RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current.
Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc
valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-
controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even
synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio
receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal
of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may
serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As
noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame
rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Depending on the type of alternating current supply and the arrangement of the rectifier
circuit, the output voltage may require additional smoothing to produce a uniform steady
voltage. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and
computer equipment, require a steady constant DC voltage (as would be produced by
a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic
filter, which may be a capacitor, choke, or set of capacitors, chokes and resistors,
possibly followed by a voltage regulator to produce a steady voltage.

FILTER
The filter circuit is necessary for smoothing of the voltage obtained by the
rectifier. The obtained DC voltage contains AC components. These AC components are
called ripples. The filter circuit is needed to remove the ripples from DC output voltage
so that the output voltage across the load will be regulated.
Significance of Filter Circuit

Filter Circuit is connected between the load and output of rectifier circuit. If this
filter circuit is not connected between the rectifier and load the performance of the
system will be poor because the output voltage will consist of AC ripples.
If the pulsating DC is used for charging of a battery, it will create issues because here
the need is to simply charge a battery. On the contrary, if this pulsating DC is used for
radio or tape recorder it will create a problem. The 50 or 100 Hz pulsating DC signal will
lead to poor performance of the device.
Thus, it is crucial to use smooth and steady DC output voltage for such
applications. And in order to smooth the pulsating signal, we need a filter circuit.
Components involved in filter Circuit
A filter circuit comprises of generally inductor and capacitor. The inductor allows DC
only to pass through it and capacitor allows AC only to pass through it. Thus, a circuit
formed by the combination of inductors and capacitors can effectively filter the signal
according to the application.

Series Inductor Filter

In series inductor filter the inductor is connected in series with the rectifier output
and the load resistor. Thus, it is called series inductor filter. The property of an inductor
to block AC and provides zero resistance to DC is used in filtering circuit. When the
value of DC output from the rectifier is more than the average value then the rectifier
store the excess current in the form of magnetic energy.

When the value of DC from the rectifier is less than the average value then the inductor
release the stored magnetic energy in order to balance the effect of the low value of DC.
In this way series inductor filter maintains the regulated DC supply. Moreover, inductor
blocks the AC ripples present in the output voltage of rectifier; thus, smooth DC signal
can be obtained.
Shunt Capacitor Filter

The Shunt capacitor filters comprise of capacitor along with the load resistor. In
this, the capacitor is connected in parallel with respect to the output of rectifier circuit
and also in parallel with the load resistor. During conduction, the capacitor starts
charging and stores energy in the form of the electrostatic field. The capacitor will
charge to its peak value because the charging time constant is almost zero.

During non-conduction, the capacitor will discharge through the load resistor.
Thus, in this way, the capacitor will maintain constant output voltage and provide the
regulated output. The shunt capacitor filters use the property of capacitor which blocks
DC and provides low resistance to AC. Thus, AC ripples can bypass through the
capacitor.

If the value of capacitance of the capacitor is high, then it will offer very low
impedance to AC and extremely high impedance to DC. Thus, the AC ripples in the DC
output voltage gets bypassed through parallel capacitor circuit, and DC voltage is
obtained across the load resistor.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

It is an Any electrical or electronic device that maintains the voltage of a power

source within acceptable limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages within
the prescribed range that can be tolerated by the electrical equipment using that
voltage. Such a device is widely used in motor vehicles of all types to match the output
voltage of the generator to the electrical load and to the charging requirements of the
battery. Voltage regulators also are used in electronic equipment in which excessive
variations in voltage would be detrimental.
Electronic voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out
variations in the flow of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances;
that is, resistance decreases when the electrical load is heavy and increases when the
load is lighter.
 Voltage regulators perform the same function in large-scale power-distribution
systems as they do in motor vehicles and other machines; they minimize variations in
voltage in order to protect the equipment using the electricity. In power-distribution
systems the regulators are either in the substations or on the feeder lines themselves.
Two types of regulators are used: step regulators, in which switches regulate the current
supply, and induction regulators, in which an induction motor supplies a secondary,
continually adjusted voltage to even out current variations in the feeder line.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a solid state device used for power control in
DC and AC system. An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and
its operation as a rectifier can be controlled.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier is the oldest member of thyristor family. Thyristor is a family
of solid state devices whose characteristics is similar to that of thyratrone tube. The
construction of thyristor is similar to that of a Transistor. The name THYRISTOR has
been derived from the first three letter of THYRatron and last four letter of transISTOR.
Apart from Silicon Controlled Rectifier, there are various other members like GTO,
TRIAC, DIAC etc. But the application of SCR is so huge that SCR has become
synonym of thyristor. Thus the word SCR and thyristoir is interchangeably used.

In the schematic diagram, the three

terminal of SCR is shown to be Anode, cathode
and Gate. The terminal connected to the outer
region p is called Anode, the terminal connected
to outer region n is called Cathode and that
connected to inner p region is called Gate.

Like diode, SCR blocks the flow

of current from cathode to anode in reverse
conduction mode but unlike diode it also blocks
the flow of current from anode to cathode until it
is triggered into conduction by proper gate signal
between gate and cathode terminal of SCR.

When the anode is positive with respect to cathode with gate circuit open, the SCR is
said to be forward blocking mode. Similarly, when Anode is negative with respect to
cathode, it is said to be in Reverse Blocking Mode. In both the modes, it does not
conduct. In Forward Blocking Mode a positive signal is applied at Gate terminal to bring
the SCR conduct in forward conduction mode. In forward conduction mode, it behaves
like a close switch to allow the flow of current through it.
TRIAC

A Triac is a high-speed solid-state device that can switch and control AC power
in both directions of a sinusoidal waveform.
There is however, another type of semiconductor device called a “Triode AC Switch”
or Triac for short which is also a member of the thyristor family that be used as a solid
state power switching device but more importantly it is a “bidirectional” device. In other
words, a Triac can be triggered into conduction by both positive and negative voltages
applied to its Anode and with both positive and negative trigger pulses applied to its
Gate terminal making it a two-quadrant switching Gate controlled device.
A Triac behaves just like two conventional thyristors connected together in
inverse parallel (back-to-back) with respect to each other and because of this
arrangement the two thyristors share a common Gate terminal all within a single three-
terminal package.
Since a triac conducts in both directions of a sinusoidal waveform, the concept of
an Anode terminal and a Cathode terminal used to identify the main power terminals of
a thyristor are replaced with identifications of: MT1, for Main Terminal
1 and MT2 for Main Terminal 2 with the Gate terminal G referenced the same.
In most AC switching applications, the triac gate terminal is associated with
the MT1 terminal, similar to the gate-cathode relationship of the thyristor or the base-
emitter relationship of the transistor. The construction, P-N doping and schematic
symbol used to represent a Triac is given below.

Triac Symbol and Construction

We now know that a “triac” is a 4-layer, PNPN in the positive direction and a NPNP in
the negative direction, three-terminal bidirectional device that blocks current in its “OFF”
state acting like an open-circuit switch, but unlike a conventional thyristor, the triac can
conduct current in either direction when triggered by a single gate pulse.
DIAC

A DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned

on in both forward and reverse polarities.

The name DIAC comes from the words DIode AC switch. The DIAC is an
electronics component that is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when
used in AC switches and as a result they are often found in light dimmers such as those
used in domestic lighting. These electronic components are also widely used in starter
circuits for fluorescent lamps.
Although the term is not often seen, DIACs may also be called symmetrical trigger
diodes - a term resulting from the symmetry of their characteristic curve.

DIACs come in a variety of formats. As discrete components they may be

contained in small leaded packages, they can be obtained in surface mount packages,
in large packages that bolt to a chassis, or a variety of other packages. As they are
often used as a DIAC TRIAC combination, they are often integrated into the same die
as a TRIAC.

DIAC Symbol

The DIAC symbol used to depict this electronic component in circuit diagrams can be
remembered as a combination of what may appear to be two diodes in parallel with
each other but connected in opposite directions.

Owing to the fact that DIACs are bi-direction devices the

terminals cannot be labelled as anode and cathode as they
are for a diode. Instead they may be labelled as A1 and A2
or MT1 and MT2, where MT stands for "Main Terminal."

Diac Structure

The DIAC can be fabricated as either a two layer or a five

layer structure. In the three layer structure the switching
occurs when the junction that is reverse biased experiences reverse breakdown. The
three layer version of the device is the more common and can have a break-over
voltage of around 30 V. Operation is almost symmetrical owing to the symmetry of the
device.

A five layer DIAC structure is also available. This does not act in quite the same
manner, although it produces an I-V curve that is very similar to the three layer version.
It can be considered as two break-over diodes connected back to back.
For most applications a three layer version of the DIAC is used. It provides
sufficient improvement in switching characteristics. For some applications the
five layer device may be used.

DIAC applications

One of the major uses of DIACs within TRIAC circuits. TRIACs do not fire symmetrically
as a result of slight differences between the two halves of the device.

The non-symmetrical firing and resulting waveforms give rise to the generation of
unwanted harmonics – the less symmetrical the waveform the greater the level of
harmonic generation.

To resolve the issues resulting from the non-symmetrical operation, a DIAC is often
placed in series with the gate. This device helps make the switching more even for both
halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that the DIAC switching characteristic is
far more even than that of the TRIAC.

Since the DIAC prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a
certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the TRIAC more even in
both directions. In view of their usefulness, DIACs may often be built into the gate
terminal of a TRIAC.

DIACs are a widely used electronic component. The chief application of DIACs is for
use in conjunction with TRIACs to equalise their switching characteristics. By equalising
the switching characteristics of these TRIACs, the level of harmonics generated when
switching AC signals can be reduced. Despite this, for large applications, two thyristors
are generally used. Nevertheless the DIAC / TRIAC combination is very useful for lower
power applications including light dimmers, etc.

Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device
with only one junction that acts exclusively as an electrically controlled switch.
The UJT is not used as a linear amplifier. It is used in free-running oscillators,
synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse generation circuits at low to moderate
frequencies (hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in the triggering circuits for silicon
controlled rectifiers. The low cost per unit, combined with its unique characteristic, have
warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like oscillators, pulse generators, saw-
tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and voltage- or
current-regulated supplies.[1] The original unijunction transistor types are now
considered obsolete, but a later multi-layer device, the programmable unijunction
transistor, is still widely available.
Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the
1960s and 1970s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one
active device. For example, they were used for relaxation oscillators in variable-rate
strobe lights.[3] Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators such as
the 555 timer IC became more commonly used.
In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most
important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCR), TRIAC, etc.). A DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit
such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This
application is important for large AC current control.
UJTs can also be used to measure magnetic flux. The hall effect modulates the voltage
at the PN junction. This affects the frequency of UJT relaxation oscillators.[4] This only
works with UJTs. PUTs do not exhibit this phenomenon.

Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)

A light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) is a silicon controlled rectifier
(Thyristor) that conducts when the gate is exposed to light. The gate still operates as a
normal gate in a SCR, but is in many cases left disconnected. LASCR is a unidirectional
device that conducts current in only direction. The basic LASCR circuit is illustrated
above. Like all SCRs and triacs one must use A.C. or pulsating D.C. for proper
operation.
While the light source to activate a LASCR can be a simple flashlight or light bulb, the
source is often a light emitting diode or LED as illustrated above.

Illustrated above a LED and LASCR in the same package. This often six-pin device is
called an opto-coupler. These devices provide electrical isolation between the input and
output circuits. In the case of the of the H11Cx series illustrated above this will provide
isolation of up to 5300 volts RMS.

In the above circuit we are using a H11C6 opto-coupler to directly drive a small-watt
light bulb. The SCR section of the opto-coupler is rated at 400 volts at 300 milliamps.
(mA) Note that being a unidirectional device, the SCR will provide only half-wave
rectification and the bulb will only be about half as bright. The input can be controlled
from 5-volt computer logic.

Phototransistor

The phototransistor is a semiconductor device that is able to sense light levels

and alter the current flowing between emitter and collector according to the
level of light it receives.

Phototransistors and photodiodes can both be used for sensing light, but the
phototransistor is more sensitive in view of the gain provided by the fact that it
is a bipolar transistor. This makes phototransistors more suitable in a number
of applications.

The idea of the phototransistor has been known for many years. William Shockley first
proposed the idea in 1951, not long after the ordinary bipolar transistor had been
discovered. It was then only two years before the photo-transistor was demonstrated.
Since then phototransistors have been used in a variety of applications, and their
development has continued ever since.

Phototransistors are widely available and can easily be obtained quite cheaply from
electronic component distributors - in view of their use in many electronic circuits and
applications, they are available as part of the standard semiconductor device inventory.

Phototransistor circuit symbol

The phototransistor symbol consists of the basic bipolar transistor symbol with
two arrows pointing towards the junction of the bipolar transistor. This
diagrammatically represents the operation of the phototransistor.

Phototransistors can be based around both NPN transistors and PNP transistors and
therefore it is perfectly possible to have a PNP phototransistor, and for this the direction
of the arrow on the emitter is reversed in the normal way.

It can be seen that the phototransistor symbol shown does not give a base connection.
Often the base is left disconnected as the light is used to enable the current flow
through the phototransistor. In some instances the base may be biased to set the
required operating point. In this case the base will be shown in the normal way on the
phototransistor symbol.

Phototransistor applications
The fact that phototransistors are easy to use and perform well, within their limitations,
means that these semiconductor devices are used in a wide variety of electronic
circuits.

Often the applications are where a light beam is interrupted, but sometimes they can be
used for light level detection.

 Encoders where a rotating disc with light and dark stripes rotates - this gives speed
and direction or rotation.
 Card readers.
 Security systems
 Infra-red detectors.
 Lighting control.
 Opto-couplers
 Counting systems - a light or IR beam is interrupted for each item counted.