Compiled and edited by

Krishnamurthy, K.S., Dinesh, R., Jayashree, E., John Zachariah, T., Rajeev, P. and Eapen, S.J.

Correct citation
Krishnamurthy, K.S., Dinesh, R., Jayashree, E., John Zachariah, T., Rajeev, P. and Eapen S.J. (Eds) (2018)
Training Manual, International Training Program on Value Addition in Spices. ICAR-Indian Institute of
Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala, India, 90p.

Publisher
Director
ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research
Kozhikode, Kerala, India

ISBN: 978-81-86872-57-4

May 2018

Printed at
K.T. Printers, Mukkam, Calicut, Kerala

Disclaimer
The statements and opinions contained in each chapter of this manual are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the editors or ICAR-IISR, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
 Dr. A.K. Singh
Deputy Director General (Horticultural Science)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan - II
New Delhi - 110 012, INDIA

Foreword

The National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad,

India, an autonomous organization under ministry of Agriculture and farmers welfare,
Government of India in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), New Delhi, India, an another autonomous organization under ministry of
Agriculture and farmers welfare, Government of India has been conducting many Feed
the Future India Triangular Training (FTF ITT) Programs in different ICAR Institutes
across the country which are aimed at Triangular Cooperation adapting technological
advances and innovative solutions to address Food Security Challenges in Africa and
Asia.

I am happy to note MANAGE has chosen ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research,

Kozhikode, Kerala, India as a Partner Institute for conducting the FTF ITT training on
‘Value addition in Spices’. At ICAR-IISR, I understand that the major topics covered in
this training programme include harvest and post-harvest processing and value
addition of spices, marketing, trade, value chain development, hands on training and
demonstration of value added products from ginger, curry powder production from
spices, spices as functional food, international quality standards in spices, packaging
and storage of spices and products, mechanization etc. There will also be visits to spices
institutions such as Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysuru, and
spice industries such as Kancor Ingredients Limited, Angamaly; Panda Foods (India)
Pvt. Ltd., Wayanad etc. This training manual covers an over view on all these aspects
and I am sure that this manual will be of great use to the participants.

I take this opportunity to congratulate the team ICAR-IISR, Kozhikode for organizing
this programme and wish the event a great success. I also take this opportunity to wish
all the participants from Uganda, Kenya, Malawi, Liberia and Myanmar a most
rewarding and enjoyable time in Kozhikode.

I look forward for a good feedback from the participants and appreciate the organizers
for bringing out a useful training manual.

(A K Singh)
Kozhikode
16 May 2018
 Preface

To achieve Ever Green Revolution and to address Global Food Security a new
Agriculture Partnership between US and India was announced during the State visit of
US President to India in November 2010. The effort included Triangular Cooperation
adapting technological advances and innovative solutions to address Food Security
Challenges in Africa. This pilot stage focused on three African countries i.e., Kenya,
Liberia and Malawi with potential to expand throughout the African continent in future.
Consequently, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE),
Hyderabad and National Institute of Agricultural Marketing (NIAM), Jaipur conducted
seven training programs covering 219 executives from Kenya, Liberia & Malawi.

Due to the success of first seven training programs, there have been considerable
enthusiasm from the prospective Executives from Africa and Asia to participate in the
similar training programs. As a result, USAID and Ministry of External Affairs (MEA),
Govt. of India designed a program named as Feed the Future India Triangular Training
(FTF ITT) Program which was launched on 25 July, 2016 at New Delhi. During the
program period until 2020, 1400 Agricultural professionals from 17 partner countries
of Africa and Asia will be trained. The program will conduct 32, fifteen days duration
training courses (excluding travel period) at select Indian institutions for 25
participants in each programme. Each course module will focus on themes or sub
sectors in which Indian institutions of reputed or have demonstrated comparative
advantage to offer such trainings and ensure that it effectively responds to the target
countries’ capacity gaps.

The National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad,

India, an autonomous organization under ministry of Agriculture and farmers welfare,
Government of India has been designated as lead Institution for implementation of the
program. The ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala, India has
been identified as a Partner Institute based on mutual consultation with USAID, India
and MANAGE for providing one such FTF ITT training considering its vast experience,
domain expertise, infrastructure etc. At ICAR-IISR, the training sessions will be
delivered through lectures, group discussions, case studies, field visits, and visits to
spice institutions such as CFTRI Mysore and spice industries such as Kancor Ingredients
Limited, Angamaly etc. Pre and Post-test will be conducted to understand the impact of
training on the knowledge of executives. Major topics covered include harvest and post-
harvest processing and value addition of spices, hands on training and demonstration
on value added products from ginger, curry powder production from spices, spices as
functional food, International quality standards in spices, packaging and storage of
spices and products, mechanisation etc. We are extremely grateful to ICAR New Delhi
and Director ICAR-IISR Kozhikode for the support and guidance in organising the
programme. We thank all resource persons for timely submission of lecture notes and
the editors for the necessary editing and compilation.

(T. John Zachariah) (P. Rajeev)

Training coordinators
 CONTENTS

S. No. Title Page No.

1 Value Addition in spices - Technological advancements 1-7

T J Zachariah

2 Historical Perspective of Spices 8-18

P Sivadasan

3 Breeding for quality improvement in spices 19-32

J Rema

4 Plant nutrition and quality characteristics of spice crops 33-37

V Srinivasan

5 Post harvest processing and value addition of spices 38-44

E Jayashree

6 Food safety and International quality standards for spices 45-49

N Anandavally

7 Spices - Chemistry and functional properties 50-54

N K Leela

8 Recent advances in processing technology 55-61

C K Sunil

9 Nutraceutical functions of spices 62-71

K R Anilakumar

10 Mechanization, processing and value addition in turmeric 72-83

R Visvanathan

11 Income Generating Enterprises in Spices Sector and Business 84-90

Initiatives at ICAR-IISR
T E Sheeja
 Historical Perspective of Spices

P Sivadasan

University of Calicut, Malappuram, Kerala.

Introduction

Spices occupy an important place in linking humanity that appeared in different continents
in the ancient period. It was the requirement of important goods related with the daily life
of human beings that linked the people through trade contacts.

The Malabar Coast was a destination point of trade activity in the maritime world since the
ancient period. The modern Kerala State which represents this landscape has nurtured
religion, arts and culture by utilising this transnational contact which enabled the state to
become a gem in the necklace of Indian culture. The Malabar region constitutes a single
geographical and cultural unit. The peculiarity of its customs and its social organization had
marked it of as a unique entity in India from time immemorial. Malabar had from the
earliest times been in contact with the sea faring people of the west. Malabar derives its
importance from strategic location on the trade route and its production of pepper and
spices1.

Kerala is one of the smallest states in the Indian union with an area of 38855 sq km which is
just 1.3 % of the total area of the country. Physical features demarcate the state into three
natural divisions. The lowland adjoining the sea, the mid land and the forest high land on
the extreme East. The mid land regions comprise valleys and hills and this rich and fertile
region bears the largest extent of agricultural crops. In the present, extensive tea and
cardamom plantations dominate the higher elevations, while ginger, rubber, pepper, and
turmeric flourish at the lower elevations. The hilly portions are broken up by long rivers,
dense forests and tangled jungles.

Agriculture forms the main stay of population in Kerala and cash crops are being cultivated
in nearly 40% of the cropped area and about 55.44% of the total agricultural income is
contributed by the commercial crops. Coconut, pepper, cashew nuts, areca nuts, ginger,
sugarcane, lemon grass, rubber, tea coffee, and cardamom are the chief commercial crops
among them. The coconut tree brings income to lakhs of people in Kerala and this tree
dominates the entire scenery in Kerala. Tapioca is cultivated in more than five lakh acres.
About 70% of India’s cashew nuts production is accounted for by Kerala. Coffee estates are
mainly found in the northern side which is the Malabar region. Kerala is the most important
producer of cardamom in India, which in turn, is the largest producer of this spice in the
World. Many of Kerala’s cash crops are exported to foreign countries and they bring
valuable foreign exchange2.

1Sinnappa Arasarathnam, Maritime India in the Seventeenth Century, Delhi, 1994, p. 39.
2Kerala, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, Delhi,
March, 1968, pp. 6-17.
Spices in Daily Life

Most of the spices available in Kerala attracted foreign merchants and they found Kerala
coast as a destination point of their adventurous journey. Hence, the route connecting
Kerala’s coast with other markets in the maritime world came to be called ‘the spice route’.
The story of the route is essentially the story of maritime activity. The identification of
monsoon winds flowing in between south-west and north east regions helped maritime
journeys a planned activity. The discovery of mariner’s compass and development in
cartography and ship building helped the further expansion of commercial activity leading
to the spread of colonialism in the late medieval period. The cultivation of slave trade also
helped the dominating countries to amass huge wealth through the spice trade.

The chief spice transacted through the route was Kerala’s pepper. The classical sources
speak about black pepper and the oriental import of it to the Roman Empire in the ancient
period. Many ships sailed every summer from the Red Sea to the Malabar Coast for pepper
and that shows that this spice was an important item associated with the life of the people
in Rome. Upto the thirteenth century, the chief supplier of black pepper to the markets in
the World was the Malabar Coast3.

Spices were used as food, drink, medicines, ointments, cosmetics, air fresheners,
aphrodisiacs, fumigants, and dyes by the Arabs and Europeans. Pepper was used for
flavoring food and preserving meat in the cold season of Europe. It became important
during the occasion of marriages. It was considered as off medicinal value. It has been
widely used ancient centers of treatments. Greeks and Roman medical books speak of
pepper as the ‘Indian medicine’4. Spices got chief place in the medicine systems in India,
China, Indonesia and Japan as a component of medicines. Pepper was indispensable to meat
preparations and it was served in powder form and sold in the markets of Rome in packets’

Malabar Coast in the Ancient Greeco-Roman Trade

Pepper had become an important item of trade since the historic period of Kerala history
since the third century BC. The ancient Tamil literature called ‘Sangam’ literature praises
pepper trade in the port of Kodungallur. The Sangam work, akam nannuru discusses pepper
trade in the port town, Muziris (Roman word for Kodungallur) and another text puram
nannuru also mentions pepper trade between Kerala and European merchants in the
ancient period.

The Malabar trade with Greeks and Romans was flourishing during the period represented
by the Sangam literature. A verse in akam nanuru refers to the thriving town of Muziri were
beautiful large ships of Yavanas anchored with gold. Paranar, a poet of the literature refers
to the brisk trade in pepper at the port of Muziris and has recorded that pepper was
brought from the houses to the market and gold was received from Roman ships. He also
says that ‘Kuttuvan, the Chera king presented to visitors, the rare products of the seas and
mountains’. It reveals that the Roman traders bought pepper from the coastal markets in

3John Keay, The Spice Route: A History, John Murray: London, 2005, pp. 8-19.
4A. Saithu Muhammed., Keralam Nootandukalkku Munb (Malayalam), S.P.C. S, Kottayam, 1989, pp.
20-21.

2
return of gold5. Other indigenous literary works also mention cultivation of pepper in the
Kerala. Sukasandesa refers to the pepper vines and interestingly it suggests that the creeper
was grown on coconut palms6.

Greek historian Herodotus has recorded that goods were carried by the Arabs in small ships
from the Malabar Coast up to Aden, and from there the Phoenicians and the Egyptians
carried them to the coast of the red sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenicians were
engaged in trade with the forest resources of Kerala. Kautilya’s Arthasatra refers to pearls,
sandalwood, pepper, teak etc., exported from Kerala7. These Indian texts speaks about river
Churni and its relevance in the international trade activity. Theire is no doubt that Pepper
was the most important spice exported through these ports in the Kerala coast. Periplus of
the Eritrean Sea discusses Greek trade relation with the ports of the Malabar Coast called
Muziris and Barace8. Periplus shows that the largest amount of pepper exported was from a
port called ‘Cottonara’9.

There was a great increase of trade between Rome and Malabar after 45 A.D. According to
Hippalus, the Greek navigator, ships could travel from the mouth of the Red Sea and reach
Muziris in 40 days with the help of the monsoon winds. They started journey in June- July
and returned in November – December. Ancient Rome was paying gems and pearls in
return of pepper, sandalwood, balms and other spices10. Pepper was more valuable than
gold and was te chief profitable item of trade between the east and west. The deposits of
roman coins unearthed from different enters in south India, reveal that there had been a
considerable flow of precious metals from Europe to this region. Roman trade with India
was vigorous during the time of Augustus between 23 B.C and 14 A.D. There is good reason
to believe that considerable colonies of Roman subjects engaged in trade were settled in
southern India during the first two centuries of the Christian era. It is believed that such a
Roman colony had existed in the port at Muziris. These traders coming from the far away
regions are recorded as ‘Yavanas’ in the ancient Indian literature. Most of the Roman coins
found in south India belong to the period of emperors Augustus to Nero. There is a gradual
decline of Roman coins in south India after the reign of Nero (68 A.D) and we observe the
decline of trade along with weakening of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century11. Cosmos
Indicopleustes, the Byzantine geographer who visited Malabar in 525 A.D found that
Malabar Coast was very active in the pepper trade. He describes that pepper plant was
growing like vine attached to the stick of trees. He also visited Ceylon which was also a
centre of spice trade at that time12.

5 Velayudhan Panikkassery, Sancharikal Kanda Keralam (Malayalam), Current Books: Kottayam,

2012, p. 24.
6 Ibid.
7 K. N. Ganesh., Keralathinte Innalekal (Malayalam), Thiruvananthapuram, 1990, p. 23.
8 Wilfred H. Schoof, The Periplus of the Eritrean Sea (Transl), New Delhi, 1979, pp. 45-46.
9 The Periplus of the Eritrean Sea, pp. 45-46.
10 Ibid., p. 6.
11 Elamkulam P. N. Kujanpillai., op. cit., p. 396.
12 C. A . Innes, Evans., Malabar Gazetteer, Madras, 1951, p. 21.

3
Spice Trade in the Medieval Times

The early medieval geographers have made frequent references to the pepper products of
Malabar. Al Biruni a native of Keiv in Russia followed Muhammad Ghazni to India, had
visited several places and has left, his travel accounts. His travelogue, Kitab-al-Hind
provides a comprehensive picture of eleventh century India. He describes hectic trade and
the export of pepper of foreign countries. He also noted that the major importers of pepper
were Israelites, Arabs and Leboninites13. Al Biruni has recorded that pepper, ginger, and
other precious spices are the major items of export from Kerala14.

Traders from China and the eastern world also came to the Malabar Coast to hand over
their products and go back with spices and products of the western world. Evidences of
commercial and cultural contact with China are proved by the presence of Chinese celadon
were in a number of archaeological sites in the western coast of India. The travel accounts
of Chinese travellers like Ma Huan and many literary descriptions explains the Chinese
trade in the Indian Ocean.

Ibn Batuta the famous traveler who came to India in the fourteenth century called Kerala as
‘the land of pepper’15. He has recorded pepper trade in western ports like Mangalore,
Ezhimala, Balapatanam, Panthalayini, Dharmadam and Kozhikode. Batuta has recorded that
Kozhikode was one of the finest place of trade and traders from China, Ceylon, Maldives,
Yemen, and the Persian Gulf came down to the town and exchanged their products in return
of spices and products from other countries. Marco Polo of Venice also gives information
about pepper trade in India in the thirteenth century. The involvement of Jews in the
pepper trade in the Indian Ocean is also significant. They settled in port towns due to their
age long trade contact with the South Asian region16. The travelogue of Ma-Huan describes
cultivation and export of pepper in the fifteenth century. According to him, chettimar were
doing this business and they collected pepper from small pepper growers and sold it to
foreign ships in the port towns17.

The medieval World in the western coast was shaped on account of this trade relation. The
possibilities of amassing huge wealth through the fortunes of spice trade resulted in the
mushrooming of local feudatories and clashes between them. Those enjoyed mastery over
the Arab waters were able to maintain their monopoly over the spice trade. The Samoothiri
king of Kozhikkode was leading among them and he was helped by the fishermen
community to maintain good commercial relation with the Arab and African Coast. Changes
also occurred in the system of pepper and spice cultivation in Malabar according to the
increasing demand of these goods. If many of these products were collected from forests in
the ancient period, planned cultivation of spices began to appear by the early medieval
period. This was an earliest form of commercialization of agriculture which forced the
Malabar Coast to depend upon import of food products since that period. Parallel to these
developments we come across evidences of import of rice from South East Asia in the
medieval times.

13 Velayudhan Panikkassery., op. cit., p. 101-102.

14 Ibid., p. 101-102.
15 Velayudhan Panikkassery., op. cit., pp. 162- 163.
16 Rajan Gurukkal, Raghava Varrier., Keralacharitram (Malayalam), vol. l, Sukapuram, Kottayam,

2013, p. 220.
17 Ibid., p. 193

4
Different communities like the Syrian Christians and Muslims were largely involved in the
commercial activity and thereby they could earn huge wealth in the economy. This naturally
challenged the existing social stratification which empowered the foreign religious
communities in the coastal areas. All these changes created far reaching impact upon the
cultural, political and geographical life of the people in Malabar.

Spice Trade and Colonialism in the Modern Period

During the advent of Europeans in India, the entire Malabar region was divided into small
political principalities and all of them were fighting each other for mastery over the ports
and the trade activities18. Malabar was the only place in the world where pepper was grown
before the eighteenth century. With the advent of European traders cultivation of pepper
started in other colonies owned by them19. The Portuguese after their arrival in India
attempted to monopolise the spice trade and this brought them in direct confrontation with
the Arab traders and Muslims in Asia20. This ‘Da Gama epoch’ witnessed major
transformation in the economic history of Asia. Import of goods not familiar to Indians and
increased commercialization destroyed the fortunes enjoyed by the Indian traders and Arab
merchants in the modern period. Technological advancements in navigation, cartography,
warfare etc., helped the European merchents to establish their leadership in the Asian
region. They transported huge amount of spices and goods resulting in the multiplication of
profit of the European traders.

Vasco da Gama came to Malabar on 20th May 1498 and was followed by many other
missions. They could open factories or store houses at Kozhikode and Kochi. Kochi became
the centre of Portuguese activity and it experimented modern colonialism by appointing an
administrative head called the Viceroy. The headquarters planned alliances with
feudatories for the supply pepper and spices at cheaper rates and also to handle resisted
landlords21. The arrival of Dutch, French and English groups in the Arabian Sea made the
Indian Ocean region a turbulent zone in the maritime world22.

Inspite of all these disputes, Indian goods dominated World trade in the early modern
period. According to Ashin Das Gupta ‘millionaire merchants lived and worked in the Asian
markets which was gradually dying’ and according to him the medieval city of Kozhikode
was dominating the Arabian markets and it came to an end with the destruction of
Kozhikode by the forces of Mysorean rulers haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in the second half of
the eighteenth century23.

18 P. K. Leena, ‘The History of English East India Company Settlement at Anjengo’, PhD Thesis, Calicut
University, 1989, p. 10.
19 The Dutch had started cultivation of pepper in Java in the eighteenth century. See Elamkulam P. N.

Kunjan Pilla, Studies in Kerala History, Thiruvananthapuram, 1970, p. 394.

20 K. K. N. Kurup, India’s Navel Traditions, Northern Book Center, New Delhi, 1997, pp. 60-61.
21 C. Achutha Menon, The Cochin State Manual, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 1995,

pp. 78-79.
22 Ashin Das Gupta., Malabar in Asian Trade- 1740-1800, Cambridge University Press, London, 1967,

p. 7.
23 Ashin Das Gupta., Malabar in Asian Trade 1740-1800, 1967, pp. 1-4.

5
Though the Portuguese and the Dutch enjoyed monopoly over spice trade they could not
establish permanent hegemony over the commercial world. In addition to these they had t
face setbacks in south Malabar with the defeat of the Dutch forces by Martanda Varma at
Kulachal in the middle of the eighteenth century. The Portuguese introduced into Malabar a
number of new products the demand for Malabar products increased worldwide due to the
increase in population and expansion of market activities24. In short, spice trade and
Christian propaganda dominated the European activities in Asia’25. This promoted the work
for establishment of colonies by the use of military forces from Europe.

The Dutch showed more determination in pepper trade and they could collect more goods
from the Malabar Coast. They followed the same strategies developed by the Portuguese in
Asia26. As an advanced step they began to study Malabar to collect more information about
plants and products. The result was intellectual worlks like Hortus Malabaricus prepared by
Van Rheede. Kochi, Kollam and many other ports in India and Ceylon flourished through the
spice trade under the Dutch. Forts, factories and houses were built by these European
traders for themselves and supporters. The Dutch withdrew from most of these trading
points when they faced challenges from the French and the English. They also lost support
from their motherland due to political problems in Europe27.

British’s contact with Kerala began in the early decades of the seventeenth century. By the
end of the eighteenth century the English had established themselves as the masters of
India28. The English established factories on the Malabar Coast, first in Kozhikode and then
in Thalasseri. Both were located in north Malabar. The French also established a factory at
Mahe, near Thalasseri.

The English East India company desired to exploit the situation by starting systematic
plantation of cash crops in its conquered territories. The cultivation of pepper, cardamom
and other crops was the beginning of such experiments in Malabar. Therefore, the search
for a suitable land ended with the establishment of a plantation at Anjerakandy near
Thalasseri in Malabar29.

The English at Anjengo had noticed the establishment of the monopoly in Travancore
proper and they had noted that the introduction of the state monopoly affected the
merchant adversely. A factory was erected at Anjengo to operate trade activity in south
Malabar which was disturbed by the spice policy of the Thiruvithamcore rulers. This
resulted in the erection of another factory at Thalasseri in the north which enabled the

24 K. M. Panikkar, Malabar and the Portuguese, New Delhi, 1997, p. 287.

25 P. P. Sudakaran., ‘Portuguese Relation of the chiefs of Kerala’ In P. J. Cherian (ed.,) Perspective on
Kerala History, Kerala State Gazetteer Department, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 230
26 P. K. Balakrishnan., Jathivyavasthayum Kerala Charitravum (Malayalam), S.P.C. S, Kottayam, 1992,

pp. 103-104.
27 Ibid., pp. 17-18.
28 World Conference on Malayalam, Kerala Culture and Development, Abstracts of Papers, Section lll,

History, Kerala University Press , Thiruvananthapuram.

29 P. Mohandas, ‘A Historical Study of Colonial Investments in Malabar and the Nilgiri in the

Nineteenth Century’, PhD Thesis, Calicut University, 2005, p. 3.

6
English to establish monopoly over spice trade and establishment of political supremacy by
1792. The invasion of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in the eighteenth century and their failure
ended with the establishment of British supremacy all over the Malabar Coast by the end of
eighteenth century.

Conclusion

Kerala has been a major spice junction for hundreds of years because of its pepper and
cardamom. The spice trade contributed to the erection of forts and ports at Thalasseri,
Anjengo, Kodungallur, Kochi etc. The geography and climate of many colonies held by the
trading companies underwent chnges due to the penetration of commercialization and
capital investments in the modern period. Slave trade involved in the trade activity created
untold miseries and it disturbed the African countries in a miserable way. Establishment of
colonial supremacy and exploitation of resources drained the wealth of many Asian contries
and they live in the shadows of those agonies even in the modern period. A new class of
elites were also created by colonialism in Asia.

The import of modernity and technology for colonial purposes created changes in the
colonized societies. Racialism, communalism etc., appeared in these societies due to wrong
policies of the colonial masters. The spice route was a positive sign of cooperation between
people living in different continents and countries. The same route witnessed bloodshed
and unheard human miseries when the merchants and shareholders of commercial
companies were fighting for profit in the period before twenty first century.

7
 Value addition in spices- Technological advancements

T John Zachariah & E Jayashree

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

Spices are an important part of human nutrition and have a place in all types of cuisines of
the world. The delightful flavor and pungency of spices make them indispensable in the
preparation of palatable dishes. In addition, they are reputed to possess several medicinal
and pharmacological properties and hence find position in the preparation of a number of
medicines.

Spices are treasured for the flavor, pungency, aroma and color they impart to food.

The delightful flavor and pungency of spices make them indispensable in the preparation of
palatable dishes. The USA, Europe, Australia, Japan, the Middle East and Oceanic countries
are the major importers of Indian spices.

Culinary herb and spice

The leaves of a plant used in cooking are denominated as culinary herbs while any other
part of the plant is known as a spice. Spices can be leaf (eg bay leaf), buds (clove), bark
(cinnamon), root (ginger), berries (grain of black pepper), seeds (cumin) or even stigma of
flower (saffron). Both spices and herbs can be used fresh, dried, whole, chopped or ground
and due to their colour, aroma and / or flavor characteristic are used in the preparation of
foods and drinks. Spices and herbs contain proteins, fiber, sugars, essential oils, minerals,
pigments besides bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids, sterols and cumarins. Many
of the functional properties attributed to spices associate with presence, type and
concentration of phenolic compounds although exact composition depend on several
factors such as the plant part used, vegetative state, environmental conditions, harvesting
techniques etc.

Other compounds present in spices are the essential oils which due to their content in
terpenes, monoterpenes and susquiterpenes (as hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones etc.) are
responsible for many functional properties. These are composed of more than 70
components some of which may represent more than 85% of total content.

Antioxidant properties

Spices have shown their ability to slow down process of lipidic oxidation. This process is
one of the principal causes of food spoilage and may occur during the storage of raw
materials, processing or at the storage of final product. To avoid such spoilage food industry
has resorted to synthetic antioxidant formulations, some of the most commonly used being
butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) and propyl gallate.
However because of their synthetic origin their safety and efficacy are frequently
questioned. The result has been a growing interest in compounds of vegetable origin which
show antioxidant potential.

8
Possible mechanism of antioxidant action by spices may be by scavenging free radicals,
hydrogen donation, the chelating of metallic ions or the capacity to act as substrate of
radicals such as superoxide or hydroxyl.

Free radicals, produced as a result of normal biochemical reactions in the body, are
implicated in contributing to cancer, atherosclerosis, aging, immune suppression,
inflammation, ischemic heart disease, diabetes, hair loss, and neurodegenerative disorders
such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. The human body possesses innate
defense mechanisms to counter free radicals in the form of enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. Vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, b-carotene,
lycopene, lutein and other carotenoids have been used as supplementary antioxidants.
Apart from these, plant secondary metabolites such as flavonoids and terpenoids play an
important role in the defense against free radicals

General trend in the world consumption of spices

In Asia Pacific, spice consumption will increase at the rate of 4% in the coming years. It is
predicted that ready to eat meat products will consume 40,000 tonnes of spices in the next
five years. Consumption of spices is also expected through savory, snacks, flavors, bakery
(ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg), soups and sauces. Considering the vast growing economies of
many developing countries, the demand for spices in the form of pastes, pulps and wet
seasonings are gaining market.

Spices as nutraceuticals

Spices are reputed to possess several medicinal and pharmacological properties and hence
find position in the preparation of a number of medicines. World demand for nutraceutical
ingredients is projected to increase 7.0 percent annually which is calculated as about 23.7
billion US dollars. Global trends in nutraceutical ingredients will result in developing
regions achieving faster growth in production and consumption. Naturally derived
substances consisting of herbal and spice extracts will be fastest growing nutraceutical
ingredient segment. Spices which possess important medicinal properties are illustrated in
Table1.

Table1. Major spices and their medicinal properties

Medicinal property Spices

Cancer preventive Ginger, black pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, turmeric,
cardamom, vanilla, allspice, mace
Antimicrobial Ginger, nutmeg, black pepper, cinnamon, vanilla, turmeric,
clove, allspice, cardamom, mace
Anti-inflammatory Black pepper, cinnamon, clove, turmeric, allspice, cardamom
Spasmolytic Cinnamon, black pepper, clove, ginger, nutmeg, turmeric
Antioxidant Vanilla, ginger, black pepper, clove, turmeric
Antiulcer Ginger, black pepper, turmeric, cinnamon, clove, nutmeg,
vanilla, allspice, mace
Hypoglycemic Cardamom
Antihepatotoxic Vanilla
Antiallergic Allspice
Antimigraine Turmeric, allspice, cardamom, mace

9
 Antiosteoporotic Black pepper, allspice, clove, cardamom, mace
Estrogenic/androgenic Cardamom
Immunostimulant Turmeric, mace
Antilithic Allspice
Anti-insomniac Allspice, clove, mace
Antiedemic Vanilla

Processing and value addition in spices

Value addition in spices is yet another area of activity in which India is moving forward. In
the case of spice powders, spice mixtures and spices in consumer packs, India is in a
formidable position.

Spices thus open ample opportunity for entrepreneurship. Value addition in the form of
extracts or mixtures also open ample opportunity for spice export.

i. Black pepper

Black pepper, Piper nigrum L. known as the ‘King of Spices’ is exploited as black pepper,
white pepper, pepper in brine, dehydrated green pepper, sterilised pepper, pink pepper etc.

Post harvest processing

The primary processing in black pepper involves threshing, blanching, drying, grading and
packing. Dipping harvested green pepper for a minute in boiling water enhances the
enzymatic oxidation and provides a shining black colour to the produce.

At harvest, pepper has moisture content of 60 to 70%, which should be brought to safer
levels of 10-11% by adequate drying. The dry recovery varies from 29 to 43% depending
on the variety. Sun drying is the conventional method followed for drying of black pepper.
Driers developed by various agencies such as solar and mechanical dryers are highly
efficient for drying pepper. With a moisture content of 10-11%, black pepper kept in air
tight containers can remain viable for many years.

Intrinsic quality

As in the case of other spices, the medicinal property and aroma quality of black pepper is
attributed to the volatile oils present in black pepper. The non-volatile part of black pepper
is extracted using organic solvents called the black pepper oleoresin. The major pungent
alkaloid present in pepper is piperine. In general, black pepper contains about 3-5% volatile
oil, 8-16% oleoresin and 2-6% piperine. Some of the traditional varieties like Kottanadan
and Kumbhakodi are rich in oleoresin and piperine. Some of the new varieties with high
quality are Malabar Excel, Sreekara and Subhakara.

A variety of product have been madefrom pepper are classified as 1) Green pepper based
products 2) Black pepper and white pepper based products 3) Pepper by- products.

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(1) Green pepper based products

Major green pepper based products are Canned green pepper, Green pepper in brine, Bulk-
packaged green pepper in brine, Cured green pepper, Frozen green pepper, Freeze dried
green pepper, Dehydrated green pepper, Green pepper pickle, Mixed green pepper pickle,
Green pepper sauce and Green pepper-flavoured products.

(2) Black pepper based products include whole black pepper, sterilized black
pepper, ground black pepper, cryoground black pepper powder, pepper oil and
oleoresin.

(3) White pepper based products

White pepper is the white inner corn obtained after removing the outer skin or pericarp of
pepper berries. The traditional method of preparation of white pepper is by retting ripened
red berries for 8-10 days. Retting converts only ripe and fully mature berries to white
pepper. Conversion of harvested berries to white pepper gives a recovery of 22 to 25 per
cent.

White pepper is preferred over black pepper in light colored preparations such as sauces,
cream soups etc. where dark colored particles are undesirable. It imparts modified natural
flavour to food stuff.

(4) Encapsulated spices

In the production of spray dried spices, the essential oils and or oleoresins are dispersed in
the edible gum solution, generally gum acacia or gelatin, spray dried and then blended with
dry base such as salt or dextrose. As water evaporates from the spray dried particles, the
gum forms a protective film around each particle of extractive. The protective capsule
prevents the spice extractive from evaporating and from being exposed to oxygen.

(5) Sterilized pepper

Sterilization of pepper is done to ensure high quality, contamination free, cleaned and dried
pepper. Several methods are available for sterilization including hydrostatic/pressure
sterilization, ozone sterilization, irradiation, microwave heating, alcohol vapour treatment,
steam treatment and fumigation. Continuous steam sterilization method, involve subjecting
the spice to a rapid flow of superheated steam for a predetermined period of time followed
by drying, re-humidification and packaging. Microbial levels as well as enzyme activity are
considerably reduced to low levels and no significant oil or flavour loss is reported. In
countries where sterilization by radiation as well as chemical methods is not permitted,
steam sterilization is the best

(6) Pepper oil

Pepper oil is used in perfumery and also for manufacturing soaps.

Many products, in which pepper is a major ingredient, have been developed such as lemon
pepper, garlic pepper, sauces and marinades that have pepper as the main component.

11
(7) Spice mixtures and blends: Curry powders and spice blends for various culinary
uses

Pepper flavoured products: Products such as pepper mayonnaise, pepper cookies, pepper
tofu etc.

ii. Cardamom

Cardamom, known as the 'queen of spices’, which belongs to the family of Zingiberaceae, is a
rich spice obtained from the seeds of a perennial plant, Elettaria cardamomum M.
Cardamomfruits mature in about 120 days after flowering. Due to prolonged flowering
period, cardamom capsules ripen successively at 10-15 days intervals over an extended
period of 8 months (from August to March). Generally harvesting is carried out at an
interval of 15-30 days and completed in 8-9 rounds by hand picking.

Harvest and post harvest processing

Harvesting: Cardamom plants start bearing two years after planting of suckers/ seedlings.
Fruits mature in about 120 days after flowering. Due to prolonged flowering period,
cardamom capsules ripen successively at 10- 15 days intervals over an extended period of 8
months (from August to March). Generally harvesting is carried out at an interval of 15- 30
days and completed in 8-9 rounds by hand picking.

Retention of green colour: Soaking of green (wet) capsules immediately after harvesting
in anti oxidants like 2% sodium carbonate solution for 10 minutes can fix green colour
during subsequent drying and storage. Immature capsules retain greater intensity of green
colour.

Curing and drying: Curing may be defined as the process in which the moisture content of
freshly harvested cardamom capsules is reduced from 70-80% to 11- 12% at an optimum
temperature of 45-550C so as to retain its green colour and volatile oil to a maximum extent.

Some of the driers used to dry cardamom are Melccard dryer, Solar cardamom dryer,
Mechanical cardamom dryer, Kerosene stove dryer, Diesel dryer and LPG dryer.

Packing: The cured capsules are graded using sieves of 8, 7.5,7 and 6 mm. After grading
cardamom need to be stored over a period of time, in double lined polythene bags. Storage
rooms should be free from insect damage. Studies have shown that cardamom dried and
maintained at or below 10% moisture retains original parrot green colour and avoids
mould growth. It is advisable to make use of dried cardamom capsules preferably within 12
months of harvesting.

Products of cardamom

(1) Bleached cardamom

Either the dried capsule or freshly harvested capsules are utilized for preparing bleached
cardamom by using Sulphur dioxide, potassium metabisulphite (25% containing 1% HCL
for 30 min) and hydrogen peroxide (4-6% at pH 4.0). It is creamy white or golden yellow in
colour.

12
(2) Decorticated seeds and seed powder

Decorticated cardamom seeds generally fetch a lower price than whole cardamom due to
loss of volatile oil during storage and transportation. However, a large portion of the
cardamom is imported into Western countries to meet industrial and institutional
requirements for bulk supply of powdered cardamom.

(3) Cardamom volatile oil

Yield of the volatile oil varied from 3.4-8.6% in seeds and 5.2-11.3% in dried capsules.
However, the flavour quality of the oil is attributed by the relative concentrations of alpha
terpinyl acetate to that of 1, 8-cineole. Better aroma quality is contributed by low 1, 8-
cineole and high terpinyl acetate.

Following products of Cardamom are also important

 Encapsulated cardamom - Cardamom flavour has been encapsulated which is free

flowing, having uniform flavour
 Cardamom tea
 Cardamom coffee
 Cardamom soft drink mix

iii. Ginger

India and China are the world’s largest producer and exporter of ginger (Zingiber officianale
R.). In India, normally harvesting of ginger is done from January to April, varying with the
locations. The crop is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting when the leaves
turn yellow and start drying up gradually. The clumps are lifted carefully with spade or
digging fork and the rhizomes are separated from the dried up leaves, roots and adhering
soil. Harvesting is to be done from the 6th month onwards when used as green ginger. The
quality of ginger is affected by the stage of the harvest and needs to be scheduled for
various end uses (Table 3).

Table 3. Stage of harvest of ginger for various end uses

End use Stage of harvest

(months after planting)
Vegetable purpose and preparation of ginger
preserve, candy, soft drinks, pickles and alcoholic 4-5
beverages
Dried ginger and preparation of ginger oil, oleoresin, 8-10
dehydrated and bleached ginger
Green ginger, oleoresin and volatile oil 7
High dry ginger & starch and low crude fibre 8
Dry ginger 8-9
Salted ginger 4–5
High essential oil 7
High oleoresin 7½ - 8
High essential oil & oleoresin 8

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 High oleoresin and oil content 9
High crude fibre & low protein and fat 6½ - 7
Low crude fibre 7
Less fibre & mild pungency <7

Post harvest processing

The post harvest processes involved in the processing of matured fresh ginger to dry ginger
involves peeling, drying and polishing. Peeling hastens the process of drying and maintains
the epidermal cells of the rhizomes, which contain essential oil responsible for aroma of
ginger. It takes about 10-15 days for complete drying. The dried ginger presents a brown,
irregular wrinkled surface and when broken shows a dark brownish colour. The dry ginger
so obtained is known as rough or unbleached ginger. The yield of dry ginger is 19-25% of
fresh ginger depending on the variety and the location where it is grown.

Ginger products

(1) Products based on fresh ginger

Salted ginger
Ginger candy
Ginger paste
Crystallized ginger
Ginger wine
Bleached (lime-coated) ginger
Whole dried ginger
Sliced and ground ginger

(2) Ginger-based beverages

Among spices, ginger has the unique distinction of being used in beverages. Built around
the central flavor of ginger and supported by other flavors from fruits, other spice, and
herbs, there are two distinct classes of beverages, ginger beer and ginger ale. The principal
difference between these two beverages lies in the rather higher gravity and higher
extractives. Ginger beer has a complex flavor and cloudy appearance, whereas ginger ale is
valued for its sparklingly clear appearance, distinct lemony-aromatic note on the basis
ginger aroma, high pungency, and high carbonation. These two classes of beverages are
made in a number of variations to cater to individual marker requirements and end users.

iv. Turmeric

India is the major producer and exporter of turmeric at present, even though the crop is
grown in several countries viz; Pakistan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand,
Philippines, Japan, China, Korea, Sri Lanka, Caribbean Islands and Central America. It is
estimated officially that about 80% of the world production of turmeric is from India alone.

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Post harvest processing

In India, at various places, different methods and equipments are used for processing of
turmeric, but the traditional method consists of the following steps- harvesting, washing,
boiling/curing, drying, polishing, coolouring, pulverizing/powdering, packaging and
marketing

The turmeric crop is ready for harvesting in about 7 to 9 months after sowing depending
upon the variety. In India, sowing takes place between June and July and harvesting is done
from February to April. Before harvest, the dry leaves and stem are cut close to the ground.

Washing

Rhizomes are separated after digging out from the soil and are kept soaked in water for 5-6
hrs to remove particles of soil, spray residues and non-useful particles attached with the
rhizomes are removed. This process can be achieved by soaking and spraying equipment.
Spraying is done at low pressure and wide-angle jet or with high pressure jet.

Boiling/Blanching/Curing

Traditionally boiling is done in metal or mud pots with (three fourth capacity) water from 1
hr to 1.5 hrs. Now steam cooking using TNAU model boiler, tractor operated boiler and
solar panel operated boilers are used for curing turmeric. The main colouring principle
curcumin concentration is affected by over cooking and under cooking. About 45 minutes to
one hour boiling in traditional method is ideal to cook turmeric fingers. Turmeric rhizomes
can be sliced and dried for preparing turmeric powder without boiling.

Cooking helps in producing a product of fairly uniform color, due to the diffusion. Boiling
considerably reduces the drying time both in the sun and the mechanical drier, while the
total color and the volatile oil remained practically the same.

Drying

Sun drying in specially prepared toughened earth or cemented yards is the usual practice.
Drying is slow, taking 10-15 days for completion, when properly dried, the rhizomes
became hard, almost horny, brittle and of uniform yellow colour. The moisture content of
the dried rhizomes is one of the lowest for spices; generally being less than 5. Completely
dried turmeric holds 6% moisture content.

Polishing

The appearance of dried rhizomes is improved by rubbing them against ground or by

trampling to take out the hard layer over them and small roots are removed. By this process
colour of turmeric becomes bright or shining. The product is known in the trade as
‘polished turmeric’. Manual methods give low output of around 20 kg for 8 h for two
persons.

Mechanical polishing drums have been developed for handling large quantities. Mechanical
power or steam engines or electric motor is now used for large sized drums (which may be
circular, hexagonal or octagonal in shape) when handling larger batches of dried rhizomes.

15
During polishing, scales, rootlets and some of the epidermal layer are removed as dust
through the sieve mesh and surrounding the polishing drums and the sieved dust is
generally used as manure.

Colouring

Better look for exported turmeric is imparted by a dry or wet colouring process. In the dry
process, turmeric powder is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 min. In the wet
colouring process, turmeric powder is suspended in water and mixed inside by sprinkling
inside the polishing basket. After colouring is complete, these are dried for one week.

Pulverizing/Powdering

Traditionally dried and polished turmeric are cut into pieces and beaten in mortar and
pestle. After this it is milled or ground with hand operated chakki. Hammer mill is also
used for pulverizing. Powder should be so fine that it passes through 300-micron sieve and
nothing is left over the sieve.

Packaging

Cured dried turmeric with moisture content of 15-30% is transported in gunny bags to
assembling centers where it is further dried, polished and coloured, if necessary. Dried
turmeric is graded according to size and stored. Fumigation and prophylactic treatments
are routinely given during warehousing and before export. The colour of turmeric has been
found to be stable as long as it is not exposed to sunlight.

Value added products

India is the global leader in value-added products of turmeric and exports. Value added
products from turmeric include curcuminoids, dehydrated turmeric powder, oils, and
oleoresin. Turmeric, like other spices is available as wholes, grinds and oleoresin. The
institutional sector in West buys ground turmeric and oleoresins, while in the industrial
sector, whole dry turmeric is preferred.

(1) Ground turmeric

Dried turmeric is powdered by disc type attrition mills to obtain 60-80 mesh powder for
use in various end products. The rhizomes contain 4-6 percent of volatile oil and there is a
great chance of losing the oil when powdered. Since curcuminoids, the color constituents of
turmeric, deteriorate on exposure to light and to a lesser extent, under heat and oxidative
conditions, it is important that ground turmeric is packed in a UV protective packaging and
appropriately stored.

Powdered turmeric is packed in bulk, in a variety of containers, fibre board drums,

multiwalled bags and tin containers. The color of turmeric was not affected in any of the
packaging or storage conditions upto six months.

Turmeric powder is a major ingredient in curry powders and pastes. In the food industry, it
is mostly used to color and flavor mustard. It is also used in chicken bouillon and soups,
sauces, gravies, and dry seasonings and also as a colorant in cereals.

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(2) Turmeric oil

Dried rhizomes and leaves are used industrially to extract the volatile oil. Dried rhizomes
contain 5-6 per cent and leaves contain about 1-1.5 per cent oil. It is generally extracted by
steam distillation. Super critical extraction using liquid carbon-dioxide is a relatively new
extraction technique for extracting volatile oil and oleoresin. The peculiar turmeric aroma is
imparted by ar-turmerone, the major aroma principle in the oil.

(3) Turmeric oleoresin

Turmeric oleoresin is the organic extract of turmeric and is added to food items as a spice
and coloring agent. Turmeric oleoresin is essentially used in institutional cooking in meat
and fish products and certain products such as mustard, pickles and relish formulas, butter
and cheese. This is obtained by the solvent extraction of the ground spice with organic
solvents like acetone, ethylene dichloride and ethanol for 4-5 hours. It is orange red in
colour. Oleoresin yield ranges from 7.9 to 10.4 per cent. Curcumin, the principal coloring
matter forms one third of a good quality oleoresin.

(4) Curcumin

Curcumin or curcuminoids concentrate, for use as a food color, is not a regular article of
commerce, because for most current uses the cheaper turmeric oleoresin has been found
suitable. Curcumin is included in the list of colors with a restricted use because it has been
allotted a low ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) of 0-1.0 mg/Kg body weight/day. Curcumin
gives a bright yellow color even at doses of 5-200 ppm. A variety of blends are available to
suit the color of the product.

Value added products from spices

Variety of products that can be made from spices are tabulated in Table 4.

Table 4. Value added products from spices

Spice Value added product

Black pepper
Green pepper based Canned green pepper, green pepper in brine, cured green pepper,
products frozen green pepper, freeze dried green pepper, dehydrated green
pepper, green pepper oil, green pepper pickle, mixed green
pepper pickle, green pepper sauce and green pepper-flavoured
products.
Black pepper based Whole black pepper, sterilized black pepper, ground black pepper,
products cryoground black pepper powder, pepper oil and oleoresin.
White pepper based Whole white pepper, white pepper powder.
products
Other products of Pepper mayonnaise, pepper cookies and pepper tofu.
black pepper Pepper extract is a valuable adjunct in the flavouring of sausages,
canned meat, soups, table sauces and certain beverages and
liquor.
Pepper oil is used in perfumery and also for manufacturing soaps.

17
 Products like lemon pepper, garlic pepper, sauces and marinades
have pepper as major ingredient.
Curry powders and spice blends have pepper as one of the major
ingredient.
Cardamom Bleached cardamom, decorticated seeds and seed powder,
cardamom volatile oil, cardamom oleoresin.
Other products include encapsulated cardamom which is free
flowing and having uniform flavor, cardamom tea, cardamom
coffee, cardamom soft drink mix.
Ginger Ginger powder, salted ginger, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin, ginger-
based beverages like ginger beer and ginger ale, ginger candy,
ginger paste, salted ginger, salted ginger, crystallized ginger.
Turmeric Ground turmeric, turmeric oil, turmeric oleoresin, curcumin
Chillies Paprika oleoresin, chilli colour, chilli pungency, dehydrated chilli,
canned chilli, brined/pickled chill fermented chilli, brined/pickled
chilli, fermented chillies.
Nutmeg Nutmeg powder, nutmeg oleoresin, nutmeg butter, mace
oleoresin, mace oil
Cinnamon Cinnamon bark oil, cinnamon oleoresin, cinnamon leaf oil,
cinnamon powder, cinnamon root bark oil
Clove Clove powder, clove oil

Conclusion

Value added products from major spices is an effort to increase the revenue of farmers from
spices other than selling the primary produce. Considering the spectacular growth in the
demand for nutraceuticals world over, we can expect a huge jump in the export of curry
powders and other value added products in the coming decade. The research programmes
should orient for this demand by focusing more attention on better agro techniques in
product diversification, varieties suitable for such products and following GAP. It is the
responsibility of different R and D organizations to organize training to farmers to give
them confidence to venture to the area of value added products as tool to double their
income.

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 Breeding for quality improvement in spices

J Rema

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

Importance of spices

Spices play an important role in the agricultural economy of the countries mainly because of
the increasing demand in the world market. India is the largest producer, consumer and
exporter of spices in the world. The demand of Indian spices is high in the global market
due to their rich aroma, texture, and taste. India has the largest domestic market for spices
in the world. Almost all spices are grown in this country. The important among them are
black pepper, cardamom small and large, ginger, turmeric, chillies, garlic and variety of seed
and tree spices. Spices are mainly used for imparting flavour, aroma and pungency to food.
They bring out the unique natural taste of cuisines and are also a very good source of food
preservative especially for industrially processed foods. Volatile oils impart aroma and
oleoresins gives the tastes to food. Many of the spices are also used in medicines and in
perfumery. The major importers of Indian spices are the US, Germany, China, the UAE and
Malaysia. The primary spices imported from India are black pepper, chilli, turmeric,
coriander, cumin, and fennel.

Black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, capsicum, cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, tamarind,
and vanilla constitute the major spices. Seed spices like coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek,
dill, caraway, anise and herbal spices like saffron, lavender, thyme, oregano, celery, anise,
sage and basil are also important. India is the native home of many important spices like
black pepper, cardamom, tamarind, curry leaf and to certain extent ginger, turmeric,
garcinia and cinnamon where a good variability exists.

Black pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), is an important agricultural commodity of commerce and is
one of the oldest and most important spices. Black pepper is valued for its characteristic
pungency and flavour, as an ingredient in food preparations and also as a condiment. Black
pepper also has several medicinal properties and is considered very important in
traditional medicine. It contains a pungent alkaloid piperine, which is known to possess
many pharmacological actions. Piperine increases bioavailability of many drugs and
nutrients by inhibiting various metabolising enzymes. Piperine also exhibits diverse
pharmacological activities like antihypertensive, antiplatelet, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-
asthmatics, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, antispasmodic, antidepressants,
immunomodulatory, anticonvulsant, anti-thyroids, antibacterial, antifungal, hepato-
protective, insecticidal and larvicidal activities etc.

Since black pepper is essentially a spice, varieties that are developed should have good
quality attributes such as significant levels of oleoresin, piperine and volatile essential oil. In
black pepper the pungency of black pepper is due to the presence of piperine an alkaloid.
The aroma of black pepper is contributed mainly by the volatile oil, which varies between 2-
5% in berries. Volatile oil is rich in caryophyllene.

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The main breeding objectives in black pepper are for high yield, resistance to biotic stress
(Phytophthora, pollu beetle, nematodes and viral diseases, breeding for abiotic stress,
adaptation to various altitudes, high quality mainly piperine, oleoresin, essential oil etc and
caryophyllene content. Several approaches are adopted for breeding black pepper and they
include methods like Selection from clonal and open pollinated seedlings, hybridization,
mutation breeding, polyploidy breeding, molecular breeding and biotechnological
approaches.

The important varieties and their salient features are given in Tables 1 & 2.

Table 1. Improved varieties of black pepper

Sl. Variety Pedigree/ Institute/ Av. Salient features

No. Parentage University yield
kg/ha
(dry)
1 Panniyur 1 F1 of Uthirankotta Pepper Research 1242 Suitable to all pepper growing
x Station (KAU), regions. However, do not
Cheriyakaniakadan Panniyur, Kerala tolerance heavy shade
2 Panniyur 2 Open pollinated Pepper Research 2570 Suitable to all pepper growing
progeny of Station (KAU), tracts of Kerala. Tolerant to
’Balankotta’ Panniyur, Kerala shade
3 Panniyur 3 Inter-cultivar Pepper Research 1953 Suitable for all pepper
hybrid of Station (KAU), growing regions, performs
Uthirankotta x Panniyur, Kerala well under open condition.
Cheriyakaniakadan Late maturing type. Long
spikes and bold berries,
piperine 5.2%, oleoresin
12.7%, essential oil 3.1%, dry
recovery 27.8%
4 Panniyur 4 Clonal selection Pepper Research 1277 Stable yielder, performs well
from Kuthiravally Station (KAU), under adverse conditions
type II Panniyur, Kerala also, tolerant to shade, late
maturity, 4.4% piperine, 9.2%
oleoresin, 2.1% essential oil
and 34.7% dry recovery
5 Panniyur 5 Clonal selection Pepper Research 1110 Suitable for both mono and
from open Station (KAU), mixed cropping in coconut/
pollinated progeny Panniyur, Kerala arecanut gardens, shade
of Perumkodi tolerant, medium maturity,
tolerant to nursery diseases.
Long spikes, piperine 5.3%,
oleoresin 12.33%, essential
oil 3.8% and dry recovery
35.7%

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6 Panniyur 6 Clonal selection Pepper Research 2127 Tolerant to drought and
from Karimunda Station (KAU), adverse climatic conditions,
type III Panniyur, Kerala stable and regular bearer,
medium maturity group.
Suitable for open condition as
well as partial shade, spike 6-
8 cm, more number of
spikes/unit area, close setting
and attractive bold berries,
piperine 4.9%, oleoresin
8.27% and essential oil 1.33%
and 33.0% dry recovery.
7 Panniyur 7 Open pollinated Pepper Research 1410 Vigorous vine and a regular
progeny of Station (KAU), bearer, long spike, a hardy
Kalluvally Panniyur, Kerala type vine, tolerant adverse
climatic conditions, suitable
for open and shaded
conditions, very long spike
(16-24 cm), high piperine
content (5.6%), oleoresin
10.6%, essential oil 1.5%, and
34.0% dry recovery.
8 Panniyur 8 Hybrid of Panniyur Pepper Research 5760 Suited to all pepper growing
6 x Panniyur 5 Station (KAU), regions of Kerala. Field
Panniyur, Kerala tolerant to drought situations
and Phytophthora foot rot.
9 PLD - 2 Clonal selection NRC for Oil Palm, 2475 Late maturity high quality
from Kottanadan Regional Station, cultivator contains piperine
ICAR, Palode, 3.0%, oleoresin 15.45%, and
Kerala essential oil 4.8%. Suitable for
plains and higher elevations.
10 Sreekara Clonal selection Indian Institute 2677 Adaptable to various climatic
from Karimunda of Spices conditions in all the pepper
Research, ICAR, growing tracts. Gives high
Kozhikode quality pepper.
11 Subhakara Clonal selection Indian Institute 2352 A selection with high quality
from Karimunda of Spices pepper and wider
Research, ICAR, adaptability.
Kozhikode
12 Panchami Clonal selection Indian Institute 2828 A high yielding variety with
from Aimpiriyan of Spices excellent fruit set. Spike
Research, ICAR, twisted in appearance due to
Kozhikode high fruit set. Oleoresin
content is high.
13 Pournami Clonal selection Indian Institute 2333 Tolerant to root knot
from germplasm of Spices nematode (Meloidogyne
Research, ICAR, incognita). A moderately high
Kozhikode yielding vine with high
oleoresin content.
14 IISR Open pollinated Indian Institute Moderately resistant to
Shakthi progeny of of Spices Phytophthora
Perambramundi Research, ICAR,
Kozhikode

21
15 IISR Clonal selection Indian Institute 5.17 Field tolerant to
Thevam from germplasm of Spices kg/ Phytophthora. Suitable to high
Research, ICAR, vine altitude areas, Coffee & Tea
Kozhikode (fresh) Estates of South India.
16 IISR Hybrid of Indian Institute 6.14 Medium maturing type.
Girimunda Narayakodi X of Spices kg/ Suited to high altitude areas.
Neelamundi Research, ICAR, vine Coffee & Tea Estates.
Kozhikode (fresh)
17 IISR Hybrid of Indian Institute 2.78 Suitable for higher elevation,
Malabar Cholamundi X of Spices kg/ plains and Coffee & Tea
Excel Panniyur 1 Research, ICAR, vine Estates. High oleoresin
Kozhikode (fresh) content.
18 Arka Coorg Seeding selection Central 3267k Bold seeded, long spiked, high
Excel Horticultural h/ ha yielding pepper variety.
Experiment
Station, Chettalli,
IIHR

Table 2. Quality attributes of black pepper

Variety Quality attributes (%)

Piperine Oleoresin Essential oil

Panniyur 1 5.3 11.8 3.5

Panniyur 2 6.6 10.9 3.4
Panniyur 3 5.2 12.7 3.1
Panniyur 4 4.4 9.2 2.1
Panniyur 5 5.3 12.3 3.8
PLD – 2 3.3 15.5 3.5
Subhakara 3.4 12.4 6.0
Sreekara 5.1 13.0 7.0
Panchami 4.7 12.5 3.4
Pournami 4.1 13.8 3.4
Panniyur 6 4.9 8.3 1.3
Panniyur 7 5.6 10.6 1.5

Cardamom

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) belonging to the family Zingiberaceae is a

perennial rhizomatous tall herb. Cardamom is a shade loving plant thriving well in
elevations up to 600-1200 m above MSL under an average annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm
and temperature range of 10-35oC. It is also grown in countries like Guatemala, Sri Lanka,
Papua New Guinea and Tanzania. Cardamom is a major flavouring agent used in food
products, beverages and medicines. The aroma of cardamom produced by a combination of
1,8, cineole and α terpinyl acetate.

The main focus of cardamom breeding in addition to high yield are resistance to biotic
stress viz., viral diseases such as ‘katte’ and ‘kokkekandu’ and fungal diseases such as

22
rhizome rot, clump rot and capsule rot; drought tolerance; plants with bold capsules with
more number of seeds/fruit; Higher percentage of capsule dry recovery (>22%), higher
percentage of essential oils, α -terpinyl acetate which is responsible for the aroma and
flavour and varieties with wide adaptability. Various methods are followed to develop
improved varieties in cardamom and they include selection, hybridization, mutation
breeding, polyploidy breeding and tissue culture. Details of the cardamom varieties
released from India is given in Tables 3 & 4.

Table 3. Improved varieties of cardamom

Sl. Variety Pedigree/ Institute/ Yield Salient features

No. Parentage & University (kg/ha)
Plant type (dry)
1 Mudigere Clonal selection Regional Research 275 Moderately tolerant to
1 from Malabar Station, UAS, thrips, hairy caterpillar and
type Mudigere, white grubs, pubescent
Karnataka leaves. Contains 8.0% oil,
36.0% 1, 8 cineol, 42.0% a-
terpinyl acetate, dry
recovery 20.0%.
2 Mudigere Clonal selection Regional Research 475 Early maturing, suitable for
2 from open Station, UAS, high density planting,
pollination of Mudigere, round/ oval and bold
Malabar type Karnataka capsules, oil 8.0%, 1, 8
cineol 45.0%, a-terpinyl
acetate 38.0%.
3 PV 1 A selection from Cardamon 260 An early maturing type,
Walayar Research Station, short panicle, elongated
collection, a KAU, slightly ribbed light green
Malabar type Pampadumpara, capsules, essential oil 6.8%,
Idukki, Kerala 1, 8 cineol 33.0%, a-terpinyl
acetate 46.0%, dry recovery
19.9%.
4 PV 2 A selection from Cardamon 982 Early maturing,
OP seedlings of Research Station, unbranched lengthy
PV - 1, a Malabar KAU, panicle, long bold capsules,
type Pampadumpara, high dry recovery (23.8%),
Idukki, Kerala essential oil 10.45%, field
tolerant to stem borer and
thrips.
5 ICRI 1 Selection from ICRI (Spices 325 An early maturing variety,
Chakkupallam Board), medium sized panicle with
collection, a Myladumpara, globose, round and extra
Malabar type Kailasanadu, bold dark green capsules
Idukki, Kerala contains oil 8.7%, 1, 8
cineol 29.0%, a-terpinyl
acetate 38.0% and dry
recovery 22.9%.
6 ICRI 2 Clonal selection ICRI (Spics 375 Medium long panicles,
from germplasm Board), oblong bold and parrot
collection, Myladumpara, green capsules, tolerant to
Mysore type Kailasanadu, azhukkal disease. Dry
Idukki, Kerala recovery 22.5%.

23
7 ICRI 3 Selection from ICRI (Spices 440 Early maturing, non-
Malabar type Board) pubescent leaves, tolerant
Sakleshpur, to rhizome rot disease,
Donigal, oblong, bold parrot green
Karnataka capsules, oil 6.6%, 1, 8
cineol 54.0%, a terpinyl
acetate 24.0%, dry recovery
22.0%.
8 ICRI 4 Clonal selection ICRI, 455 Early maturity, medium
from Thadiyankudisai, sized panicle, globose bold
Vadagaraparai Tamil Nadu capsules, and oil 6.4%.
area of lower Suitable for low rainfall
Pulneys, areas, relatively tolerant to
Malabar type rhizome rot and capsule
borer
9 ICRI 5 A hybrid ICRI (Spices 1543 First hybrid variety, early
between MCC- Board), maturity, moderately
260 and MCC-49 Myladumpara, tolerant to drought, high
Kailasanadu, yield under intensive
Idukki, Kerala management , capsule size
– 68%> 7 mm, volatile oil –
7.13%; dry recovery -
23.15%.
10 ICRI 6 Selection from ICRI (Spices 1200 High yield; high percentage
local germplasm Board), of bold capsules and
(Anavilasam in Myladumpara, volatile oil content, Capsule
Idukki Dist. of Kailasanadu, size – 71% > 7 mm, volatile
Kerala) Idukki, Kerala oil – 7.33%; dry recovery–
19.0%.
11 Appangala A selection from Indian Institute of 745 Highly adapted and
-1 OP progeny of Spices Research, produces, 89% bold (7.2
CL - 37 ICAR, Kozhikode mm and above) capsules.
12 IISR A selection from Indian Institute of 847 High yielder, Tolerant to
Avinash OP progeny of Spices Research, rhizome rot.
CCS-1 ICAR, Kozhikode
13 ICRI 7 Hybrid ICRI (Spices Oleoresin 7.99%, Volatile
Board), oil 8.84%
Myladumpara,
Kerala
14 PV 3 Clonal selection Cardamom 611 Moderately tolerant to
Research Station, thrips and capsule borer
KAU,
Pampadumpara,
Idukki , Kerala
15 Appangala Appangala 1 x Indian Institute of 927 First Katte resistant variety
-2 NKE 19 Spices Research,
ICAR, Kozhikode,
Kerala

24
Table 4. Quality characters of improved varieties

Sl. Variety Essential oil 1, 8 cineole % α–terpinyl acetate %

No.
1 Appangala-1 8.7 42 37
2 PV – 1 6.8 33 46
3 Mudigere 1 8.0 36 42
4 Mudigere 2 8.0 45 38
5 ICRI – 1 8.3 29 38
6 ICRI – 2 9.0 29 36
7 ICRI – 3 6.6 54 24
8 ICRI – 4 6.4 -- --
9 IISR Avinash 6.7 30.4 34.6
10 IISR Vijetha 1 7.9 44.9 23.4
11 PV – 2 10.45 -- --

Ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rocs.) is a major spice which is belongs to the family
Zingiberaceae of the natural order Scitaminae. Ginger is an herbaceous perennial having
tremendous medicinal uses. The ginger rhizome contains various biologically active
compounds such as gingerol, shogaol, ginger protease, capsaicin and several sesquiterpenes
like zingiberol, zingiberenol and these constituents may vary depending on the place of
origin and whether the rhizomes are fresh or dry with small scales.

The crop improvement in ginger is aimed to develop high yielding varieties with wide
adaptation, high quality parameters (oil, oleoresins) and low fibre, besides resistant to
major pest and diseases such as rhizome rot and shoot borer. In India, attempts were made
to develop varieties through introduction, selection mutation and polyploidy breeding.

Conventional breeding is hampered due to absence of viable seeds. The improved varieties
of ginger are given in Tables 5 & 6.

Table 5. Improved varieties of ginger

Sl. Variety/ Pedigree/ Institute/ Av. yield Salient features

No. Year of Parentage University t /ha
release fresh)
1 Suprabha Clonal selection High Altitude 16.6 Plumpy rhizome, less fibre,
from Kundulim Research wide adaptability, suitable for
Local Station, OUA both early and late sowing
& T, Pottangi,
Orissa
2 Suravi Induced Indian 17.5 Plumpy rhizome, dark skinned
mutant of Institute of yellow fleshed, suitable for both
Rudrapur Local Spices irrigated/ rainfed, duration 225
Research, days. 10.2% Oleoresin, 2.1%
ICAR, essential oil, 4.0% crude fibre,
Kozhikode 23.6% dry recovery.

25
3 Himgiri Clonal selection Department 13.5 Best for fresh ginger, less
from Himachal of Vegetable susceptible to rhizome rot
collection Crops, disease, suitable for rainfed
YSPUH & F, condition. 4.29% oleoresin,
Nauni, Solan 1.6% essential oil, 6.05% crude
Himachal fibre, 20.2% dry recovery, 230
Pradesh days duration
4 IISR Clonal selection Indian 22.6 Good quality, high yielding
Varada Institute of variety with plumpy rhizomes
Spices having flattened fingers and
Research, medium sized reddish brown
ICAR, scales. Dry ginger less prone to
Kozhikode – storage insect damage. Farmers
673 012 are of opinion that Varada is
tolerant to diseases. Low fibre
content
5 IISR Selection from Indian 23.2 High yielder, plumpy extra bold
Mahima germplasm Institute of rhizomes, resistant to M.
Spices incognita and M. javanica
Research, Pathotype 1
ICAR,
Kozhikode –
673 012
6 IISR Selection from Indian 22.4 High yielder, plumpy and bold
Rejatha germplasm Institute of rhizomes
Spices
Research,
ICAR,
Kozhikode –
673 012
7 Aswathy Single plant Department 23.0 Ideal for cultivation both as
selection from of Spices and pure and intercrop. High
somaclones of Plantation yielding high quality clone
cultivar Rio-de- crops, Kerala suitable for green with high
Janeiro Agriculture recovery of volatile oil and
University, oleoresin. Field tolerant to
Trichur Phyllosticta leaf spot.
8 Athira Selection from Department 21.0 Ideal for cultivation both as
somaclones of of Spices and pure and intercrop. Suitable for
cultivar Maran Plantation fresh and dry ginger. Tolerant
crops, Kerala to soft rot and bacterial wilt
Agriculture diseases than parent cultivar.
University, High yielding high quality clone
Trichur with high gingerol.
9 Karthika Selection form Department 19.0 Ideal for cultivation both as
somaclones of of Spices and pure and intercrop. Suitable for
cultivar Maran Plantation fresh and dry ginger. Tolerant
crops, Kerala to soft and bacterial wilt
Agriculture diseases. Low infestation of
University, shoot borer under field
Trichur conditions. High pungency clone
with high gingerol.

26
10 Subhada Mutagen in High Altitude 18.0 Suitable for hills and plains.
EMS (40 PPM) Research Now under AICRPS treating
treatment and Station, OUA
selection of & T, Pottangi,
mutants Orissa

Table 6. Quality parameters of ginger varieties

Varieties Dry recovery (%) Crude fibre (%) Oil (%) Oleoresin (%)
IISR Mahima 23 3.26 1.72 4.48
IISR Rejatha 19 4 2.36 6.34
IISR Varada 20.7 4.5 1.75 6.7
Maran 20 4.4 1.95 6.8
Himachal 21.16 4.5 1.65 7.5
Suprabha 20.5 4.4 1.9 8.9
Suruchi 23.5 3.8 2 10
Suravi 23 4 2.1 10.2
G9 - 6.8 0.52 3.06
G10 27.5
Rio de Janeiro - 5.3 2.38 8.73
Suravi 23.45 - 2.07 10.3

Turmeric

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) (2n=3x=63) belonging to the family Zingiberaceae is an

economically important spice and medicinal plant. The curcumin, oleoresin and essential
oil obtained from turmeric is used in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. Dry
recovery (curing percentage), curcumin and oleoresin contents determine the quality of
turmeric and high variability has been observed in turmeric germplasm with respect to
these parameters. Turmeric is traditionally used in India for medicinal, religious, culinary
purposes and also as a cosmetic and dye. In Ayurveda, turmeric is regarded as aromatic
stimulant, tonic, carminative and antihelminthic. The essential oil of turmeric is antiseptic
and it is used in treating various diseases.

High yield, high curing percentage, high curcumin content, resistance to biotic stree
(rhizome rot, leaf spot, leaf blotch) are some of the major aspects looked into for crop
improvement. The major approaches for crop improvement are clonal selection, seedling
selection, mutation breeding, hybridization and selection and biotechnological approaches.
Several varieties have been released in turmeric for various attributes and is listed in Table
7.

27
Table 7. Improved varieties of turmeric

Sl. Variety Breeding Pedigree/ Important traits Institute/

No. Method Parentage University
1 CO.1 Mutation Vegetative Bold and bright orange HC & RI, TNAU,
mutant by x-ray yellow rhizomes, curcumin Coimbatore
irradiation of 3.2%, oleoresin 6.7%,
Erode local essential oil 3.7%, dry
recovery 19.5%, suitable for
drought prone, hilly areas
saline and alkaline areas.
Crop duration 270 days.
Plants are robust, vigorous
and taller
2 BSR1 Selection Clonal selection Bright yellow rhizome, ARS, TNAU.
from Erode curcumin 4.2%, oleoresin Bhavanisagar
Local irradiated 4.0%, essential oil 3.7%, dry
with x rays recovery 20.5%, crop
duration 285 days, suitable
for drought prone areas of
Tamil Nadu.
3 BSR2 Mutation Induced mutant A high yielding short ARS,TNAU,
from Erode duration variety (245 days) Bhavanisagar
Local with bigger rhizomes,
resistant to scale insects
4 Krishna Selection Clonal selection Plumby rhizomes, curcumin Maharashtra
from Tekurpeta 2.8%, oleoresin 3.8%, Agril. University
collection essential oil 2.0%, dry Kasba, Digraj
recovery 16.4%, duration
240 days. Moderately
resistant to pests and
diseases.
5 Sugandham Selection Clonal selection Thick, round rhizomes with Spices Research
of germplasm short internodes. Curcumin Station, GAU,
3.1%, oleoresin 11.0%, Jagudan
essential oil 2.7% , dry
recovery 23.3%, duration
210 days. Moderately
tolerant to pest & diseases.
6 Roma Selection Clonal selection Suitable for both rainfed and High Altitude
from T. Sunder irrigated condition. Suitable Research Station
for hilly areas and late OUAT, Pottangi
season planting. Curcumin
6.1%, oleoresin 13.2%,
essential oil 4.2% and dry
recovery 31.0%, duration
250 days.
7 Suroma Mutation Clonal selection Round and plumpy rhizome, High Altitude
from T. Sunder field tolerance to leaf blotch, Research Station
by x-ray leaf spot and rhizome scale, OUAT, Pottangi
irradiation curcumin 6.1%, oleoresin
13.1%, essential oil 4.4%
and dry recovery 26.0%,
duration 253 days.

28
8 Ranga Selection Clonal selection Bold and spindle shaped High Altitude
from Rajapuri mother rhizome, suitable for Research Station
Local late planting and low lying OUAT, Pottangi
areas. Moderately resistant
to leaf blotch and scales,
curcumin 6.3%, oleoresin
13.5%, essential oil 4.4%
and dry recovery 24.8%,
duration 250 days.
9 Rasmi Selection Clonal selection Bold rhizomes, suitable for High Altitude
from Rajapuri both rainfed and irrigated Research Station,
Local condition, early and late OUAT, Pottangi
sown season, curcumin
6.4%, oleoresin 13.4%,
essential oil 4.4% and dry
recovery 23.0%, duration
240 days.
10 Rajendra Selection Selection from Bold and plumpy rhizome, Tirhut College of
Sonia local germplasm grows widely under all Agriculture, RAU,
north Indian conditions. Dholi
Curcumin 8.4%, essential oil
5.0% and dry recovery
18.0%, duration 225 days.
11 Megha Selection Selection from Suitable for the North East ICAR R.C. NEH
Turmeric -1 Lakadong type hill and North West Bengal. Region, Shillon
Bold rhizomes, high Meghalaya
curcumin content 6.8% and
dry recovery 16.37%,
duration 300-315 days.
12 Suranjana Selection Clonal selection Suitable for open and UBKV, Pundibari
from local types shaded conditions, sole or
of West Bengal intercrop, suitable for
(TCP-2) rainfed as well as high rain
fall areas. Curcumin 5.7%,
oleoresin 10.9%, essential
oil 4.1%, dry recovery
21.2%, duration 235 days,
tolerant to leaf blotch and
rhizome rot. Resistant to
rhizome scales and
moderately resistant to
shoot borer.
13 Suguna Selection Selection from Short duration type (190 IISR, Kozhikode
germplasm days), curcumin 4.9%,
collected from oleoresin 13.5%, essential
Assam oil 6.0% and dry recovery
20.4%, field tolerance to
rhizome rot.

29
14 Suvarna Selection Selection from Bright orange coloured IISR, Kozhikode
germplasm rhizome with slender
collected from fingers, Maturity 200 days,
Assam filed tolerant to pests and
diseases. Curcumin 4.3%,
oleoresin 13.5%, essential
oil 7.0% and dry recovery
20.0%.
15 Sudharsana Selection Selection from High yielding variety, short IISR, Kozhikode
germplasm duration type (190 days).
collect from Field tolerant to rhizhome
Singhat, rot. Curcumin 5.3%,
Manipur oleoresin 15.0%, essential
oil 7.0% and dry recovery
20.6%.
16 IISR Prabha Selection Open pollinated High yielding variety, IISR, Kozhikode
progeny curcumin content 6.5%,
selection oleoresin 15.0%, essential
oil 6.5%, and dry recovery
19.5%, crop duration 205
days
17 IISR Selection Open pollinated High quality line, 6.2% IISR, Kozhikode
Prathiba progeny curcumin content with high
selection yield, 16.02% oleoresin,
6.2% essential oil, 18.5%
dry recovery, crop duration
225 days.
18 IISR Selection A clonal Shows tolerance to leaf IISR, Kozhikode
Alleppey selection from blotch disease, Rhizomes
Supreme Alleppey contain 5.55% curcumin,
turmeric 16.0% oleoresin, 19.0% dry
recovery, crop duration 210
days.
19 IISR Selection Clonal selection Tolerant to leaf blotch IISR, Kozhikode
Kedaram from disease, Rhizomes contain
Thodupuzha 5.5% curcumin, 13.6%
collection oleoresin, maturity 210 days
and 18.9% driage.
20 Kanthi Selection Clonal selection Erect leaf with broad lamina, College of Hort.,
from Mydukur big mother rhizomes with KAU,
variety of medium bold fingers and Vellanikkara,
Andhra Pradesh closer internodes. Medium Trichur
duration. Curcumin content
(7.18%), oleoresin 8.25%,
essential oil 5.15%, dry
recovery 20.15%, duration
240-270 dsys.

30
21 Sobha Selection Clonal selection Mother rhizome big with College of Hort.,
from local type medium bold and closer KAU,
germplasm internodes. Inner core of Vellanikkara,
rhizome is dark orange like Trichur
Alleppey. More territory
rhizomes. Dry recovery
19.38%, curcumin content
(7.39%), oleoresin (9.65%),
essential oil (4.24%),
medium duration 240-270
days.
22 Sona Selection Clonal selection Orange yellow rhizome, College of Hort.,
from local medium bold with no KAU,
germplasm territory fingers. Best suited Vellanikkara,
for central zone of Kerala. Trichur
Rhizome medium bold, filed
tolerant to leaf blotch.
Curcumin 7.12%, essential
oil 4.4%, oleoresin 10.25%,
18.88% dry recovery,
medium duration. 240-270
days.
23 Varna Selection Clonal selection Bright orange yellow College of Hort.,
from local rhizome, medium bold with KAU,
germplasm closer inter nodes, territory Vellanikkara,
fingers present. Suited to Trichur
central zone of Kerala. Field
tolerant tom leaf blotch,
curcumin 7.87%, essential
oil 4.56%, oleoresin 10.8%,
19.05% dry recovery,
medium duration 240-270
days

Cinnamon

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) (Family: Lauraceae) is one of the earliest known spice
which is a native of Sri Lanka. True cinnamon of commerce is the dried inner bark of
Cinnamomum verum and is used as spice. Sri Lanka is the major producer of cinnamon.
Cinnamon was introduced into India by the British in the 18thcentury.

The commercial products of cinnamon is the dried inner bark which are graded and
marketed as quills, quillings, featherings and chips. The other commercial products
obtained from cinnamon are cinnamon bark oil, cinnamon leaf oil and bark oleoresin.
Cinnamon is widely used as a spice and is employed mainly in food industry for culinary
purposes. Besides flavouring industry, cinnamon is also used in the pharmaceutical and
perfume industry. Cinnamon forms a major constituent of the traditional medicines of India.
The crop improvement work in cinnamon is limited to release of high yielding high quality
lines. Several high quality lines suitable for the food and medicinal industry has been
released Table 8). Very little work has been done in breeding of cinnamon.

31
Table 8. Improved varieties of cinnamon

Parameters Variety
IISR IISR YCD- 1 PPI(C) 1 Konkan Tej RRL (B) Sugandhini
Navashree Nithyashree C-6 (ODC-130)
Research Indian Indian Horticul Horticultur Dr. B.S. Regional Aromatic
Station Institute Institute of tural al Research Konkan Research and
of Spices Spices Researc Station, Krishi Laborato Medicinal
Research, Research, h Pechiparai, Vidyapeeth, ry Plants
Kozhikode Kozhikode Station, Kanyakum Dapoli, Bhubanes Research
Yercaud, ari District Maharashtra war, Station,
Salem Orissa Odakkali,
District Ernakulam
District,
Kerala
Pedigree Seeding Seeding OP OP OP seedings OP Sri Lankan
selection selection progenie progenies seedings type
from Sri from Indian s obtained obtained
Lankan collections from IISR from a
collections farmer in
Wayanad.
Single tree
selection
Average 200 kg dry 200 kg dry 360 kg 973 kg 378.30 g - 1.2 kg
yield quills/ ha quills/ ha dry fresh bark/ fresh bark/ fresh/
bark/ ha ha plant tree/ year
Quality characters
Bark oil 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.20 0.94
(%)
Leaf oil 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.3 2.28% 0.8 1.6
(%)
Bark 8.0 10.0
oleoresin
(%)
Bark 40.6 30.7 35.3 34.22 29.16 5145
recovery
(%)
Cinnam- 73 58 - 70.23 6.93
aldehyde
in bark oil
(%)
Cinnamald 15 14 - 75.5
ehyde in
leaf oil
(%)
Eugenol in 6.0 5.0 6.93
bark oil
(%)
Eugenol in 62 78 - 94
leaf oil
(%)

32
 Plant nutrition and quality characteristics of spice crops

V Srinivasan & R Dinesh

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

Introduction

India has been a traditional producer, consumer and exporter of spices. Almost all states in
the country produce one or other spices. Spices exports have registered substantial growth
during the last one-decade. Besides pests and diseases afflicting these crops, another
important factor contributing to production constraints in spices is poor soil quality; a
reflection of low carbon sequestration coupled with alarmingly higher nutrient mining from
these soils. Poor nutrient management strategies do results in depletion of C reserves,
reduced nutrient levels, and decreased nutrient cycling and processes due to decreased
biological activity. Low pH and lower levels of organic carbon, K, Ca, Mg and Zn are the
major constraints in spice growing soils. This coupled with high soil erosion and associated
nutrient losses in high rainfall areas growing spices have further compounded the problem.
Long-term trials on integrated nutrient management (INM) indicate that fertilizer input
efficiency can be increased through scientific management practices, rational use of costly
inputs and a combination of both inputs and management practices. Adoption of INM
techniques will not only enhance productivity but will also increase the total productivity
and the efficiency of fertilizer use in these spices crops. Hence, technologies to alleviate
macro and micro nutrient deficiencies in location specific soil-crop systems have to be given
priority. While doing so there is an urgent need to augment supplies of organic manures,
fortified, coated and customized fertilizers supplying secondary and micronutrients,
biofertilizers and soil amendments to sufficiently support INM use in spice production.

In recent years, organic agriculture has been gaining considerable importance and many
farmers are switching to this traditional method of cultivation as a means to produce safe
foodstuffs and to preserve the environment. Organic farming favors lower input costs,
conserves non-renewable resources, high-value markets and boosts farm income. By
definition, organic agriculture or farming is a production system, which avoids or largely
excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and
livestock feed additives and relies on crop rotations, crop-residues, animal manures,
legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes and aspects of biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other
pests. Since organic foods are free from chemical contaminants, the demand for these
products will steadily increase in the coming years (Parthasarathy et al. 2008).

Nutrient management on phytochemicals

Major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), secondary nutrients (calcium and

magnesium) and micro nutrients especially Zn are the most important nutrients essential
for black pepper growth, development and yield. Pepper requires large quantities of K for
growth and fruiting and K requirement is related to the content of other nutrients in the
plant, mainly nitrogen. A steady absorption and utilization of plant nutrients take place
throughout the life cycle of cardamom. This warrants regular application of nutrients for

33
higher yields. In ginger, about 48.41 % of the N absorbed from fertilizer applied at seedling
stage is distributed to the shoots and leaves. While 65.43 % of the N derived from fertilizer
applied at vigorous growth of rhizome is distributed into rhizomes, only 32.04 % is
distributed into shoots and leaves. Higher uptake of K up to third, N up to fourth and P up to
fifth months of rhizome development was observed with subsequent decrease in their
uptake in turmeric.

Several by-products from horticulture crops have been shown to constitute a rich source of
poly phenolics, which could be used as nutraceuticals and or natural oxidants to replace
some synthetic food additives. Flavonoids are phenolic compounds that have potent
antioxidant activity. Many are produced in plants in response to environmental stressors,
such as insects or competing plants. Bitter or harsh phenolics guard the plant against these
pests. The need for these natural safeguards decreases with the use of herbicides and
pesticides in conventional agriculture. This decrease is reflected in the total amount of
antioxidants the plants produce.

Applying FYM (10 t), neem cake (2 t) and vermicompost (4 t) combination per ha followed
by 10 t Coir compost + 8 t vermicompost resulted in higher oleoresin and lower fiber
contents in ginger rhizomes. In ginger, both organic and integrated management system are
good and par with regards to yield. The oil content was significantly higher in integrated
and inorganic management systems and oleoresin in inorganic system. The essential oil
constituents viz., zingiberene, farnesene, α-pinene, citral, 1, 8 cineole, z-citral and camphene
contents were highest for integrated management system. β-Sesquiphellandrene content
was highest under inorganic management and ar-curcumene content was highest under
organic management system. Among the three varieties, IISR Mahima recorded significantly
highest yield, oleoresin, β-Sesquiphellandrene and ar-curcumene contents. In the case of oil
and zingiberene content there was no significant difference among the varieties. The
rhizome yield, N, P and K uptake and crude protein and oleoresin contents of ginger
increased significantly with the application of N at 100 kg ha-1 and FYM at 5 t ha-1.

Jolad et al. (2004) analyzed unmodified partially purified fractions from the
dichloromethane extracts of organically grown samples of fresh Chinese white and Japanese
yellow varieties of ginger, Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae). This analysis resulted
in the detection of 20 hitherto unknown natural products and 31 compounds previously
reported as ginger constituents. These included paradols, dihydroparadols, gingerols, acetyl
derivatives of gingerols, shogaols, 3-dihydroshogaols, gingerdiols, mono- and diacetyl
derivatives of gingerdiols, 1-dehydrogingerdiones,diarylheptanoids, and methyl ether
derivatives of some of these compounds. The major constituent in the two varieties was [6]-
gingerol, a chemical marker for Z. officinale. Anti-inflammatory activities of gingerol include
suppression of both cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase metabolites of arachidonic acid.
Most of the fractions containing gingerols and/or gingerol derivatives showed excellent
inhibition of Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced prostaglandin(PG)E2 production.

Volatile oil is regarded as a main component influencing ginger flavour. Oil extracted from
ginger is used for flavoring liquors, soft drinks, culinary products etc. Oleoresin extracted
from the powder is used as a substitute in catering industry as it imparts total flavor of the
spice. Oleoresin content varies from 4 to 10% (40 to 100 g per kg.). Increasing N application
increased the concentration of volatile oil, whereas excessive N application decreased its
concentration (Xu et al. 2001). Studies also demonstrated that excessive N decreased the

34
concentrations of terpenes and phthalides, the characteristic volatile compounds of celery,
affecting its flavour.

In black pepper, yield has shown highly significant positive correlation of 0.416** with
available K followed by soil Zn and S. In addition, soil available P, Ca, Mg and Mn also
showed positive correlation with pepper yield. The quality parameters like piperine and
oleoresin were mainly influenced by the availability of micronutrients like Fe, Mn, S and Zn
whereas Mn and Fe showed significantly highest positive influence on oleoresin (0.854**
and 0.738**) and piperine (0.662** and 0.537**). The GC-MS analysis of the oil profile
showed an increase in trans-caryophyllene in organically grown pepper as compared to
integrated and conventionally grown ones.

Application of vermicompost at 5 t ha-1+ 100% RDF (125:60:60 kg NPK ha-1) along with
humic acid at 0.2% showed significant increase in fresh rhizome yield per plant, number,
length, girth and weight of mother, primary and secondary rhizomes per plant in turmeric.
Researchers have reported highest dry yield in the crop applied with neem cake 1.25 t ha-1
+ FYM 12.5 t ha-1 + recommended fertilizer dose (RFD), and quality characters like
curcumin content, essential oils and oleoresins. Application of K viz., KNO3 (13: 0: 45 NPK),
sulphate of potash (0:0:50:20-NPKS) polyfeed (13:40:13-NPK) and mono potassium
phosphate (0:52:34 NPK) would help in getting bold capsules with high oil content in
cardamom. Studies at ICAR-IISR found that application of Zn at 5 mg kg-1 for potted bush
pepper and Zn at 6.2 kg ha-1 for field condition was optimum for increasing yield and
improving the quality of black pepper. Application of 2.5 kg ha-1 Zn for field planted pepper
as Zn- EDTA was found to increase soil Zn availability, berry yield, oleoresin and piperine.
Foliar spray of B (as borax) twice @0.2% on 45 and 90 DAS recorded significantly highest
yield of 14.8 and 13.7 kg/ 3m2, respectively and also increased the curcumin content (4.86 –
6.08%).

The micronutrient mixture for black pepper has been designed to fulfill the requirement by
maintaining optimal leaf nutrient ratio of secondary (Mg) and micronutrients (Zn and B) in
the leaf. For black pepper, 2-3 foliar sprays @5 g/L of water should be done during spike
initiation with the onset of monsoon and after monthly intervals. The application of this
crop specific mixture has given a clear yield advantage of 10-30% and also significant
increase in dry weight of the berries (7-14%) and its bulk density in sprayed fields as
compared to control (non sprayed) fields.

Organic management on quality

Generally, increasing N application at a proper range of N enhances production of amino

acids and fatty acids and many studies in vegetables have also shown that the carotenoid
increases with increasing N supply. Application of high NH4+ and lowNO-3 levels resulted in
improved fruit quality. According to the ‘C/N balance theory’, when N is readily available,
plants will primarily make compounds with high N content (e.g., proteins for growth).
When N availability is limited, metabolism changes more towards carbon-containing
compounds such as starch, cellulose, and non-N containing secondary metabolites such as
phenolics and terpenoids. The relative differences in the release of nutrients from various
fertilizers could lead to different C/N ratios in plants and this in turn could lead to a
difference in the production of secondary metabolites (Brandt & Molgaard 2001). The
synthesis of vitamin C which is made from carbohydrates will be also less when plants are

35
supplied with lot of nitrogen. Hence it is expected that organic crops would have more
vitamin C, less nitrates but quality proteins compared to conventional crops.

Pigments constituting colour are a complex mixture of carotenoids. In chillies, the

carotenoids contribute to colour and its nutritional value, while the capsaicinoids are the
alkaloids responsible for their characteristic pungency. In paprika red and yellow
components combine to give the total color and major portions of pigments occur in the
outer pericarp tissues beneath the epidermis. The red color is constituted by two major
pigments of capsanthin (30-60%) and capsorubin (6-18%). The inherent characters of the
cultivar which affects the stability of the color are: anti-oxidants present in the pericarp and
seeds and oxidizing agents. Turmeric contains Curcumin (diferuloylmethane) (3–4%),
which is responsible for the yellow colour, and comprises curcumin I (94%), curcumin II
(6%) and curcumin III (0.3%). Turmeric is an important yellow dye in southern Asia; it was
also used in Europe before the discovery of aniline dyes. With lime or other alkalis, it
produces a red or reddish-brown color. It used as coloring matter in pharmacy,
confectionary, and food industries.

In chilli, extractable color (red, yellow and total carotenoids; red to yellow carotenoids
ratio) increased rapidly during fruit maturation, especially towards the end by potassium
application. The best keeping quality and highest ascorbic acid content in chilli was
recorded for 100% poultry manure, which was found superior among the organic fertilizers
tested. Application of different manures and B deficiency in turmeric results in reduced
accumulation of sugars, amino acids, and organic acids at all leaf positions. Translocation of
the metabolites towards rhizome and roots and photo assimilate partitioning to essential
oil in leaf and to curcumin in rhizome decreases. Due to B deficiency, the overall rhizome
yield and curcumin yield also decreases.

The application of groundnut cake (1.1 t/ha) significantly increased the dry yield and the
highest curcumin production, on par to neem cake application (2.5 t/ha). No significant
differences in dry yield and curcumin content of turmeric rhizomes were observed with the
combination of chicken manure and inorganic fertilizer by Hu et al. (2003) under China
conditions. In turmeric, combined application of different organic sources like FYM +
pongamia oil cake + neem oil cake + Stera meal + Rock phosphate + wood ash have yielded
similar to the conventional practices, in addition with high quality. But research results
during initial years showed 15% and 23% reduction in yield in turmeric under organic
system as compared to conventional and integrated managements, respectively. The quality
parameters of turmeric (curcumin and starch) are found to be high under organic farming.
Organically grown turmeric recorded the highest oleoresin and curcumin contents in all the
years studied (Srinivasan et al. 2016). Generally cooler climates as in North East region
helps in recovery of high oleoresin as the prevailing low temperature reduces synthesis of
starch, which leads to more recovery of oleoresin per kg in ginger. Similarly, in turmeric
also climate of the location plays important role in deciding its quality. Same variety grown
at different places with varying climatic conditions showed varied curcumin levels and
yield.

Due to the increasing importance of food safety, environmentally friendly production

systems (organic and integrated crop management) are becoming more important in food
production. Major production factors prior to harvest, such as environment, cultural
practices, agrochemicals and nutrition, have an impact on spice quality through the effects
on plant development. Even though integrated crop management system is an ecologically

36
safer method aimed at minimising the undesirable side effects and use of agrochemicals,
organic farming seeks to eliminate the use of agricultural chemicals compared to integrated
or conventional ones. Besides the presumed health properties, these systems claim to yield
products which have a better intrinsic quality. However, more research is needed to further
verify spice quality in long-term organic production systems and to discover the underlying
mechanisms that regulate quality in plant and soil.

References

Brandt, K., Molgaard, P., 2001. Organic agriculture: does it enhanceor reduce the nutritional
value of plant foods? Journal of theScience of Food and Agriculture 81, 924–931.
Hu Min Fu, Jene, T.S., Fa, C.I., Yie, L.S. (2003) Effects of combined chicken compost and
chemical fertilizer application on the yield and quality of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.).
J.Agric. Res. China, 52(4): 334-340.
Jolad, S D., Lantz, R C., Solyom, A M., Chen, G J., Bates, R B and Timmermann, B N. 2004.
Fresh organiclally grown ginger (Zingiberofficinale): compostion and effects on LPS-
induced PGE2 production. Phytochemistry, 65: 1937-1954.
Parthasarathy VA, Kandiannan K, Srinivasan V. 2008. Organic spices. New India Publishing
Agency, New Delhi, 694 p.
Srinivasan V., Thankamani C.K., Dinesh R., Kandiannan K., Zachariah T.J., Leela N.K.,Hamza
S., Shajina O., Ansha O.2016. Nutrient management systems in turmeric: Effects on soil
quality,rhizome yield and quality. Industrial Crops and Products 85 (2016) 241–250.
Xu, K, Zhong, G S., and Wang, X F. 2001. Effects of nitrogen rates on colonial photosynthesis
yield and quality of ginger. Plant nutrition and fertilization science, 7: 189-193.

37
 Post harvest processing and value addition of spices

E Jayashree

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

Spices are high value export oriented crops extensively used for flavoring food and
beverages, medicines, cosmetics, perfumery etc. Spices constitute a significant and
indispensable segment of culinary art and essentially add flavour, color and taste to the
food preparations. Over the years, Indian spices have carved out a niche of its medicinal and
pharmacological properties in the world of spices. There are 109 spices listed by
International Standards Organisation (ISO) and the Spices Board, Government of India has
listed 52 major spices of commercial importance. India produces around 3.8 million tonnes
of spices annually, of this about 10% of the total produce is exported to over 150 countries.
The USA, Europe, Australia, Japan, the Middle East and Oceanic countries are the major
importers of Indian spices. The farm level processing operations are the most important for
value addition and product diversification of spices. Some of the spices discussed here are
black pepper, cardamom, ginger, nutmeg, cinnamon and clove.

(i) Black pepper

Pepper (Piper nigrum) takes about 180 to 230 days after flowering to reach full maturity.
Harvesting is generally done when the berries are fully mature and few starts turning from
yellow to red in each spike. The stage of maturity at harvest varies depending on the final
value added product to be prepared from pepper and is tabulated below:

Product Maturity at harvest

White Pepper Fully ripe
Black Pepper Fully mature and 1-2 berries start turning
from yellow to red in each spike
Canned Pepper 4-5months
Dehydrated green pepper 10-15 days before maturity
Oleoresin 15-20 days before maturity
Pepper oil 15-20 days before maturity

The following unit operations are involved in making whole dried black pepper.

 Threshing: The berries are separated from the spike usually by trampling with human
legs. Mechanical threshers with capacities varying from 200 kg/h to 1200 kg//h are
available which can thresh quickly and provide cleaner products.
 Blanching: The quality of the black pepper can be improved by a simple treatment of
dipping the mature berries taken in perforated vessel in boiling water for a minute
before drying. This results in a uniform coloured black pepper and removes the
extraneous impurities on the berries.
 Drying: The berries are then spread on clean dry concrete floor / bamboo mats/ PVC
sheets and dried in the sun for a period of 4-6 days. The moisture content is brought
down from about 75 to 80 per cent to 8-10 per cent. The average dry recovery varies
from 33-37 per cent.

38
  Cleaning/garbling and grading: During threshing and drying, extraneous matters
like broken spikes, pinheads, stones, soil particles etc. creep into the produce. These
impurities are removed by winnowing the produce manually or by using a blower.
Multiple sieve-cum air classified type of machine whereby the impurities are easily
removed is used for grading at the farmers and traders level.
 Packing and storage: The graded produce is bulk packed separately in jute bags,
multi layer paper bags or woven polypropylene bags.

Value added products of pepper : A variety of product have been made from pepper are
classified as 1) Green pepper based products 2) Black pepper and white pepper based
products 3) Pepper by- products.

1) Green pepper based products:

Canned green pepper in brine

Bottled green pepper in brine
Bulk Packaged green pepper in brine
Cured green pepper (with out any covering tissues)
Frozen green pepper
Freeze dried green pepper
Semi dried or dehydrated green pepper
Green pepper pickle in oil/vinegar/brine
Green pepper-mixed pickle in oil/vinegar/brine
Green pepper flavoured products
Green pepper paste

2) Black pepper and white pepper based products

Black pepper powder

White pepper powder
White pepper whole
Pepper oleoresin
Pepper oil
Microencapsulated pepper
Other products (such as soluble pepper, pepper paste)
By products from pepper waste

3) Other products

Many products in which pepper is a major ingredient, have been developed such as lemon
pepper, garlic pepper, sauces and marinades that have pepper as the main component.

Spice mixtures and blends: Curry powders and spice blends for various culinary uses
Pepper flavoured products: Products such as pepper mayonnaise, pepper cookies, etc.
Pepper extracts- pepper candies, pepper perfumes etc.

 White pepper: White pepper is prepared by removing the outer skin of the harvested
ripe berries. For removing the skin the ripe berries are packed in gunny bags or steeped
as such in water tanks or running water for 7-10 days. Once the skin is softened they
are rubbed by hand or trampled to remove the outer skin. The pin heads and light

39
 berries that float are separated. The deskinned berries are sun dried and sold as white
pepper. The recovery of white pepper varies from 22-27 per cent of green pepper.
 Pepper oil: The characteristics aroma of pepper is due to the presence of volatile oil
which ranges 2-5per cent. It is observed that slightly immature pepper will have more
oil.
 Pepper oleoresin: It is the concentrate of all the flavour components (aroma, taste,
pungency and related sensory factors). It is extracted from black pepper using solvents
like acetone, ethylene dichloride.
 Piperine: Piperine content ranges from 3-6 percent. The alkaloid piperine is the major
constituent responsible for the biting taste of black pepper.
 Green pepper in brine: The green colour is maintained under high salinity of steeping
liquid by maintaining a minimum salt level of 12 per cent. Addition of small percentage
of citric acid will prevent the discolouration due to phenols.
 Dehydrated green pepper: It is prepared by boiling the freshly harvested despiked
pepper in boiling water for over 10 minutes which inactivates the blackening enzymes.
It is then treated with sulphur di oxide to reduce the chances of darkening. The pepper
is then dried in hot air oven or microwave oven to prepare dehydrated green pepper.

(ii) Cardamom

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) plants take about two years to bear capsules and takes
about 3 months after flowering for fruit maturity. Harvesting of cardamom is taken up at a
time when the seeds inside the capsules have become black in colour. The pericarp at this
stage will still be green in colour. Green cardamom and white cardamom are the two
important products obtained from fresh cardamom. The post harvest operations involved
in the value addition of cardamom are as follows:

Green cardamom

 Washing and alkali treatment: The harvested capsules carry soil or dirt on their
surface and hence they are washed thoroughly in water. The capsules are then treated
with 2 per cent sodium carbonate solution for 10 minutes which enables to retain
green colour and prevent mould growth.
 Drying: The colour of cardamom gets bleached away when exposed to sun light.
Therefore, conventionally green cardamom is dried in flue type kiln or electrical drier.
The cleaned capsules are dried to reduce the moisture content from 80 per cent to 8-
12 per cent.
 Garbling: It is the process of removal of flower stalk from the dried cardamom.
Traditionally this is achieved by rubbing the cardamom capsules against coir mat or
wire mesh and winnowed to remove any foreign matter. Hand operated mechanical
garbling units are available which increases garbling efficiency and reduces damage.
 Grading: The partly cleaned cardamom by garbling is to be further cleaned to remove
the impurities and grade them according to size. Cleaning of cardamom by removing
the discoloured ones, split capsules and other impurities is done by manual methods.
Hand operated cleaner cum grader provided with suitable sieves can be used for
better grading of cardamom.
 Packing: Cardamom capsules are packed in jute bags or wooden containers suitably
lined with polythene or craft paper.

40
White cardamom

Bleaching is the important post harvest operation involved in the production of white
cardamom.

 Bleaching: Freshly harvested or dry capsules of cardamom can be used as starting

material for bleaching. Sulphur bleaching of dry cardamom capsules is the widely
practiced method. Here the capsules are soaked in 2 per cent bleaching powder
solution (20 g/L of water) for one hour and spread on wooden trays which are
arranged inside airtight chambers. Sulphur- di- oxide is produced by burning sulphur
(15 g/ kg of capsules) and made to pass over the trays. The process of soaking and
drying is to be carried out for 3-4 times depending up on the intensity of white colour
required. The bleached cardamom is creamy white or golden yellow in colour

(iii) Ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officianale) is used both as a fresh vegetable and as a dried spice. The crop
is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting when the leaves turn yellow and start
drying up gradually. The clumps are lifted carefully with spade or digging fork and the
rhizomes are separated from the dried up leaves, roots and adhering soil. Harvesting is to
be done from the 6th month onwards when used as green ginger. The various post harvest
operations involved in obtaining clean dried ginger are,

 Washing: It is done to remove dirt, spray residues and other foreign materials. In this
process ginger is soaked in still water overnight and in the next day water is sprayed
over to clean it.
 Peeling: Peeling hastens the process of drying and maintains the epidermal cells of
the rhizomes, which contain essential oil responsible for aroma of ginger.
Indigenously, peeling is performed by rubbing the ginger pawns soaked in water over
night against jute bags or by scraping with sharpened bamboo splinters. The scrapped
or peeled rhizomes are again washed well and put for drying on clean drying yard.
 Drying: The cleaned and peeled ginger with moisture content of about 80 per cent is
spread thinly under sun and the moisture content is brought down to 10 to 12 per
cent or even less for safe storage. It takes about 10 -15 days for complete drying. The
dry ginger so obtained is known as rough or unbleached ginger. The yield of dry
ginger is 19-25 per cent of fresh ginger depending on the variety and the location
where it is grown.
 Bleaching: The peeled ginger is soaked in thick lime water for some time and it is
then fumigated with sulphur fumes for 12 hours and sun dried for a day. The process
is repeated once or twice to obtain a fully bleached white produce which is thoroughly
dried and stored.
 Grading: The dried ginger rhizomes are manually graded based on the external
appearance.
 Packing: The graded ginger is bulk packed separately in jute or woven polypropylene
bags.

Value added products from ginger

 Ginger powder: Dried ginger is powdered to a fine mesh-60 (250 microns) to be used
in various end products.

41
  Salted ginger: Fresh ginger (with relatively low fibre) harvested at 170-180 days
after planting can be used for preparing salted ginger. Tender rhizomes with portion
of the pseudo stem is washed thoroughly and soaked in 30 % salt solution containing
1 % citric acid. After 14 days it is ready for use and can be stored under refrigeration.
 Crude fibre: In fully matured ginger crude fibre varies from 3-8 per cent. It is
estimated by acid and alkali digestion of ginger powder and whatever remains is
considered as fibre.
 Ginger oil: Dry ginger on distillation yield 1.5 to 2.5 per cent volatile oil. The main
constituent in the oil is zingiberene and contributes to the aroma of the oil.
 Ginger oleoresin: Dry ginger powder on treating with organic solvents like acetone,
alcohol, ethyl acetate etc. yield a viscous mass that attribute the total taste and smell
of the spice. The major non volatile principal in oleoresin is gingerol. The oleoresin
content varies from 4 -10 per cent.
 Others: Sweet and salty products can be prepared from fresh ginger like ginger candy,
ginger paste, salted ginger, salted ginger, crystallized ginger.

(iv) Nutmeg and mace

Nutmeg and mace are two different parts of the same fruit of the nutmeg tree, Myristica
fragrans. The fruits are harvested when they split open on ripening. Cleaning and drying are
the important post harvest operations involved.

 Cleaning: The fruits drop on to the ground while harvesting. The fruits are picked up
and washed in water to remove dirt and mud adhering to the outer pericarp.
 Drying: The unshelled nutmeg is dried in the shade or under sun. The seed cover is
removed mechanically or manually. It is dried to a safe moisture content of 10 per
cent.

Mace is detached from the nut carefully soon after harvest, washed, flattened by hand or
between boards and then sun dried till they become brittle. Hot air oven can be used for
drying and colour retention is much better than sun dried mace.

Value added products from nutmeg

• Nutmeg powder: Dried nutmeg is ground to fine powder to be used in various end
products.
• Nutmeg oil: The essential oil from nutmeg is steam distilled and the oil percentage
varies from 5-15 per cent. The essential oil is highly sensitive to light and temperature
and yields a colourless, pale yellow or pale green oil with characteristic odour of
nutmeg.
• Nutmeg oleoresin: Nutmeg oleoresin is obtained by solvent extraction of spices.
Oleoresins contain saturated volatile oil, fatty oil and other extractives soluble in the
particular solvent. Nutmeg extracted with benzene yields 31 to 37 per cent of
oleoresins.
• Nutmeg butter: The fixed oil of nutmeg is known as nutmeg butter. Nutmeg butter
contains 25 to 40 per cent fixed oil.
• Mace oleoresin: When extracted with petroleum ether mace yields 27 to 32 percent
oleoresin and contains 8.5 to 22 percent volatile oil.

42
 • Mace oil: is obtained by steam distillation of dried aril and yields 4-17 per cent oil. It is
a clear red or amber dark red liquid with characteristic odour and flavour. Mace oil is
more expensive than nutmeg oil.

(v) Cinnamon

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is obtained by drying the central part of the bark
after the second or third year of planting. It is harvested from the branches which have
attained greenish brown colour indicative of maturity and when the bark peels of easily.
The shoots are cut for bark extraction. Following are the stages in the production of quills:

 Peeling: The rough outer bark is first scraped off with a special knife. Then the
scraped portion is polished with a brass rod to facilitate easy peeling. A longitudinal
slit is made from one end to other and the bark is peeled off.
 Rolling: The barks are packed together and placed one above the other and pressed
well. The bark slips are reduced to 20 cm length and are piled up in small enclosures
made by sticks. Then they are covered with dry leaves or mat to preserve the moisture
for the next day’s operation and also to enhance slight fermentation.
 Piping: Rolled slips are taken to the piping yard for piping operations. The outer skin
is scraped off with a small curved knife. The scraped slips are sorted into different
grades according to thickness. The graded slips are trimmed; ends are cut and pressed
over pipes. Slips are rolled into pipes and soon after they are allowed to dry. During
drying, smaller quills are inserted into the bigger ones, forming smooth and pale
brown compound quills, which are known as pipes. The quills are arranged in parallel
lines in the shade for drying, as direct exposure to the sun at this stage would result in
warping. The dried quills, thus obtained, consist of a mixture of coarse and fine types
and are yellowish brown in colour. The quills are bleached, if necessary, by sulphur
treatment for about 8 hours.

The process of producing quills has several by-products, which are used in further
processing:

 Quillings: These are broken pieces of quills used mainly for grinding but also for
distillation of oil. The pieces vary considerably in size, being about 5 to 15 or 20 cm in
length and about 10-25 mm in diameter.
 Feathering: These are short shavings and small pieces of leftovers in the processing
of the inner bark into quills. Collectively, featherings present a shade darker colour
than the quills and a shade lighter than the chips.
 Chips: These are small pieces of bark, grayish brown on the outer side and a lighter
brown on the inside. They are deficient in both aroma and taste and are not to be
compared to the quills for flavour.

Value added product from cinnamon

 Cinnamon bark oil: It is essentially extracted by the steam distillation of cinnamon

and the oil percentage varies from 0.5 to 2.5 per cent. The main constituent of this oil
is cinnamaldehyde which constitutes to 65 per cent.
 Cinnamon oleoresin: The dry cinnamon bark powder on treating with solvents like
acetone, alcohol, ethyl acetate yields a viscous mass that attribute to the total taste
and aroma of cinnamon. The oleoresin content varies from 7-10 percent.

43
(vi) Clove

Clove is the small, reddish brown unopened flower bud of the tropical evergreen tree
Syzygium aromaticum. Flowering begins after fifth year of planting Harvesting is done
before the flowers start opening while the tip is fully developed and round in shape. The
buds are hand picked and the length vary from 13 to 19 mm. The clove is sun dried and is
used as such or in the powdered form.

Value added product from clove

 Clove oil: Clove contains 14 to 20 per cent essential oil, the principal component of
which is the aromatic oil eugenol which is extracted by distillation.

Future prospects of value addition in spices

The time has already come to produce quality farm products to compete in the international
market. Since most of the preliminary processing of spices is done at the farm by
traditional methods, improved and more scientific methods need to be popularized to get
good quality product. There is also a great demand for diversified value added products
from spices. Some of the areas which require further attention are:

 Drying: The practice of drying in clean environment to the required optimum

moisture content is the most important operation for all the spices. The problem of
aflatoxin contamination is most commonly reported from the chillies followed by
nutmeg exported from India. This problem is also reported to a lesser extent in other
spices. Hence there is a need for good artificial drying system at farm level to dry the
produce even during unfavourable seasons to get quality produce.
 Packaging and storage: Spices are highly hygroscopic products and hence easily gain
moisture from the atmosphere. It is thus essential to pack the dried produce in
suitable packaging material and store in proper leak proof structure.

References

Agarwal Y.C, Ashwini Hiran and A.S Galundia, 1987. Ginger peeling machine parameters,
Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 18(2):57-62.
Amaladhas H.P, Shinoj Subramanian, M. Balakrishnan, R. Viswanathan and V.V
Sreenarayanan, 2004. Performance evaluation of a cleaner cum- grader for black
pepper, Journal of Plantation crops. 32(1) 32-36.
Amala dhas H.P, P. Rajesh and Shinoj Subramanian, 2002. Get better quality mace by
blanching, Spice India, 15(2), 8-10.
Jayashree.E, 2005. Value Addition of Major Spices at Farm Level, Spice India,18(8),33-41.
Joy C.M, George Peter Pittappillil and K.P Jose, 2000. Quality improvement of nutmeg using
solar tunnel dryer, Journal of Plantation crops, 28(2): 138-143.
Kachru R. P and P.K Srivastava, 1988. Post Harvest Technology of ginger. CARDAMOM,
21(5): 49-57.
Patil R.T, 1987. Cardamom Processing in South India. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia,
Africaa and Latin America, 18(2):55-58.

44
 Food safety and International quality standards for spices

N Anandavally

Food Safety Solutions

M/10/32, Changampuzha Nagar, Kochi-682 033, Kerala.

Food trade plays a significant role in the economic development of all countries and is a
major contributor to the improvement of social, political and economic conditions world
wide.

Most governments have serious commitment to protect their consumers from food borne
diseases and other food related hazards. The commitment is growing in strength and is
viewed increasingly by consumers as an essential part of Government responsibility. For
this reason most countries have well developed food laws or are in the process of
developing them. They also have food control agencies to implement those laws. Where
until recently inspectors and other officials of those agencies carried out full inspections on
a continuous basis to ensure safety and quality of food products, now their activities are
mostly restricted to audit inspections that is checking the controls manufacturers
themselves apply to their production to ensure that control complies with the mandatory or
statutory requirements. This concept of audit inspections need to be strengthened and
practiced in areas of food production to get into and conquer the world markets.

As a result, food safety has become the thrust area in many of the countries. Thanks to the
USFDA and EU regulations. HACCP based food safety system is gradually changing from a
“Paper Program to a Program in Practice” in almost all the Asia Pacific region and our
country is far ahead in the application of HACCP in food processing facilities specifically for
export.

Several incidences of food poisoning and Food Borne Diseases (FBDs) have been reported
recently globally and the root causes for these outbreaks have also been traced back to the
change in the eating habits of the new generation, rising income, travel and eating out as
well as availability of processed and packed ready to eat food products. The health risk due
to increase in Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs) has been a major concern today and the
reason has been attributed to the consumption of unsafe foods. Since processed foods
certainly have chemicals under the category of preservatives/additives used to increase the
shelf life of the products their regular consumption has been regarded as cause for all the
life threatening diseases. FAO and WHO under UN declare that clean, safe and quality foods
shall be available to all globally at affordable price to ensure food security.

What is safe food and what are the criteria or standards for food safety?

Codex, one of the UN organizations involved in developing standards and guidelines for
various raw and processed Foods defines food safety as assurance that food will not cause
any harm to the consumer if prepared and eaten according to its intended use.

The same definition is provided in the Food Safety and Standards Act of India and
Regulations (FSSAI 2006 and Regulations 2011). From 2011 onwards, Govt. of India has
been initiating several programs to design and implement a mandatory, transparent and

45
effective food safety system in compliance with the global standards. Under the WTO the
SPS and TBT requirements in trading is very clear and the country needs to have food
quality and safety standards equivalent to global standards.

As against the sampling and testing of the end products from the market and rejecting the
products which has been a failure in ensuring food safety the new regulations give thrust to
regular inspection of the procurements, storage, processing, packing, distribution and sale
throughout the food chain for regulatory compliance and provide them improvement
notices and take actions in case of serious violations initially. The regulators were working
towards improving the sanitary and hygiene conditions in the food handling facilities.
Awareness programs were conducted throughout the country for the benefits of the Food
Business Operators (FBOs).

It was made clear to them that it is mandatory to have FSSSAI registration or license
without which No FBO is permitted to handle raw or processed foods for sale in the
national or international markets. Having said that, it is the primary responsibility of FBOs
to plan and implement a food safety program based on HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Point) which has been recognized as a mandatory requirement for Food Safety in
International trade.

What is Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)?

HACCP is a science based system for guaranteeing food safety, through the application of
preventive CONTROLS throughout the Food Chain to minimize Food safety issues
(Hazards). Application of HACCP requires the collaborative efforts from all the stakeholders
including the Food Regulators, the Competent Agency to monitor and verify the Food Safety
Management System in the FBO,s Facility.

Codex has published guidelines as well as provided training to the regulators and FBOs of
various countries in the Application of HACCP.

HACCP has been already in place in the facilities processing for export as specified by the
importing countries and the designated regulatory body (Competent Authority) has been
performing compliance audit and certification. As it is clear a compliance audit in the facility
alone is in effective in assuring food safety throughout the food chain, a food safety
management system needs to be developed, implemented, maintained and documented.

Food safety culture

A food safety culture is recognized as the key factor to achieving sustained global food
safety standard. The day today behavior of an organizations employees and management
defines and reflects a company’s food safety culture.

How do FBOs ensure food safety and what is a Food Safety Management System
(FSMS)?

FSMS means the adoption of GMPs, GHPs, HACCP and such other practices as may be
specified in the regulations for the food business. It is mandatory that FBOs shall
demonstrate compliance with the required documented FSMS plans and ensure that the

46
Standard Operating Procedures are not a” paper program”, but a “program in practice.” This
is what is needed as minimum standard in international trade.

The areas to be concerned start with the concept of design of a food handling or processing
facility. Codex provides the general guidelines which have been already tailored and
detailed in the FSSAI regulation. (Schedule IV Ref. Regulation 2.1.2) for various food
manufacturing facilities. Almost all the countries have designed their National Regulations
based on Codex in line with international requirements and any FBO following the current
regulations in the country religiously will be in compliance with the International
standards.

As stated elsewhere FSMS shall be designed, implemented and documented.

The major areas of concerns are -

1. The design and layout of the facility
2. Control of operations which include
- Water quality
- Temp and Time control
- Storage / environment control
- Transport control
- Pest control
- Waste disposal / waste management
3. Prevention of cross contamination
4. Maintenance
5. Cleaning and sanitation
6. Allergen control
7. Personal hygiene
8. Transportation of Finished goods
9. Product information and consumer awareness
10. Documentation and record keeping
11. Training

Having said that, the FBOs shall prepare Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) describing
who what, when and how the controls are implemented. The documented
procedures shall be in practice and monitored by the designated personnel,
recorded, signed and reviewed by competent and qualified individual. Truly
speaking, the FSMS based on HACCP is an “Own Check” system and personnel shall
be self disciplined and committed.
Laboratory Tests for contaminants are also required as part of verification of the
documented FSMS which are clearly mentioned in the Codex and the USFDA/EU
regulations. The major contaminants in the spice and spice products are;
Fungal toxins, added non permitted colors, colors and preservatives above the permitted
levels, residues of pesticides and toxic chemicals. The regulators as well as the FBOs
shall ensure application of preventive controls to guarantee the products free from
such food safety issues.
These are the essential requirements of a Food standards in the international trade.
Regulations are the primary needs of the country. Regulations shall be strong, transparent,
science based and simple as well as easily implementable. Regulators shall have
adequate trainings in all the areas of food control. The subjects for training shall be-
• Different control techniques, audit, sampling, inspection etc.

47
 • Control procedures
• Food law
• Possible risks along the food chain
• Assessment of non-compliance
• Hazards in food production
• Evaluation of application of HACCP procedures
• Quality management systems
• Official certification systems
• Monitoring programs
• Legal proceedings and implication of controls

Examination of written documents and records

Inspection system (Own Check) system shall be in practice in the industry with proper
documentary evidences to demonstrate that the facility is committed to produce safe food
through the application of GMPs, GHPs and HACCP. The management is committed to
prevent all food safety issues as far as possible and wherever problems are noticed
immediate corrective actions are implemented and verified.

The Laboratory services both in house and external are utilized to verify the safety and
cleanliness of the food products regularly and to support the effectiveness of GMPs and
GHPs.

Information, communication and training are the thrust areas and the facility shall be fully
aware of these facts and supporting activities shall be in place to ensure food safety.

The regulators shall ensure that the system is in place in the FBOs facility, it is effective and
is in compliance with the regulations through regular inspection/monitoring, verification
and Auditing by Competent personnel. The competent authority shall have knowledge and
skill for conducting the activities to ensure public health. Spices Board has been involved in
the evaluation of the system and approval of the facility in India. Codex standards are the
benchmark and can be referred in the website provided as references.

The competent authority also shall have a documented procedure to perform their activities
the major task of which is verification and auditing for compliance (look at the EU
regulation 882 on Audit and verification and issuance of health certificates for export
Cargo) and US FDA regulation on supplier or importer verification program.

How to go about?

The Importance of food control cannot be over emphasized. As a collaborative effort of

government and industry it is the most effective way of protecting consumers from Food
borne health hazards and ensuring honest and fair practices in the trading of foods. Good
Agriculture Practices (GAPs), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), Good Hygiene
Practices (GHPs), Good Storage Practices (GSPs), Good Transportation Practices (GTPs),
Good Distribution Practices (GDPs), based on the risk of the activity is the need of the hour
in food trade. A food chain approach ensures confidence and promote not only spices, but
all the foods from India.

48
HACCP and trade

Codex standards, guidelines and other recommendations have become the specifically
identified baseline for safe food production and consumer protection under the SPS
Agreement. In this environment, Codex standards, guidelines and other recommendations
take an unprecedented importance with respect to consumer protection and food trade.

As a result, the work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, including the guidelines for the
application of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, has become the
reference for food safety requirements. In this light it is imperative that the Codex
guidelines for the application of the HACCP system be unequivocal in their guidance;
otherwise conflicts on food safety grounds could arise.

The application of HACCP as a public policy requires definition of the role of government in
the utilization of its resources to meet the requirements. Adequate steps should be taken to
facilitate food trade, such as assessment of food safety, training of personnel, technology
transfer and strengthening of the national food control system. A public private
participation could be thought of without losing the controls by the regulators.

References

Codex CAC/RCP1-1969, Rev.4 2003

FSSAI Standards and Regulations

Codex Standards for Additives and Contaminants

49
 Spices – Chemistry and functional properties

N K Leela

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

Spices are low volume, high value, export-oriented crops, extensively used in flavouring of
food and beverages, medicines, cosmetics and perfumes. Each spice is bestowed with
characteristic aroma imparted by the volatile constituents and flavor and colour
contributed by various nonvolatile constituents. In general spices contain mainly the
primary metabolites carbohydrate (60-70%), protein (2-8%), and fat (3-14%); secondary
metabolites which contribute to the flavor and aroma represent only 15-20%. The
secondary metabolites can be broadly classified in to volatiles and nonvolatiles.

1. Volatile constituents

The smell/ aroma of spice is contributed by its volatile oil which, can be easily separated by
hydro-/steam distillation. The distillate has oily appearance and hence called volatile oil. It
is also known as essential oil as it is the ‘essence’ of spice. Volatile oil is a mixture of 50-60
constituents; some of them are present in traces only. However the aroma is contributed by
all constituents. Spice volatiles are composed of two classes of compounds –terpenes and
phenyl propenes; terpenes include monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Chief components of
spice oils are indicated in Table 1.

Table1. Major volatiles of spices

Spice Plant part Major volatile constituents

Black pepper Berries t- caryophyllene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, limonene,
Ginger Rhizome Zingiberene, farnesene, ar-curcumene, β-
sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene, nerolidol, β-phellandrene,
linalool, citral, geranial,
Turmeric Rhizome α- turmerone, β- turmerone, ar-turmerone, α-atlantone
1,8-cineole, zingiberene, farnesene, ar-curcumene, β-
sesquiphellandrene
Cardamom Fruit 1,8- cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, linalool, linalyl acetate,
geraniol, α- terpineol, 4- terpineol

Cinnamon Bark t- cinnamaldehyde, linalool, t- caryophyllene, α-humulene,

cinnamyl acetate , eugenol
Leaf Eugenol, linalool, eugenyl acetate, t- caryophyllene
Nutmeg Seed & aril Sabinene, α-pinene, β-pinene, myristicin, elemicin, safrole
Clove Flower buds Eugenol, t-caryophyllene, eugenyl acetate
Allspice Fruit Eugenol
Coriander Seed Linalool
Cumin Seed Cuminaldehyde
Vanilla Fruit Vanillin

50
2. Nonvolatile compounds

Non volatile constituents are responsible for the pungency and colour of spices. These are
extracted by solvent extraction using, a suitable solvent, viz., acetone, ethylene dichloride,
methanol or ethanol. Acetone extract of spices contain essential oil and resinoids and the
concentrate is known as oleoresin.

Table 2. Nonvolatile constituents of spices

Spice Major nonvolatiles Flavour characteristics

Black pepper Piperine Pungent
Ginger Gingerols, shogaols Pungent
Turmeric Curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, Colour
bis-demethoxycurcumin
Chilli Capsaicin Pungent

3. Functional properties

Functional properties of major spices and the active principles involved are given below.

3.1 Black pepper

Black pepper is one of the most common spices packed with many health benefits. It has the
ability to reduce inflammation and optimize gastrointestinal action, and regulate enzymatic
reactions. Black pepper helps control blood pressure and prevents cancer due to its
antioxidant properties.

Black pepper essential oil has a spicy, warm, peppery and musky aroma. It is commonly
used to aid the digestive and nervous systems and is an important health food due to its
antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic potential. It helps relieving
aches and pains and arthritis and rheumatism; it lowers cholesterol level, detoxifies the
body and enhances blood circulation. The oil creates a warming sensation and increases
sweating when applied topically. It also serves as a diuretic and removes toxins from body.
Piperine is the chief alkaloid and the pungent compound present in black pepper berries. It
is an antipyretic and analgesic. It suppresses proliferation of human cancer cells and
possesses immuno modulatory, anti-oxidant, anti-asthmatic, anti-carcinogenic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-ulcer, and anti-amoebic properties. It has been shown to have effects on
P-glycoprotein and several enzyme systems, leading to chemoprevention, detoxification,
and enhancement of absorption and bioavailability of herbal and conventional drugs
(Meghwal & Goswami 2013). Antiepilepsirine, a minor component of pepper berries is used
to treat epilepsy in China.

3.2 Cardamom

The health benefit of cardamom includes its ability to aid digestion, lower blood pressure,
increase the metabolism. It is a diuretic. It is a rich source of the essential vitamins, namely,
riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, and the minerals like iron, manganese, and potassium.

51
Cardamom oil relieves headache, cough and cold. The oil stimulates the entire digestive
system and improves digestion of food. The oil has antiseptic, anti-microbial, aphrodisiac,
astringent, stomachic, stimulant, as well as diuretic effects. It neutralizes the adverse effects
of chemotherapy and reduces symptoms of nausea. It is used as a mouth freshener. The
most abundant component of oil is α-terpinyl acetate, which imparts pleasant smell to the
oil. 1,8- cineole, the second most abundant component imparts a camphoraceous taste. 1, 8-
cineole is found to be an efficient inhibitor of NF-κB, which is involved in anti-inflammatory
process. The oil is also used in skin care lotions.

3.3 Ginger

Ginger is known for treating indigestion, boosting appetite, and improving respiratory
conditions. The spice has many benefits including cancer prevention and is an essential
ingredient in all Ayurvedic medicines.

Ginger essential oil is one of the best natural remedies for indigestion, diarrhea, spasms,
stomach ache, nausea and vomiting. Ginger essential oil removes mucus from the throat and
lungs, and useful for treatment of the common cold and flu, cough, asthma, and bronchitis.
Ginger essential oil has the power to reduce cholesterol level and blood clotting. The oil has
antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects.

6- Gingerol the major pungent phenolic compound of ginger. It has antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, and antitumour promoting activities. 6- Gingerol and zingiberene present in
ginger act as protectants against gastric lesions in medications containing ginger. 6-
gingerol, 8-gingerol, and 10-gingerol are potent antioxidants and anti inflammatory
substances.

3.4 Turmeric

Turmeric is best known for its anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective and anticancer

properties. It aids in skin care, prevents cancer, and detoxifies the body.

Turmeric oil is known as one of the best essential oils for curing arthritis. It is used in
Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine to treat arthritis. Aromatic turmerone a prominent
component of the essential oil causes rapid regeneration of neural stem cells and is a
promising natural way to improve neurological diseases like Parkinson’s disease and
Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injury and stroke. A combination of ar-turmerone and
curcumin displayed the ability to help fight colon cancer. Constituents of the essential oil,
ar-turmerone, α-turmerone, β-turmerone and α-atlantone have anticonvulsant properties.
Recently ar-turmerone was found to be useful for treatment of epilepsi.

3.5 Cinnamon

Cinnamon is praised for its ability to reduce inflammation, eliminate pain and infections,
manage diabetes and improve heart health. It also helps in increasing cognitive function,
strengthening bones, preventing cancer, and improving health of eyes and skin. It is an
effective remedy for treating stomach problems like indigestion, nausea, vomiting, upset
stomach, diarrhea, and flatulence.

52
Studies have shown that sniffing the essential oil resulted in better cognitive activities such
as increased attention span, better virtual recognition memory, working memory and
visual-motor response speed. Hence the oil is used in aroma therapy. Cinnamon oil is used
in chewing gums and other mouth freshener products.

t-Cinnamaldehyde, the chief component of bark oil inhibits aldose reductase, a key enzyme
involved in ‘polyol’ pathway. Aldose reductase inhibitors prevent the conversion of glucose
to sorbitol and thereby prevent diabetic complications.

3.6 Clove

In traditional medicine clove is used to treat respiratory and digestive ailments. It relieves
pains; possesses anti-microbial properties which help in fighting oral diseases. It is good for
boosting the immune system, preventing cancer, and preserving bone health.

Clove oil is a anesthetic and analgesic. The health benefits of clove oil include treating a
variety of skin problems, toothache, indigestion, cough, asthma, headache, and stress. The
benefits are attributed to its antimicrobial, antiseptic, and stimulating properties.

Clove oil and its major component eugenol are potential antioxidants. Eugenol is proved to
be a safe anesthetic. t- Caryophyllene another predominant component of clove oil also has
anesthetic property.

3.7 Nutmeg

Nutmeg is a great source of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals necessary for human
health. It can fight fungal infections, work as an aphrodisiac, improve digestion, improve
hair and skin health. It also helps prevent macular degeneration, and reduce the chances of
developing cancer. Massage with a carrier oil containing 2-3 drops of nutmeg oil over
abdominal area will be effective in regulating digestive problems. As nutmeg has
antibacterial properties, it is useful in oral hygiene and prevents bad breath. As the oil has
soothing, calming and sedative nature, it offers relaxation effect and relieves stress,
anxiety, restlessness and tension.

Mace has the ability to boost the immune system, build strong bones, reduce depression,
stimulate digestion, and reduce excess gas and insomnia. It is also useful for skin health,
boosting hair health, and increasing blood circulation. Nut and mace contains
hallucinogenic constituents, namely, myristicin, elemicin and safrole. Myristicin is reported
to have anticancer property and safrole is carcinogenic.

Hence it can be seen that the flavouring/ medicinal/biological properties of spices are due
the chemical constituents present in them and there is great scope for exploiting the
potential of these compounds and synergizing the activities for treatment of various
diseases.

References

Chemistry of spices 2008 V A Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam, TJ Zachariah (Eds) CABI, UK.

Meghwal M, Goswami TK. 2013 Piper nigrum and piperine: an update. Phytother. Res. 27:
1121-30.

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Seo EJ, Fischer N, Efferth T. 2018 Phytochemicals as inhibitors of NF-κB for treatment of
Alzheimer's disease. Pharmacol. Res. 129: 262-273.

54
 Recent advances in processing technology

C K Sunil

Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology

Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.

1. Introduction

Food processing sector is of enormous significance for India’s development as it promotes

synergies and vital linkages between industry and agriculture. The growth in the sector and
simultaneous development in value chain and research are of great importance in the terms
of trade for Indian produce both in domestic and international markets and can be a crucial
contributor for the nation’s or global food security (reduction in losses of fruits and
vegetables can have better returns and improve the income level of the contributors in the
chain). The food processing growth in India is growing rapidly and it is recognized as the
priority sector in the National Manufacturing policy (2011) and food processing is also
accorded as ‘high priority’ status by government of India. The food processing sector
consists of six major segments; fruits and vegetables, milk, meat and poultry, marine
products, grain processing and groceries. The total value of food processing industry in
India was US $ 250 bn, which is expected to reach US $ 482 billion in 2020. Food processing
sector constitutes of 14 % of GDP through manufacturing. With its vast production base,
India has the potential to become one of the largest food suppliers to the world apart from
its own population. India is the second largest producer of food after china, and second in
world with a total arable land area of 159.7 mn hectares (394.6 mn acres) after US. India is
also one of the largest producers of certain fruits, vegetables, pulses, cereals, dairy products
and spices. India lacks agricultural raw materials of processable quality and only 7 percent
of the Indian perishables are processed, which is extremely low compared to countries such
as US (65%), Philippines (78%) and China (23%).

India produces a wide range of spices, because of the varying climates - from tropical to
sub-tropical to temperate. Under the act of Parliament, a total of 52 spices are brought
under the purview of Spices Board, whereas 109 spices are notified in the ISO list. The
spices production in India is around 7075500 tonnes in 2016-2017 (Spices Board). The
largest produced spice in India is chillies, followed by turmeric and garlic. Spices export
from India has shown a substantial growth during the last five years, registering an
compound annual average growth rate of 10% in rupee terms and 5% dollar terms of value.
During 2016-17, a total of 9,47,790 tons of spices and spice products valued Rs.17664.61
crore (US$2633.30 Million) has been exported from India as against 8,43,255 tons valued
Rs.16238.23 crore (US$ 2482.83 Million) in 2015-16 registering an increase of 12% in
volume, 9% in rupee terms and 6% in dollar terms of value.

Spice processing is one of the growing markets in India for the following reasons:
a. Production of spices
b. Increase in per capita income.
c. A largely growing domestic market for spices.
d. Increased usage of spices in the food.
e. Growing international demand for spices- Export demand.
f. Increasing number of working women.

55
 g. Well developed infrastructure and distribution network.

2. Novel Drying techniques for spices

Freshly harvest spices have to be properly processed as the fresh produce contains high
moisture content and high load of microorganisms. So immediate preservation, is needed to
prevent the biological deterioration due to their perishability characteristic. Dehydration or
drying is the most common, oldest and cost effective method used to reduce the water
activity to a safe limit, avoid losses, prolonged shelf life and minimize packaging demand.
The method of drying plays an important role in retention of the original characteristics of
the fresh spices. And also retention of taste, aroma, colour, appearance and nutritional value
to the maximum extent is important. In addition to the above the drying efficiency plays an
important role in the method of drying to be adopted. The drying efficiency involves energy
consumption, drying time and drying rate. Various conventional drying techniques have
been applied for spices which include solar drying, hot air-drying, freeze-drying, and
microwave drying. These have some disadvantages such as long drying times, excessive
energy consumption, resulting in undesirable quality products.

2.1 Solar-assisted hybrid drying techniques

Conventional drying techniques individually cannot achieve high drying efficiency with
least effect on the quality of the product. In relation to this many studies have been
conducted for combination of two or more drying methods. These studies have resulted in
synergistic effect, diminished energy requirement and drying times, as well as maintaining
the quality attributes.

The solar dying can be categorized based on solar energy utilization as;
a. Direct or open sun drying
b. Indirect solar drying or convective solar drying
c. Mixed mode or hybrid solar dying.

The solar dryers are categorized as natural and forced convection solar dryers, whereas
based on the structural aspects, they are categorized as; greenhouse type, collector type and
heat pump assisted.

Some of the applications of solar assisted hybrid dryers for spices are as follows
a. Forced convection solar tunnel dryer
b. Forced convection solar dryer
c. Forced convection solar tunnel greenhouse dryer
d. Solar greenhouse dryer with integrated a heat pump
e. Fluidized bed dryer coupled with a low temperature solar collector
f. Solar-assisted fluidized bed dryer integrated with a heat pump
g. Solar collector dryer
h. Solar-assisted heat pump dryer
i. Heat pump dryer
j. Forced convection solar air heating collector system assisted with granite
k. Forced convection solar dryer with a solar air collector and an auxiliary heater
l. Photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer equipped with a heat pump

56
 2.2 Microwave-assisted hybrid drying techniques

Microwaves (MW) are electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 300 MH and 300
GHz, and wavelength ranging from 100 cm to 0.1 cm. The frequency of MW used for
industrial food drying applications is 915 and 2450 MHz. The moisture in the material will
evaporate and transfer to the surface, as the water molecules repeatedly rotate as a result
of alternating electromagnetic field and heat is created throughout the material due to
friction. MW has many advantages over conventional drying such as rapid drying rate,
lower drying time, fast and accurate controls and clean process. To overcome the
limitations such as non uniform drying, possible textural damages, penetration depth etc., it
is combined with other drying methods.

Some of the MW hybrid dryers for spices are as follows;

a. Convective-microwave-ultrasound drying
b. Convective drying enhanced with microwave (CVMW)
c. CVMW drying and periodically with infrared radiation
d. Convective drying (CV) drying enhanced periodically with microwave and infrared
Radiation
e. CV drying enhanced periodically with infrared radiation
f. Intermittent microwave combined with convective drying
g. Microwave fluidized bed drying
h. Pulsed microwave-assisted hot air-drying
i. Microwave-vacuum (MV) drying
j. CV pre-drying and MV finish-drying
k. Microwave fluidized bed drying

2.3 Infrared assisted dryers

IR is the electromagnetic spectrum between the 0,78 µm, and 1000 µm. In general, infrared
radiation is split into 3 main categories, in function of the wavelength peak of the radiation:
a. Short-wave IR (SW): from 0,78 µm to 2µm
b. Medium-wave IR (MW): from 2µm to 4µm
c. Long-wave IR (LW): from 4µm to 1000µm

IR has advantages over conventional dryers such as; No direct contact with the product to
be heated or dried, high drying/heating rate with the product to be heated, infrared
radiation can be focused where it is needed in a defined time, infrared emitters can be
adjusted precisely to the material properties/geometry, cost savings thanks to high overall
efficiency and optimal infrared heaters lifetime, possibilities to link the IR system with air
drying sections to recover the energy. IR is used as single source of heating or it is combined
along with other drying methods such as hot air, microwave and solar drying.

2.4 Freeze drying

This method works on the principle of sublimation. The product is frozen and then the
surrounding pressure is reduced to allow the frozen water in the material to sublime
directly from solid phase to the gas phase. It is also called as
lyophilisation, lyophilization, or cryodesiccation.

57
Freeze dried products possess superior quality compared to other drying methods. The
quality is due to the absence of a liquid phase, as well as the low temperature process.
Freeze drying preserve flavor, color, and appearance of the dried products. It minimizes the
thermal damage to heat-sensitive nutrients. In addition, the texture is well preserved. Other
key benefits of freeze-drying include the high recovery of volatiles, retention of structure
and surface area, high yield, long shelf life, and reduced weight for storage, shipping, and
handling. The main disadvantage is cost., high energy consumption, maintenance and
operation cost. The cost of freeze-drying is four to eight times higher than conventional air
drying. As a result, the process is only economically feasible for high value food products.

2.5 Super heated steam drying

Superheated steam drying is drying with superheated steam (SS) in the absence of air in a
medium composed entirely of steam. The drying is due to the addition of sensible heat and
raise its temperature above the corresponding saturation temperature at a given pressure.
The great advantage is that recycling of drying method is possible, provided additional
sensible heat is added. Some of the drying methods such as fixed bed, fluidized bed, flash,
impingement, pneumatic and spray dryers are using superheated steam technology for
quality drying of produces.

3. Pre-treatments for drying

Pre-treatments prior to drying plays an important role in increasing the drying efficiency,
reduction in drying times, quality retention etc. Various pretreatments prior to drying like
blanching, chemical treatments (sodium meta-bisulphite, citric acid, calcium chloride,
ascorbic acid, osmotic solution).

Novel methods of pre-treatments have been or can be applied for the drying are as follows;
a. Osmotic dehydration (OD)
b. Vacuum
c. High hydrostatic pressure
d. Pulsed electric field
e. Ultrasound
f. Super critical CO2
g. Centrifugal Force
h. Microwave heating
i. Infrared

4. Decontamination

The spices are contaminated naturally which may result in microbial hazards due to
improper management during growth, harvest, drying and storage. The common
pathogenic bacterial species are Salmonella spp., Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli. The
use of contaminated spices will reduce the shelf life of food products.

Currently the decontamination methods used are;

a. Irradiation
b. steaming
c. chemical treatment with ethylene oxide.

58
Due to its carcinogenic potential to humans, the use of ethylene oxide is prohibited in the
EU. Gamma irradiation is used and advised for decontamination of dried spices with a
maximum average dosage of 10 kGy. The disadvantages are slight changes in the sensory,
flavor, aroma and antioxidative properties. The high temperature steaming is effective for
decontamination but it can decrease the volatile oil content and cause colour change and
increase moisture content.

Emerging technologies used for decontamination which have advantage over the above
mentioned methods are;
a. High hydrostatic pressure
b. Pulsed electric fields
c. Infrared radiation
d. Microwave radiation
e. Ultraviolet radiation
f. Cold atmospheric plasma treatment
g. Radio Frequency
h. Ozone

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. (a) Physical Methods and (b) Chemical Methods (Brodowska et al. 2014)

5. Cryogenic grinding

Cryogenic grinding is a method of powdering spices at sub-zero temperature ranging from

0 to - 70°F. The spices are frozen with liquid nitrogen as they are being ground. The
advantage of cryogenic grinding is lower temperature as compared to conventional
grinding where the temperature reaches upto 200° F. Solid materials are ground or
pulverized by using hammer mills, attrition mills, granulators or other equipment’s. The
production rate is higher, lower energy consumption, finer particle size can be attained,
uniform particle size distribution, no heat generation, are some of the advantages of
cryogenic grinding.

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6. Extraction methods of essential oils

Essential oils are a group of volatile aromatic compounds that are synthesised from
different plant species. Spices are rich in essential oils which are being used for many years
as flavouring agents for preparation of food, cosmetic products and therapeutic purposes.
The essential oils are liquid at room temperature and their solubility in water is low,
compared to that in other fats, alcohols etc.

The most applied methods of extraction are; a. Hydro distillation b. Steam distillation and c.
Solvent extraction. Apart from the above mentioned many novel technologies have been
applied for extraction of essential oils such as ;
a. Supercritical fluid extraction
b. Ultrasound
c. Microwave assisted
d. Ohmic heating
e. Pulsed electric field

Table 1. Methods of essential oil extraction (Roohinejad et al. 2018)

Name Investment Sample size Extraction Disadvantages Advantage

time
Hydro or Low >1000 L High Limited by Large scale
steam temperature
distillation
Solvent Low >1000 L High Limited by Large scale
extraction solubility
Ultrasound Low 600 L Low Problem for High cell
separation disruption
Microwave Medium 150 L Low Hot spots Cell disruption
Ohmic Medium Continuous Low Need of know High cell
heating how disruption
SFE High 300 L medium Need of Know Enhance mass
how transfer
PEF High Continous Medium Difficult of Electroporation
operation of wall cells

7. Adulteration detection

Adulteration can happen in the process chain at any point. The adulteration is mainly for
economic gains, which pose a threat to the health of the consumers such as addition of dyes,
nut protein etc. To determine the adulteration and stop fraud, fast and rapid screening
methods are required.

Some examples of Adulterants in species are as follows:

Chilli – rice flour, bran, dyes (sudan), sawdust, stone powder
Cumin – fennel seeds, almond, peanut shell
Oregano – olive leaves
Black pepper - papaya seeds
Turmeric – Chalk powder

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 Cinnamon – coffee husk
Saffron- Beet, Pomegranate fibres, safflower, meat fibres etc

The methods commonly used for detecting food adulteration were Liquid chromatography,
IR spectroscopy, Visual inspection and microscopy.

Recent analytical methods for the detection of adulterants are;

a. DNA Analysis - Sequence Characterised Amplified Region- Polymerase Chain Reaction
(SCAR-PCR) and DNA barcoding
b. Mass Spectroscopy- Gas Chromatography (GC-MS), Liquid Chromatography (LC-MS),
Isotope Ratio (IR-MS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-MS)
c. Spectroscopy- FTIR, Fourier Transform Near infrared (FTNIR), Raman, Hyperspectral
Imaging (HSI)and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
d. Combination of detection methods – ex- Microscopy-GC-MS
e. Chemometrics- Chemometrics is used to improve the chemical data obtained from
analytical instruments and to correlate the properties of samples with the use of
mathematics and statistical methods.
f. Detection of illegal dyes- Liquid chromatography and Enzyme-Linked Immuno
Sorbent Assay (ELISA)

References

http://www.indianspices.com/
Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf
Greiner and Farid Chemat. (2018) Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and
Spices. Published in Essential Oils in Food Processing: Chemistry, Safety and
Applications, Edited by Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
and Anderson de Souza Sant’Ana. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Agnieszka BRODOWSKA, Krzysztof ŚMIGIELSKI and Agnieszka NOWAK. (2014) Comparison
of methods of herbs and spices Decontamination. CHEMIK 2014, 68, 2, 97–102
Wei Jin, Arun S. Mujumdar, Min Zhang & Weifeng Shi. (2017) Novel Drying Techniques for
Spices and Herbs: a Review. Food Eng Rev., DOI 10.1007/s12393-017-9165-7.
Pamela Galvin-King, Simon A. Haughey, Christopher T. Elliott. (2017) Herb and Spice Fraud;
the Drivers, Challenges and Detection, Food Control (2017), doi: 10.1016/
j.foodcont.2017.12.031

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 Nutraceutical functions of spices

K R Anilakumar

Defense Food Research Laboratory, DRDO

Siddartha Nagar, Mysore, Karnataka.

Spices have been used since prehistoric times. Although they have been employed mainly as
flavoring and coloring agents, their role in food safety and preservation have also been
studied in vitro and in vivo. Spices have exhibited abundant health benefits in preventing
and treating a wide variety of degenerative diseases such as cancer, diabetes, ulcer, aging,
hepatotoxic, neurological, cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. Since ancient time,
humans are using spices as nutritional agents (Kaefer & Milner 2008). According to the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), spice is an “aromatic vegetable substance in the
whole, broken, or ground form, the significant function of which in food is seasoning rather
than nutrition” and from which “no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle
has been removed” (Sung et al. 2012).

More than 100 varieties of spices are produced throughout the world. Asia is the main
leader for the produce of spices, particularly of cinnamon, pepper, nutmeg, cloves, and
ginger, while Europe grows mainly basil, bay leaves, celery leaves, chives, coriander, dill
tips, thyme, and watercress. In America, instead, pepper, nutmeg, ginger, allspice, and
sesame are mainly produced (Prasad et al. 2011).

Although spices are used in the form of dried seed, fruit, root, bark, or vegetative material
for rituals, cosmetics and perfumery. Their flavoring, coloring and, particularly,
preservative properties have established wide applications both in the traditional food
preparations and in the food industry. Indeed, many compounds isolated from spices have
shown antimicrobial activity against some of the most universal microorganisms that affect
the food quality and shelf life (Tajkarimi et al. 2010). The start of spices through the meals
has various beneficial effects as well. For instance, they can stimulate the secretion of saliva,
promote the digestion, prevent from cold and influenza, and reduce nausea and vomiting
(Ravindran 2002; Sultana et al. 2010).

Spices have been important to mankind since the beginning of the past. Several legendary
verification including “Epic of Gilgamaesh,” and the “Bagavad Gita,” advise their use for
several principles. Because of their strong preservative quality, spices were also used for
embalming. Embalm means preserving biological materials from decay, originally with
spices and now usually by arterial injection of a preservative. According to Ayurveda, they
help to preserve the balance of the body humors (Gupta et al. 2013a). Besides these, spices
have been used to change the physical exterior of food. For instance, pepper and turmeric
changed the colour, appearance and the taste of food with many fitness benefits. Ginger,
nutmeg and cinnamon get better digestion, considered good for spleen and sore throats
(Prasad et al., 2011). Unfortunately, this beneficial effect of spices is not clinically proven.
However, ancient practices underline the health benefits of spices. Eventually, studies
highlighted other biological functions of spices, including antimicrobial, antioxidant
(Farhath Khanum et al. 1998 & 2000; Anilakumar et al. 2001, 2007 & 2009-10; Harsha
2012), anticancer (Nagaraj et al. 2010) and anti-inflammatory (Tajkarimi et al. 2010).

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1. Lowering blood sugar

A rapid overview of blood sugar (also called blood glucose; glucose is just a kind of sugar):
when you eat a food containing carbohydrates, your body uses those carbohydrates for fuel,
especially for muscles (that’s why sportspersons generally need more carbohydrates than
the rest of us). Insulin is the hormone that opens the door into the muscles, and lets the
carbohydrates in. In a metabolically healthy person, this will effect in a predictable model
after a carbohydrate-rich meal: a momentary increase in blood sugar, and then a decrease
as all that sugar leaves the blood and enters the muscles instead.

In diabetics on the other hand, blood sugar is chronically high, because diabetics either
don’t produce adequate insulin (Type 1) or their muscles aren’t reaching the message from
the insulin signalling (Type 2).

Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of work out. Some people
are more genetically at risk than others. Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90% of cases
of diabetes, with the other 10% due primarily to diabetes mellitus type 1 and gestational
diabetes. In diabetes mellitus type 1 there is a inferior total level of insulin to control blood
glucose, due to an autoimmune induced loss of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.
Analysis of diabetes is by blood tests such as fasting plasma glucose, oral glucose tolerance
test, or glycated hemoglobin (A1C).Within the prediabetes A1C range of 5.7 to 6.4 percent,
the higher the A1C, the greater the risk of diabetes. Type 2diabetes is moderately
preventable by staying a normal weight, exercising regularly and proper ingestion of
food. Treatment involves exercise and dietary changes. If blood sugar levels are not
adequately lowered, the medication like metformin (used for treating type 2 diabetes in
adults and children) is in general recommended. Many people may in due course also
require insulin injections. In those on insulin, routinely checking blood sugar levels is
advised; however, this may not be needed in those taking pills. Bariatric surgery often
improves diabetes in those who are obese.

Cinnamon can lower blood sugar, triglycerides, LDL or low-density lipoprotein, and total
cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes. It is advised to take one-fourth to one-half
teaspoon of cinnamon twice a day. The two major types of cinnamon used in food
preparation are Cassia and Ceylon cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon is known as “true
cinnamon” and is native to Sri Lanka. Some reports say that we should avoid the Cassia
cinnamon, because Cassia cinnamon contains a lot more coumarin, a fragrant organic
chemical compound in the benzo-pyrone chemical class, which can be toxic to liver.
However, this should not be a concern, unless you consume an incredible amount of
cinnamon. However, we believe your biggest concern should be to get fresh cinnamon in
order to bring in its health benefits. Most store-bought cinnamon is at least a year old and
may contain flour and other "fillers" like anti-caking agents /to prevent it from caking. Both
Cassia and Ceylon cinnamon are taken from the inner bark of the Cinnamomum tree,
however Cassia cinnamon is typically darker and has a much more pungent flavor. Ceylon
cinnamon is considered a more delicate spice because of its quality and sweeter taste.
Cassia cinnamon is hard and darker in color than Ceylon cinnamon, which is soft and brittle.
Consumption pattern: dip berries or grapes in low-fat sour cream, and then mix in 1
teaspoon freshly ground cinnamon and 1/4 cup brown sugar. There are good number of
studies on the anti-diabetic properties of other spices and fruits and vegetables like garlic,
turmeric, fenugreek, amla, guava, okra, etc.

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2. Anti-cancer properties

Garlic destroys cancer cells and may disrupt the metabolism of tumor cells. Studies suggest
that one or two cloves of garlic weekly provide cancer-protective properties. Let garlic keep
for 10 to 15 minutes after chopping and before cooking so the active form of the protective
phytochemicals form the cloves develops. Sprinkle on top of a salad or sauté fresh garlic
over low heat and mix with pasta, red pepper flakes, and Parmesan cheese. It has been
observed that aged garlic extract, exhibited radical scavenging activity. The two major
compounds in aged garlic, S-allylcysteine and S-allylmercapto-L-cysteine, had the highest
radical scavenging activity. In addition, some S-allylcysteine, have been found to retard the
growth of chemically induced and transplantable tumors in several animal models.
Therefore, the consumption of garlic may provide some kind of protection from cancer
development (Thomson & Ali 2003).

S-allyl cytseine

Paprika contains capsaicin, (found in cayenne and red chili peppers also) whose anti-
inflammatory and antioxidant effects may lower the risk of cancer. There is no specific
recommended dose, but moderation is probably the best way to go. Consume combined1.5
teaspoons paprika, 0.5 teaspoon ground thyme and 0.5 teaspoon ground red pepper to liven
up popcorn. Turmeric contains curcumin, which can inhibit the growth of cancer cells.
Curcumin is the yellow pigment associated with the turmeric, and to a lesser extent ginger.
It is a small molecule that is the prototypical 'curcuminoid', and has properties similar to
other polyphenols. At the same time it is unique in a way as it is a different class of
polyphenol. Try to have 0.500 to0.800 grams a day. Turmeric extract inhibited the cell
growth in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells at a concentration of 0.4 mg/ml and was
cytotoxic to lymphocytes and Dalton's lymphoma cells at the same concentration (Kuttan et
al. 1985). Clove is also reported to possess anti-tumor activity (Dwivedi et al. 2011).

3. Improving serum lipidprofile

Blood lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol) are always a topic of hot debate. A quick review
of the acronyms:

 LDL cholesterol: This is the “bad cholesterol” that most doctors agree you should
reduce (although even this is much more complicated than it sounds).

64
  HDL cholesterol: This is the “good cholesterol” that most doctors are fine with.
 Triglycerides: these are another kind of blood lipid associated with cardiovascular
disease – interestingly enough, the best way to raise triglyceride levels is not eating
fat, but rather eating a lot of refined carbohydrates!

Many of the same spices that help improve blood glucose control also help get better blood
lipids probably because insulin and blood sugar are very closely related to cardiovascular
health. Several of the cinnamon studies, noted that not only did cinnamon get better
subjects’ blood sugar levels, but it also lowered their LDL cholesterol, and increased or did
not change their HDL cholesterol. This means the subjects had an improved ratio of LDL to
HDL, a pattern associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Another study specifically on cholesterol found that fenugreek powder used as flavouring in
any food preparations the study subjects wanted to eat, lowered total cholesterol and LDL.
It’s true that poor blood lipid profiles are so closely associated with diabetes, and that both
are signs of overall inflammation, it’s not surprising that the same anti-inflammatory spices
provide benefits for both.

A third beneficial spice for blood lipid improvement is ginger. Work has shown that,
patients who got 3 grams (just under 2 teaspoons) of ginger every day had reduced
triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol compared to a placebo group.

4. Improving blood pressure

Hypertension (high blood pressure) doesn’t actually result from eating too much salt, but
that does not mean it is not an issue to be aware of. A diet low in sodium and rich in foods
containing potassium, calcium and magnesium—referred to as the DASH (Dietary
Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet—may help prevent or help normalize high blood
pressure. For high blood pressure, doctors recommend to cut down on salt intake. The
American Heart Association caps the healthy amount of sodium at 2,300 milligrams a day,
but recommends staying at or below 1,500 milligrams. Those amounts may resonance until
you consider that there are 575 milligrams in just a quarter teaspoon of table salt.

The enjoyment of spicy flavor is an important way to reduce salt intake and blood pressure,
no matter the type of food and the amount of food. People who consume spicy food almost
every day have a 14 percent lower risk of death than those who eat spicy foods less than
once a week, a 2015 study shows. Those same people are also less likely to die from
diabetes, cancer and ischemic heart disease.

Amazingly enough, cinnamon comes to the rescue again here: after 2 grams of cinnamon
per day for 12 weeks, a group of Type 2 diabetics showed lower blood pressure compared
to controls.

5. Food preservation

Spices don’t just act as antioxidants within the human body; they also help to check the
nutritional degradation of food during storage. In one study, for example, annatto and
coriander were extremely effective at preserving the valuable ω--3 fatty acids in meatballs
during storage. ω-3 isa type of PUFA and accordingly they’re quite fragile and prone to

65
oxidation and going rancid. The spices help to prevent that, keeping the fats intact
(Anilakumar et al. 2009) and healthy rather than oxidized and inflammatory.

Preventing the oxidation of these fragile fats helps avoid the creation of advanced glycation
end-products (AGEs), which produce oxidative stress and speed up the aging process. The
best illustration of this is researchers gave men with Type 2 Diabetes one of two types of
burger patties. The first patty was seasoned with salt only. The second had salt and
amixture of spices comprising cloves, cinnamon, oregano, rosemary, ginger, black pepper,
paprika, and garlic powder. Compared to the control group, the group eating the spiced
patties had fewer markers of oxidative stress: the antioxidative principles in the spices
protected the fats in the hamburger both during cooking and during digestion. The spiced
burgers also helped to improve the function of the endothelium, the cell layer that lines the
inner surface of blood vessels. Impaired endothelial function being a major risk factor for
cardiovascular diseases, this represents a significant cardiovascular advantage.

This is a dramatic illustration of how spices can help make our food better for us by
reducing oxidative problems that aren’t noticeable individually but add up over a period of
time.

6. Reducing delayed-onset muscle soreness

Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) is familiar to any athlete who is ever pushed it a
little too hard in the gym and woken up the next day barely able to move. A post-workout
meal could save us some of that pain. One group of researchers found that in this study on
female martial artists, 3 grams of ginger effectively reduced muscle soreness.

7. Improving gut flora function

As it turns out, our intestinal gut micro flora love spices just as much as we do, and they
seem to be particularly fond of turmeric. A spice instantly recognizable for its bright golden-
yellow color, turmeric is most frequently used in Indian and Southeast Asian cuisine.

In a study conducted on subjects were provided with curry either with or without turmeric.
After their meal, researchers tested the subjects’ breath to see how much hydrogen was in
it. The turmeric group had more hydrogen in their breath, and the carbohydrates in the
food seemed to be moving through their small bowel faster. These are both symbols of a
healthy response from the gut flora.

Another study, which gave subjects 72-144mg/day of turmeric for 8 weeks reported that
digestive symptoms were significantly got better in the intervention group compared to a
placebo group. This study measured irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms, but in
people without diagnosed cases of IBS, suggested that turmeric is beneficial even for people
without serious pre-existing problems.

8. Reducing motion sickness and nausea

Ginger rhizome can decrease motion sickness and nausea; may also relieve pain and
swelling associated with arthritis. Doses used in clinical trials range from 500 to 2,000 mg
of powdered ginger. (A quarter-size piece of fresh root contains about 1,000 mg). Ginger
can also hinder blood clotting, so if you are about to have surgery or are taking blood

66
thinners or aspirin, be sure to talk to your doctor first. For motion sickness, try having one
or two pieces of crystallized, or candied, ginger. Make sure ginger is listed as an ingredient;
some candied products or ginger ales contain a small amount or a synthetic form. You can
also add 0.25 teaspoon ground ginger to vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes, as well
as fresh fruit. Zingerone, also called vanillylacetone, is thought to be a key component of the
pungency of ginger, that imparts the "sweet" flavor of cooked ginger.

Gingerol

It’s sometimes surprising how often traditional folk remedies actually turn out to be useful
when we start studying them in laboratories. Ginger has traditionally been prescribed to
pregnant women as an antiemetic, an anti-nausea drug, to help treat morning sickness. And
now we can tell from studies that it actually works. As well as being not as much of
expensive than prescription drugs, this also has safety benefits: unlike harsh
pharmaceuticals, most famously thalidomide, ginger does not carry any risk of birth defects.

After several smaller studies, a 2005 meta-analysis showed that 1-1.5 grams of ginger every
day (about 1 teaspoon) was not only effective for nausea in pregnancy, but also free from
potentially unsafe side effects. There haven’t been any studies specifically on ginger for
other types of nausea, but if you always get bad motion sickness on planes or in cars, a cup
of ginger tea is definitely worth trying.

9. Metabolism boosting effects

Capsaicin, the active ingredient in red pepper and hot peppers, gets a lot of push for
its metabolism-boosting effects. But the studies show that this effect rely on enormous
quantities of red pepper, much more than anyone would ever want to eat unless they took it
in a pill. And secondly, this astounding metabolic effect only amounts to approximately 50
calories/day, even with such extreme doses. So sprinkling red pepper flakes on your salad
unfortunately won’t get you very far in terms of increased calorie burn.

What it might do, though, is help prevent junk food cravings in the first place. One
study gave subjects approximately 1 gram of red pepper flakes as part of a meal,
representing a normal food use of red pepper and found that after eating a meal with the
red peppers, subjects were less preoccupied with food, and had lower wish to eat fatty,

67
salty, or sweet foods. Interestingly enough, this effect was stronger among people who
didn’t normally eat spicy foods, signifying that spice-lovers eventually get used to the flavor
and need to eat a little more to get the same effect.

Another study found that after a lunch flavored with chili peppers, subjects showed no sign
of thermogenic benefits, but did have decreased levels of ghrelin (the hormone that tells
you when you’re hungry). In other words, they felt fuller after eating. Another
study confirmed this: after eating a bowl of red-pepper-flavored soup, subjects voluntarily
ate less at the rest of the food. In this study, though, the dose had to be high enough to
register as “spicy,” suggestive of that the taste of the red pepper is just as important as the
other biochemical aspects.

10. Anti-microbial action

Although the antimicrobial effects of spices and their derivates have been tested against a
wide range of microorganisms over the years, their mode of action is still pursued. Actually,
spices and their essential oils can include many different bioactive compounds present in
variable amounts. On the whole, the bioactive constituents of spices can be divided into
volatile and non-volatile compounds. The primary ones are mainly responsible for the
antimicrobial activity of spices. They can be divided in four groups: terpens, terpenoids,
phenylpropenes, and others such as products of degradation (Hyldgaard et al. 2012). All
terpenoids may be defined as a group of molecules whose structure is based on a variety of
but specific number of isoprene units (methylbuta-1,3-diene, named hemiterpene, with 5
carbon atoms).

All terpenoids may be defined as a group of molecules whose structure is based on a

various but definite number of isoprene units (methylbuta-1,3-diene, named hemiterpene,
with 5 carbon atoms).

Terpens are evaluated as lesser active antimicrobial compounds amongst the other
compounds. For instance, the weak activity of ρ-cymene, one of the main component of
thyme, is mainly related to its action as a substitutional membrane impurity. It can have an
effect on the melting temperature and the membrane potential, which in succession causes
a decrease in cell motility (Hyldgaard et al. 2012). On the other hand, terpenoids, such as
the well-known thymol and carvacrol, exert their antimicrobial activity due to their
functional groups viz., hydroxyl groups and delocalized electrons. For example, thymol can
interact with the membrane both with the polar head-group region of the lipid layer,
affecting the permeability, or with the proteins, determining an accumulation of mis-folded
structures (Hyldgaard et al. 2012; Marchese et al. 2016). These changes can lead to cell
leakages that consecutively can bring the cell to death (O'Bryan et al. 2015). Once it is inside
the cells, thymol can also interrupt important energy-generating processes such as the
citrate metabolic pathway and the synthesis of ATP (Hyldgaard et al. 2012; O'Bryan et
al. 2015). Carvacrol acts mainly at the level of the membrane as a transmembrane carrier of
monovalent cations, exchanging K+ with H+ in the cytoplasm (O'Bryan et al. 2015).

68
Other organic compounds present in spices are phenylpropenes, such as eugenol and
cinnamaldhehyde. The antimicrobial activity of eugenol is performed mainly at the level of
the membranes and proteins, inducing permeabilization and inactivation of enzymes. On
the contrary cinnamaldheyde, although less powerful than eugenol, can counter and cross-
link with DNA and proteins other than interact with cell membranes. Ultimately, spices
possess other degradation compounds originating from unsaturated fatty acids, lactones,
terpenes, glycosides, and sulphur- and nitrogen-containing molecules. For example, the
mode of action of , allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), a constituent of mustard, horseradish and
wasabi and certain vegetables found in the human diet, mostly in cruciferous vegetables is
generally considered as a non-specific inhibition of periplasmic or intracellular targets. It is
highly electrophile central carbon atom, it can hold back enzymes and affect proteins by
oxidative cleavage of disulfide bonds (Hyldgaard et al. 2012). AITC is the main constituent
of mustard essential oil. Clemente et al. (2016) reported that the essential oil of mustard
induced cell cycle arrest, resulting in bacterial filamentation.

Other than affecting membrane and intracellular stability, Szabo et al. (2010) reported that
clove, oregano, lavender, and rosemary essential oils possess quorum sensing inhibitory
activity. These molecules act primarily by quenching the quorum sensing system. The
phenomenon is also termed as quorum quenching (QQ). In addition, synthetic compounds
have also been found to be effective in QQ. For example, molecules such as furanones can be
internalized by bacteria, bind to LuxR-type proteins, and destabilize them (Camilli &
Bassler 2006). In this way spices could impact the motility, swarming, and biofilm
production of bacteria. Overall, antimicrobial activity of spices cannot be confirmed based
only on the action of one bioactive compound. The final activity is a synergistic effect of
more components.

Conclusion

Spices have been the essence of global cuisine since time immemorial. Indians have been
experienced with growing spices and also with their culinary and medicinal applications
much before the rest of the world. The entice of these spices has led to historic explorations,
wars and conquests and the country continues to keep hold of its stature as the Spice Bowl
of the World.India produces 75 varieties of spices of the 109 listed by ISO, and is also the
world's largest producer of spices. Spices have been closely connected to magic, cultural
traditions, preservation, medicine and wrapping up since early human history. Spices were
a key component of India's external traffic with Mesopotamia, China, Sumeria,
Egypt and Arabia, along with perfumes and textiles - as far back as 7000 years that was
much before the Greek and Roman civilisations. The health benefits of spices are
innumerable and in the future course of action spices and their active principles in the form
of capsules and pills categorized as nutraceuticals may be used for treating various diseases
and disorders.

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commonly used spices in Bangladesh. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 13, 340–343.
Sung B., Prasad S., Yadav V. R., Aggarwal B. B. (2012). Cancer cell signaling pathways
targeted by spice-derived nutraceuticals. Nutr. Cancer 64, 173–197.
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 Mechanization, processing and value addition in turmeric

R Visvanathan

A.D. Agricultural College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Tiruchirappalli-620 009, Tamil Nadu.

India is the land of spices and turmeric is an important spice. Besides India, Srilanka, China,
and Pakistan are the other tropical countries cultivating turmeric. India is the largest
producer and exporter of turmeric. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and West Bengal are the states extensively cultivating turmeric. USA, Germany,
UK, Japan and Middle East are the important importers of Indian turmeric in various forms.
India ranks 4th place in turmeric export and contributing 4% of world’s production. In India,
turmeric shares 11% of the spices exported and earns about Rs. 90 crores by export.

Turmeric (Curcuma Longa L) belonging to family Zingiberaceae occupies an important

position among locally consumed spices. It is a valuable ingredient in local cuisine and also
used in cosmetics and drugs. It has been in continuous use since ancient times for its
colouring, flavouring and digestive properties and shares distinct importance in Ayurveda
medicines.

In turmeric production, about 90% being consumed locally. Per capita consumption of
turmeric in India varies between 0.16 and 0.44 kg per annum in different states. The
consumption pattern being, 17-20% of fresh turmeric rhizomes is retained for seed
purposes, 1% used by farmer and 70% marketed as cured and dried turmeric. Turmeric is
9-10 months crop and harvested during January–March month. Turmeric rhizome is
harvested by digging after the plant withered.

The length and breadth of primary fingers of turmeric rhizomes varied from 82 to 44 mm
and 17.5 to 9.5 mm in the moisture range of 8 to 10% (w.b). At this moisture range, for the
secondary fingers, these values ranged from 34 to 12.5 mm and 18 to 6 mm, for the
varieties BSR I, BSR II and Erode, respectively.

The weight of 1000 rhizomes, bulk density, true density and hardness of turmeric rhizomes
ranged from 4.77 to 24.6 kg, 694 to 853 kg/m3, 1283 to 1318 kg/m3 and 137 to 27 kg for
these varieties in the moisture content range of 10 to 70% w.b. The specific gravity for
rhizome was 1.33.

Cultivation

A friable well drained red loamy soil in wet or garden lands under tropical conditions with a
pH range of 4.5-7.5 with good organic status is ideal. Turmeric can be grown in diverse
tropical conditions from sea level to 1500 m above sea level, at a temperature range of 20-
35C with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm or more, under rain fed or irrigated conditions.
Planting season varies with the area of cultivation and variety. Normally planting is done
during May-June or July- August in different tracts. In Kerala and other West Coast areas
where rainfall is sufficiently early, the crop will be planted during April-May with the
receipt of pre-monsoon showers. In Andhra Pradesh short duration varieties like Kasturi,
planting is done during second fortnight of May, Medium duration varieties like Kesari

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planting is done during 1st fortnight of June. May-June is suitable in Tamil Nadu conditions.
The land is ploughed once with cultivated plough and then with disc plough. For a hectare
12 tonnes of farm yard manure and 120 kg of neem cake are incorporated in the soil. For
the land preparation, the existing ploughs, cultivators and levelers are adequate.

Planting

Planting is done by dibbling rhizome in furrows behind the country plough. The seeds are
then covered with loose soil from the ridge. In Andhra Pradesh the broad ridge method of
planting is superior and more profitable than the ridge and furrow method, as the elevated
beds provide better drainage. The crop can be planted on flat beds or on ridges, on large
scale potato planter can be used for turmeric planting. Emergence of seedlings takes place
2-4 weeks after sowing. In single row system of planting 45 cm between rows and 15cm
among plants and 4cm depth is followed. Under drip system of irrigation the farmers follow
broad ridge system of planting in which 120 cm broad ridge formed and 2 rows of rhizomes
planted at a spacing of 15 x 45 x 45 x 15 cm and 4 cm depth. For mechanised planting of
turmeric, partially mechanised planters are available.

Fig. 1. Planting turmeric by manual method and using planter

Irrigation and interculture

Since the planting is done in ridges and furrows or raised bed system, irrigation through
surface irrigation is possible. To save water and increase water use efficiency, nowadays
micro irrigation is followed. Periodical interculture operation is done to remove the weeds.
Manual weeding used to be common with manual labourers and to save time and reduce
drudgery to the labourers, mechanical weeders are available and also familiar among the
turmeric growers.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Turmeric field under micro irrigation system (a), manual weeding (b) and
mechanical weeding (c)

Harvesting

Harvesting of turmeric rhizomes is done by manual digging using a specially designed hoe
type hand tool and collecting the rhizomes. By this method harvesting is done by a group of
labourers as a team. Power tiller operated digger is available for efficient digging of

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rhizomes. Using the power tiller operated digger 1.5 acre can be covered in a day. The cost
of the digger is Rs.15,000/-. Compared to manual digging, 65 % saving in cost and 90%
saving in time can be achieved. The damage caused to the rhizomes is 0.5% as compared to
4.2% in manual harvesting. The undug rhizomes left in the field is 0.8% as compared to
4.8% in manual harvesting.

Fig. 3. Manual method of harvesting of turmeric rhizomes

Tractor drawn turmeric digger can harvest turmeric rhizomes from 0.5 acre in one hour.
The cost of the digger attachment is price: Rs. 25,000/-. This digger results in 70% saving
in cost and 90% in time when compared to manual digging. Extent of damage caused to the
rhizomes is very much less (2.83%).

Fig. 4. Power tiller operated turmeric digger Fig. 5. Tractor operated turmeric digger

Processing

Curing of turmeric is the term used to indicate processing of turmeric rhizomes. Curing
process involves boiling of rhizomes, drying and polishing. Boiling of rhizomes results in
uniform distribution of colouring pigments and quick drying.

Fig. 6. Heap of harvested turmeric rhizome and turmeric sheath

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Traditional method of turmeric boiling

In the conventional method, a vessel made of galvanised iron sheet as shown in figure is used.
Framers cultivating turmeric will have such boiling vessels on their own to boil the produce
at farm level. Cow dung slurry was used traditionally and discontinued nowadays. However
Sodium bi carbonate, 0.1% (100 g /100 litre) was recommended for getting bright colour for
the turmeric rhizomes. Nowadays only water is used for boiling turmeric rhizome. Also tins
were used for boiling of rhizomes. In the traditional turmeric boiler, 50-60 kg per batch can
be boiled in 45–60 minutes. The major disadvantage of using this boiler is higher fuel
requirement. The completion of boiling is judged by the easy penetration of a pin / needle /
stick. Also judged from the uniform distribution of colour inside the turmeric.

Fig. 7. Boiling turmeric rhizome using traditional drum

Fig. 8. Judging completion of boiling the rhizomes

Farm level improved turmeric boiler

The improved farm level turmeric boiler is a steam boiling type and consists of a trough
(outer drum), inner perforated drums and lid. The outer drum is made of 18 SWG thick
mild steel to a size of 1.2 x 1.2 x 0.55 m with four numbers of inner drums of 48 x 48 x 45
cm size, made of perforated sheet and provided in the outer drum. Also the outer drum is
made of 18 SWG thick mild steel to a size of 1.85 x 1.2 x 0.55 m with three numbers of inner
drums of 90 x 40 x 40 cm size, made of perforated sheet and provided in the outer drum.
Also the drum can be made to any size to suit the requirement of the farmer with any
capacity. A lid is provided with hooks for easy lifting and also provided with an inspection
door. For easy draining and cleaning, an outlet is placed at the bottom of the drum. The
inner drums are provided with a leg for a height of 10 cm, so that the rhizomes will not have
contact with water filled in the outer drum for about 6-8 cm depth. The outer drum is
placed with more than half of its depth below the ground level by digging a pit, which serves
as a furnace. This furnace is provided with two openings, one for feeding the fuel and the
other one for removing the ash and unburnt.

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 Fig. 9. Improved farm level turmeric boiling unit

After placing the turmeric boiler in the furnace, about 60 litres of water is added (6-8 cm
depth) to the outer drum and about 50 kg of well washed rhizome is taken in each inner
drum and placed in the boiler and the lid is placed in position. Using the available
agricultural waste materials, mostly, the turmeric leaves, removed while harvesting the
rhizomes will be adequate as fuel for turmeric boiling. During the boiling process, it takes
about 25 minutes to produce steam and boil the rhizomes and 10-15 minutes for the
subsequent batches. Through the inspection door, the stage of boiling of the rhizome is
assessed by pressing the rhizomes using a hard pin / needle. Using long poles, the lid is
removed and the inner drums are lifted one by one. For the next batch of boiling, about 12-
15 litres of water is added to the outer drum, depending on the water lost by evaporation.
The next batch of rhizomes is loaded in all the drums and heating is continued. At the end
of the boiling process, all the drums need to be cleaned free of mud and soil to avoid
damage and enhance the life of the gadget.

Salient features:

 Capacity of the boiler is about 200 – 240 kg per batch and 50 quintals per day of 8
hours.
 Fuel requirement is 25-30 kg of agricultural waste materials (turmeric leaves/sheath)
per batch of 200 or 240 kg of rhizomes.
 The cost of the unit (with 200 or 240 kg per batch capacity) is about Rs.25,000/-
 Cost of boiling of turmeric rhizomes is Rs.20 per quintal

Comparative study of improved turmeric boiler with conventional method

Details TNAU Improved Conventional method

method
Method Steaming Immersed in water
Capacity, kg 4 boxes x 80 kg 2 boxes x 100 kg
Size of box, m 0.48 x 0.48 x 0.15 0.90x 0.60 x 0.40
Weight of the container, kg (each) 10 15.5

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 Water required for boiling, litres 60 30 x 2
Water used, litres 12-15 60
Time taken for boiling, minutes 12-15 35
Fuel required, kg per batch 25-30 35
Gross weight handled after boiling 90 145
Moisture content, % (w.b) before 72 72
boiling
Moisture content, % (w.b) after boiling 80 84
Savings in time,% 200 -
Savings in fuel,% 300 -

Large scale steamer

For boiling turmeric at farm level in large quantities, turmeric rhizomes are boiled using
steam. Both farm level units owned by the farmers and for custom hiring are available. It
takes about 12-15 minutes for a batch of about 100 kg. Steam is produced using farm wastes
and requires about 0.5 kg per kg of rhizome. The boilers owned by the farmers for use at farm
level are stationary and the units available for custom hiring are mobile units. The cost of the
units range Rs.1 lakh to 3 Lakhs. The major advantages of this unit are less boiling time, less
fuel requirement, less drying time and no need for skilled labourer.

Fig. 10. Large scale turmeric boiling unit using steam

Drying and cleaning

The cured produce is dried in thin layers for 10 to 15 days. Rounds and fingers are dried
separately. The rounds take a longer time for drying. The rhizomes have some adhering
roots which ordinarily drop off during the process of curing and drying. Whatever remains
is finally removed along with the scales by manual labour.

The cooked fingers are dried in the sun by spreading in 5 cm thick layers on bamboo mat or
drying floor. A thinner layer is not desirable, as the colour of the dried product may be
adversely affected. During night time, the material should be heaped or covered. Artificial
drying, usually cross-flow hot air at a maximum temperature of 60C is also found to provide
a satisfactory product. In the case of sliced turmeric artificial drying has clear advantages in
giving brighter coloured product than sun drying which tends to suffer surface bleaching.
When fully dried, the turmeric rhizomes become hard, stiff and brittle. Dried turmeric usually
has a low moisture content of 6%.

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The effect of different processing conditions on the drying rate was found by conducting
studies. The processing conditions like boiling, steaming, peeling and slicing showed no
significant difference in the volatile oil or total colour after drying. Boiling or steaming the
rhizome, however, reduces the drying time and gives better appearance to the dried product.
Slicing considerably reduces the drying time as a method of processing this may have an
advantage over the conventional drying of fingers, especially for making into powder or for
oleoresin production. The control sample dried without any treatment was wrinkled in
appearance and was difficult to polish. Boiling also ensures even distribution of colour in the
rhizomes.

Fig. 11. Drying of turmeric rhizomes on mud floor and cement floor

The effect of drying of turmeric rhizomes boiled using improved farm level turmeric boiler on
both mud floor and cement floor are given in Fig. 12.

a. Mud floor b. Cement floor

Fig. 12. Drying curves for turmeric boiled in improved farm level boiler

Polishing

Manually the dried turmeric rhizomes are rubbed against the hard surface of the drying floor
or trampled under feet covered with pieces of gunny bags. The scales and root bases are
separated by winnowing. The cleaned big pieces are separated as they fetch a premium price.
Broken pieces are collected separately. Power operated polisher is popular among the
farmers and polishing is done before marketing. Normally these types of polishers are
operated by a suitable power source, either an engine or motor. A view of the power
operated turmeric polisher is shown in Fig.13.

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 Fig. 13. A view of turmeric polishing

Polishing cleans the surface and improves colour and appearance. Also colouring is done
using turmeric powder. After polishing and colouring the turmeric will be in lemon yellow to
orange colour. The capacity of the polishing units is500 kg to 1000 per batch. It takes about
45 – 60 minutes per batch and 4% will be wasted as dust. The yield after polishing will be 15 -
25% on fresh basis.

Value addition

Colouring and grading

Colouring the produce with a yellow colour before exporting to some places to make it more
attractive is practiced in some areas of the country. This is done in turn ways, dry colouring
and wet colouring. In dry colouring, a yellow dry product, called "Middle chrome' is lightly
dusted over a small heap of cured turmeric and thoroughly mixed with it. Wet colouring is
done by adding the colour in water and sprinkling the coloured water on half polished, cured
turmeric. The product is well stirred and then left to dry for sometime, usually a week, before
it is bagged for export. The wet colouring gives a better finish than by the dry colouring
method.

In some areas of the country, a special treatment is given in turmeric to improve the
appearance of the product by soaking the material in an aqueous extract of tamarind for 10
minutes to which a paste of turmeric is added. For giving a brighter colour, the boiled, dried
and half polished fingers are taken in baskets which is shaken continuously when an
emulsion is poured in. When the fingers are uniformly coated with the emulsion, they may be
dried in the sun. The composition of the emulsion required for coating 100 kg of half boiled
turmeric is: alum 0.04 kg, turmeric powder 2 kg, castor seed oil 0.14 kg, sodium bisulphate 30
g, concentrated hydrochloric acid 30 ml. This is a harmless method of colouring, dispensing
with the chemicals which are injurious to health. This method deserves to be encouraged for
use in all turmeric processing centres in the country.

Grading is an important operation in processing of turmeric. Turmeric is graded into bulbs

and fingers in different fraction based on their size manual grading consumers more time
and labour

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Extraction of curcumin and turmeric oil

Curcumin is the principal colouring constituent which imparts the characteristic yellow
colour to turmeric. Curcumin present in turmeric is responsible for considerable quantities
of it being converted to `Kum-Kum' a dye used in cosmetics. Use of curcumin is also
reported in paint and varnish industries.

Curcumin has the molecular formula, C21H20O6 and separates as an orange yellow
crystalline powder having a melting part of 180, 183°C, insoluble in water, slightly soluble
in either, soluble in alcohol and in glacial acetic acid, its structure was shown to be 1-7 bis
(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl)-1, 6-heptadiene-3, 5-dione existing in the exolic state (Fig.
available). Of the different solvents suggested for isolation of curcumin from turmeric,
alcohol, ethylene dichloride, benzene and acetone have been used by many workers. It is
not extractable by petroleum solvents. In fact, hexane has been suggested as a solvent for
removing the bitter principles of turmeric without affecting the curcumin content.The
curcumin content of twelve common cultivars has been summarized in Table 1.

Fig. 14. Grading, pulverization and packaging in turmeric processing units

Fig. 15. Traditional turmeric products

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 Fig. 16. Turmeric value added products (curcumin, oleoresin and turmeric oil)

Table 1. Curcumin content of leading turmeric varieties

Variety Curcumin content, Variety Curcumin content,
% %
Waigon 3.5 Miraj 2.87
Tekurpeta 1.82 Sugandham 3.62
Erode 3.00 Rajapuri 3.45
Alleppey 5.44 Duggirala 2.22
Gadhri 3.49 Cudduppah 2.46

Marketing

In marketing and export of turmeric and turmeric product many important factors related
to food safety are required to be considered. Some of tem are as follows:

 Good Cultivation Practices

 Good Manufacturing Practices
 Following the principles of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) in
processing of turmeric products
 Minimum levels of residues of pesticides / chemicals
 Use of good source of water - lead/ chromium / Iron free
 Selection of vessel used for boiling – to avoid copper vessel
 Drying on clean surfaces and avoid– soil, dust/ dirt surfaces and avoid infestation.
Cement floors may be preferred.

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 Fig. 17. View regulated market committee

The American Spice Traders Association has laid the following ASTA specification for
turmeric products for their imports.

Extraneous / foreign matter, % 0.5

Excreta, mammalian, mg/pound 5
Excreta, other, mg/ pound 5
Whole insect dead, numbers 3
Insect defiled, % weight 2.5
Mould, % weight 3

The following are some of the standards available for the turmeric products.

i. Turmeric Whole: IS: 3576-1991

ii. Turmeric powder: IS:2446-1980
iii. Turmeric Oleoresin: IS:10925-1984
iv. ISO – Turmeric whole and ground: ISO 5562-1983.

Conclusions

Turmeric an important spice crop plays a vital role in the Indian trade and export. Number of
industries is functioning on the pre harvest and post harvest activities related to turmeric.
Use of improved methods of processing and practices to adopt food safety will further
increase the trade activities of turmeric and the profit to the farmers and export earning will
increase.

References

Balashanmugam, P.V. 1991. Processing and curing of turmeric South Indian Horticulture.
39(4): 214-216
Ghadge, S.V., Agarwal, K.N., Singh, R.K.P. and Satapathy, K.K.2001. Turmeric mechanisation in
Meghalaya- A case study of Shangpung Village,Jainta Hills. Indian Journal of Hill
Farming. 14(2):99-104.
Gupta,R.K. and Kachru,R.P. 1992. Turmeric: Physical properties of turmeric rhy-zomes and
power spice India.V(10): 7,8 & 14
http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/govt_schemes_services/aas/turmeric.html
Kathirvel,K. and Manian,R. 1999. Turmeric Harvester. Spice India. XII (8): 21 & 22

82
Moghe,S.M., Zakiuddin,K.S. and Arajpure, V.G. 2012. Design and Development of Turmeric
Polishing Machine. International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER). 2(6):
4710-4713
Prasad,J. and Singh,A. 1980. Processing of turmeric. Fiji Agricultural Journal. 42(2): 23-25.
Sharma,M.P. and Roy,A.N. 1984. Storage rot in Seed rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma long L.)
and its control. Pesticides 18 (11): 26-28
VenugopalaRao,B. and Sukumaran,C.R. 1985. Mechanical device for grading turmeric. The
Hindu, August 3, 1995.
Yadav,K.D. and Kulkarai, P.R. 1990. Turmeric: Present Scenario Spice India. 111(4): 5-8

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 Income generating enterprises in spices sector and business initiatives at
ICAR-IISR

T E Sheeja

ITM-BPD unit, ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode-673 012, Kerala.

1. Introduction

India is considered as the spice bowl of the world and the land of spices. Spices refer to such
natural plants or vegetable products or mixtures in whole or ground form that are used for
imparting flavor, aroma and pungency to and for seasoning of food items. India is endowed
with the diverse soil and climatic conditions, which helps in accumulating the unique flavor
and quality of Indian spices and it is in great demand in other countries. Hence, there is a
good scope to meet this huge demand by enhancing production. Due to the labour intensive
nature of cultivation it is a source for providing employment to rural population and is
regarded as a low volume high value crop.

Though all kinds of spices are grown in India, commercial cultivation in India is undertaken
on 27 spices including herbal spices and among major spices black pepper, cardamom,
ginger, turmeric and chillies occupy major area. India is the largest producer, consumer and
exporter of spices, and accounts for a menacing position in terms of world spice trade with
the spice exports expected to reach a whopping US$ 3 billion mark by the financial year
2020. The total production of spices is about 1063000 MT with the value of $ 1377339
billion. India is producing more than 4 million tons of spices and is exporting around 180
spice products in over 150 nations. Total spices export from India stood at 947,790 tonnes
valued at US$ 2.63 billion in the year 2016-17, registering a year-on-year growth of 6.0% in
value terms.

Major importers of Indian spices are USA, China, Vietnam, UAE, Indonesia, Malaysia, UK, Sri
Lanka, Saudi Arabia and Germany. Top spices produced in the country include pepper,
cardamom, chilli, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, ajwain, dill
seed, garlic, tamarind, clove, and nutmeg among others. The total area under spices in India
is 2.3 million hectares and the annual production of spices in our country is around 27 lakh
tonnes, valued approximately at Rs. 13000 crore. The Indian spice sector has registered a
rise by 26.0% in terms of dollar value registering a year on year growth of 3.0% in spice
export rate. The net share of Indian spices in world trade is about 35.0%. India’s share of
world spice trade is 45-50% by volume and 25-30% by value. Share of spices in total
agricultural export is 6.0% and 90% of the total production is for domestic consumption.
The major contributor to income generation through export is black pepper contributing
18850 tonnes valued at 8000 lakhs. This is followed by value added spices including curry
powder/paste, mint products and spice oils and oleoresins.

Income generation is also possible through interventions in the allied industry involved in
spice cultivation. This involves manufacture and sale of various inputs required for
cultivation of spices including a fertilizer, nutrient mixture, biofertiliser, manufacture of pre
and post harvest machinery etc.

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2. Categories of spice and spice products with income generation potential

Value added products

Value added products are primary products that have been processed, packaged and
upgraded for quality in order to realize a high value for the primary product. This in turn
encourages the growth of ancillary industry and fetches substantial foreign exchange.
Majority of total spices trade (about 85%) is in the raw and bulk form. Thus there is a vast
scope for exporting value added spice products in India.

The value added spice products are advantageous as they have unique flavor, uniform
strength and quality, hygienic processing, easiness in storing, helps promotion of allied
industries and more export potential. Therefore, focus should be on value addition of spices
as there is a vast scope to export value added spice products. The world is now moving
towards ready to eat meal and it is very lucrative to invest in developing innovative on the
shelf products

The following are the different kinds of value added products in spices:

(i) Spice oils and oleoresins

Oils and oleoresins are extracted from spices and are used in a variety of preparations
involving fish, meat, and vegetables and even soups, sauces, chutneys and dressings. Spice
oils and oleoresins and spice extracts are also used in flavouring and for visual impact of
various food products. The most popular spices in baking industry are ginger, cinnamon
and nutmeg. They are also used in the confectionery industry for e.g. cardamom oil and
other extracts in chocolate and toffees. Also, oleoresins of pepper, chilli, celery, turmeric are
widely used to prepare many snacks. Beverage industries extensively use spice oils for
preparation of beverages of ginger beer and other soft drinks. Spice oils are also used in the
cosmetic industry, involving creams, soaps, shampoos, lipsticks, deodorants, perfumes etc.
Hygiene products like toothpastes, mouthwashes etc and aerosols like air fresheners,
polishes, cleansing agents etc also employ spice oils and oleoresins. They are also used in
pharmaceutical products for taste and aroma.

3. Venturing into spice business

1. Cultivation

Spices are mostly grown in the tropical regions and do not require abundant land or
advanced techniques or machines. Clean and scientific cultivation of spices right from site
selection, selection of the right variety, proper agronomy and post harvest management is
critical for successful spice cultivation and harvest.

2. Trading & processing

If we wish to avoid the burden of spice cultivation due to lack of sufficient land, knowledge
or time a feasible alternative would be to buy fresh or half-processed spice produce from
the farmers. It can be processed by the buyer himself or sold to processing industries for a
profit or exported. Processed spices are usually in the dried from and, therefore, possess

85
longer shelf life and can be stored under normal conditions and do not require advanced
storage facilities.

3. Blending/Branding:

The spices could be blended to develop a product with good demand in the market. The
final products are then uniquely branded and made available to consumers. Once packaged
attractively these ordinary spices garner good demand and can be easily sold with
aggressive marketing as is the case with several popular brand names. Attractive business
opportunities arise when spices are sold ‘naked’ in the open market and when consumers
have to buy each spice and blend them at home due to lack of popular spice blends in the
local market. Such circumstances provide a great opening to market and branded spice
blend. Packaging is, however, crucial. Packing the spices in an attractive eco-friendly and
safe container, bottle, or sachet and giving the unique product a name to set it apart is an
integral and vital part of such business ventures.

4. Ready to eat meal

Now due to the fast life style, everyone prefers ready to eat meals. A hygienically and
nutritionally prepared meal shall be a boon to the busy working women and bachelors and
will be a sprightly business in no time. Several Ready to serve (RTS) drinks can be exploited
by blending spice flavours in fruits or vegetables.

4. How to increase revenue as a spice entrepreneur

While higher revenues are always welcome, the focus should be on finding cost-effective
ways to bring more cash into the company. Maximizing revenue in a fledgling spice
operation can be achieved by the following:

 Work on product line: This is the easiest way improve a spice business. Focus may
be given on products like white pepper, dehydrated green pepper, crushed chilli and
crushed black pepper, green cardamom etc. The customer base can be broadened by
bringing in new and rare spices
 Online marketing: Online marketing and virtual trade are gaining momentum day by
day. It is the best way to reach spices to remote locations which can enhance our
business boundaries and in turn our profit. It is also wise to engage professionals for
managing your online portfolio of products and for Internet marketing.
 Door to door delivery: Reaching the product onto doorsteps of consumers can
improve the business potential. Engaging dedicated staff to mediate flawless delivery
of your products at consumers doorsteps will definitely increase consumer trust and
satisfaction
 Regularly updating business information: It is very important to update regularly
on the market trends and to modify your strategies in tune with the state-of-the art
consumer preferences

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5. Successful business plans for spices business

Make a business plan

 Preparing a good business plan is the most critical thing for a new venture, you may
have to engage an expert to make a good business plan for you
 This is essential to fix your goals and strategies on a go-forward basis.
 Furthermore, a good business plan will help you avoid key startup mistakes.
Including accurate industry metrics and conservative forecasts, the new business
venture will be less vulnerable to market fluctuations and catastrophic surprises.

Check out the Competition

 Competition is the part and parcel of any business venture. Inventory of competitors
and their product portfolios and uniqueness need to be recorded. Accordingly it is
wise to prefer a less competitive environment or modify your product in an
innovative manner to stand the competition. You may also need the assistance of a
business expert to chalk out strategies for tackling the situation.

Finding a Business Mentor

 It is important to learn from people who are already in the business. This is easier
said than done because once you are identified as a competitor there will be less
number of people who will come forward to provide you any advice.
 But, it would be relatively easier to find a mentor who owns a similar business in a
far flung place. Such a business owner might be more open to revealing various
business issues in the spice industry.

Acquisitions vs Startups

 To become a business owner, you'll either need to buy an existing business or start a
new one from the scratch. Buying an existing spices business may be the better
choice, since an already established spices business will have all the resources and
processes new business owners find very difficult to acquire. The key is to locate a
business-for-sale that closely matches your ownership philosophy and professional
objectives.

Consider franchising

 As an entrepreneur, your chances of making your new business a successful venture

can be markedly enhanced if we purchase a franchise and benefit from their success
and lessons learned. Hence, prior to starting a spices business, it is important to
determine whether purchasing a franchise might increase our chances of success.

6. Income generating enterprises and business incubation at ICAR-IISR, Kozhikode,

Kerala

With the primary objective of technology transfer to end users, efforts for technology
commercialization was given a great impetus in the ICAR system in the recent past. Unique
bodies like ATMC (Agricultural Technology Management Committee), ZTMC (Zonal Agro-

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Technology Management Committee), ITMU (Institute Technology Management
Committee) and BPD units (Business Planning and Development Unit) were created at Head
quarters and within Institutes for coordinating IPR protection and commercialization of
technologies developed by Scientists. Several private entrepreneurs and farmers were
benefitted by this approach of non-exclusive licensing of technologies and this public
private partnership mode has created a win-win situation for technology provider,
entrepreneur and the end user. The spread of technologies have taken a faster pace and
income generation by ICAR institutes as well as entrepreneurs has shown a manifold
increase in the past five years.

At Indian Institute of Spices Research, several farmers friendly technologies have been
developed that was instrumental in enhancing farmer income and reducing drudgery. The
institute has developed high yielding and high quality lines of black pepper, ginger,
turmeric, cardamom, nutmeg, cinnamon etc. Ginger, turmeric and black pepper varieties
that is very popular across the country. Since 2010 Institute has issued several non-
exclusive licenses for these technologies and has covered the states of Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Telengana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh etc. A total of 14 licensees exist across the country for commercial production of
the popular varieties of turmeric, ginger and black pepper..

The IISR mandate is research and development of new varieties and commercial level
production is not its cup of tea. However, with the active participation of the licensees for
IISR varieties, the huge demand for seed and planting material is fulfilled to some extent.
Still only 5% of the total demand is satisfied. In the wake of a renewed interest in
neutraceuticals and secondary metabolites from spices such as oleoresin from black
pepper, ginger oil, curcumin from turmeric etc., demand for high quality lines of IISR is
increasing day by day. More number of authentic licensees is required to satisfy the ever
increasing demand for planting materials especially in these spice crops.

Other relevant technologies in spices sector include inputs for improving production and
biocontrol agents for common diseases in spices. One of the breakthrough inventions,
gaining momentum in spice growing belt of the country is the micronutrient technology
developed by IISR. The formulation gives an assured 15-25% yield increase and also
improves crop health. Six formulations have been developed one each in black pepper and
cardamom and two each in ginger and turmeric based on soil pH. All these technologies are
under review for patent grant. About 9 entrepreneurs based at Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh have availed 17 licenses for these technologies. All the
entrepreneurs have broken even in the first year of adoption of the technology and the
annual returns of the entrepreneurs range from 15-50 lakh per annum. The investment for
the technology is approximately 5 lakhs. The institute is also providing incubation support
at its pilot facility for startup entrepreneurs and already two entrepreneurs have enrolled
for on-campus incubation and one has graduated.

Biocapsule or microbial encapsulation technology is yet another highly innovative

technology developed by IISR and is building its inroads into not only spices but also in
other crops due to the unique nature and versatility of application. The technology is
basically encapsulating the microbial agent, either a plant growth promoter or a biocontrol
agent into a gelatin capsule thereby reducing the biomass required for single application.
The capsule can with hold bioagent at a load of 109 and this necessitates requirement of a
single capsule dispensed in 200-1000 litres of ordinary water for 200-1000 plants @ 1 lt

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per plant. The cost of application is reduced more than 10 times compared to talc
formulation of the same bioagent. Moreover the shelf life of the bioagent in the capsule is
extended upto 18 months. The technology was licensed by a woman start up entrepreneur,
and the product is being sold under two brand names “Trichocap”, carrying Trichoderma
harzianum and “Powercap” having PGPR for black pepper. Within 1.5 years of incubation,
the startup was able to sell about 20000 capsules of Trichocap and Powercap @ 100 rupees
per capsule. Though the price per capsule might look towards higher side, it is more than 10
times cheaper compared to the talc formulation and very light on the farmers pocket as well
as shoulders. Recently the technology was licensed to a established biocontrol
manufacturing company based at Chattisgarh (SRT Agro science Pvt Ltd) and the future
plans of the company is to dispense and sell about 18 bioagents through encapsulation in
various crops including spices, rice, wheat, vegetables, sesame, mustard, chick pea to name
a few.

IISR has an array of biocontrol agents identified for various diseases in spices. These
technologies include Trichoderma harzianum, PGPR for black pepper, PGPR for seed spices,
Pochonia chlamydosporia for root nematode in black pepper, beneficial fungus for
cardamom; Lecanicillium psalliotae, PGPR for Ginger for bacterial wilt etc. The technologies
have been licensed by entrepreneurs and are being commercially manufactured either in
the talc or liquid form or as Biocapsules.

Doubling farmer’s income was a recent objective adopted by IISR in tune with the Prime
minister’s call and several efforts have been made to achieve this goal by 2020. The
Institute has several registered farmers and stake holders who are availing consultancy
from IISR and cultivating our varieties and maintaining it in field under the expert
supervision of IISR Scientists. These farmers are producing authentic seed material
following GAP. However, the main problem faced by these spice growers is the availability
of an appropriate market for their hard earned produce. They either end up with a glut in
the local market or a very low selling price for their produce. The institute is facilitating
through its ITM-BPD unit, which looks after all the Intellectual Property protection and
technology commercialization activities, the market promotion for such farmers by
ensuring their active participation in exhibitions, fairs and also sale of their planting
material and seeds through a nursery established for this purpose. In this manner, a poor
farmer living at the remote village is provided access to urban marketing and he also gains
lot of popularity and the deserved remuneration for his hardships. The institute also
provides training to startups for establishing nursery for production of planting materials of
spices. Nurseries can be set up at a minimal cost even in backyards and is a good
opportunity for women and aged people for income generation.

Processing and trade of spices is always considered as an important revenue generating

industry. Small scale processing of spices can be economically successful. The spice
processing market in India is increasing in volumes in the last 10 years owing to the huge
demand for processed spices. The consumers now prefer ground spices to whole spices and
the urban domestic market prefers readymade spices, which has led to the emergence of
several brands of processed spices, blends and masala powders, pastes and ready to eat
items in the market. The market also demands clean and unadulterated produce since
adulteration and unhygienic processing are two important menace of the processing
industry of spices. Most of the adulterants added to spice and curry powders are
detrimental and life threatening. Unscientific processing can also lead to accumulation of
carcinogenic molecules and contamination in the product.

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IISR has established a processing unit for spices, for providing incubation support to
entrepreneurs in this sector. The processing unit was set up with the help of NAIP funded
scheme and consists of machineries for processing black pepper, white pepper, spice and
curry powders. The unit has so far incubated six clients, who are manufacturing and
marketing spices and curry powders under different brand names. Incubation is provided
for upto three years and institute provides all support for marketing the produce and
authenticates the produce for quality by providing ICAR and IISR logo. These products
being adulteration free are of good demand in the market and the entrepreneurs are
generating a good income out of the business. A most successful model in this category is
that of a 500 member women self help group, “Subicsha” manufacturing spice powders. The
profit from their business benefits about 7000 BPL families. The unit started their
production in 2015 and their present turnover in 4 lakhs, which is expected to double in a
year’s time.

Conclusions

Indian spices are known the world over for its unique qualities. Indian spice trade has
evolved to a formidable position and income generating enterprises in spices sector are
manifold and successful. Income generating enterprises can be set up starting from
production and distribution of good quality planting material, spice farming, organic
cultivation, trade of processed and whole spices etc. Under limitation of cultivable land one
can also think of purchase and sale of spices from farmers and traders. A primary
processing step involving cleaning, packing and branding will add value to this venture.
Enterprises can be also set up for allied sectors in spices for manufacture and marketing of
inputs required for cultivation of spices. This is one sector where the global demand is
increasing day by day. There is lot of scope for innovation and research for developing new
products required for optimum growth and disease survival. Some of the successful models
encompassing these areas have been demonstrated by Indian Institute of Spices Research.
These models clearly establish that successful enterprises can be established at both small
scale level and at the level of commercial production by an established Industry.

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