on the top of most batteries. Wipe
the window clean and look straight down at it in sufficient light. The eye will appear green, dark, or
yellowish.
• Green eye – The battery is charged to at least 65% of its specific gravity. Some battery
manufacturers consider this sufficient for testing.
• Dark eye – The ball is not floating high enough to be seen, indicating the battery is less than 65%
charged. This does not necessarily mean the battery is bad, merely discharged. The battery may be
tested with an appropriate electronic tester, but results may be inconclusive. The battery must be
recharged in order to perform conventional load testing.
• Yellowish eye (clear) – The electrolyte level is low; replace the battery. Sometimes a gas bubble
will cause a false yellow reading. Tap the hydrometer lightly with a small screwdriver handle or
shake the battery gently and check it again. Do not attempt to charge or load test a battery with a
yellow eye.
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Conventional Hydrometers
A conventional hydrometer works like an
eyedropper or a turkey-baster. The battery caps
are removed, and the bulb is squeezed before
immersing the pick-up tube in the electrolyte.
When the bulb is gently released, electrolyte fills
the tube, and the float rises to a certain level,
indicating the state of charge of the cell. A reading
is taken and noted, and each cell is checked in this
manner.
Here are some guidelines for using a hydrometer:

• Remember – electrolyte is acidic. Be careful, and avoid allowing the hydrometer to drip. Release
the electrolyte back into the battery slowly.
• The float should be lifted free, and not touch the sides or bottom of the barrel.
• Take the reading with your eye level to the surface of the fluid.
• If there is a difference of .050 between the lowest and highest readings, or if all readings are below
1.225, recharge the battery.
• If, after recharging the battery, there is still a .050 difference between the highest and lowest
reading, or there is still a reading below 1.225, replace the battery.
• If the battery passes this test, proceed with a load test.
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Frequently, five cells will show good readings in the 1.250 to 1.270 range, with one cell showing a very
low reading or not moving the float at all. Commonly called a "dead cell," this usually indicates a short.
No further testing is necessary; the battery must be replaced.
Drawing Electrolyte into the Hydrometer Notice how buoyant the float is in this fully
charged battery
The next cell is checked, and also reads

good: 1.265. However...
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...the last cell doesn't move the float at all. The reading is below 1.100. When compared
to the other readings, this indicates a bad
cell.
ENGINE OVERVIEW
The engine is the power plant of a
vehicle. Automotive engines have
gone through tremendous changes
since the automobile was first
introduced in the 1880s, but all
combustion engines still have three
requirements that must be met to
do their job of providing power –
air, fuel, and ignition. The mixture
of air and fuel must be compressed
inside the engine in order to make
it highly combustible and get the
most out of the energy contained
in the fuel mixture.
Since the mixture is ignited within the engine, automobile power plants are called internal combustion
engines. Most can be further classified as reciprocating piston engines, since pistons move up and
down within cylinders to provide power. This up-and-down motion is converted into turning motion by
the crankshaft.
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Basic Engine Parts and Operation

A small engine, such as one
found in a lawn mower, usually
contains only one cylinder and
piston. Automotive engines
use a number of cylinders to
produce sufficient power to
drive the wheels, but operate
much like a small engine in
many ways. Let’s look at one
cylinder of an engine to see
how the main parts work
together.
Engine Block – The block is a

heavy metal casting, usually
cast iron or aluminum, which
holds the lower parts of the
engine together and in place.
The block assembly consists of
the block, crankshaft, main
bearings and caps, connecting
rods, pistons, and other
components, and is referred to
as the bottom end. The block
may also house the camshaft,
oil pump, and other parts. The
block is machined with
passages for oil circulation
called oil galleries (not shown)
and for coolant circulation
called water jackets.
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Cylinders – The cylinders are round holes or bores machined

into the block for the pistons to travel up and down in.
Pistons – Combustion pressure acts upon the tops of the

pistons in the cylinders, forcing them downward. Usually
made of aluminum, the pistons transmit the downward force
to the connecting rods. The top of the piston’s travel is called
Top Dead Center (TDC) and the bottom of a piston’s travel is
called Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
Piston Rings – Rings are installed in grooves around the

pistons to form a seal between the piston and the cylinder
wall. Two types of rings are used: compression rings, which
prevent combustion pressure from entering the crankcase,
and oil control rings, which prevent engine oil from entering
the combustion chamber above the piston. Oil rings scrape
excess oil from the cylinder walls for return to the crankcase.
Connecting Rods – A rod connects each piston to the

crankshaft. The small, upper end of the rod commonly has a
bushing pressed into it. A piston pin, or wrist pin, attaches
the piston to the rod through this bushing, which allows the
rod to pivot as needed. The larger, lower end of the rod is
attached to the crankshaft through rod bearing inserts that
are stationary relative to the rod and allow the crankshaft to
turn within the rod on a film of oil.
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Crankshaft – The crankshaft is a strong, alloyed iron or steel

shaft that converts the up-and-down motion of the pistons
into a turning motion that can be transmitted to the drive
train. The crankshaft is supported by the block in several
places along its length. The crankshaft rides in main
bearings, which are inserts similar to the rod bearings at
these supports. Where the crankshaft is connected to the
rods and where it is supported by the block are called
journals. The crank is finely machined and polished at these
places. The crankshaft is also drilled with a network of oil
passages to deliver oil under pressure to these places from
the oil galleries. Counterweights are formed onto the
crankshaft to help prevent vibration.
These weights are added to offset the weight of the piston and connecting rod assemblies. At the front
of the crankshaft, outside the engine front cover, a heavy wheel containing a rubber vibration damper is
installed. Also called a harmonic balancer, it often incorporates the crank drive belt pulley, which
powers belt-driven accessories. At the rear of the crankshaft, a large flywheel is mounted. The flywheel
can serve several purposes: a ring gear is mounted to its circumference to provide a means to start the
engine. It also connects the engine to the transmission. Finally, on vehicles with manual transmissions,
the flywheel is made very heavy to help smooth out power pulses from the engine (this is accomplished
by the torque converter on vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions).
Cylinder Head – Like the engine block, cylinder

heads are usually cast from either iron or
aluminum. Most V-type, opposed, and W-type
engines have two cylinder heads. Inline engines
have only one cylinder head. The head bolts to the
top of the block, covering and enclosing the tops
of the cylinders. The head forms small pockets
over the tops of the pistons called combustion
chambers. The spark plugs are threaded into
holes in the head and protrude into the
combustion chambers (gasoline engines). Intake
ports and exhaust ports are cast into the head,
and small holes called valve guides are machined
into it to position the valves.
The valves act as gates. When open, they let air and fuel into the cylinder and exhaust gas out. When
closed, they seal the pressure of compression in the combustion chamber. The valves close against
machined surfaces in the combustion chamber ports called valve seats. On overhead cam engines like
the one pictured here, the head also houses the camshaft. The assembly, together with other valve
train components and the intake and exhaust manifolds, is referred to as the top end. Between the
head and the block, a head gasket seals the combustion chambers, and water and oil passages.
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Valve Train – The valve train consists of the valves,

camshaft, and other associated parts. The valves
control the flow of the incoming air-fuel mixture
and the outgoing exhaust gasses. The intake
valves are larger than the exhaust valves, and
many engines today have two intake and two
exhaust valves per cylinder to improve efficiency
and performance.
Like the crankshaft, the camshaft rides on a film of oil as it rotates on journals. Rotation of the camshaft
opens the valves, and valve springs close them. The camshaft has carefully machined high spots called
lobes that act upon the valves (or other parts) to open each valve at precisely the right time. As the lobe
moves away, the spring closes the valve. Some engines have dual overhead cams (DOHC), with a cam
for the intake valves and one for the exhaust valves. The engine shown here uses a single overhead
cam (SOHC).
Engines with the camshaft located in the block are called pushrod engines, because long pushrods are
used to transmit the camshaft’s movement up to the rocker arms, which rock to open the valves. On
these engines, the cam acts on a valve lifter, which in turn acts on a pushrod to move the rocker arm
and open the valve. We will examine this arrangement later. Overhead cam engines may have a set of
parts called valve followers, which operate like lifters. Some engines have a gear on the camshaft to
drive the ignition distributor and oil pump, and some diesel engines and older gasoline engines have a
rounded lobe on the camshaft to drive a mechanical fuel pump.
The engine top end and bottom end must be timed together so that the valves will open and close at the
proper times for the positions of the pistons, and this is accomplished through the camshaft drive. The
camshaft is driven by a sprocket gear mounted on the front of the crankshaft. The sprocket either
meshes with a sprocket on the front of the camshaft, or, more often, the two sprockets are linked by a
belt or a chain. In the engine shown here, timing gears and a timing belt are used. Both sprockets must
be installed with their timing marks aligned in the proper positions in order to time the engine.
The Four-Stroke Cycle (Otto Cycle)

A stroke is one movement of the piston either down from Top Dead Center (TDC) to Bottom Dead
Center (BDC), or up from BDC to TDC. The term “stroke” also refers to the physical distance between
these two points. One stroke of the piston moves the crankshaft through one-half of a revolution.
Almost all engines on the road today operate on a cycle of four piston strokes. The strokes are the
intake stroke, compression stroke, power stroke, and the exhaust stroke. This cycle turns the
crankshaft through two revolutions and then the process begins again. Let’s put our simple engine into
motion to see what happens in a cylinder during this four-stroke cycle. We will begin with the intake
stroke.
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Other Engine Designs

While the vast majority of automobile engines are gasoline-powered, four-stroke reciprocating piston
engines, other engine designs have been developed and used in automobiles, some quite successfully.
Additionally, changing economic, environmental, and political conditions have created a demand to
modify or retire this proven workhorse with new or re-worked designs. As materials and technologies
improve and evolve, some of these contenders may come into common use in automobiles.
Two-Stroke Cycle Engines

A two-stroke cycle engine is another reciprocating piston design. Every downstroke delivers power in
this design, and it has no valve train. Instead, in a conventional two-stroke gasoline engine, the air-fuel
and exhaust gas are managed by the piston as it covers and uncovers intake and exhaust ports in the
side of the cylinder. It also has no oil sump or pressurized oil delivery system, because the crankcase is
part of the fuel delivery system. Instead, the crankcase is lubricated by mixing a small amount of oil with
the fuel. Being able to deliver power with every down stroke and not having a heavy valve train means
the two-stroke engine can provide a lot of power for its size and weight. Two-stroke engines have been
used for many years in small engine applications such as outboard boat engines, motorcycles, ultralight
aircraft, chainsaws and lawn equipment, etc. Some two-stroke engine automobiles have been imported
to the U.S., and many medium and heavy duty diesel applications are currently equipped with two-
stroke engines.
Unfortunately, the light weight and simplicity come at a price. Conventional two-stroke gasoline
engines produce higher exhaust emissions and yield lower fuel economy than a comparable four-stroke
engine. This is largely due to the burning of the oil in the combustion chamber and leakage of unburned
fuel inherent in the engine’s design. The causes of this will be clearer when we examine the operation
of the engine. Nevertheless, the two-stroke engine has received renewed interest in recent years, as
innovations and advancements in fuel injection, materials, and engine management systems develop.
These engines have a pressurized lubrication system, fuel injectors, and superchargers that compress
the intake air, similar to a two-stroke diesel engine.
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We’ll begin the explanation of the two-

stroke cycle with the firing of the spark
plug, which occurs before every
downstroke.
As the piston moves down, delivering

power, the intake and exhaust ports are
both covered. At the same time, the
downward movement of the piston is
pressurizing the crankcase with the next
air-fuel charge, which was drawn into the
crankcase through the air-fuel inlet and
around the reed valve. This pressure
forces the reed valve to close.
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As the piston continues downward, it

uncovers the exhaust port. Remaining
combustion pressure begins to blow the
spent gas out the port. Further downward
movement uncovers the intake port as
well, and both ports are open for an
instant, as the pressurized air-fuel charge
from the crankcase enters the cylinder.
The incoming air-fuel purges the
remaining exhaust gas from the cylinder.
Further downward movement uncovers
the intake port as well, and both ports are
open for an instant, as the pressurized air-
fuel charge from the crankcase enters the
cylinder. The incoming air-fuel purges the
remaining exhaust gas from the cylinder.
As the piston travels upward again, it

covers the intake and exhaust ports so
compression can begin. At the same time,
the piston’s movement creates a vacuum
in the crankcase, opening the reed valve
again and drawing in the next air-fuel
charge.
Diesel Engines
The diesel engine is another reciprocating piston design. Diesel engines in passenger cars and light
trucks operate on the four-stroke cycle, but they have important differences from the gasoline engines
we have discussed. The most significant difference is the way in which diesel engines ignite the fuel.
Rather than using a spark to start the combustion, a diesel engine uses the heat produced by
compression of the air in the cylinder. Diesel engines must compress the air much more than a gasoline
engine does – about twice as much – in order to produce enough heat to ignite the fuel. Compression
ignition engines such as diesels must be designed heavier and stronger than spark ignition engines to
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withstand the compression and combustion produced in the cylinders. These engines have steel sleeves
pressed into their cylinder bores.
All diesel engines use fuel injectors to deliver

the fuel to the combustion chambers at just
the right time. If the fuel were delivered
along with the air, as in a gasoline engine,
the fuel would ignite prematurely. The fuel
pressure at the injectors must be very high to
overcome the pressure in the combustion
chambers created during the compression
stroke. Keep in mind that with the port fuel
injection systems on gasoline engines, the
fuel is injected outside the combustion
chamber near the intake port and drawn into
the cylinder on the intake stroke.
Other significant differences between gasoline and diesel powered engines are the result of differences
in the fuels they burn. Diesel fuel is thicker, heavier, and less volatile than gasoline. However, there is
more energy contained in a gallon of diesel fuel than in a gallon of gasoline. While a gasoline engine can
produce more power by weight than a diesel engine, the diesel engine runs much leaner and provides
better fuel efficiency by about one-third. This has made diesel engines attractive to automobile
manufacturers at times, but these engines have other drawbacks that have prevented them from taking
over in passenger cars. High exhaust emissions of particulates (soot) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) due
to the high combustion temperatures are an obstacle. Difficulty in starting diesel engines in cold
weather, sluggish acceleration, smell, and noise are other factors that have prevented diesels from
being widely used in automobiles, but this may change again in the future.
Rotary Engines
The rotary engine is one of the few mass-produced automobile engines that is not a reciprocating piston
design. Instead, combustion directly causes the rotation of rotors within a chamber. This design can
produce a very powerful, smooth-running engine with fewer moving parts than a piston engine, and it
can operate at higher RPM.
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Movement of the rotor produces a low

pressure area at the intake, drawing in the
air-fuel mixture. Further rotor movement
compresses the mixture and it is ignited.
The resulting power pulse pushes on the

rotor. The rotor continues turning to expel
the exhaust gas. Three power pulses are
produced for every revolution of the rotor.
Engine Classifications
Engines can be classified in many different ways, according to their design characteristics and operation.
These differences can affect the methods of maintenance and repair. Some ways engines can be
classified are:
• Operational design (four-stroke, two-stroke, rotary, etc.)

• Number of cylinders (four, five, six, eight, 12, etc.)
• Arrangement of cylinders (V-type, inline, etc.)
• Displacement (3.8 liter, 3800 cubic centimeters, 350 cubic inches, etc.)
• Number of valves and valve train type (overhead cam, pushrod, 24-valve, etc.)
• Fuel type (gasoline, diesel, propane, etc.)
• Cooling system (air or liquid)
We have already discussed operational design, but the other classifications may need explanation.
Page 95 of 99
Number and Arrangement of Cylinders

Automobile engines can have three, four, five, six, eight, 10, or 12 cylinders. More cylinders mean more
power strokes per revolution of the crankshaft, which provides more power and smoother running. The
cylinders can be arranged in a number of ways. The three most common cylinder configurations are
inline, V-type, and opposed.
Engines with even numbers of cylinders have pairs of companion cylinders, in which the pistons move
up and down together. When one of the pistons is on its power stroke, the other one will be on its
intake stroke. Likewise, when one piston is on its exhaust stroke, its running mate will be on its
compression stroke. Look for the companion cylinders in the animations here.
Inline engines have all their cylinders in a straight

row. This is a common arrangement for four-
cylinder engines and inline six-cylinder engines
are still produced. Many years ago, inline eight-
cylinder engines were produced, but there are
several problems associated with an engine of
that length.
V-type engines have two cylinder banks, a left

bank and a right bank, at an angle to one another
such that when viewed from the front or rear, the
block forms the shape of a “V”. As with all
matters of automotive service, left and right are
referenced from the vantage point of someone
sitting in the vehicle. V-6 and V-8 engines are
common, while a few V-10 and V-12 engines are
produced. The V-6 has several advantages over
inline-6 engines. The V-type is more space- and
weight-efficient. Two connecting rods from
opposing banks share one crank pin (rod journal).
Opposed engines have cylinders that face each

other from opposite sides of the crankshaft. This
arrangement is sometimes called a boxer or
pancake engine, because the cylinders lay flat,
giving the engine a low profile. This makes it
suitable for rear- and mid-engine applications,
and this type of engine has been used in
Porsches, Volkswagens (air-cooled), and Subarus.
Page 96 of 99
A slant arrangement has also been used. This

arrangement is a variation on the inline design,
and some manufacturers have used it to lower
the hood line. It sets in the engine compartment
at a slant, and may resemble “half” of a V-type
engine. A few high-end automakers have
produced engines with 16 cylinders in a “W”
arrangement, but with a price of around one
million dollars, you are unlikely to see one in a
typical shop. The “W” arrangement is done to
conserve space.
The cylinders are assigned numbers by the manufacturer for reference. The numbering system varies by
manufacturer. Sometimes the numbers are stamped into the intake manifold. The firing order is the
sequence in which the spark plugs fire, and is usually different from the order of the cylinder numbers.
The firing order may also be stamped on the intake manifold, but both sets of numbers are available in
the service information for the vehicle. The firing order will vary among manufacturers or divisions.
Displacement
Commonly called “engine size,” the displacement of an engine is the volume of all the cylinders added
together. In the U.S., engine displacement was expressed in cubic inches for many years. In modern
vehicles, displacement is usually given in liters (L) or cubic centimeters (cc).
The diameter of the cylinder is called the bore. If the bore and the length of the piston stroke are
known, the volume of a cylinder can be calculated. The simplest formula for calculating the volume of a
cylinder is:
Bore2 x Stroke x 0.7854 = cylinder volume
Page 97 of 99
This result is multiplied by the number of cylinders to arrive at the displacement of the engine. The
value of 0.7854 is pi/4. Using the formula to determine the displacement of a six-cylinder engine with a
bore of 10cm and a stroke of 8cm, we find:
100 x 8 x 0.7854 x 6 = 3,769.92
This would be expressed as 3770cc, or approximately 3.8L.
Number of Valves and Valve Train Type

In an earlier section, we saw the operation of
an engine with a single overhead cam. We
noted that a dual overhead cam (DOHC)
engine has a cam for the intake valves and
one for the exhaust valves. A V-type DOHC
engine has four camshafts – two for each
bank. Dual overhead cams are frequently
used on engines that have more than two
valves per cylinder. Four-cylinder engines
typically have eight, 12, or 16 valves. A six-
cylinder may have 12, 18, 24, or 30 valves,
and a V-8 may have 16, 24, 32, or some other
number of valves.
Pushrod Engines
Pushrod engines (those with the cam in the block)
are sometimes referred to as “overhead valve”
engines to differentiate them from overhead cam
engines, but all modern automobile engines use
overhead valves. The term was originally used to
distinguish the pushrod valve arrangement from
engines that have the valves in the block, a design
now found only in antique cars and some small
engines.
In pushrod engines, the cam acts on a valve lifter,

which in turn acts on a pushrod to move the
rocker arm and open the valve.
Fuel Type
By far the most common fuels for the internal-combustion engine are gasoline and diesel fuel; however,
some fleet vehicles burn alternative fuels such as natural gas, propane, or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
These engines are usually converted gasoline or diesel engines.
Page 98 of 99
Cooling System Type

Engines are either air-cooled or liquid-cooled. Nearly all automobiles currently in production have
liquid-cooled engines. Air-cooled engines can be found in motorcycles, lawn mowers, and some
automobiles. Cooling fins cast on the outside of engine parts, especially the cylinders and heads,
increase surface area and help dissipate heat into the air flowing around them. Air-cooled engines run
at higher temperatures than liquid-cooled engines under some conditions, and they can’t maintain as
constant a temperature. This causes an exhaust emissions problem (especially oxides of nitrogen) that
has limited their production in recent years.
In liquid-cooled engines (often called “water-cooled”), a pump circulates coolant though cavities and
passages called water jackets around the cylinders and combustion chambers. A thermostat keeps the
engine at the optimum operating temperature by controlling the coolant flow between the engine and
the radiator, where the heat is given off to the air passing through it. The coolant is normally a mixture
of 50% water and 50% antifreeze. The antifreeze provides protection against freezing, boiling, and rust
and corrosion, and provides lubrication and seal conditioning for the water pump. Cooling system
operation and service is covered in the Today’s Class HVAC course.
Page 99 of 99

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Automotive Service – Study Guide

©2012 Melior, Inc.

CAREERS IN THE AUTOMOTIVE FIELD

The Automotive Technology Career

• Automotive repair and maintenance shops

Over 16% own their own business.

Opportunities directly related to automotive technology:

Opportunities indirectly related to automotive technology:

Training and Certification

The National Automotive Technicians

Job Prospects in the Automotive Technology Field

Common Methods Used to Pay Automotive Technicians

Other Facts About Working as an Automotive Technician

• Common hand tools

SOLVENTS, SOAPS, AND CLEANING SOLUTIONS

General Rules for Using Chemicals

• Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

CAUTION: Consult the instructor before using an unfamiliar product.

Types and Uses of Solvents

Digestive-type carburetor cleaner is an aggressive chemical agent that is usually stored in a 1- or 5-

Types and Uses of Soaps and Cleaning Solutions

Cleaning shop floors

Specialty cleaning agents

LUBRICANTS AND SPECIALTY CHEMICALS

General Rules for Using Oils

Types and Uses of Oils

Hydraulic fluids include hydraulic jack oil and brake fluid.

General Rules for Working With Grease

CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with greases.

Types and Uses of Greases

Types and Uses of Specialty Additives

CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with specialty additives.

Types and Uses of Specialty Chemicals

CAUTION: Wear PPE when working with specialty chemicals.

Metric and U.S. Customary System (USCS) Wrenches

Metric wrenches are sized per the measurement in millimeters (mm)

USCS wrenches are sized per the measurement in fractions of an

The box wrench completely encircles the nut or bolt to

The combination-end wrench is a combination open-end

A tubing wrench, or flare nut wrench, has ends with a

• A shallow 12-point socket is used for turning hexagonal

Swivel sockets, or universal sockets, have a universal joint

Impact sockets are designed to withstand the great torque and

The breaker bar is a sturdy handle that is used when

Note: The length of the handle on the breaker bar

The ratchet is the most commonly used handle for

The ratchet is not intended for use under extreme torque

Speed handles and T-handles are occasionally used to

A torque wrench is a special handle that indicates the

An adjustable wrench has a screw that allows the jaw

Standard wrenches cannot be used on pipes because of

TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS AND PLIERS

CAUTION: The standard screwdriver is not

The Phillips screwdriver fits the crossed slot of a

More torque can be applied with the Pozidriv

The torx screwdriver has a 6-point tip that is

Nut drivers have a handle and shaft like a

Locking pliers are very similar to standard slip-joint pliers.

CAUTION: When clamping or removing locking pliers,