1. A certain microstrip line has the following parameters: εr=5.23,h=7 mils,t=2.

8 mils
and w=10mils. Calculate the characteristics impedance of the line.
Q2. Discuss briefly micro strip lines and its losses and also derive the expression for quality
factor.

Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which is used to convey microwave-

frequency signals. It consists of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by
a dielectric layer known as the substrate. Microwave components such
as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc. can be formed from microstrip, with the
entire device existing as the pattern of metallization on the substrate. Microstrip lines are
used extensively to interconnect high-speed logic circuits in digital computers because they
can be fabricated by automated techniques and they provide the required uniform signal
paths.

Losses in Microstrip Lines

1. Dielectric losses
When the conductivity of a dielectric cannot be neglected, the electric and magnetic fields in
the dielectric are no longer in time phase. In that case the dielectric attenuation constant is
given by

Where (J' is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate board in U/cm. This dielectric
constant can be expressed in terms of dielectric loss tangent as shown

Then the dielectric attenuation constant is expressed by

Since the microstrip line is a nonmagnetic mixed dielectric system, the upper dielectric above
the microstrip ribbon is air, in which no loss occurs. The result is

In the above equation, the conversion factor of 1 Np = 8. 686 dB is used, Ɛre is the effective
dielectric constant of the substrate and q denotes the dielectric filling factor

We usually express the attenuation constant per wavelength as

Where and is the wavelength in free space, or

and c is the velocity of light in vacuum.

If the loss tangent, tan θ, is independent of frequency, the dielectric attenuation per
wavelength is also independent of frequency. Moreover, if the substrate conductivity is
independent of frequency, as for a semiconductor, the dielectric attenuation per unit is also
independent of frequency. Since q is a function of Ɛr and w/h, the filling factors for the loss
tangent qƐn/Ɛre and for the conductivity are also functions of these quantities.

Figure 11-1-5 Filling factor for loss tangent of microstrip substrate as a function of w/h.

2. Ohmic losses:
In a microstrip line over a low-loss dielectric substrate, the predominant sources of losses at
microwave frequencies are the non-perfect conductors. The current density in the conductors
of a microstrip line is concentrated in a sheet that is approximately a skin depth thick inside
the conductor surface and exposed to the electric field. Both the strip conductor thickness and
the ground plane thickness are assumed to be at least three or four skin depths thick. The
current density in the strip conductor and the ground conductor is not uniform in the
transverse plane. The microstrip conductor contributes the major part of the ohmic loss. A
diagram of the current density J for a microstrip line is shown

Assuming for simplicity, that the current distribution is uniform and equal to I /w in both
conductors and confined to the region Ix I < w/2. With this assumption, the conducting
attenuation constant of a wide microstrip line is given by

Where is the surface skin resistance in Ω/square,

 is the skin depth in cm.

3. Radiation losses:
In addition to the conductor and dielectric losses, microstrip line also has radiation losses.
The radiation loss depends on the substrate's thickness and dielectric constant, as well as its
geometry. Lewin has calculated the radiation loss for several discontinuities using the
following approximations:
1. TEM transmission
2. Uniform dielectric in the neighborhood of the strip, equal in magnitude to an effective
value
3. Neglect of radiation from the transverse electric (TE) field component parallel to the strip
4. Substrate thickness much less than the free-space wavelength

Lewin’s results show that the ratio of radiated power to total dissipated power for an open-
circuited microstrip line is

where F (Ɛre) is a radiation factor given by

in which Ɛre is the effective dielectric constant and λo = c / f is the free-space wavelength.
The radiation factor decreases with increasing substrate dielectric constant. So, alternatively,

where Rr is the radiation resistance of an open-circuited microstrip.

Quality Factor Q of Microstrip Lines

Many microwave integrated circuits require very high quality resonant circuits. The quality
factor Q of a microstrip line is very high, but it is limited by the radiation losses of the
substrates and with low dielectric constant. Recall that for uniform current distribution in the
microstrip line, the ohmic attenuation constant of a wide microstrip line is given by

Where,

Ω
The wavelength in the microstrip line is

where f is the frequency in GHz.

Since Qc is related to the conductor attenuation constant by

where αc is in dB/λ8 , Qc of a wide microstrip line is expressed as

where h is measured in cm and Rs is expressed as

Finally, the quality factor Qc of a wide microstrip line is

where a is the conductivity of the dielectric substrate board in ℧/m.

For a copper strip, a = 5.8 x 107 ℧ /m and Qc becomes

Similarly, a quality factor Qd is related to the dielectric attenuation constant:

where αd is in dB/ λ8.

Substituting,

where λo is the free-space wavelength in cm. Note that the Qd for the dielectric attenuation
constant of a microstrip line is approximately the reciprocal of the dielectric loss tangent θ
and is relatively constant with frequency.
3.Explain the parallel strip lines and give the parameters of it. Also derive the characteristic
impedance and attenuation losses.

A parallel strip lines consists of two perfectly parallel strips separated by a perfect dielectric
slab of uniform thickness as shown in the figure below.

The plate width is w, the separation distance is d, and the relative dielectric constant of the
slab is εrd.
Distributed Parameters
In a microwave integrated circuit a strip line can be easily fabricated on a dielectric substrate
by using printed-circuit techniques. A parallel stripline is similar to a two-conductor
transmission line, so it can support a quasi-TEM mode,
Consider a TEM-mode wave propagating in the positive z direction in a lossless strip line
(R=G=0). The electric field is in the y direction, and the magnetic field is in the x direction. If
the width w is much larger than the separation distance d, the fringing capacitance is
negligible. Thus the equation for the inductance along the two conducting strips can be
written as

H/m

where µc is the permeability of the conductor. The capacitance between the two conducting
strips can be
expressed as

F/m

Where εd is the permittivity of the dielectric slab.

If the two parallel strips have some surface resistance and the dielectric substrate has some
shunt conductance, however, the parallel stripline would have some losses. The series
resistance for the both strips is given by
Where is the conductor surface resistance in Ω/square
The shunt conductance of the strip line is

Characteristic Impedance
The characteristic impedance of a lossless parallel strip line is

The phase velocity along a parallel strip line is

Attenuation Losses
The propagation constant of a parallel strip line at microwave frequencies can be expressed
by

Thus the attenuation and phase constants are

and
Substitution of the distributed parameters of a parallel strip line into Equation yields the
attenuation constants for the conductor and dielectric losses:

And

4.A lossless parallel strip line has a conducting strip width w. The substrate dielectric
separating the two conducting strips has a relative dielectric constant εrd of 6 and thickness d
of 4mm.
Calculate i) width w of the conducting strip in order to have a characteristic impedance of 50
Ω.
ii) The strip line capacitance iii)Strip line inductance iv)Phase velocity.
5. Write an explanatory note on coplanar strip lines and shielded strip lines.

A coplanar strip line consists of two conducting strips on one substrate surface with one strip
rounded,as shown. The coplanar strip line has advantages over the conventional parallel strip
line because its two strips are on the same substrate surface for convenient connection. In
microwave integrated circuits(MICs) the wire bonds have always presented reliability and
reproductivity . the coplanar strip lines eliminate the difficulties involved in connecting the
shunt elements between the hot and ground strips. As a result,reliabilty in
increased,reproductibilty is enhanced,and production cost is decresed.
The characteristic impedance of a coplanar strip line is

Z0=2Pavg
I02
Where I0 is the total peak current in one strip and pavg is the average power flowing in the
positive z direction and it can be expressed as

Pavg=½ Re ∫∫ (E x H*) . uz dx dy
Where Ex =electric field intensity in the positive direction
H=magnetic field intensity in the positive y direction.
*= conjugate

Schematic diagram of a coplanar strip line

SHIELDED STRIP LINES
A partially shielded strip line has its strip conductor embedded in a dielectric medium and its
top and bottom ground planes have no connection,as shown.

The characteristic impedance for a wide strip(w/d>0.35) is

-1
Z0 =94.15 w k+ Cf
√e d 8.854€r
where,
K=(1-t/d) -1
t = the strip thickness
d= the distance between the two ground planes
cf=8.854er/π [2K ln(K+1)-(K-1)ln(K2-1)] and is the fringe capacitance in pF/m

The figure shows characteristic impedance z0 for a partially shielded strip line
6.A shielded strip line has following characteristics.
1.Dielectric constant of the insulator εr=2.56
2.Strip width w=2.5mils 3.thickness t=14mils 4.shield depth d=70 mils.
7.Explain the basic principle of radiation using basic radiation equation

Radiation is the term used to represent the emission or reception of wave front at the
antenna, specifying its strength. After a RF signal has been generated in a transmitter, some
means must be used to radiate this signal through space to a receiver. The device that does
this job is the antenna.
The transmitter signal energy is sent into space by a transmitting antenna; the RF signal is
then picked up from space by a receiving antenna. The antenna must be able to radiate
efficiently so the power supplied by the transmitter is not wasted.
Regardless of antenna type, radiation depends on the same basic principles that radiation is
produced by accelerated or decelerated charge. The basic radiation equation is given by,
IL = QV (Ams-1)
where I = time changing current, As-1
L = Length of current element, m
Q = charge, C
V = time change of velocity which equals the acceleration of charge, ms-2
The spacing between the wires is assumed to be a small fraction of wavelength. As the
separation tends towards the order of wavelength or more, the wave tends to be radiated so
that opened out line acts like an antenna which launches a free space wave.
8.Explain the following terms as related to antenna system
a)Directivity b)effective height c)beam area d)radiation pattern e)field pattern f)half power
beam g)beam solid angle h)gain i)radiation intensity
Answer:
a)Directivity:
From the field point of view, the most important quantitative information on the antenna is
the directivity, which is a measure of the concentration of radiated power in a particular
direction. It is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.The average radiation intensity
is equal to the total radiated power divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the
direction of maximum radiation is implied.
Mathematically, the directivity (dimensionless) can be written as
D=U (θ ,φ)max/ U (θ ,φ)avg
The directivity is a dimensionless quantity. The maximum directivity is always ≥ 1.
Directivity is the ratio of total solid angle of the sphere to beam solid angle. For antennas
with rotationally symmetric lobes, the directivity D can be approximated as:
D = 4π / θ Φ
Directivity of isotropic antenna is equal to unity, for an isotropic antenna Beam area ΩA=4π
Directivity indicates how well an antenna radiates in a particular direction in comparison with
an isotropic antenna radiating same amount of power Smaller the beam area, larger is the
directivity.

b)Effective height:
The effective height is another parameter related to the apertures. Multiplying the effective
height(meters), times the magnitude of the incident electric field E (V/m) yields the voltage V
induced.
Thus V=he E or he= V/ E (m). Effective height provides an indication as to how much of the
antenna is involved in radiating or receiving.To demonstrate this, consider the current
distributions a dipole antenna for two different lengths.
If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, it’s effective height would be l Here the
current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with average value 2/π=0.64(of the maximum) so that
it’s
effective height is 0.64l .It is assumed that antenna is oriented for maximum response.
If the same dipole is used at longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1λ long, the current tapers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution. The
average
current is now 0.5 & effective height is 0.5l
 Fig.8 Effective Height
For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to it’d load, power delivered to load is
= 2/4 and
voltage is given by V=heE
Therefore, P=(heE)2/(4Rr)
In terms of Effective aperture the same power is given by
P=SAe= (E2/z0 )Ae
Equating the two,

c)Beam area:
The total beam area ΩA consists of the main beam area ΩM plus the minor lobe area Ωm .
ΩA = ΩM + Ωm
The ratio of main beam area to the total beam area is called the beam efficiency εM
εM = ΩM / ΩA
The ratio of minor lobe area to the total beam area is called stray factor εm
εm = Ωm / ΩA

d)Radiation pattern:
The radiation pattern or antenna pattern is the graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space. That is, the antenna's pattern describes how
the antenna radiates energy out into space (or how it receives energy). It is important to state
that an antenna can radiate
energy in all directions, so the antenna pattern is actually three-dimensional. It is common,
however,to describe this 3D pattern with two planar patterns, called the principal plane
patterns. These principal plane patterns can be obtained by making two slices through the 3D
pattern, through the maximum value of the
pattern. It is these principal plane patterns that are commonly referred to as the antenna
patterns.
Radiation pattern or Antenna pattern is defined as the spatial distribution of a ‘quantity’ that
characterizes the EM field generated by an antenna. The ‘quantity’ may be Power, Radiation
Intensity, Field amplitude, Relative Phase etc.
Always the radiation has Main lobe through which radiation is maximum in the z direction
and Minor lobe (side and back lobes) in the x and y direction. Any field pattern is presented
by 3D spherical coordinates or by plane cuts through main lobe axis. Two plane cuts as right
angles are called as principal plane pattern. To specify the radiation pattern with respect to
field intensity and polarization requires three patterns:
i. The θ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and Φ or Eθ(θ,Φ) in Vm-
1
ii. The Φ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and Φ or EΦ(θ,Φ) in
Vm-1
iii. The phases of these fields as a function of the angles θ and Φ or δθ(θ,Φ) and δΦ(θ,Φ) in
radian or degree.

e)Field pattern:
It is obtained by dividing a field component by its maximum
value. The normalized field pattern is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity
EΦ(θ,Φ) n= EΦ(θ,Φ) / EΦ(θ,Φ) max (2)
Half power level occurs at those angles (θ,Φ)for which Eθ(θ,Φ)n =0.707. At distance d>>λ
and d>>
size of the antenna, the shape of the field pattern is independent of the distance.

f)Half power beam width:

Beamwidth is associated with the lobes in the antenna pattern. It is defined as the angular
separation between two identical points on the opposite sides of the main lobe. The most
common type of beamwidth is the half-power (3 dB) beamwidth (HPBW). To find HPBW, in
the equation, defining the radiation pattern, we set power equal to 0.5 and solve it for angles.
The angular width on the major lobe of radiation pattern between two points where the power
is half of the maximum radiated power is called Half Power Beam-width. Here the power
decreases to half of its maximum value.

g)beam solid angle:

The beam solid angle of an antenna is given by the integral of the normalized power pattern
over a sphere (4π steradians).

Beam area ΩA is the solid angle through which all of the power radiated by antenna would
stream if P(θ, Φ) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero.
Total power radiated = P(θ, Φ) ΩA watts
Beam area is the solid angle ΩA is often approximated in terms of the angles subtended by
the Half Power points of the main lobe in the two principal planes(Minor lobes are neglected)
ΩA= θHP ΦHP

h)Gain:
Any physical Antenna has losses associated with it. Depending on structure both ohmic and
dielectric losses can be present. Input power Pin is the sum of the Radiated power Prad and
losses Ploss
Pin=Prad + Ploss
The Gain G of an Antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than Directivity D
due to ohmic losses in the antenna. Mismatch in feeding the antenna also reduces gain. The
ratio of Gain to Directivity is the Antenna efficiency factor k (dimensionless)
= , ℎ 0≤ ≤1
In practice, the total input power to an antenna can be obtained easily, but the total radiated
power by an antenna is actually hard to get. The gain of an antenna is introduced to solve this
problem.
This is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to
the total input power accepted by the antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified,
the
direction of maximum radiation is implied. Mathematically, the gain (dimensionless) can be
written as
G=4πU/Pin

i)Radiation intensity:
The power radiated from an Antenna per unit solid angle is called the Radiation Intensity.
“U” Units: Watts/steradians or Watts/ square degree
Poynting vector or power density is dependent on distance from the antenna while Radiation
intensity is independent of the distance from the antenna. The normalized power pattern can
also be expressed as the ratio of radiation intensity as a function of angle to its maximum
value.
Beam Efficiency Pn(θ,Φ)n = S(θ,Φ)/ S(θ,Φ)max

9) State and explain aperture efficiency, effective height and bandwidth of an antenna.

Effective Aperture
Aperture Concept: Aperture of an Antenna is the area through which the power is radiated or
received. Concept of Apertures is most simply introduced by considering a Receiving
Antenna. Let receiving antenna be a rectangular Horn immersed in the field of uniform plane
wave as shown

Let the Poynting vector or power density of the plane wave be S watts/sq –m and let the area
or
physical aperture be Ap sq-m.
But the Field response of Horn is not uniform across Ap because E at sidewalls must be equal
to zero. Thus effective Aperture Ae of the Horn is less than Ap.
Aperture Efficiency is as follows: εap=Ae/Ap
The effective antenna aperture is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of the
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, which is
matched to the antenna in terms of polarization. If no direction is specified, the direction of
maximum radiation is implied.
Effective Aperture (Ae) describes the effectiveness of an Antenna in receiving mode, It is the
ratio of power delivered to receiver to incident power density. It is the area that captures
energy from a passing EM wave. An Antenna with large aperture (Ae) has more gain than
one with smaller aperture(Ae) since it captures more energy from a passing radio wave and
can radiate more in that direction while transmitting.

Effective height
Multiplying the effective height, he (meters), times the magnitude of the incident electric
field E (V/m) yields the voltage V induced.
Thus V=heE or he= V/ E (m). Effective height provides an indication as to how much of the
antenna is involved in radiating (or receiving).
To demonstrate this, consider the current distribution dipole antenna for two different lengths.

If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform, it’s effective height would be l Here the
current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with average value 2/π=0.64(of the maximum) so that
it’s effective height is 0.64l .It is assumed that antenna is oriented for maximum response.

If the same dipole is used at longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1λ long, the current tapers
almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends in a triangular distribution. The
average current is now 0.5 & effective height is 0.5l

For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched to it’s load , power delivered to load is
= 2/4 and
voltage is given by V=heE
Therefore, P=(heE)2/(4Rr)
In terms of Effective aperture the same power is given by
P=SAe= (E2/z0 )Ae
Equating the two,

Bandwidth or frequency bandwidth:

This is the range of frequencies, within which the antenna characteristics (input impedance,
pattern) conform to certain specifications. Antenna characteristics which should conform to
certain requirements might be: input impedance, radiation pattern, beamwidth, polarization,
side-lobe level, gain, beam direction and width, radiation efficiency.
Separate bandwidths may be introduced: impedance bandwidth, pattern bandwidth, etc.
The FBW of broadband antennas is expressed as the ratio of the upper to the lower
frequencies,
where the antenna performance is acceptable.

Based on Bandwidth antennas can be classified as

1. Broad band antennas-BW expressed as ratio of upper to lower frequencies of acceptable
operation
eg: 10:1 BW means fH is 10 times greater than fL
2. Narrow band antennas-BW is expressed as percentage of frequency difference over center
frequency eg:5% means (fH –fL ) /fo is .05. Bandwidth can be considered to be the range of
frequencies on either sides of a center frequency (usually resonant freq. for a dipole)

= /

Broadband antennas with FBW as large as 40:1 have been designed. Such antennas are
referred to as frequency independent antennas. For narrowband antennas, the FBW is
expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference over the center frequency.

The characteristics such as Zi, G, Polarization etc of antenna does not necessarily vary in the
same manner. Sometimes they are critically affected by frequency. Usually there is a
distinction made between pattern and input impedance variations. Accordingly, pattern
bandwidth or impedance bandwidth are used. Pattern bandwidth is associated with
characteristics such as Gain, Side lobe level, Polarization, Beam area. (large antennas)
Impedance bandwidth is associated with characteristics such as input impedance, radiation
efficiency (Short dipole) Intermediate length antennas BW may be limited either by pattern
or impedance variations depending on application. If BW is Very large (like 40:1 or greater),
Antenna can be considered frequency independent

10.Show that directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the area of the sphere to the beam
area?
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
( ) to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far field of an
antenna.
So,

The directivity is a dimensionless ratio 1.

The average power density over a sphere is given by
Therefore directivity

Where = = normalized power pattern

Thus, directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the area of the sphere to the beam area of an
antenna.

11. Derive the Friss Transmission Formula.

Answer: The Friss formula basically specifies the capacity of an antenna to feed the
required power to a given distance for a given input power the formula is “power transfer
ratio” which is ratio of received power and total transmitted power.
Isotropic antenna rec-antenna (Aemr, Dr)

r
Wt (Po)

Load

Trans-antenna rec-antenna (Aemr, Dr)

Wt

Load

Consider an isotropic antenna used as a transmitter with total input power or radiated power
as Wt. Consider a receiving antenna of aperture Aemr and directivity Dr mounted at a distance
r oriented to receive maximum power.
If Po is the power density, received power is
Wr’=Po Aemr
When isotropic is replaced by any other source of aperture Aemt and directivity Dr, the
received power is
Wr=P Aemr (1)
Directivity of transmitting antenna is Dt=P/Po
Or P=Dt.Po (2)
Where Po=Wt/4πr² (3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)
Wr=Dt (Wt/4πr²)Aemr
Wr/Wt=Dt Wt Aemr/4πr² (4)
Using the relation between D & Aem
Dt=(4π/ƛ²)Aemr (5)
Aemr=(ƛ²/4π)Dr (6)
Substituting (5) in (4)
Wr/Wt=Aemr Aemt/r²ƛ² (7)
From (4) and (6)
Wr/Wt=Dt Dr ƛ²/16πr² (8)
The above relations (7) & (8) are called friss transmission formula. They relate the power Wr
received at a distance r with the total transmitted power Wt.

12. Distinguish the parameters of antenna field zones

Answer: A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with the region of
transition between a guided wave and a free space wave or vice versa.
Principle: Under time varying conditions, Maxwell’s equations predict the radiation of EM
energy from current source (or accelerated charge). This happens at all frequencies, but is
insignificant as long as the size of the source region is not comparable to the wavelength.
While transmission lines are designed minimize this radiation loss, radiation into free space
becomes main purpose in case of Antennas. The basic principle of radiation is produced by
accelerated charge. The basic equation of radiation is
I L = Q V (Ams-1) (1)
where, I = Time changing current in Amps/sec
L = Length of the current element in meters
Q = Charge in Coulombs
V = Time changing velocity
Thus time changing current radiates and accelerated charge radiates. For steady state
harmonic variation, usually we focus on time changing current. For transients or pulses, we
focus on accelerated charge. The radiation is perpendicular to the acceleration and the
radiated power is proportional to the square of IL or QV. Transmission line opened out in a
Tapered fashion as
Antenna:
a)As Transmitting Antenna: Here the Transmission Line is connected to source or generator
at one end. Along the uniform part of the line energy is guided as Plane TEM wave with little
loss. Spacing between line is a small fraction of λ. As the line is opened out and the
separation between the two lines becomes comparable to λ, it acts like an antenna and
launches a free space wave since currents on the transmission line flow out on the antenna but
fields associated with them keep on going. From the circuit point of view, the antennas
appear to the transmission lines as a resistance Rr, called Radiation resistance.
b) As Receiving Antenna: Active radiation by other Antenna or Passive radiation from distant
objects raise the apparent temperature of Rr. This has nothing to do with the physical
temperature of the antenna itself but is related to the temperature of distant objects that the
antenna is looking at. Rr may be thought of as virtual resistance that does not exist physically
but is a quantity coupling the antenna to distant regions of space via a virtual transmission
line.
Thus, an antenna is a transition device, or transducer, between a guided wave and a free space
wave or vice versa. The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit and space.
Reciprocity: An antenna exhibits identical impedance during Transmission or Reception,
same directional patterns during Transmission or Reception, same effective height while
transmitting or receiving. Transmission and reception antennas can be used interchangeably.
Medium must be linear, passive and isotropic (physical properties are the same in different
directions). Antennas are usually optimized for reception or transmission, not both.

13. Show that maximum effective aperture of a λ/2 dipole is 0.13λ2.

Answer: It is assumed that current has a sinusoidal distribution and in phase along the entire
length of the antenna .it is further assumed that RL =0 and the current I at any point y Is then
I=IO COS (2∏Y/ λ)
A plane wave incident on the antenna is travelling in the negative x direction. The wave is
linearly polarized with E in the y direction. The antenna has been replaced by an equivalent
or the venin generator.the infinitesimal voltage dv of this generator due to the voltage
induced by the incident wave in infinitesimal element of length dy of the antenna is
dv=E dy cos (2∏Y/ λ)
It is assumed that infinitesimal induced voltage is proportional to the current at the
infinitesimal element as given by the current distribution
The total induced voltage v is given by the integrating over the length of the antenna. This
may be written as
V=2∫E cos (2∏Y/ λ) dy
Performing the integration, we have
V=Eλ/∏
The value of the radiation resistance Rr of the linear λ/2 antenna will be taken as 73 Ω
The maximum effective aperture of a linear λ/2 antenna
A = (120 ∏E2 λ2) /(4∏2E2×73)
= (30 λ2)/73∏
= 0.13 λ2

15. Find the directivity of the system

1. U=Um cos
Taking, 0≤ ≤ ;
0≤ ≤2 ;

m
Prad=

= [+1+1]

D=

D dB=10
Next, D=41253/
To find °
U=Um cos

Let


Cos

= 60°
To find
D=41253/(180*60)
=3.819
In Db, 10 log(3.819)=5.819 dB

2. U=Um sin
Taking, 0≤ ≤ ;
0≤ ≤2 ;

m
Prad=

D=

D dB=10
Next, D=41253/
To find °
U=Um sin

Let


Sin
 = 120°
To find

D=41253/(180*120)
=1.909
In Db, 10 log(1.909)=2.808 dB
3. U=Um
Taking, 0≤ ≤ ;
0≤ ≤2 ;

m
Prad=

= ;

D=

D dB=10
Next, D=41253/
To find °
U=Um

Let


 = 90°
To find

D=41253/(180*90)
=2.5464
In Db, 10 log(2.5464)=4.0592 dB
4. U=Um
Taking, 0≤ ≤ ;
0≤ ≤2 ;

m
Prad=

Consider

Let u= cos
du=-sin
When

Implies, = -[

=2

D=

D dB=10
Next, D=41253/
To find °
U=

Let

= 90°
To find

D=41253/(180*90)
=2.5464
In Db, 10 log(2.5464)=4.0592 dB

6. U (0≤Ѳ≤ )

Directivity =

To find out Pavg=

Pavg =

We Know that, D=

D=8
D in db=10
=9.03db
Next,D=

= 0
U=Um Ѳ

Ѳ= U=

=105.06

=2.19

D in db=10
=3.38db

16.Determine the Directivity of the system if the radiation intensity

1) (0≤Ѳ≤ )

Directivity(D)=

Pavg=

Pavg =

Directivity(D)=

D=8
D in db=10
 =9.03db

Next,D=

= 0
U=Um Ѳ

Ѳ= U=

=105.06

=2.19

D in db=10
=3.38db
2)

Directivity(D)=

Pavg=

Pavg=
Directivity(D)=

D=

=5.09
D in db=10 )
=7.07db
(or)

D=

= 0 Ѳ= 0
U=UmsinѲ U=Um

Ѳ= U= = U=

=120 = 0

=3.82

D in db=10
=5.8db

17. A radio link has a 15W transmitter connected to an antenna of 2.5sq m effective aperture
at 5GHz. The receiving antenna has an aperture of 0.5sq m and is located at 15km line of
sight from transmitting antenna. Assume lossless antenna. Find the power delivered to the
receiver.
Sol- Given,

Pt=15W
 A1- Aperture of transmitting antenna= 2.5sq m
A2-Aperture of receiving antenna= 0.5 sq m
r= 15km = 15x10^3 m
λ=c/f =(3x10^8)/(5x10^9)=0.06
Power delivered to the receiving antenna is Pt (A1 A2/ r²λ²). Substituting the given values in
the above equation,
P= (15x2.5x0.5)/((15x10³)²x0.06²)
The power at the receiver is 23 µW.

18.Calculate the directivity of the source with the pattern U=Um sinϴ sin3 φ
i) Exact method ii) Approximate method 0≤ϴ≤π and 0≤φ≤π and zero elsewhere.
Solution:
Given,
U=Um sinϴ sin3 φ
i) We know that directivity, D=4π/Pavg

Pavg= m sinϴ sin3φ sinϴ dϴ dφ

2
Pavg=Um ϴ sin3φ
3 2
Pavg=Um φ dφ ϴ dϴ

Pavg=Um dϴ

Pavg=Um {(1/4[-3cosφ+(cos3φ/3)]πo)( 1/2[ϴ-(sin2ϴ/2)]π0}

Pavg=Um {[1/4(3-1/3+3-1/3)] [π/2]}
Pavg=Um(2π/3)

Therefore, D=4πUm/Um(2π/3)
D=6
Ddb=10log10(6)=7.78db

ii) We know that,

D=41253 □/φHP ϴHP
To find ϴHP, let φ= 0
 U=Um sinϴ
Let ϴ1=ϴ, U=Um/2
Um/2=Um sin ϴ1
sin ϴ1=1/2
ϴ1=30
ϴHP=180 -2ϴ1
=180-60
=120

To find φ HP, let ϴ= 0

U=Um sin3 φ
Let φ1= φ, U=Um/2
Um/2=Um sin3φ 1
sin3φ 1=1/2
sinφ1=0.7937
φ1=52.53
φHP=180 -2φ 1
=180-105.06
=74.94

Therefore, D=41253 □/φHP ϴHP

=41253 □/74.94x120
=4.587
Ddb=10log10(4.587)
=6.615db

19.Calculate the directivity of power pattern given as U=Um sin2 ϴ sin3 φ for 0≤ϴ≤π and
0≤φ≤π and zero elsewhere.
Solution:
Given,
 U=Um sin2ϴ sin3φ
i) We know that directivity, D=4π/Pavg

Pavg= m sin2ϴ sin3φ sinϴ dϴ dφ

3
Pavg=Um ϴ sin3φ
3 3
Pavg=Um φ dφ ϴ dϴ

Pavg=Um dϴ

Pavg=Um {(1/4[-3cosφ+(cos3φ/3)]π0)( 1/4[-3cosϴ+(cos3ϴ/3)]π0}

Pavg=Um {[1/4(3-1/3+3-1/3)] [1/4(3-1/3+3-1/3)]}
Pavg=Um(8/3)
Therefore, D=4πUm/Um(8/3)
D=4.712
Ddb=10log10(6)=6.732db

ii) We know that,

D=41253 □/φHP ϴHP
To find ϴHP, let φ= 0
U=Um sin3ϴ
Let ϴ1=ϴ, U=Um/2
Um/2=Um sin3 ϴ1
sin3ϴ1=1/2
sinϴ1=0.7937
ϴ1=52.53
ϴHP=180 -2ϴ1
=180-105.06
=74.94

To find φ HP, let ϴ= 0

U=Um sin3 φ
Let φ1= φ, U=Um/2
 Um/2=Um sin3φ 1
sin3φ 1=1/2
sinφ1=0.7937
φ1=52.53
φHP=180 -2φ 1
=180-105.06
=74.94
Therefore, D=41253 □/φHP ϴHP
=41253 □/74.94 x74.94
=7.345
Ddb=10log10(7.345)
=8.66db

20. Discuss the concept of linear, circular and elliptical polarization

Answer: Polarization is nothing but the physical orientation of the electromagnetic wave in
the free space. The antenna polarization in a given direction refers to the polarization of an
electromagnetic wave radiated or transmitted by the antenna.
The polarization can be classified as linear, circular and elliptical polarization. When the
electric field vector at any point in the free space is the function of time and if it is directed
always along the line, then the polarization is called linear polarization and the field is said to
be linear polarized field. When the electric field vector E lies in the vertical plane, then the
wave is said to be vertically polarized wave. Similarly when the electric field vector E lies in
the horizontal plane, then the wave is said to be horizontally polarized wave.
When the figure traced by the instantaneous electric field vector is an ellipse, the field is said
to be elliptically polarized field and the polarization is called elliptical polarization.
Similarly when the instantaneous electric field traces a path of a circle the polarization is
called circular polarization and the field is said to be circularly polarized field. Depending
upon the direction of the orientation of electric field vector, two cases are possible. If the
electric field vector is oriented in the clockwise direction, then the polarization is called right
hand polarization and if the electric field vector is oriented in anticlockwise direction the
polarization is called left hand polarization. Thus the polarization of the wave radiated by
antenna can be either linear or circular or elliptical polarization.