2 Sexual Reproduction

in Flowering Plants
Flower is the reproductive organ of angiosperms. It consists of ◊ Pollen Grains
calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. „„ Pollen grains are male gametophyte; spherical in shape.
Pre-Fertilization: Structures And Events Structure Of Pollen Grain
„„ Hormonal and structural changes initiated lead to Pollen grains are made of two-layered wall:
differentiation and development of floral primordium.
Exine
„„ Inflorescences are formed which bear floral buds and then
„„ Made of sporopollenin (most resistant organic matter
the flowers.
known).
„„ Androecium (male reproductive organ) and gynoecium
„„ Germ pores- Apertures on exine where sporopollenin is
(female reproductive organ) differentiate and develop.
absent; forms pollen tube.
◊ Stamen
Intine
Stamen consists of 2 parts:
„„ Thin and continuous layer
„„ Anther – Terminal bilobed structure.
„„ Made of cellulose and pectin
„„ Filament – Long slender stalk. Proximal end of the filament
is attached to the thalamus or the petal.
Mature Pollen
Structure Of Anther
A mature pollen grain contains of 2 cells:
„„ Anther has 2 lobe (bilobed). Each lobe consists of 2 theca.
Hence it is dithecous Vegetative Cell: bigger; abundant food reserve; large irregular
nucleus; responsible for the development of pollen grain
„„ Anther is a tetragonal structure which consist of 4 micro
sporangia located 2 in each lobe. Generative Cell: small; involved in syngamy; dense cytoplasm
„„ Microsporangium develops into pollen sacs. and nucleus; pollen grains cause allergy and bronchial afflic-
tions; leading to chronic respiratory disorders like asthma, bron-
„„ Pollen sacs run longitudinally and contain pollen grains. chitis. E.g. Parthenium (carrot grass)
Structure Of Microsporangium „„ Pollen grains are rich in nutrient.
A typical microsporangium appears circular in outline. It is „„ Pollen tablets and syrup are used as food supplements
surrounded by 4 walls.
„„ Pollen consumption claimed to increase performance of
„„ Epidermis athletes and race horses.
„„ Endothecium Protects and helps in dehiscence of anther.
In some cereals such as rice and wheat, pollen grains lose
„„ Middle layers viability within 30 minutes of their release, and in some
„„ Tapetum - nourishes the developing pollen grain. members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae.
◊ Pistil
Sporogenous Tissue
„„ Pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.
„„ Compactly arranged homogenous cells which are present
at the centre of each microsporangium when the anther is -Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains
young -Style: Elongated slender part
Microsporogenesis -Ovary: Basal bulged part
„„ Process of formation of microspores (tetrad) from pollen „„ Gynoecium consists of
mother cell through meiosis.
- Single pistil: Monocarpellary
„„ When the anther matures and dehydrates, the microspore
dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains. - More than 1 pistil: Multicarpellary
◊ Megasporangium (Ovule)
„ „ Thousands of pollen grains formed inside a
microsporangium that are released with dehiscence of „„ Ovule - Small structure attached to placenta.
anther. ff Single ovule – Wheat, paddy
 ff Many ovules- Papaya, water melons „„ Closeness of stigma and anther
„„ Funicle - Stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta „„ Chasmogamous flowers- Flowers with exposed anthers
„„ Hilum - Junction between ovule and funicle and stigma

„„ Integuments - Protective envelopes of ovule „„ Cleistogamous flowers- Flowers which do not open at all

„„ Micropyle - Small opening at the tip of ovule into where „„ Cleistogamy is disadvantageous because there is no chance
pollen tube enters of variation.

„„ Chalaza - Basal part of ovule „„ Examples: Oxalis & Viola

„„ Nucellus (2n) - Mass of cells enclosed within integuments. Geitonogamy

Have abundant food reserve. „„ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of ANOTHER
Megasporogenesis flower of the same plant.
„„ Process of formation of megaspores from megaspore mother „„ Genetically similar
cells.
„„ Example: Cucurbits
„„ Megaspore mother cells divide meiotically to form 4
megaspore (haploid). Out of 4, only 1 megaspore is Xenogamy
functional and forms gametophyte and the rest degenerate.
„„ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another
◊ Female Gametophyte (Embryo Sac) flower of DIFFERENT plant.
„„ The embryo sac develops from the functional megaspore Adaptations in flowers for Pollination
(n).
Wind Pollination
„„ Monosporic Development: Form single megaspore.
„„ Pollen grains: light, non- sticky, winged
Formation of Embryo Sac
„„ Anther: well-exposed
„„ Nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form
2 nuclei which move to opposite poles, forming 2-nucleate „„ Stigma: large and feathery
embryo sac.
„„ Flower: one ovule, arranged as inflorescence
„„ Two more mitotic nuclear division results in 4-nucleate and
later 8- nucleate stages of embryo sac. „„ Examples: Corn cob, grasses
„„ A typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity, is 8-nucleate Water Pollination
and 7-celled.
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Algae
Structure of Embryo Sac
„„ Pollen grains: protected from wetting by mucilaginous
„„ Egg apparatus - Present at the micropylar end; consist of 2
covering
synergids and 1 egg cell
„„ Synergids have cellular thickenings at micropylar tip called „„ E.g., Fresh water plants: Vallisneria, Hydrilla
filiform apparatus – guides the pollen tube into the synergid Sea-grass- Zostera
„„ Antipodal- 3 cells present at chalazal end „„ Produce pollen grains in large number
„„ Large central cell- 2 Polar Nuclei
„„ Do not produce nectar
Pollination „„ Female flower remains submerged in water
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a pistil is
„„ Pollen grains - long, ribbon-like
called pollination. Based on the source of pollen, pollination is
of 3 types: „„ Carried passively by water currents to reach female flower
„„ Autogamy Vallisneria
„„ Geitonogamy „„ Female flower- Reach the water surface by long coiled stalk
„„ Xenogamy
„„ Male flower or pollen grains- Released onto the water
Autogamy surface; carried by water currents; some eventually reach
the stigma
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the SAME
flower. Insect Pollination

Requirement: „„ Flowers: large, colorful, fragrant, rich in nectar

„„ Synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. „„ Pollen grains and stigma: sticky
 ◊ Endosperm
„„ Free nuclear type (common method)
„„ Cells of endosperm stores food materials and are used for
the nutrition of developing embryo
◊ Embryo
„„ Embryogeny – Early stages of embryo development

Zygote → Pro-embryo → Globular embryo → Heart

Certain rewards to pollinators: shaped embryo → Mature embryo
▪▪ Nectar and edible pollen grains as foods
„„ Embryo consists of embryonal axis, cotyledons, plumule
▪▪ Provide safe place for laying eggs and radicle or root tip.
▪▪ E.g. Amorphophallus & Yucca
„„ Embryos of monocotyledons possess only one cotyledon.
Outbreeding Devices „„ Coleorhiza: Undifferentiated sheath covering radical and
Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding depression root cap
„„ Coleoptile: Protective sheath of plumule
Ways to avoid Self-pollination:
„„ Pollen release & stigma receptivity – not synchronized ◊ Seed
„„ Stigma and anther – placed at different positions „„ Fertilised and mature ovule forms seed
„„ Self-incompatibility „„ Seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and embryonal axis
„„ Production of unisexual flowers „„ Perisperm: Remnants of nucellus E.g. Black pepper and
ff Castor, maize (prevents autogamy) beet
ff Papaya (prevents autogamy & geitonogamy) „„ Non-Albuminous/Non-Endospermic seeds- Endosperm
is completely utilized before maturation of seeds. E.g.: pea
Pollen – Pistil Interaction
„„ Albuminous/Endospermic seeds- A portion of endosperm
All events from deposition of pollen on stigma till the pollen
remains in mature seeds. E.g.: castor
tube enters the ovule. These are
„„ Recognition of compatible pollen Dormancy: State of inactivity
„„ Germination of pollen grains Fruit
„„ Development of Male Gametophyte „„ Fruit formation from unfertilized ovules: Parthenocarpic
fruit: E.g., Banana
Artificial Hybridization: can be achieved by two ways-
„„ Fruit formed from the ovary : True fruit
„„ Emasculation : Removal of anther
„„ Parthenocarpy can be induced by gibberellins & auxins
„„ Bagging : Flower covered by a bag made up of butter paper
to prevent contamination of stigma with unwanted pollen. „„ False fruit: Any part other than ovary- forms part of fruit.
E.g.: Apple
„„ When bagged flower attains receptivity, mature pollen
grains are dusted on the stigma, the flowers are rebagged Apomixis
and fruits allowed to develop „„ Form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual
Post- fertilization Events reproduction; seed formed without fertilization

All events that occur in a flower, after double fertilization are „„ Diploid cell is formed without meiosis and develops into
called post- fertilization events embryo without fertilization.
Major events are: „„ Cells of nucellus (2n) surrounding embryo sac protrude into
embryo sac and develop into embryos. Examples: Citrus
„„ Development of endosperm
and Mango.
„„ Development of embryo
Polyembryony
„„ Maturation of ovule into seed
„„ Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed
„„ Maturation of ovary into fruit