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CHAPTER-1

1.1INTRODUCTION:
WHAT IS NOISE CONTROL?
As with any occupational hazard, control technology should aim at reducing noise to
acceptable levels by action on the work environment. Such action involves the
implementation of any measure that will reduce noise being generated, and/or will reduce the
noise transmission through the air or through the structure of the workplace. Such measures
include modifications of the machinery, the workplace operations, and the layout of the
workroom. In fact, the best approach for noise hazard control in the work environment, is to
eliminate or reduce the hazard at its source of generation, either by direct action on the source
or by its confinement.
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This chapter presents the principles of engineering control of noise, specific control
measures and some examples. Reading of chapter 1 is indispensable for the understanding of
this chapter. Note that many of the specific noise control measures described are intended as a
rough guide only. Further information on the subject can be found in ISO 11690 and in the
specialized literature. Also suppliers of equipment and noise control hardware can often
provide helpful noise control advice.
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1.2 Description

In addition, other factors have to be considered; for example, number of exposed workers,
type of work, etc. If one or two workers are exposed, expensive engineering measures may
not be the most adequate solution and other control options should be considered; for
example, acombination of personal protection and limitation of exposure.
The need for control or otherwise in a particular situation is determined by evaluating noise
levels at noisy locations in a facility where personnel spend time. If the amount of time spent
in noisy locations by individual workers is only a fraction of their working day, then local
regulations may allow slightly higher noise levels to exist. Where possible, noise levels
should be evaluated at locations occupied by workers' ears.
Normally the noise control program will be started using as a basis A-weighted immission
or noise exposure levels for which the standard ISO 11690-1 recommends target values and
the principles of noise control planning. A more precise way is to use immission and emission
values in frequency bands as follows
.

CHAPTER-2

2.1 Components And Working

In existing facilities, quantification of the noise problem involves identification of the source
or sources, determination of the transmission paths from the sources to the receivers, rank
ordering of the various contributors to the problem and finally determination of acceptable
solutions.

To begin, noise levels must be determined at the locations from which the complaints
arise. Once levels have been determined, the next step is to apply acceptable noise level
criteria to each location and thus to determine the required noise reductions, generally as a
function of octave or one-third octave frequency bands (see chapter 1).

Once the noise levels have been measured and the required reductions determined, the
next step is to identify and rank order the noise sources responsible for the excessive noise.
The sources may be subtle or alternatively many, in which case rank ordering may be as
important as identification. Where many sources exist, rank ordering may pose a difficult
problem.

When there are many sources it is important to determine the sound power and directivity
of each to determine their relative contributions to the noise problem. The radiated sound
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power and directivity of sources can be determined by reference to the equipment

manufacturer's data (ISO 4871) or by measurement, using methods outlined in chapter 1. The
sound power should be characterized in octave or one third octave frequency bands (see
chapter 1) and dominant single frequencies should be identified. Any background noise
interfering with the sound power measurements must be taken into account and removed (see
chapter 1).

Often noise sources are either vibrating surfaces or unsteady fluid flow (air, gas or steam).
The latter are referred to as aerodynamic sources and they are often associated with exhausts.
In most cases, it is worthwhile to determine the source of the energy which is causing the
structure or the aerodynamic source to radiate sound, as control may best start there.

Having identified the noise sources and determined their radiated sound power levels, the
next task is to determine the relative contribution of each noise source to the noise level at
each location where the measured noise levels are excessive. For a facility involving just a
few noise sources, as is the case for most occupational noise problems at a specific location,
this is usually a relatively straightforward task.

Figure 2.1 Sound sources should not be placed near corners

CHAPTER-3
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3.1 GENERAL SOURCE NOISE CONTROL CAN INVOLVE:

- replacement or adjustment of worn or loose parts;

- balancing of unbalanced equipment;

- lubrication of moving parts;

- use of properly shaped and sharpened cutting tools.

Substitution of materials (e.g., plastic for metal), a good example being the replacement of
steel sprockets in chain drives with sprockets made from flexible polyamide plastics.

- electric for pneumatic (e.g. hand tools);

- stepped dies rather than single-operation dies;

- rotating shears rather than square shears;

- hydraulic rather than mechanical presses;

- presses rather than hammers;

Substitution of parts of equipment:

- modification of gear teeth, by replacing spur gears with helical gears - generally
resulting in 10 dB of noise reduction);

- replace straight edged cutters with spiral cutters (e.g. wood working machines - 10
dB(A) reduction);
- replace gear drives with belt drives;

- replace metal gears with plastic gears (beware of additional maintenance problems);

- replace steel or solid wheels with pneumatic tyres.

- in building demolition, replace use of ball machine with selective demolition;

- replace pneumatic tools by changing manufacturing methods, such as moulding holes

in concrete rather than cutting after production of concrete component;
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- use remote control of noisy equipment such as pneumatic tools;

- separate noisy workers in time, but keep noisy operations in the same area, separated
from non-noisy processes;

- select slowest machine speed appropriate for a job - also select large, slow machines
rather than smaller faster ones;

- minimize width of tools in contact with work piece (2 dB(A) reduction for each
halving of tool width);

- woodchip transport air for woodworking equipment should move in the same
direction as the tool;

- minimize protruding parts of cutting tools.

3.2 Substitution of processes.

- mechanical ejectors for pneumatic ejectors;

- hot for cold working;

- pressing for rolling or forging;

- welding or squeeze riveting for impact riveting

- welding for riveting;

- use cutting fluid in machining processes;

- replace mechanical limit stops with micro-switches.

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Figure 3.2 Example of increasing the time during which a force is apply

CHAPTER-4

4.1 Source Control By Design Involves

- modifying parts to prevent rattle and ringing;

- using an adjustable height collector (see Figure 10.5a) for parts falling into a bin, so
that impact speed and thus radiated noise is reduced;

- using an adjustable height conveyor and rubber flaps to minimise the fall height of the
parts (see Figure 10.5b);

- lining of tumbling barrels, parts collecting bins, metal chutes, hoppers, etc. with
elastic material, e.g. cork, hard rubber, plastic, conveyor belt material, with the choice
of material being as soft as possible but sufficiently hard to withstand the particular
operating environment without wearing out prematurely. In extreme cases, an
effective alternative is to line the chute or bin with a thin layer of viscoelastic material
such as silicone rubber, sandwiched between the bin and a second layer of steel or
other abrasion resistant material, with the latter layer being of similar thickness to the
wall of the bin or chute.

- covering metal tables, metal wheels, etc. with a material, such as rubber;

- using conveyor belts instead of chutes to avoid noisy falls.

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- ensuring that machine rotational speeds do not coincide with resonance

- reducing the acoustic radiation efficiency of the vibrating surface by

- damping a panel if it is excited mechanically (see Figure 10.9), but note that if the
panel is excited by an acoustic field, damping will have little or no effect upon its
sound radiation;

the amount of damping already characterizing a structure can be approximately

determined by tapping it with a steel tool or rod.
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At frequencies where the average air spacing between a vibrating machine surface and
enclosure wall is an integral multiple of half wavelengths of sound, strong coupling will occur
between the vibrating machine surface and the enclosure wall, resulting in a marked decrease
in the enclosure wall transmission loss.

The effect of inadequate absorption in enclosures is very noticeable. Table 10.2 shows the
reduction in performance of an ideal enclosure with varying degrees of internal sound
absorption. The sound power of the source is assumed constant and unaffected by the

For best results, the internal surfaces of an enclosure are usually lined with glass or
mineral fiber or open-cell polyurethane foam blanket.

Since the absorption coefficient of absorbent lining is generally highest at high

frequencies, the high-frequency components of any noise will suffer the highest attenuation.
Some improvement in low-frequency absorption can be achieved by using a thick layer of
lining. However the liner should, in many cases, be protected from contamination with oil or
water, to prevent its acoustical absorption properties from being impaired. This may be done
by enclosing the liner in a polyethylene bag, about 20 µm thick. If mechanical protection is
also required, then a perforated metal sheet of at least 25% open area may be added, provided
that it does not contact the polyethylene bag lining. This latter condition can be achieved by
placing an open wire mesh between the polyethylene and perforated metal. If this is not done,
the performance of the sound absorbing material will be severely degraded.

The cost of acoustic enclosures of any type is proportional to size; therefore there is an
economic incentive to keep enclosures as small as possible. Thus, because of cost or
limitations of space, a close-fitting enclosure may be fitted directly to the machine which is to
be quiet end, or fixed independently of it but so that the enclosure internal surfaces are within,
say, 0.5 m of major machine surfaces.

When an enclosure is close-fitting, the panel resonance frequencies will be somewhat

increased due to the stiffening of the panel by the enclosed air volume. Thus an enclosure
designed to be massive with a low resonance frequency may not perform
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reduction of 3 dB at low frequencies, so that it is not desirable to closely surround a source,

such as a vibrating machine, if a greater volume is possible.

Generally, if sufficient space is left within the enclosure for normal maintenance on all
sides of the machine, the enclosure need not be regarded as close-fitting. If, however, such
space cannot be made available, it is usually necessary to upgrade the transmission loss of an
enclosure by up to 10 dB at low frequencies (less at high frequencies), to compensate for the
expected degradation in performance of the enclosure due to resonances.

In many situations where easy and continuous access to parts of a machine is necessary, a
complete enclosure may not be possible, and a partial enclosure must be considered
(Alfredson & Seow, 1976). However, the noise reductions that can be expected at specific
locations from partial enclosures are difficult to estimate and will depend upon the particular
geometry. An example of a partial enclosure is shown in Figure 10.22. Estimates of the sound
power reduction to be expected from various degrees of partial enclosure are presented in
Figure 10.23.

Figure 10.23 shows fairly clearly that the enclosure walls should have a transmission loss
of about 20 dB, and the most sound power reduction that can be achieved is about 10 dB.
However, noise levels may in some cases be more greatly reduced, especially in areas
immediately behind solid parts of the enclosure.

Some other practical considerations which should be taken into account are:

who and what needs to be in the enclosure during operation of the noisy equipment
(personnel should be excluded if possible);

number and location of doors and windows (minimum possible);

method of door closure (manual, automatic) and type of latch to ensure a tight seal around
the door perimeter;

automatic machine stop when doors are not closed

properly; ease of cleaning inside the enclosure;

till apply and the enclosure performance can be calculated using equation
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Figure4.1.2 Doubling of the volume of a small enclosure will normally lead to an

increase in noise

4.2 Acoustic barriers

Since detailed information on the calculation of the Insertion Loss of a single barrier (indoors
and outdoors) is available in the literature (Bies and Hansen 1996, ISO 9613-2, ISO 10847,
ISO 11821) this clause is concerned with the basic rules for the use of indoor barriers.

Barriers are placed between a noise source and a receiver as a means of reducing the
direct sound observed by the receiver. In rooms, barriers suitably treated with sound-
absorbing material may also slightly attenuate reverberant sound field levels by increasing the
overall room absorption.

Barriers are a form of partial enclosure usually intended to reduce the direct sound field
radiated in one direction only. For non-porous barriers having sufficient surface density, the
sound reaching the receiver will be entirely due to diffraction around the barrier boundaries.

Now we will consider the effect of placing a barrier in a room where the reverberant
sound field and reflections from other surfaces cannot be ignored.

In estimating the Insertion Loss of a barrier installed in a large room the following
assumptions are implicit:
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(1) The transmission loss of the barrier material is sufficiently large that transmission through
the barrier can be ignored. A transmission loss of 20 dB is recommended.

(2) The sound power radiated by the source is not affected by insertion of the barrier.

(3) The receiver is in the shadow zone of the barrier; that is, there is no direct line of sight
between source and receiver.

(4) Interference effects between waves diffracted around the side of the barrier, waves
diffracted

over the top of the barrier and reflected waves are negligible. This implies octave band
analysis.

Figure 4.2 sound source

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4.3 Mufflers and lined ducts

Muffling devices are commonly used to reduce noise associated with internal combustion
engine exhausts, high pressure gas or steam vents, compressors and fans. These examples
lead to the conclusion that a muffling device allows the passage of fluid while at the same
time restricting the free passage of sound. Muffling devices might also be used where direct
access to the interior of a noise containing enclosure is required, but through which no steady
flow of gas is necessarily to be maintained. For example, an acoustically treated entry way
between a noisy and a quiet area in a building or factory might be considered as a muffling
device.

Muffling devices may function in any one or any combination of three ways: they may
suppress the generation of noise; they may attenuate noise already generated; and they may
carry or redirect noise away from sensitive areas. Careful use of all three methods for
achieving adequate noise reduction can be very important in the design of muffling devices,
for example, for large volume exhausts.

Two terms, insertion loss, IL, and transmission loss, TL, are commonly used to describe
the effectiveness of a muffling system. The insertion loss of a muffler is defined as the
reduction (in decibels) in sound power transmitted through a duct compared to that
transmitted with no muffler in place. Provided that the duct outlet remains at a fixed point in
space, the insertion loss will be equal to the noise reduction which would be expected at a
reference point external to the duct outlet as a result of installing the muffler. The
transmission loss of a muffler, on the other hand, is defined as the difference (in decibels)
between the sound power incident at the entry to the muffler to that transmitted by the
muffler.

Muffling devices make use of one or the other or a combination of the two effects in their
design. Either sound propagation may be prevented (or strongly reduced) by reflection
(generally as the result of using orifices and expansion chambers), or sound may be
dissipated, generally by the use of sound absorbing material. Muffling devices based upon
reflection are called reactive devices and those based upon dissipation are called dissipative
devices. A duct lined with sound absorbing material on its walls is one form of dissipative
muffler.
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A type of combined reactive/dissipative muffler is a plenum chamber which is a large

volume chamber which connects two ducts. The interior of the chamber is lined with sound
absorbing material, and thus part of the high frequency sound energy which enters the
chamber is absorbed due to multiple reflections within the unit, while the low frequency
energy is reflected or suppressed because of the sudden expansion and contraction in effective
duct cross-sectional area as a result of the presence of the chamber. An example of a reactive
muffler is shown in Figure 10.25, dissipative mufflers are shown in Figures 10.26(a)-(d), and
a combined reactive / dissipative muffler is shown in Figure 10.27.
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Figure 4.3 Examples of general dissipative mufflers

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Figure 4.3.1 Parallel baffle rectangular silencer

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The performance of dissipative devices, on the other hand, by the very nature of the mode of
operation, tends to be independent of the effects of source and termination impedance. Provided that
the transmission loss of a dissipative muffler is at least 5 dB it may be assumed that the insertion loss
and the transmission loss are the same. This assertion is justified by the observation that any sound
reflected back to the source through the muffler will be reduced by at least 10 dB and is thus small
and generally negligible compared to the sound introduced. Consequently, the effect of the
termination impedance upon the source must also be small and negligible. The Insertion Loss of
dissipative silencer increases with the length and varies with the design of the silencer. It can range
from 5 dB at low frequencies to 50 dB at high frequencies in typical installations. It is always best to
consult manufacturer's data and to remember that larger Insertion Losses usually translate to large
pressure drops imposed on any gas flowing through the muffler
.

Figure 4.3.2Attenuation of the feed forward system

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Feed forward controllers generally use a digital filter to act as an inverse model of the system to
be controlled, with the measure of the incoming disturbance being passed through the digital filter and
then to the control source. Practical systems are adaptive so that they can cope with changes over time
of physical parameters such as temperature, speed of sound, and transducer contamination. Adaptation
is achieved by using an error sensor, which detects the residual sound field after control, to provide a
signal to a control algorithm which adjusts the weights of the digital filter.

When sound propagating in ducts is to be attenuated, the elements of the active system are
usually sufficiently small to be mounted in the duct wall, thus minimizing air flow pressure losses.
Disadvantages of active attenuators are associated with their cost (although this is rapidly decreasing),
the need for regular maintenance (speaker replacement every three to five years) the requirement for
custom installation and testing by experts, the reduction in performance at mid to high frequencies
and a requirement for a separation between the reference microphone and control loudspeaker of a
minimum of 1m at 150 Hz to 10m at 20Hz.

A feedback controller requires no knowledge of the incoming disturbance and acts to change the
system response by changing the system resonance frequencies and damping. To be effective,
relatively high gains in the feedback loop are necessary which makes this type of controller prone to
instability if any parameters describing the physical system change slightly. However, this type of
controller is ideal in cases where it is not possible to sample the incoming disturbance or for random
noise. To minimize acoustic delays and thus maximize system stability, the physical locations of the
control source and error sensor should be as close together as possible.

Examples of the practical use of a feedback controller include active ear muffs (or active head
sets - see Figure 10.31), active vehicle suspension systems and active control of structural vibration.
Feedback controllers, however, are unsuitable for controlling travelling acoustic waves in ducts
(where reflection from the end is negligible) or flexural waves in structures where no reflections are
involved. However, in cases where reflections are involved, the damping introduced by the feedback
controller minimises the transient or reverberant response of the acoustic or structural system and as
such can be quite effective. An example of a feedback system to control noise propagating in a duct is
illustrated in Figure.

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Figure 4.3.3 Feedback control system applied to sound propagating in a duct.

Active noise control is most suitable for low frequency tonal sound fields such as radiated by
electrical transformers or exist in a propeller driven aircraft cabin. Even for tonal sound fields, a large
number of control sources and error microphones are needed to make the systems effective. When the
sound is confined to a duct and propagates as plane waves, broadband noise can be controlled actively
as well using one or two control sources and error sensors, provided that an acoustic reference signal
can be obtained sufficiently far upstream of the control source for the control system to generate the
required control signal. In this case about 15 to 20 dB of noise reduction may be expected over 2-3
octave bands. However performance is usually reduced in the presence of large air flow speeds. In
very small enclosures (smaller than a wavelength of sound at the highest frequency of interest),
broadband and pure tone noise can both be controlled. In larger enclosures (and in free space or
outdoors), the control of random noise is not practical. Thus active earmuffs are useful for frequencies
below about 1500 Hz and a number of systems are commercially available. However it is not practical
to use active noise control to reduce general broadband factory noise in the vicinity of workers.

A more detailed discussion of active noise control can be found in specialist books on the subject
( Hansen and Snyder, 1996).

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4.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantges

- mechanical ejectors for pneumatic ejectors; 
- hot for cold working; 
- pressing for rolling or forging; 
- welding or squeeze riveting for impact riveting; 
- welding for riveting; 
- use cutting fluid in machining processes; 
- change from impact action (e.g. hammering a metal bar) to progressive pressure action (e.g.
bending metal bar with pliers as shown in Figure 10.3, or increase of time during which a
force is applied, as shown in Figure 10.4); 
- replace circular saw blades with damped blades (see Figure 10.9); 
- replace mechanical limit stops with micro­switches.

Disadvantages 

- replacement or adjustment of worn or loose parts; 
- balancing of unbalanced equipment; 
- lubrication of moving parts; 
- use of properly shaped and sharpened cutting tools. 

Substitution of materials (e.g., plastic for metal), a good example being the replacement of steel 
sprockets in chain drives with sprockets made from flexible polyamide plastics.

4.6 FUTURE SCOPE 

It is possible to design both reactive and dissipative mufflers to achieve desired noise reductions
in specific applications and procedures for doing this are outlined by Bies and Hansen (1996, Ch. 9),
where the design of sound reducing plenum chambers is also discussed. The procedures are relatively
complex and are not discussed here.
The greater the sound attenuating performance of a muffler, the greater will be the pressure drop any
gas   flowing   through   it   will   experience.   This   pressure   drop   can   be   extremely   important   in   some
applications and must be considered in any design. In dissipative mufflers containing sound absorbing
material, care must be taken to ensure that the material is not eroded by gas flowing through the muffler.
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In many cases, a thin plastic skin sprayed on to the face of the material is sufficient, but where relatively
high speed flows exist, a higher level of protection may be necessary.

CHAPTER-5
5.1 CONCLUSION

Receiver control in an industrial situation is generally restricted to providing headsets and/or ear plugs
for the exposed workers, see chapter 11. It must be emphasised that this is a last resort treatment and
requires close supervision to ensure long term protection of workers' hearing. The
main problems lie in ensuring that the devices fit adequately to provide the rated sound attenuation
and that the devices are properly worn. Extensive education programs are needed in this regard.
Hearing protection is also uncomfortable for a large proportion of the workforce; it can lead to
headaches, fungus infections in the ear canal, a higher rate of absenteeism and reduced work
efficiency. It is worth remembering that the most protection that a properly fitted headset/earplug
combination will provide is 30 dB, due to conduction through the bone structure of the head. In most
cases, the noise reduction obtained is much less than this.

Another option which is sometimes practical for receiver control is to enclose personnel in a
sound reducing enclosure (see ISO 11957). This is often the preferred option in facilities where there
are many noisy machines, many of which can be operated remotely. In this case, the enclosure design
principles outlined in section 10.3.5 may be used and the enclosure performance may be calculated
using equation ( 6 ) and the appropriate wall material and construction selected after the required
noise reduction has been established. Guidelines which should be followed during design and
construction are:

doors, windows and wall panels should be well sealed at edges;

interior surfaces of enclosure should be covered with sound absorptive material; all
ventilation openings should provided with acoustic attenuators.

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CHAPTER-6

6.1REFERENCES

ASF (1977). Noise control (in Swedish) ed. by Arbetarskyddsfonden, Stockholm, now Rådet för
Arbetslivsforskning (Swedish Council for Work Life Research).

Bell, L.H. (1982). Industrial Noise Control Fundamentals and Applications. Marcel Dekker Inc.

Bies, D.A. and Hansen, C.H. (1996). Engineering noise control: theory and practice. London: E &FN
Spon.

Cremer, L., Heckl, M. & Ungar, E.E. (1988). Structure-borne sound. 2nd ed. New York: Springer-
Verlag.

Eriksson, L.J. and Allie, M.C. (1989). Use of random noise for on-line transducer modelling in an
adaptive active attenuation system. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 85, 797-802.

Gerges, S.N.Y. (1995). Machinery noise reduction. Proceedings of the Hearing Conservation
Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hansen, C.H. and Snyder, S.D. (1996). Active control of sound and vibration. London: Chapman and
Hall.

Handley, J.M. (1973). Noise - The Third Pollution. IAC Bulletin 6.0011.0.

Harris, C.M. (1991) (ed.) Handbook of Acoustical Measurements and Noise Control. 3rd. edn.,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Reprint in 1997 by ASA, Acoustical Society of America.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY :

 www.LecturerNotes.com
 www.ProjectsTopics.com
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