Glinka General Chemistry Vol 2 Mir

Nikolai Glinka, after graduating
from the Moscow University in 1908,

conducted research for several years
under the guidance of N D Zelinsky.
He preferred teaching to research,
however, and took his doctorate in that
field. He taught chemistry in Podolsk
for twelve years, and was then
transferred to Moscow in 1924 by the
People's Comissanat of Education.
In 1940, he was appointed Head of
the Department of Inorganic and
General Chemistry at the All-Union
Polytechnical Correspondence Institute,
a post he held to ihe end of his life.
He died in 1965 at the age of 82
Veniamin Rabinovich, the editor of the

revised edition of General Chemistry
graduated from the Leningrad State
University in 1940. He is a Candidate
of Sciences (Chemistry) and an
associtate professor at the
A I. Gertsen Pedagogical Institute,
Leningrad. He is the author of over
50 scientific works, mainly on the
thermodynamics of electrolyte
solutions. His other activities include
the publication of reference literature:
he is the deputy editor in chief and
a coauthor of the fundamental
seven-volume Chemist's Handbook
(in Russian), and the editor and
a coauthor of a Concise Chemical
Reference Book (in Russian).
Mendeleev's Periodic Table of the Elements
Groups of elements -
Atomic masses are given according
Periods Rows II Ill IV v VI VII VIII to the International Table of 19n.
The accuracy of the last significant
1 digit ls±1 or±31f it is set
In small type.
The numbers In brackets
are the mass numbers of the most
stable Isotopes.
2 II
The names and symbols of elements
in parentheses
are not generally adopted.
3 Ill
4 IV
5 VI
VII
6 VIII
IX
Atomic mass Atomic number
7 X
a-elements • p-elements Distribution of electrons Distribution
by unfilled and following of electrons
• d -elements D f- elements completed sublevels by levels
*Lanthanides cess~ Pr sg ~ Ndso ~ Pm61 sms2 ~ Eu 63 ~ Gd64 ~ Tb ss ~ Oyss ~ Ho67 ~ Er

8 sa~ rms9 ~ Yb 10 ~ Lu n ~
140.12 fa 140.9077 ~ 144.24 ~ [145] ~~ 150.4 ~: 151.96s ~ 157.25 ~: 158.9254 ~~ 162.5o ~ 164.9304 ~ 167.2e ~ 168.9342 ra
173.04 ~~ 174.967 ?a
4f2Ss2 a 4f36s 2 8 41 4 6s 2 8 4f 5 6s 2 8 4fBes 2 8 4f 76s2 8 4f75d16s2 8 4t 9 es2 8 4f 10es2 8 4t 11 es2 8 t 12es 2 8 t 13 es 2 8 f14Ss2 8 5d16s2 8
Cenum 2 Praseodymium2 Neodymium 2 Promethium 2 Samarium 2 Europium 2 Gadolinium 2 Terbium 2 Dysprosium 2 Holmium 2 Erbium 2 Thulium 2 Ytterbium 2 Lutet1um 2
** Actinides Th90
232.0381 i Pa 91 w~
2 u 92 n~ Np93~ Pu94 ~~ Am9s~~ Cm9s3~ Bk97~g Cf 98i~ Es99 ~i Fm100i~ Md101~ll CNol02~~ {lr)1033~
231.0359 23802g 237.0482~ [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [254] [257] [258] [255] 256]
6d27s2 ': !)f26d1]s2 18 5f36d,7s2 18 51 4 6d17s2 18
2 Protactinium ~ Uranium
~ 51~78 2
~ Neptunium ~ Plutomum
1
517 7s2 18 5f76d17s2 18 51 sed17s2 18
2 Americium ~ CUrium
51 1o 78218 5f117a2 18
~ Berkelium ~ Californium ~ Einstelmum ~ Fermium
1r 18
s1 12 st13 782 18 5f147s 2 1
~ 6d 17s2 ':
Thorium ~ Mendelevium ~ (Nobelium) 2 (Lawrencium) 2
H. JI. r JIHHKa
06m aH X hmhh
n o n pcâK ij,H eH xaH A . XHM. a a y K

B. A. PAEHHOBHHA
HaflaTejitcTBo «Xhuhh»
JleHHHrpaA
General Chemistry
N. L.Glinka
Volume 2
EditedbyV .Rabinovich
Translatedfromthe R ussian
byG .L eib
M
ir Publishers
M
oscow
First published, 1958
Second edition, 1970
Third edition, 1981
Revised from the 1980 enlarged and updated Russian edition
Second printing, 1986
Ha amjiuucKOM oaune
(g) HaA&TejibCTBO «Xhmhh», 1980

© Mir Publishers, English translation, 1981
CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Hydrogen 9
1. Occurrence and Preparation 9
2. Properties and Uses li
3. Hydrogen Peroxide HaOa 14
Chapter 2. The Halogens 18

4. Occurrence. Physical Properties 19
5. Chemical Properties 22
6. Preparation and Uses 25
7. Hydrogen Halides 27
8. Oxygen Compounds 33
Chapter 3. The Main Subgroup of Group Six 40

Oxygen 41
9. Oxygen in Nature. Air 41
10. Preparation and Properties of Oxygen 43
11. Ozone 45
Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium 47
12. Occurrence and Preparation of Sulphur 47
13. Properties and Uses of Sulphur 48
14. Hydrogen Sulphide. Sulphides 50
15. Sulphur Dioxide. Sulphurous Acid 53
16. Sulphur Trioxide. Sulphuric Acid 54
17. Production and Uses of Sulphuric Acid 59
18. Persulphuric Acid 61
19. Thiosulphuric Acid 62
20. Halogen* Compounds of Sulphur 63
21. Selenium. Tellurium 63
Chapter 4. The Main Subgroup of Group Five 66
Nitrogen 67
22. Occurrence of Nitrogen.Preparation and Properties 67
23. Ammonia and Its Salts 68
24. Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. Preparation ofAmmonia 73
25. Hydrazine.Hydroxylamine. Hydrazoic Acid 76
6 Contents
26. Oxides of Nitrogen 77

27. Nitrous Acid 82
28. Nitric Acid 82
29. The Industrial Production of NitricAcid 85
30. Nitrogen Cycle in Nature 86
Phosphorus 87
31. Occurrence. Preparation and Properties 87
32. Phosphorus Compounds with Hydrogenand the Halogens 90
33. Oxides and Acids of Phosphorus 90
34. Mineral Fertilizers 93
Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth 94
35. Arsenic 94
36. Antimony 98
37. Bismuth 99
Chapter 5. The Main Subgroup of Group Four 101
Carbon
38. Occurrence 102
39. Allotropy of Carbon 103
40. Chemical Propertiesof Carbon. Carbides 107
41. Carbon Dioxide. Carbonic Acid 108
42. Carbon Monoxide 112
43. Compounds of Carbon with Sulphur and Nitrogen 115
44. Fuel and Its Kinds 116
45. Gaseous Fuel 118
Organic Compounds 120
46. General 120
47. Features of Organic Compounds 121
48. The Theory of the Chemical Structureof Organic Compounds 123
49. Classification of Organic Compounds 134
50. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) 137
51. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 141
52. Saturated Cyclic Hydrocarbons (Cycloalkanes) 144
53. Aromatic Hydrocarbons 144
54. Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons 149
55. Alcohols and Phenols 150
56. Ethers 154
57. Aldehydes and Ketones 154
58. Carboxylic Acids 157
59. Carboxylic Acid Esters. Fats 159
60. Carbohydrates 161
61. Amines 166
62. Amino Acids and Proteins 168
63. Natural and Synthetic High-MolecularCompounds (Polymers) 169
Silicon 177
65. Compounds of Silicon with Hydrogen and the Halogens 179
66. Silicon Dioxide 181
67. Silicic Acids and Their Salts 181
68. Glass 184
69. Ceramics 186
70. Cement 187
71. Organosilicon Compounds 188
Contents 7
i
Germanium, Tin, Lead 190
72. Germanium 190
73. Tin 191
74. Lead 194
75. The Lead Accumulator 197
Chapter 6. Common Properties of Metals, Alloys 199

76. Physical and Chemical Properties of Metals. The Electron
Structure of Metals, Dielectrics, and Semiconductors 199
77. The Crystalline Structure of Metals 204
78. Extraction of Metals from Their Ores 207
79. Production of Highly Pure Metals 210
80. Alloys 211
81. Phase Diagrams of Metal Systems 212
82. Corrosion of Metals 223
Chapter 7. First Group of the Table 230

Alkali Metals 230
84. Sodium 234
85. Potassium 237
Copper Subgroup 238
86. Copper 239
87. Silver 245
88. Gold 249
Chapter 8. Complex Compounds 251
89. Fundamentals of the Coordination Theory 252
90. Basic Types and Nomenclature of Complex Compounds 255
91. Spatial Structure and Isomerism 260
92. Nature of the Chemical Bond in Complex Compounds 263
93. Stability of Complex Compounds in Solutions 270
94. Influence of Coordination on the Properties of Ligands and the
Central Atom. Mutual Influence of Ligands 274
Chapter 9. Second Group of the Periodic Table 277
Main Subgroup 277
95. Beryllium 279
96. Magnesium 282
97. Calcium 284
98. Hardness of Natural Water and Its Elimination 286
99. Strontium. Barium 288
Secondary Subgroup 289
100. Zinc 290
101. Cadmium 295
102. Mercury 295
Chapter 10. Third Group of the Periodic Table 299
Main Subgroup 299
103. Boron 300
8 Contents
104. Aluminium 304

105. Gallium. Indium. Thallium 309
Secondary Subgroup.Lanthanides. Actinides 310
106. Scandium Subgroup 310
107. Lanthanides 311
108. Actinides 314
Chapter It. Secondary Subgroups of Groups IV, V, VI, and VII 317
109. General Characteristic of theTransitionElements 317
Titanium Subgroup 319
110. Titanium 320
111. Zirconium. Hafnium 321
Vanadium Subgroup 322
112. Vanadium 323
113. Niobium. Tantalum 324
Chromium Subgroup 325
114. Chromium 325
115. Molybdenum 330
116. Tungsten 332
Manganese Subgroup 333
117. Manganese 334
118. Rhenium 337
Chapter 12. Eighth Group of the Periodic Table 339

Noble Gases 339
119. General 339
120. Helium 341
121. Neon. Argon 342
Iron Family 343
122. Iron. Occurrence 343
123. Iron and Its Alloys in Engineering. The Development of
Metallurgy in the USSR 344
124. Physical Properties of Iron. Phase Diagram of Iron-Carbon
System 345
125. Production of Iron andSteel 351
126. Heat Treatment of Steel 356
127. Iron Alloys 359
128. Chemical Properties ofIron. Compounds of Iron 362
129. Cobalt 367
130. Nickel 368
Platinum Metals 371
131. General 371
132. Platinum 373
133. Palladium. Iridium 374
Name Index 376
Subject Index 378
I
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen (.Hydrogenium*) was discovered in the first half of the

16th century by the well-known physician and naturalist Philippus
Paracelsus. In 1776, Henry Cavendish (England) established its
properties and distinctions from other gases. Antoine Lavoisier was
the first to obtain hydrogen from water, and he proved that water is
a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen (1783).
Hydrogen has three isotopes: protium 1H, deuterium 2H or D,
and tritium SH or T. Their mass numbers are 1, 2, and 3. Protium
and deuterium are stable, tritium is radioactive with a half-life of
12.5 years. Natural compounds contain deuterium and protium on an
average in the ratio 1 : 6800 (according to the number of atoms).
Tritium is found in nature in negligibly small amounts.
The nucleus of the hydrogen atom *H contains one proton. The
nuclei of deuterium and tritium include, in addition to a proton,
one and two neutrons, respectively.
A hydrogen molecule consists of two atoms. Below are given se
lected properties characterizing the hydrogen atom and molecule:
Ionization energy of atom, eV 13.60
Affinity of atom to electron, eV 0.75
Relative electronegativity 2.1
Radius of atom, nm 0.046
Internuclear distance in molecule, nm 0.0741
Standard enthalpy of dissociation of
molecules at 25 °C, kJ/mol 436.1
1. Occurrence and Preparation

Hydrogen is encountered on the Earth in the free state only in
negligible amounts. It is sometimes evolved together with other gases
during the eruptions of volcanoes, and also from oil wells in the
* Here and below, the Latin names of the elements will be indicated only
when they differ from the English ones—translator's note.
10 Hydrogen
extraction of oil. But compounds of hydrogen are very abundant.

This is evident from its forming one-ninth of the mass of water. All
vegetable and animal organisms, petroleum, hard, soft, and brown
coal, natural gas, and a number of minerals contain hydrogen. The
latter accounts for about one per cent of the entire mass of the Earth’s
crust, including water and air. When passing over to a percentage of
the total number of atoms, however, the hydrogen content in the
Earth’s crust is 17%*.
Hydrogen is the most widespread element in cosmos. About half of
the mass of the Sun and the majority of the stars fall to its share.
It is contained in gaseous nebulas, in interstellar gas, and in stars.
Inside the latter, hydrogen atom nuclei transform into helium atom
nuclei. This process occurs with the evolution of energy. It is the
main source of energy for many stars including the Sun. The rate of
the process, i.e. the number of hydrogen nuclei transforming into
helium nuclei in one cubic metre per second, is low. Hence, the amount
of energy evolved in unit time per unit volume is also low. But
owing to the enormous mass of the Sun, the total amount of energy
generated and radiated by the Sun is very great. It corresponds to
diminishing of the Sun’s mass by about four million tonnes a second.
In industry, hydrogen is generally produced from natural gas. The
latter, consisting mainly of methane, is mixed with water vapour
(steam) and oxygen. When the mixture of gases is heated to 800 to
900 °C in the presence of a catalyst, a reaction occurs that can be de
picted schematically by the equation:
2CH4 + 0 2 + 2H20 = 2C02 + 6H2
The gas mixture obtained is separated. The hydrogen is purified
and is either used at the place of production, or is transported to the
place of use in steel cylinders un
der a high pressure.
Another important industrial
method of producing hydrogen is
its separation from coke-oven gas
or from gases obtained in petro
leum refining. It is performed by
deep cooling, when all the gases
except hydrogen liquefy.
* Such, a great difference between
the quantities expressing the hydrogen
content as a percentage of the total
number of atoms and in per cent by
mass is explained by hydrogen atoms
being much lighter than atoms of other
elements, in particular of oxygen and
silicon—the most widespread elements
in the Earth’s crust. Fig. 1. Kipp gas generator
Hydrogen 11
Hydrogen is customarily prepared in laboratories by the electrol

ysis of aqueous solutions of NaOH or KOH. The concentration of
these solutions is selected such that corresponds to their maximum
electrical conductivity (25% for NaOH and 34% for KOH). The
electrodes are usually made from sheet nickel. This metal does not
corrode in solutions of alkalies even when it is the anode. When nec
essary, the hydrogen obtained is purified of water vapour and of
traces of oxygen. Among other laboratory methods, the greatest fa
vour has been found by the method of liberating hydrogen from solu
tions of sulphuric or hydrochloric acids by acting on them with zinc.
The reaction is usually conducted in a Kipp gas generator (Fig. 1).
2. Properties and Uses

Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless gas. At a temperature below
—240 °C (its critical temperature), it liquefies under pressure; the
boiling point of liquid hydrogen is —252.8 °C (at standard atmospher
ic pressure). If this liquid is rapidly evaporated, solid hydrogen is
obtained in the form of transparent crystals melting at —259.2 °C.
Hydrogen is the lightest of all gases; it is 14.5 times lighter than
air. The mass of one litre of hydrogen in standard conditions is
0.09 g. Hydrogen dissolves in water very slightly, but in some
metals such as nickel, palladium, and platinum, it dissolves quite
considerably.
The ability of hydrogen to diffuse through metals is associated
with its ability to dissolve in them. In addition, being the lightest
gas, hydrogen has the highest rate of diffusion: its molecules diffuse
in another substance and pass through various partitions and mem
branes faster than molecules of all other gases. Its diffusing power is
especially great at high pressures and elevated temperatures. This
is why work with hydrogen in such conditions is associated with con
siderable difficulties.
The diffusion of hydrogen in steel at elevated temperatures may
cause the hydrogen corrosion of the steel. This absolutely unique kind
of corrosion consists in the hydrogen reacting with the carbon in
the steel and converting it into hydrocarbons (usually into methane).
This sharply detracts from the properties of the steel.
The chemical properties of hydrogen are determined to a consider
able extent by the ability of its atoms to give up the only electron
at their disposal and transform into positively charged ions. Here
a feature of the hydrogen atom manifests itself that distinguishes it
from the atoms of all the other elements: the absence of intermediate
electrons between the valence electron and the nucleus. The hydrogen
ion formed as a result of a hydrogen atom losing its electron is a pro
ton whose size is less by several orders of magnitude than that of
the cations of all other elements. Consequently, the polarizing action
12 Hydrogen
of a proton is very great, owing to which hydrogen is not capable of

forming ionic compounds in which it would play the role of a cation.
Its compounds even with the most active non-metals, for instance
with fluorine, are substances with a polar covalent bond.
A hydrogen atom is capable of not only giving up, but also of at
taching an electron. Here a negatively charged hydrogen ion having
the electron shell of a helium atom is formed. In compounds with cer
tain active metals, hydrogen is in the form of such ions. Hence, hy
drogen displays a dual chemical nature—it has both an oxidizing
and a reducing ability. In most reactions, it plays the role of a re
ducing agent and forms compounds in which its oxidation number is
+ 1 . But in reactions with active metals, it plays the role of an oxidiz
ing agent: its oxidation number in compounds with metals is —1.
Thus, when it gives up one electron, hydrogen is similar to the met
als of Group I of the periodic table, and when it attaches an elec
tron, it is similar to the non-metals of Group VII. This is the rea
son why hydrogen is usually placed either in the first group of the
periodic table, and at the same time in the seventh group in parenthe
ses, or vice versa.
Compounds of hydrogen with metals are called hydrides. The
hydrides of the alkali and alkaline-earth metals are salts, i.e. the
chemical bond between the metal and the hydrogen in them is ionic.
They are white crystals, unstable and decomposing into the relevant
metal and hydrogen when heated. The action of water on them causes
an oxidation-reduction reaction to proceed in which the hydride
ion H" is the reducing agent, and the hydrogen of the water is the
oxidizing one:
H-1 = H° +
H20 + <r = H ° + OH-
The products are hydrogen and a base. For example, calcium hy
dride reacts with water according to the equation:
CaH2 + 2HaO = 2Hg f + Ca(OH)g
This reaction is used to determine the presence of traces of mois
ture and to remove them.
sMetal-like and polymer hydrides are known in addition to the
alt-lik e ones. Metal-like hydrides are close to metals as regards
the nature of the chemical bond in them. They have a consider
able electrical conductivity and a metallic lustre, but are.very brit
tle. They include titanium, vanadium, and chromium hydrides. The
metal atoms in polymer hydrides (for example, in zinc and alumini
um hydrides) are bound to one another by means of hydrogen
"bridges” as in boron hydrides (p. 302).
If we apply a lighted match to a stream of hydrogen emerging from
a narrow orifice, the hydrogen ignites and burns with a non-luminous
Hydrogen 13
flame forming water:

2Ha + 0 a = 2Ha0
When a mixture of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxy
gen is ignited, the gases combine virtually instantaneously through
out the entire mixture, and a strong explosion occurs. This is why
the name detonating gas has been given to such a mixture. The stand
ard enthalpy of this reaction per mole of liquid water formed is
—285.8 kJ, and per mole of water vapour it is —241.8 kJ. Hence, a
great amount of heat is evolved when hydrogen burns. The tempera
ture of a hydrogen flame may reach 2800 °C. A hydrogen-oxygen
flame is used for welding and cutting metals, and for the melting of
refractory metals.
At low temperatures, hydrogen does not virtually react with oxy
gen. If the two gases are mixed and left standing, no traces of water
will be found in the mixture even after several years have elapsed.
But if a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is placed in a vessel, the
latter is soldered and kept at 300 °G, some water will form in a few
days. At 500 °C, the hydrogen completely combines with the oxygen
in a few hours, while when the mixture is heated to 700 °C, the tem
perature rapidly rises, and the reaction terminates virtually instan
taneously. Therefore, to make the mixture explode, it must be
heated in at least one spot up to 700 °C.
The low rate of reaction of hydrogen with oxygen at low tempera
tures is explained by the high activation energy of the reaction.
Hydrogen and oxygen molecules are very stable. A collision between
them at room temperature is not effective. Only at elevated tem
peratures, when the colliding molecules acquire a high kinetic
energy, do some collisions of the molecules become effective and re
sult in the formation of active centres.
Catalysts can greatly increase the rate of the hydrogen-oxygen re
action. If we introduce, for example, a small piece of platinized as
bestos (i.e. asbestos coated with finely comminuted platinum) into
a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the rate of the reaction will grow
to such an extent that an explosion will occur in a short time.
We remind our readers that the reaction between hydrogen and oxy
gen is a chain one and proceeds according to a chain-branching
mechanism (see Vol. 1, Sec. 62).
At elevated temperatures, hydrogen can take oxygen away from
many compounds including most metal oxides. For instance, if hy
drogen is passed over heated copper(II) oxide, the copper is reduced:
CuO + Ha = Cu + HaO
For this reason, hydrogen is employed in metallurgy to reduce cer
tain non-ferrous metals from their oxides. Hydrogen finds its main
application in the chemical industry for the synthesis of hydrogen
14 Hydrogen
chloride (see Sec. 7), for the synthesis of ammonia (see Sec. 27),
which is used, in turn, to produce nitric acid and nitrogen fertilizers,
and for the preparation of methyl alcohol (see Sec. 55) and other or
ganic compounds. It is used for the hydrogenation* of fats (p. 160),
coal, and petroleum. In the hydrogenation of coal and petroleum,
the low-grade kinds of fuel lean in hydrogen are converted into high-
grade ones.
Hydrogen is used to cool powerful generators of electric current,
while its isotopes are employed in atomic power engineering (see
Vol. 1, pp. 118 and 224).
Atomic hydrogen. At elevated temperatures, hydrogen molecules
dissociate into atoms:
Ha ** 2H
This reaction can be achieved, for example, by heating a tungsten
wire with current in an atmosphere of greatly rarefied hydrogen. The
reaction is reversible, and equilibrium shifts to the right when the
temperature rises. At 2000 °C, the degree of dissociation (i.e. the
fraction of the molecules that dissociate) is only 0.1%, at 3000 °C
it is 9%, at 4000 °C, 62.5%, and at 5000 °C it is 94.7% (all the fig
ures are for a standard atmospheric pressure in the system).
Atomic hydrogen is also obtained when a silent electric discharge
acts on molecular hydrogen under a pressure of about 70 Pa. The
hydrogen atoms formed in these conditions do not immediately com
bine into molecules, which makes studying of their properties pos
sible.
The decomposition of hydrogen into atoms is accompanied by the
absorption of a great amount of heat:
H2 = 2H —436 kJ
Hence, it is evident that hydrogen atoms must be much more
active than the molecules. For molecular hydrogen to enter into a
reaction, the molecules must first decompose into atoms, for which
a large amount of energy is needed. Reactions of atomic hydrogen do
not need such an expenditure of energy.
Indeed, atomic hydrogen already at room temperature reduces
many metal oxides and directly combines with sulphur, nitrogen,
and phosphorus; it forms hydrogen peroxide with oxygen.
3. Hydrogen Peroxide H20 2

Hydrogen peroxide is a colourless syrup-like liquid with a density
of 1.45 g/cm3 that freezes at —0.48 °C. It is a very unstable substance
that can decompose explosively into water and oxygen, a great
* Hydrogenation processes are based on the attachment of hydrogen to the
molecules of the reactants.
Hydrogen 15
amount of heat being evolved:

2HaOa(lq) — 2HaO(lq) + Oa +197.5 kJ
Aqueous solutions of hydrogen peroxide are more stable. They can
be kept for a considerable time in a cool place. Perhydrol—a solution
available on the market—contains 30% of H a0 2. This product and
highly concentrated solutions of hydrogen peroxide contain stabi
lizing additions.
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is accelerated by catalysts.
If, for example, we throw a small amount of manganese(IV)
dioxide into a solution of hydrogen peroxide, a violent reaction oc
curs, and oxygen is liberated. The catalysts promoting the decom
position of hydrogen peroxide include copper, iron, manganese, and
also the ions of these metals. Even traces of these metals can cause
the decomposition of H 2Oa.
Hydrogen peroxide is formed as an intermediate in the combustion
of hydrogen, but owing to the high temperature of the hydrogen
flame, it immediately decomposes into water and oxygen. If the hy
drogen flame is directed onto a piece of ice, however, traces of hydro
gen peroxide can be found in the water formed.
Hydrogen peroxide is also produced when atomic hydrogen reacts
with oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide is mainly produced on a commercial scale by
electrochemical methods, for example by the anode oxidation of so
lutions of sulphuric acid or ammonium hydrogen sulphate with the
subsequent hydrolysis of the persulphuric acid H 2S20 8 formed (see
Sec. 18). The following processes occur:
2HaS04 = HaSa0 8 + 2H+ + 2<r
HaSa0 8 + 2HaO * 2HaS04 + HaOa
In hydrogen peroxide, the hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded
to the oxygen atoms between which there is also a single bond. The
structure of hydrogen peroxide can be depicted by the formula
H —0 —0 —H.
The H 20 2molecules have a con
siderable polarity (p = 2.13 D),
which is a result of their spatial
structure (Fig. 2).
In a hydrogen peroxide mole
cule, the bonds between the hydro
gen and oxygen atoms are polar
(owing to shifting of the shared Fig. 2. molecule
Structure of an HaOa
electrons towards the oxygen). The angle 6 Is close to 100 deg,
Hence, in an aqueous solution the angle <p Is close to 95 deg.
The bond lengths are 0.097 nm.
under the influence of the polar (O—H) and 0.149 nm (O—O)
16 Hydrogen
water molecules, hydrogen peroxide can detach hydrogen ions, i.e.

it has acid properties. Hydrogen peroxide is a very weak dibasic
acid (Kx = 2.6 X 10’12); in an aqueous solution it decomposes,
although insignificantly, into ions:
HaOa ** H+ + HO-
Dissociation in the second stage,
HOa =rfcH++Ol-
does not virtually occur. It is suppressed by the presence of water—
a substance that dissociates with the formation of hydrogen ions to a
greater extent than hydrogen peroxide. If the hydrogen ions are
bound, however (for example, when an alkali is introduced into the so
lution), dissociation in the second stage does occur.
Hydrogen peroxide reacts directly with some bases and forms salts.
For instance, when hydrogen peroxide is added to an aqueous solu
tion of barium hydroxide, the barium salt of hydrogen peroxide
precipitates:
Ba(OH)a + HaOa = BaOa | + 2HaO
Salts of hydrogen peroxide are called peroxides. They consist of
positively charged metal ions and negatively charged O2” ions whose
electron dot formula is as follows:
[:o: :o:]2-
•• ••
The oxidation number of oxygen in hydrogen peroxide is —1, i.e.
it is intermediate between the oxidation number of oxygen in water
(—2) and in molecular oxygen (0). For this reason, hydrogen per
oxide has properties of both an oxidizing and a reducing agent, i.e.
exhibits oxidation-reduction duality. Oxidizing properties are nev
ertheless more characteristic of it because the standard potential of
the electrochemical system
H2Oa + 2H+ + 2<r = 2HaO
in which H 20 2 is an oxidizing agent equals 1.776 V, whereas the
standard potential of the electrochemical system
0 2 + 2H+ + 2<r = H20 2
in which hydrogen peroxide is a reducing agent equals 0.682 V.
In other words, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize substances for which
cp° does not exceed 1.776 V and can reduce only those substances for
which cp° is greater than 0.682 V. Table 18 in Vol. 1 (p. 300) shows
us that the first group includes much more substances.
Examples of reactions in which H 20 2 is an oxidizing agent are the
oxidation of potassium nitrite
KN02 + H2Oa = KN03 + H20
Hydrogen 17
and the separation of iodine from potassium iodide:

2KI + HaOa = Ia + 2KOH
An example of the reducing ability of hydrogen peroxide is the
reaction between H 20 2 and silver(I) oxide:
AgaO + HaOa = 2Ag + HaO + Oa
and also between H 20 2 and a potassium permanganate solution in an
acid medium:
2KMn04 + 5Ha0 a + 3HaS04 = 2MnS04 + 50a + K2S04 + 8HaO
If we add the equations corresponding to the reduction of hydrogen
peroxide and to its oxidation, we get an equation of the autoxida-
tion and autoreduction of hydrogen peroxide:
. H20 2+ 2H++ 2e~ = 2HaO
~ H20 2= 0 2+ 2H++
2Ha0 a= 2H20 + 0 a
This is the equation of the hydrogen peroxide decomposition pro
cess mentioned above.
The use of hydrogen peroxide is associated with its oxidizing ability
and with the harmless nature of the product of its reduction (H20).
It is employed for bleaching fabrics and furs, in medicine (a 3% so
lution is a disinfecting means), in the food industry (in preserving
food products), in agriculture for seed treatment, and also in the
production of a number of organic compounds, polymers, and porous
materials. It is used in rocket equipment as a strong oxidizing agent.
Hydrogen peroxide is also employed for restoring old paintings in
oils that have darkened with time owing to the transformation of
white lead into black lead sulphide under the action of the traces of
hydrogen sulphide in the air. When such paintings are washed with
hydrogen peroxide, the lead sulphide is oxidized to white lead sul
phate:
PbS + 4HaOa = PbS04 + 4HaO
2—2412
2
THE HALOGENS
The elements fluorine (Fluorum), chlorine (iChlorum), bromine

(Bromum), iodine (Jodum), and astatine in the main subgroup of
Group VII are called the halogens. This name, which literally
means “salt-forming”, was given to the elements for their ability to
react with metals to form typical salts, for instance sodium chlo
ride NaCl.
The outer electron layer of halogen atoms has seven electrons—two
in the s and five in the p orbitals (n$2nph). The halogens have a con
siderable affinity to an electron (Table 1)—their atoms readily at
tach an electron and form singly charged negative ions having the
electron configuration of the relevant noble gas (ns2np6). The incli
nation to attach electrons characterizes the halogens as typical non-
metals. The analogical structure of the outer electron layer causes
great similarity of the halogens to one another, which displays itself
both in their chemical properties and in the kinds and properties of
the compounds they form. But a comparison of the properties of the
halogens shows that there are also appreciable differences between
them.
Table 1 gives selected properties of the halogen atoms and the ele
mentary substances they form.
A growth in the atomic number of the elements in the halogen
family F to At is attended by an increase in the atomic radii, dimin
ishing of the electronegativity, weakening of the non-metal proper
ties and of the oxidizing power of the elements.
Unlike the other halogens, fluorine is always in the oxidation state
—1 in its compounds because it possesses the highest electronega
tivity of all the elements. The other halogens exhibit various oxi
dation numbers from —1 to + 7 .
W ith the exception of several oxides that will be treated below,
all the halogen compounds correspond to odd oxidation numbers.
This regularity is due to the possibility of consecutive excitation of
paired electrons in the atoms Cl, Br, I, and At to the d sublevel.
The Halogens 19
Table 1
Properties of the Halogens*
Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine
Configuration of outer dec- 2s22pB 3s23p5 4s24p5 5$a5p6 6s26p5

tron layer of atom
Ionization energy of atom, 17.42 12.97 11.84 10.45 - 9 .2
eV
Affinity of atom to elec 3.45 3.61 3.37 3.08 - 2 .8
tron, eV
Relative electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.6 - 2 .2
Atomic radius, nm 0.064 0.C99 0.114 0.133
Radius of ion E~, nm 0.133 0.181 0.196 0.220 (L23
Internuclear distance in 0.142 0.199 0.228 0.267
molecule Ea, nm
Standard enthalpy of dis 159 243 192 151 109
sociation of molecules E2
at 25 °C, kJ/mol
Physical state in ordinary Pale Greenish Brown Purplish Bluish
conditions greenish yellow ish red black black
gas gas liquid crystals crystals
Melting point, °C —219.6 -101.0 -7 .3 113.6 227
Boiling point, °C —188.1 -3 4 .1 59.2 185.5 317
Degree of thermal dissocia
tion of molecules E2:
at 1000 K 0.043 0.00035 0.0023 0.28
at 2000 K 0.99 0.37 0.72 0.89
* The symbol E here and below stands for an atom of the element being considered.
which leads to an increase in the number of electrons participating in.

the formation of covalent bonds to 3, 5, or 7 (see the diagram in Vol 1,
p. 135).
4. Occurrence. Physical Properties
The halogens, owing to their great chemical activity, are found in

nature exclusively in a bound state, chiefly as salts of hydrogen
halides.
Fluorine is encountered in nature most frequently as the mineral
fluorspar CaF2 whose name is due to the fact that its addition to iron
ores leads to the formation of low-melting slags in the smelting of
iron (the Latin fleure means “to flow”). Fluorine is also contained in
the minerals cryolite Na3AlF6 and fluorapatite Ca5F(P04)3.
The most important natural compound of chlorine is sodium chlo
ride (table salt) NaCl, which is the main starting material for the
production of other chlorine compounds. Most of the sodium chloride
2*
20 The Halogens
in nature is in tlie water of the seas and oceans. The water in many
lakes also contains a considerable amount of NaCl. Examples are the
Lakes Elton and Baskunchak in the USSR. Sodium chloride is also
encountered in the solid state, forming thick strata of rock salt in the
Earth’s crust at some places. Other chlorine compounds are also en
countered in nature such as potassium chloride in the form of the
minerals carnallite KCl*MgGl2-6H20 and sylvite KC1.
Chlorine under a pressure of about 0.6 MPa transforms into a
liquid already at room temperature. Liquefied chlorine is usually
stored and transported in steel cylinders or tanks.
Like chlorine, bromine occurs mainly in the form of potassium,
sodium, and magnesium salts. Metal bromides are contained in sea
water, in the water of certain lakes, and in underground brines. In
the USSR, the bromine content in underground well water of an
industrial significance ranges from 170 to 700 mg/1.
Sea water also contains iodine compounds, but in such minute
amounts that their direct extraction from the water is very difficult.
There are certain seaweeds, however, that accumulate iodine in their
tissues. The ashes of these weeds are the starting material for the
production of iodine. Considerable amounts of iodine (from 10 to
50 mg/1) are found in underground well waters. Iodine is also encoun
tered in the form of potassium salts—the iodate K I0 3 and the per
iodate K I0 4 accompanying deposits of sodium nitrate (saltpetres) in
Chile and Bolivia.
Iodine at room temperature has the form of purplish black crystals
with a slight lustre. When heated under atmospheric pressure, it
sublimes, transforming into a purple vapour. Iodine vapour when
cooled crystallizes without passing through the liquid state. This is
taken advantage of in practice for purifying iodine from non-volatile
admixtures.
The heaviest halogen—astatine—is virtually not found in nature.
It is prepared by artificially conducted nuclear reactions. The most
long-lived isotope of astatine 210At has a half-life of only 8.3 hours.
Negligible amounts of astatine are found in the products of the
natural radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.
All the halogens have a very sharp odour. Inhaling of even small
amounts of them causes great irritation of the respiratory tract and
inflammation of the mucous membranes. Greater amounts of halo
gens may cause heaoy poisoning.
The molecules of the elementary substances formed by the halogen
atoms are diatomic. The increase in the atomic radius in the series F,
Cl, Br, I, and At is attended by a growth in the polarizability of the
molecules. The result is a greater intermolecular dispersion interac
tion that underlies an increase in the melting and boiling points of
the halogens.
In the series Cl2-Br2-I2, the bond strength between the atoms in a
The Halogens 21
molecule gradually diminishes, which is reflected in diminishing of

the enthalpy of dissociation of the molecules E 2 into atoms (Table
1). The explanation is as follows. With an increasing size of the outer
electron clouds of the interacting atoms, their overlapping dimin
ishes, while the region of overlapping is farther and farther from the
atomic nuclei. Therefore, in going from chlorine to bromine and iodine,
the attraction of the halogen atom nuclei to the region of overlap
ping of the electron clouds diminishes. In addition, in the series
Cl-Br-I, the number of intermediate electron layers screening the nu
cleus grows, which also weakens the interaction of the atomic nuclei
with the overlap region.
The decreasing of the bond strength in halogen molecules manifests
itself in lowering of their heat resistance: the data of Table 1
show that at the same temperature, the degree of thermal dissocia
tion of the molecules increases from Cl2 to Br2 and I 2. But it follows
from the same data that fluorine drops out of the general regularity:
the strength of the bond between the atoms in its molecule is lower
and the degree of thermal dissociation of the molecules is higher
than in chlorine. Such anomalous properties of flourine can be ex
plained by the absence of the d sublevel in the outer electron layer
of its atom. A molecule of chlorine and the other halogens has free
d orbitals, and therefore additional donor-acceptor interaction
strengthening the bond takes place between the atoms. This is shown
in the following diagram:
3d
-1 “ T
C# 4 ? Til
11 11
11
« i V In 3$
tlttpTO c
The halogens dissolve comparatively slightly in water. One vol

ume of water at room temperature dissolves about 2.5 volumes of
chlorine. This solution is known as chlorine water. When chlorine
is passed through water cooled to 0 °C, greenish yellow crystals of
the clathrate compound C12*8H20 precipitate from the solution.
The solubility of bromine at 20 °C is about 3.5 g, and of iodine
only 0.02 g per 100 g of water.
Fluorine cannot be dissolved in water because it vigorously de
composes it:
2F* + 2HsO - 4 H F + Oaf
22 The Halogens
Bromine and iodine dissolve much better in organic solvents*

such as carbon disulphide, ethyl alcohol, diethy] ether, chloroform,
and benzene than in water. This is taken advantage of for extracting
bromine and iodine from aqueous solutions. If, for example, we agi
tate an aqueous solution of iodine with a small amount of carbon di
sulphide (which is immiscible with water), virtually all the iodine
will pass from the water into the carbon disulphide, colouring it
purple.
5. Chemical Properties
Free halogens exhibit an exceedingly high chemical activity. They
react with virtually all elementary substances. They combine with
metals especially rapidly, and with the evolution of a large amount
of heat. For instance, molten metallic sodium burns In a chlorine at
mosphere with a blinding flash, and a white sodium chloride deposit
appears on the walls of the vessel:
2Na + Cl2 = 2NaCl
Copper, iron, tin, and many other metals burn in chlorine, form
ing the relevant salts. Bromine and iodine react with metals in a
similar way. In all these cases, the metal atoms give up electrons,
i.e. are oxidized, and the halogen atoms attach electrons, i.e. are
reduced. This ability of attaching electrons, sharply exhibited in hal
ogen atoms, is their characteristic chemical property. Consequently,
halogens are very vigorous oxidizing agents.
The oxidizing properties of halogens also manifest themselves when
they react with complex substances. We shall consider several exam
ples.
1. When chlorine is passed through a solution of iron(II) chloride,
the latter oxidizes to iron(III) chloride, and the colour of the solu
tion changes from pale green to yellow:
2FeCl2 + Cl2 = 2F8C13
2. If we add hydrogen sulphide water (an aqueous solution of
H2S) to a yellowish aqueous solution of iodine, the liquid loses its
colour and becomes turbid owing to the precipitation of sulphur:
HaS + I2 * S I + 2HI
3. When an aqueous solution of bromine is added to a solution
of sodium sulphite Na2SOs, the solution loses its colour because the
bromine oxidizes the sulphite to sodium sulphate, becoming reduced
and transforming into colourless hydrogen bromide. The reac
tion proceeds with the participation of water molecules and is ex
pressed by the equation
NaaSOj + Bra + HaO » Na2S04 + 2HBr
* Fluorine and chlorine react vigorously with many organic solvents.
The Halogens 23
The net ionic equation is

SO$- + Bra + H20 = SOJ- + 2H+ + 2Br-
The chemical activity of fluorine is exceedingly high. As Acade
mician Aleksandr Fersman aptly pointed out, it could be called “all-
corroding”. The alkali metals, lead, and iron ignite in a fluorine at
mosphere at room temperature. Fluorine does not act on some cold
metals (Cu, Ni) because a protective fluoride film forms on their sur
face. When heated, however, fluorine reacts with all metals in
cluding gold and platinum.
Fluorine reacts with many non-metals (hydrogen, iodine, bromine,
sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, carbon, silicon, boron) in
the cold state. The reactions proceed with an explosion or with the
formation of a flame:
Ha + F2 = 2HF +541.4 kJ
Si + 2Fa = SiF4 +1615 kJ
S + 3Fa = SFfl +1207 kJ
Chorine, krypton, and xenon combine with fluorine when heated
for example:
Xe + Fa = XeFa +176 kJ
Fluorine does not react directly only with oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbon (in the form of diamond).
Fluorine reacts very vigorously with complex substances. Such
stable substances as glass (in the form of wool) and water vapour burn
in its atmosphere:
SiOa + 2Fa = SiF4 + Oa +657 kJ
2HaO + 2Fa = 4HF + Oa +598 kJ
It is interesting to note that oxygen is one of the combustion products.
Free chlorine also displays a very high chemical activity, although
the latter is less than that of fluorine. It reacts directly with all
the elementary substances except for oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble
gases. Such non-metals as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and sili
con react with chlorine even at a low temperature with the evolution
of a large amount of heat. Chlorine reacts quite vigorously with ac
tive metals such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
Chlorine does not virtually react with hydrogen at room temperature
without illumination, but when heated or in bright sunlight the
reaction proceeds according to a chain mechanism (see Vol. 1,
Sec. 62) with an explosion.
The chemical activity of bromine and iodine is less than that of
chlorine, but is nevertheless quite great. They react with many met
als and non-metals (for example with phosphorus) in ordinary condi-
24 The Halogens
tions. Bromine as regards its activity is only slightly inferior to chlo

rine, whereas iodine differs from it considerably.
Bromine reacts with hydrogen only when heated. Iodine reacts with
hydrogen only with sufficiently great heating and not to the end be
cause the reverse reaction—the decomposition of hydrogen iodide—
begins to occur:
H2 + I2 2HI -53.1 kJ
A comparison of the chemical properties of the halogens shows that
their oxidizing activity diminishes consecutively from fluorine to
astatine. This effect manifests itself in the ability of the lighter hal
ogens in the form of elementary substances to oxidize halide ions of
the heavier halogens and in the ability of the latter to reduce the
oxygen compounds of the lighter halogens:
Fa + 2C1- 2F- + Cl2
CI2 + 2Br- 2C1- + Br2
Br2 + 2 1 - 2Br~+ Ia
I2 + 2C10s 21Oj + Cl2
Although flourine has a smaller energy of affinity to an electron
than chlorine (see Table 1), it is the strongest oxidizing agent among
the halogens. The explanation is as follows. The transformation of
gaseous chlorine or fluorine into negatively charged ions can be con
sidered as consisting of two steps—the dissociation of the molecules
into individual atoms
i-E a ^ E
and the attachment of an electron to the free halogen atom formed:
E + e r —> E~
The first step of the process requires the expenditure of energy for
breaking the bonds between the halogen atoms in a molecule; this
energy can be measured by the enthalpy of dissociation of the halo
gen molecules. For chlorine, consisting of more stable molecules, the
enthalpy of dissociation per mole of halogen atoms (121.5 kJ/mol)
is considerably higher than for fluorine (79.5 kJ/mol).
The second step of the process is attended by the liberation of ener
gy (affinity to an electron); here the gain in energy for chlorine
(348.7 kJ/mol) is somewhat higher than for fluorine (332.7 kJ/mol).
Simple calculations show that the total gain in energy in the
above process is higher for fluorine (253.7 kJ/mol) than for chlorine
(227.2 kJ/mol), and this characterizes fluorine as a stronger oxi
dizing agent.
If the reaction proceeds in an aqueous solution, the energy of hy
dration of the halide ions must be taken into account; with an iden-
The Halogens 25
tical charge of an ion it is higher when the ionic radius is smaller.

Consequently, more energy is evolved in the hydration of the fluoride
ion F^* than in the hydration of the chloride ion Cl“, so that fluorine
will also be a stronger oxidizing agent than chlorine in aqueous so
lutions.
Similar calculations show that upon a transition from chlorine to
bromine and iodine the gain in energy in oxidation processes occur
ring in aqueous solutions with the participation of halogens also di
minishes. This is exactly what explains the ability of each halogen to
displace heavier halogens in the oxidation state —1 from solutions
of their compounds.
6. Preparation and Uses

Natural compounds contain halogens (with rare exceptions) in
the form of negatively charged ions. For this reason, almost all the
ways of preparing free halogens consist in oxidation of their ions.
This is achieved either with the aid of oxidizing agents, or by the ac
tion of an electric current.
Fluorine, owing to its high electronegativity, can be separated
from its compounds only by electrolysis. It was first prepared in
1886 by decomposing a mixture of anhydrous liquid hydrogen fluoride
with KF using an electric current. This method is used at present
for the industrial preparation of fluorine. A melt having the composi
tion KF + 2HF (melting point 70 °C) is subjected to electrolysis.
The latter is conducted in a nickel vessel that is the cathode, and
carbon is the anode. The cathode and anode spaces are separated by
a membrane to prevent an explosion that would otherwise occur upon
mixing of the electrolysis products—hydrogen and fluorine.
Chlorine is produced at present in large amounts by the electrolysis
of aqueous solutions of sodium or potassium chloride. Chlorine is
liberated at the anode, and sodium or potassium hydroxide (de
pending on the salt used) is formed at the cathode (see Sec. 83).
In laboratories, chlorine is prepared by acting on hydrogen chlo
ride with various oxidizing agents. We shall remind our readers, for
example, of the laboratory method of preparing chlorine by reacting
manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid known from school days:
MnOa + 4HC1 = MnCla + Cla + 2HaO
This reaction is expressed by the following net ionic equation:
MnOa + 2 0 + 4H* == Mn2+ + Cla + 2HaO
which shows that here chloride ions Gl“ are oxidized into chlorine
atoms (which then form Cl2 molecules) and the manganese in the
Mn02 is reduced to an oxidation state of + 2 (the Mn2+ ions). Chlo
rine was first prepared by the Swedish chemist Karl Scheele in 1774
with the aid of this reaction.
26 The Halogens
Chlorine can be prepared in a similar way from hydrochloric acid

by acting on it with such oxidizing agents as P b 0 2, KC103, and
KMn04.
Oxygen in ordinary conditions does not react with HC1 to any ap
preciable extent. But if HC1 and 0 2 are passed through a tube heat
ed to 400 °C and containing pieces of pumice on which copper(II)
chloride CuCl2 is distributed as a catalyst, the hydrogen chloride is
oxidized by the oxygen
4HC1 + Oa ** 2C1S + 2H20
the yield of chlorine reaching 80%. This reaction was previously used
for the industrial production of chlorine.
Bromine and iodine can be prepared similarly to chlorine by oxi
dizing HBr and HI with a variety of oxidizing agents. They are gen
erally produced on a commercial scale from bromides and iodides
by acting with chlorine on their solutions. Hence, the preparation
of bromine and iodine is also based on the oxidation of their ions,
chlorine being used as the oxidizing agent.
In the USSR, bromine is chiefly extracted from underground well
water, and also from the “brine” (saturated solution) of certain sa
line lakes.
Iodine is mainly produced in the USSR from underground well
water.
The halogens, especially chlorine, find wide application in the
chemical industry.
Fluorine is employed for preparing some valuable hydrocarbon
fluoroderivatives having unique properties, for instance lubricants
withstanding a high temperature, a plastic stable to chemical rea
gents (Teflon—polytetrafluoroethylene), liquids for refrigerating ma
chines (Freons or Khladons).
Chlorine is used for preparing a multitude of inorganic and organ
ic compounds. It is employed in the production of hydrogen chlo
ride, chlorinated lime, hypochlorites, chlorates, etc. A great amount
of chlorine is used for bleaching fabrics and the pulp intended
for the production of paper. Chlorine is also used for the sterilization
of potable water and the disinfection of sewage. In non-ferrous met
allurgy, it is used for the chlorination of ores, which is one of the
stages in the production of certain metals.
Especially great significance has been acquired lately by various
chlorinated organic products. Chlorine-containing organic solvents,
for example, dichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride, find great use
for extracting fats and degreasing metals. Some chlorine-containing
organic products are effective means of combatting agricultural
pests. Others are the basis for manufacturing various plastics, syn
thetic fibres, artificial rubbers, and leather substitutes (Pavinol).
The development of engineering is accompanied by expansion of the
The Halogens 27
field of application of chlorine-containing organic products. The re

sult is a continuous increase in the production of chlorine.
The widespread use of chlorine in various branches of the national
economy, and also the scale of its production and use make it possi
ble to relate chlorine, in addition to sulphuric acid, ammonia, and
soda, to the most important products manufactured by the chemical
industry.
Bromine is needed for the production of a variety of medicines,
certain dyes, and also of silver bromide used in the manufacture of
photographic materials.
Iodine is used in medicine in the form of tincture of iodine (a 10%
solution of iodine in ethyl alcohol), which is an excellent antiseptic
and hemostatic agent. Iodine is also included in the composition of
a number of pharmaceutical preparations.
7. Hydrogen Halides
Hydrogen halides and their salts are of the greatest significance
among the halogen compounds.
Molecules of hydrogen halides have polar covalent bonds: the
shared electron pair is shifted towards the halogen atom, which has a
higher electronegativity. Selected properties of the hydrogen halides
are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Selected Properties of Hydrogen Halides
HF HCl HBr HI
Standard Gibbs energy of formation —272.8 -9 5 .2 -5 3 .3 + 1 .8

at 25 °C, kJ/mol
Standard enthalpy of formation at —270.7 —92.3 -3 6 .3 + 26.6
25 °C, kJ/mol
Standard enthalpy of dissociation 565.7 431.6 364.0 298.3
into atoms at 25 °C, kJ/mol
Internuclear distance in mole 0.092 0.127 0.141 0.161
cule, nm
Dipole moment of molecule, D 1.91 1.03 0.79 0.42
Melting point, °C -8 3 .4 —114.2 -8 6 .9 -5 0 .8
Boiling point, °G 19.5 -8 5 .1 -6 6 .8 -3 5 .4
Solubility in water at 10 °C, mol/1* Unlim 14 15 12
ited
Degree of thermal dissociation:
at 300 °C — 3x10-® 3 X 10“6 0.19
at 1000 °C — 1.4X10-* 0.005 0.33
* These data relate to liquid HF and gaseous HC1. HBr, and H i with their partial
pressure equal to standard atmospheric pressure.
28 The Halogens
The strength of the chemical bond in hydrogen halide molecules

diminishes regularly in the series HF-HCl-HBr-HI. This manifests
itself in the change in the enthalpy of dissociation of the molecules
into atoms (Table 2). The bond weakens here for the same reasons that
were considered in comparing the stability of free halogen molecules
(p. 20). As shown by the diagram in Fig. 3; when going, for instance,
from HF to HI, the degree of overlapping of the electron clouds
in the hydrogen and halogen atoms diminishes, while the overlap
region is at a greater distance from the halogen atom nucleus and is
screened more strongly by the growing number of intermediate elec
tron layers. In addition, in the series F-Cl-Br-I, the electronegativity
of the halogen atom diminishes. For this reason, in the HF molecule
the electron cloud of the hydrogen atom is shifted towards the
halogen atom to the greatest extent, and in the molecules HC1,
HBr, and HI to a smaller and smaller extent. This also leads to di
minishing of the overlapping of the interacting electron clouds and,
consequently, to weakening of the bond between the atoms.
Decreasing of the bond strength in hydrogen halide molecules is
attended by lowering of their stability to heating. Thermal dissocia
tion of hydrogen fluoride occurs only at very high temperatures
(over 3500 °C), whereas hydrogen iodide already at 300 °C decom
poses considerably into iodine and hydrogen:
2HI Z H2 + Ia +53.1 kJ
All hydrogen halides are colourless gases having a pungent odour.
The hydrogen halides are very well soluble in water. At 0 cC, one
volume of water dissolves about 500 volumes of HC1, 600 volumes of
HBr, and about 425 volumes of
HI (at 10 °C). Hydrogen fluoride
mixes with water in any propor
tions.
The dissolution of hydrogen
halides is accompanied by their
dissociation according to the acid
type. Only hydrogen fluoride dis
sociates comparatively slightly,
while the other hydrogen hal
ides are among the strongest
acids.
Concentrated solutions of hy
drogen halides fume in air owing
to the evolution of hydrogen hal Fig. 3. Overlapping of the electron
ides forming a mist with the water clouds in the formation of
HF and HI molecules
vapour contained in the air. This The.dash line conditionally
mist consists of minute droplets shows the shifting of the
hydrogen atom electron cloud
of the relevant acids. towards the halogen atom
The Halogens 29
The boiling and melting points in the series Hl-HBr-HCl change

quite regularly (Table 2), whereas they sharply grow when passing
over to HF. As we have mentioned in Vol. 1, Sec. 47, this is due to
the association of the hydrogen fluoride molecules because of the ap
pearance of hydrogen bonds between them. Determination of the va
pour density shows that near the boiling point gaseous hydrogen
fluoride consists of aggregates having the average composition
(HF)4. Upon further heating, these aggregates gradually decompose,
but only at about 90 °G does gaseous HF consist of simple molecules.
When dissolved in water, hydrogen fluoride molecules dissociate
with the formation of H + and F “ ions. The hydrogen bonds partly
break so that the dissociation of HF into ions requires a considerable
expenditure of energy. This is why hydrogen fluoride dissociates in
aqueous solutions to a considerably smaller extent than the other
hydrogen halides: the dissociation constant of hydrogen fluoride is
7 X 10~4, so that this acid is only slightly superior to acetic acid in
its strengths
The F~ ions appearing in the dissociation of HF are bound to a
considerable extent to undissociated HF molecules to form the HF”
ion in which the fluorine atoms are bound to each other by a hydro
gen bond:
F - + HF z HFj
Consequently, when hydrogen fluoride is neutralized, acid salts
first appear such as KHF2.
The negative ions of the hydrogen halides except for the fluoride
ion have reducing properties that increase from Cl~ through Br~
to I .
The chloride ion is oxidized by fluorine, potassium permanganate,
manganese dioxide, and other strong oxidizing agents, for example:
16HC1 + 2KMn04 = 5C12 + 2KC1 + 2MnCl2 + 8H20
Bromide and especially iodide ions are oxidized still more readily.
The latter are also easily oxidized by bromine, nitrates, and salts of
Fe(III), for instance:
2FeCl3 + 2HI = 2FeCla + I2 + 2HC1
Since halide ions possess reducing properties, when hydrogen hal
ides act on metals the latter can be oxidized only by the. hydrogen
ions H +. Hence, hydrogen halides can react in solution only with the
metals preceding hydrogen in the electromotive series.
A solution of hydrogen fluoride in water is called hydrofluoric acid.
Hydrogen fluoride is usually produced from fluorite CaF2 by reacting
it with concentrated sulphuric acid:
CaFa + H2S04 = CaS04 + 2HF
A commercial solution of hydrogen fluoride usually contains
40% of HF. Hydrogen fluoride reacts with most metals. In many
30 The Halogens
cases, however, the salt formed is only slightly soluble, owing to which
a protective film is formed on the surface of the metal. Lead, partic
ularly, behaves in this way, which underlies its use for the fabrica
tion of apparatus stable to the action of HF.
Most fluorides—the salts of hydrogen fluoride—are slightly soluble
in water; only the fluorides of Na, K, Al, Sn, and Ag are well soluble.
A ll fluorides are poisonous.
A remarkable property of hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid
is their ability to react with silicon dioxide S i0 2 present in glass.
The product is gaseous silicon tetrafluoride SiF4:
Si02 + 4HF = SiF4 f + 2H20
Silicon tetrafluoride is not evolved in a solution of hydrofluoric
acid because it reacts with HF molecules to form the well soluble
complex fluosilicic acid:
SiF4 + 2HF = H 2[SiF6]
The reaction of HF with silicon dioxide underlies the use of hydro
fluoric acid for etching various marks, inscriptions, and illustrations
on glass.
Since hydrogen fluoride destroys glass, it is stored in the labora
tory in vessels made from special kinds of plastics. It can also be
stored in lead vessels or in glass vessels coated inside with a paraffin
layer.
The applications of hydrogen fluoride are quite diverse. Anhydrous
HF is chiefly used in organic synthesis, while hydrofluoric acid is
employed in the production of fluorides, the etching of glass, the re
moval of sand from metal castings, and in the analysis of minerals.
Hydrogen fluoride vapour is very poisonous. If concentrated hydro
fluoric acid gets onto the skin, it causes severe burns.
Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride in
water. At present, the main method of the industrial manufacture of
hydrogen chloride is its synthesis from hydrogen and chlorine:
H2 + Cl2 = 2HC1 +183.6 kJ
This process is conducted in special plants in which a mixture of
hydrogen and chlorine is continuously formed and immediately
burns in a uniform flame. This results in a quiet (without an explo
sion) reaction. The starting materials for the production of hydro
gen chloride are the chlorine and hydrogen produced in the elec
trolysis of an NaCl solution (Sec. 83).
Large amounts of HC1 are also produced as a by-product in the
chlorination of organic compounds:
RH + Cla - RC1 + HCl
where R is an organic radical.
The Halogens 31
Hydrochloric acid is a colourless liquid w ith a pungent odour.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid usually contains about 37% of HC1.
Its density is 1.19 g/cm 3.
The former “sulphate” method of producing HC1, which at present
is employed only in laboratories, is based on the reaction of
NaCl with concentrated H 2 S0 4 according to the equations:
NaCl + HaS04 = NaHS04 + HCl
NaCl + NaHS04 = Na2S04 + HCl
The first of these reactions proceeds to a considerable extent with

slight heating; the second one occurs only at higher temperatures.
Sodium sulphate Na 2S 0 4 is obtained as a by-product.
When a concentrated hydrogen chloride solution is heated, first
hydrogen chloride evaporates together with a small amount of wa
ter. This occurs until the residue is a 20.2% solution. The latter is
distilled without any change in composition at a constant tempera
ture of 110 °C. Conversely, if a dilute HCl solution is heated, water
mainly evaporates. When the concentration of the HCl in the residue
reaches 2 0 .2 %, the liquid begins to distill without any change in
composition, as in the preceding case. Such solutions, characterized
by an identical composition of the liquid and saturated vapour, and
therefore distilling without a change in their composition, are called
constant boiling or azeotropic mixtures.
Like other strong acids, HCl vigorously reacts with many metals
and metal oxides. Its salts are called chlorides. Most of them are
well soluble in water. The slightly soluble ones are AgCl, PbCl2,
CuCl, and Hg 2Cl2.
Hydrochloric acid is one of the most important acids in chemical
practice. Millions of tonnes of this acid are produced in the world
every year. Many of its salts also find wide application. We shall
note the most important of the chlorides.
Sodium chloride NaCl, or table salt, is the starting material for the
production of chlorine, hydrogen chloride, sodium hydroxide, and
sodium carbonate (soda). It is used in the dye, soap, and many other
industries. It is also used as a food seasoning and preservative.
Potassium chloride KC1 is used in great amounts in agriculture as
a fertilizer.
Calcium chloride CaCl2 -6H20 is employed to prepare refrigerants.
Anhydrous CaCl2 is widely used in laboratory practice for drying
gases and dehydrating liquid organic substances.
Mercury (II) chloride HgCl2, or corrosive sublimate, is a very strong
poison. Dilute solutions of corrosive sublimate (1 : 1000) are used
in medicine as strong disinfectants (see also p. 298).
Silver chloride AgCl is the least soluble salt of hydrochloric acid.
The precipitation of AgCl when Cl" ions react with Ag+ ions is a
32 The Halogens
characteristic reaction for chloride ions. Silver chloride is used in

photography to manufacture light-sensitive materials.
Hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide are very similar in their
properties to hydrogen chloride, but differ in having more expressed
reducing properties. Molecular oxygen gradually oxidizes hydrogen
iodide even at room temperature. The rate of the reaction greatly
increases under the action of light:
4HI + 0 2 = 212 + 2HsO
Hydrogen bromide reacts with oxygen much more slowly, while
in ordinary conditions hydrogen chloride does not react with it
at all.
The reducing properties of hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide
manifest themselves quite appreciably in their reaction with con
centrated ^sulphuric acid. Here HBr reduces H 2 S 0 4 to S 0 2:
2HBr + H 2S04 = Br2 + S 0 2f + 2H20
while HI reduces it to free sulphur or even to H 2S:
6H I + H 2S 0 4 = 3 I2 + S I + 4 H 20
or
8HI + H2S04 = 4Ia + H 2S f + 4H20
This is why it is difficult to prepare HBr and virtually impossible
to prepare HI by reacting sulphuric acid with bromides or iodides.
These hydrogen halides are usually produced by reacting water with
phosphorus compounds of bromine and iodine—PBr3 and P I3.
The latter become completely hydrolyzed, forming phosphorous acid
and the relevant hydrogen halide:
PBr3 + 3HaO = H3P 0 3 + 3HBr
PI3 + 3H20 = H3P 0 3 + 3HI
A solution of hydrogen iodide (up to a 50% concentration) can be
obtained by passing H 2S into an aqueous suspension of iodine. The
reaction proceeds according to the equation:
I2 + H aS = S I + 2HI
The salts of hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide are called
bromides and iodides, respectively. The solubility of bromides and
iodides in the majority of cases is similar to that of the relevant chlo
rides.
Solutions of sodium and potassium bromides are used in medicine
as tranquilizers in nervous disorders. Silver bromide is used in large
amounts in the manufacture of photographic materials. Potassium
iodide is used in medicine, in particular to cure diseases of the endo
crine system.
The Halogens 33
8. Oxygen Compounds
The halogens form a number of compounds with oxygen. All these
compounds, however, are not stable and are not obtained in the direct
reaction of halogens with oxygen. These features of the oxygen-con
taining halogen compounds agree with the fact that almost all of
them are characterized by positive values of the standard Gibbs ener
gy of formation (see, for example, Table 7 in Vol. 1, p. 213, the
values of AG°98 for C102, C12 0, C12 0 7, and OF2).
The most stable of the oxygen compounds of the halogens are the
salts of the oxyacids, and the least stable are the oxides and acids.
The halogens, except for fluorine, in all their oxygen compounds ex
hibit a positive oxidation number reaching seven.
Oxygen difluoride can be prepared by passing fluorine into a
cooled 2% solution of NaOH. The following reaction occurs:
2F 2 + 2N aO H = 2N aF + H 20 + O F2 f
Oxygen, ozone, and hydrogen peroxide are always formed in ad

dition to the OF2. In ordinary conditions, OF2 is a colourless gas
with a sharp odour of ozone. Oxygen difluoride is very poisonous, has
strong oxidizing properties, and can be used as an effective oxidizing
agent of rocket fuels.
Chlorine has the most numerous and practically important oxygen
compounds, and we shall treat them in somewhat greater detail.
We have already mentioned that the oxygen compounds of chlo
rine can be prepared only indirectly. We shall begin our discussion
of how they are formed with the process of chlorine hydrolysis, i.e.
with the jeversible reaction between chlorine and water
C l2 + H 20 ** HC1 + HOC1 — 25 k J
as a result of which hydrogen chloride and hypochlorous acid HOC1

are formed.
The hydrolysis of chlorine is an autoxidation-autoreduction reac
tion in which one of the chlorine atoms attaches an electron from
the other atom and is reduced, while the other atom of chlorine is
oxidized.
The HC1 and HOC1 obtained in the hydrolysis of chlorine can react
with each other, again forming chlorine and water, consequently, the
reaction does not proceed to the end. Equilibrium sets in when about
one-third of the dissolved chlorine reacts. Hence, chlorine water al
ways contains an appreciable amount of hydrogen chloride and hy
pochlorous acid in addition to Cl2 molecules.
Hypochlorous acid HOC1 is a very weak acid (K = 5 X 10 ~8).
It is weaker than carbonic acid. Its salts are called hypochlorites.
Being a very unstable compound, hypochlorous acid gradually de
composes even in a dilute solution (see below).
3—2412
34 The Halogens
Hypochlorous acid is a very strong oxidizer. Its formation when

chlorine reacts with water explains the bleaching properties of chlo
rine. A bsolutely dry chlorine does not bleach, but in the presence of
moisture, the hypochlorous acid formed in the hydrolysis of the chlo
rine rapidly destroys pigments.
If an alkali is added to chlorine water, the neutralization of the
hypochlorous acid and hydrogen chloride results in shifting of the
equilibrium in the system
Cl 2 + H20 ** HC1 + HOC1
to the right; the reaction proceeds virtually to the end, and a solu
tion is obtained containing a hypochlorite and a chloride:
HC1 + HOC1 + 2KOH = KC1 + KOCl + 2HaO
The same occurs if chlorine is passed directly into a cold solution of
an alkali:
2ICOH + Cl2 = KC1 + KOCl + H20
2OH- + Cl2 = Cl- + OC1- + H20
The hypoChlorite and chloride solution obtained in this way is
used for bleaching. Its bleaching properties are due to the fact that
potassium hypochlorite readily decomposes when acted upon by the
carbon dioxide contained in the air, hypochlorous acid being formed:
KOCl + C02 + H20 = KHC03 + HOC1
It is this acid that bleaches pigments by oxidizing them
A similar solution containing sodium hypochlorite is obtained when
chlorine is passed into a sodium hydroxide solution. Both solutions
can be prepared by the electrolysis of potassium or sodium chloride
solutions if the evolving chlorine is allowed to react with the alka
lies formed in electrolysis (see p. 235).
When chorine reacts with dry slaked lime, lime chloride or chlo
rinated lime is obtained. Its main constituent part is the salt CaOCl2
formed according to the equation:
Ca(OH)2 -|- Cl2 — CaOCl2 -f- HaO
This salt, which is often written in the form CaCl(OCl), has the
yOCl
structural formula Ca^ , according to which it should be con-
X C1
sidered as a mixed salt of hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids.
Chlorinated lim e is a w hite powder w ith a sharp odour and has
strong oxidizing properties. In hum id air, it gradually decomposes
under the action of carbon dioxide, liberating hypochlorous acid:
2CaOCl2 + C02 + H20 = CaCO* + CaCl2 + 2HOC1
The Halogens 35
When chlorinated lim e is reacted with hydrochloric acid, chlorine

is evolved:
CaOCl2 + 2HC1 = CaCl2 + Cl2 + H aO
Chlorinated lim e is used for bleaching vegetable fibres (fabrics,
paper), and for disinfection.
In solution, hypochlorous acid experiences three different kinds of
transformations that proceed independently of one another:
HOC1 = HC1 + 0 (1)
2HOC1 = H20 + C120 (2)
3HOC1 = 2HC1 + HC10S (3)
By changing the conditions, the reaction can be made to proceed
virtually completely in any one given direction.
Under the action of direct sunlight and in the presence of certain
catalysts or reducing agents, hypochlorous acid decomposes ac
cording to Eq. (1).
Reaction (2) occurs in the presence of dehydrating substances
such as CaCl2. The reaction yields chlorine(I) oxide (hypochlorous
anhydride) C120 that is an extremely unstable yellow-brown gas
having an odour like that of chlorine.
Hypochlorous acid decomposes especially easily by reaction (3)
when heated. Therefore, if chlorine is passed into a hot solution of
potassium hydroxide, KC103 is obtained directly instead of KOC1:
3C12 + 6KOH = 5KC1 + KC108 + 3HaO
The products are potassium chloride and potassium chlorate,
a salt of chloric acid HC103. Since the potassium chlorate is poorly
soluble in cold water, it precipitates when the solution is cooled.
Chloric acid corresponding to the chlorates is known only in the
form of an aqueous solution with a concentration of not over 50%.
It exhibits properties of a strong acid (approximately equal in strength
to HC1 and H N 03) and a strong oxidizing agent. For example, its
concentrated solutions ignite wood.
Unlike free HC103, the oxidizing properties of the chlorates in
solution are expressed weakly. Most of them are well soluble in wa
ter; all of them are poisonous. Potassium chlorate KC108 has found the
greatest application among the chlorates. It readily decomposes
when heated. In the presence of Mn0 2 (as a catalyst), it mainly de
composes according to the equation:
2KC10a = 2KC1 + 3 0 2 1
The salt KC103 forms mixtures with various combustible substances
(sulphur, carbon, phosphorus) that explode upon an impact. This
underlies its use in artillery (the making of igniting fuses). Potas
sium chlorate is used in pyrotechnics to prepare Bengal lights
3*
36 The Halogens
other easily igniting mixtures. But the main consumer of potassium

chlorate is the match industry. The head of an ordinary match con
tains about 50% of KC103.
The anhydride of chloric acid is not known. When KC103 is acted
upon by concentrated sulphuric acid, a yellow-brown gas with a char
acteristic odour, chlorine dioxide C102, is liberated instead of the
anhydride. Chlorine dioxide is a very unstable compound that read
ily decomposes with an explosion into chlorine and oxygen when
heated, struck, or brought into contact with combustible substances.
Chlorine dioxide is employed for bleaching or sterilizing a variety
of materials (paper pulp, flour, etc.).
When C102 reacts with a solution of an alkali, the following re
action proceeds at a slow rate:
2C102 + 2KOH = KC103 + KC102 + H20
with the formation of salts of two acids—chloric HC103 and chlo
rous HC102.
Chlorous acid has a low stability. It is intermediate between HOC1
and HCIO3 in its strength and oxidizing activity. Its salts—chlo
rites—are used for bleaching fabrics.
When potassium chlorate is carefully heated without a catalyst,
its decomposition mainly follows the reaction
4KC103 = 3KC104 + KC1
The potassium perchlorate KC104 formed is very poorly soluble in
water, and can therefore be separated quite easily.
The action of concentrated sulphuric acid on KC104 produces free
perchloric acid HC104—a colourless liquid fuming in the air.
Anhydrous HC104 has a low stability and sometimes explodes when
stored, but its aqueous solutions are quite stable. The oxidizing prop
erties of HC104 are weaker than those of HC103, while its acid prop
erties are stronger. Perchloric acid is the strongest of all known
acids.
The salts of HC104, with a few exceptions including KC104,
are well soluble and do not exhibit oxidizing properties in solution.
If perchloric acid is heated with P 2 0 5 that removes water from it,
the products include dichloride heptoxide or perchloric anhydride
C12 0 7:
2HC104 + P20 5 = 2HP03 + C120 :
Dichloride heptoxide is an oily liquid boiling with decomposition
at 80 °C. When subjected to a blow or strong heating, G120 7 explodes.
The change in the properties in the oxyacid series of chlorine can
be expressed by the following scheme:
Increase in acid properties and stab ility
HOCl. HC102> h c io 3, HCloT*
Increase in oxidizing power
The Halogens 37
A growth in the oxidation number of chlorine is attended by an

increase in the stability of its oxyacids and by weakening of their
oxidizing power. Hypochlorous acid is the strongest oxidizing agent,
and perchloric acid is the weakest one.
Conversely, the strength of the oxyacids of chlorine increases with
a growth in its oxidation number. Of all the chlorine hydroxides, the
weakest is hypochlorous acid and the strongest, perchloric acid. Such
a regularity—an increase in the acid properties of a hydroxide (and,
correspondingly, weakening of its basic properties) with a growth in
the oxidation number is characteristic not only of chlorine, but also
of other elements. This regularity can be explained in a first approx
imation by considering all the chemical bonds in hydroxide mole
cules as purely ionic ones.
Figure 4 schematically shows a portion of the hydroxide molecule
E(OH)„ consisting of an ^-charged ion En+, an oxygen ion 0 2~
and a hydrogen ion (proton) H +. Dissociation of this portion of the
molecule into ions may occur either with breaking of the E —O
bond (as a result of which an OH~ ion becomes detached), or with
breaking of the 0 —H bond (as a result of which the H + ion becomes
detached). In the first case, the hydroxide will exhibit the properties of
a base, and in the second, of an acid.
Each of the possible ways of hydroxide dissociation will be fol
lowed the easier, the weaker is the bond between the relevant ions.
When the oxidation number of the element E grows, the charge of
the En+ ion increases, which makes its attraction to the 0 2~ ion strong
er and thus hinders base-type dissociation of the hydroxide. At the
same time, the mutual repulsion of the identically charged En+ and
H + ions grows, which promotes acid-type dissociation. Thus, an
increase in an element's oxidation number is attended by a growth in
the acid properties and weakening of the basic properties of the hydrox
ide formed by this element.
An increase in the radius of the En+ ion with its charge remaining
constant leads to a growth in the distances between the centre of
this ion and those of the 0 2~ and H + ions. The result will be weaker
mutual electrostatic attraction of the En+ and O2- ions, which facil
itates base-type dissociation. Simultaneously, the mutual repulsion
of the En+ and H + ions will di
minish, so that acid-type disso
ciation is hampered. Consequent
ly, an increase in an element's
ionic radius (at a constant charge) H
is attended by a growth in the basic
properties and weakening of the
acid properties of the hydroxide
formed, by this element. An Fig. 4. An ionic scheme of a
example of this regularity is the h y d ro x id e m olecule E (O H )n
38 The Halogens
change in the acid dissociation constants in the series HOC1 (K —

= 5 X 10-8), HOBr, (K = 2 x 10“9), and HOI (K = 2 X 10'10).
Naturally, the assumption on the purely ionic nature of the chemi
cal bonds in hydroxide molecules is a quite rough one. Actually, the
0 —H bond is chiefly covalent, while the E —0 bond may be con
sidered close to an ionic one only for the alkali metals. In addition,
the above interpretation of the acid and basic properties of hydrox
ides does not take into account the features of interaction of the
EO", H +, En+, and 0 H “ ions with molecules of the solvent (water).
Hence, the scheme showing how the charge and size of the En+ ion
affect the nature of dissociation of the molecule E(OH)n cannot be
the basis for a quantitative assessment of the acid and basic properties
of hydroxides. This scheme in the majority of cases leads to proper
qualitative conclusions, however, when comparing the acid and basic
properties of the various hydroxides formed by a given element in
different oxidation states, or when comparing the properties of similar
hydroxides formed by elements of the same subgroup of the periodic
table.
Oxygen Compounds of Bromine and Iodine. Solutions of hypobro-
mous (HOBr) and hypoiodous (HOI) acids can be obtained, like ones
of hypochlorous acid, by reacting the relevant halogen with water,
respectively:
E2 + H20 5± h e + HOE
equilibrium shifting more and more to the left in the series Cl2-
Br?-I?.
The stability and oxidizing activity of the acids diminish in the
series H0C1, HOBr, HOI. The acid properties (see above) also weak
en accordingly. Hypoiodous acid HOI is already an amphoteric
compound whose basic properties predominate somewhat over its
acid ones.
Bromic (HBr03) and iodic (HI03) acids can be prepared by oxi
dizing bromine or iodine water with chlorine:
Br2 + 5Cla + 6H20 = 2HBrOa + 10HG1
Bromic acid is very similar in its properties to HC103, whereas the
oxidizing and acid properties of H I0 3 are expressed considerably more
weakly.
Iodic acid has the form of colourless crystals quite stable at room
temperature. When carefully heated to 200 °C, a powder of diiodine
pentoxide or iodic anhydride I 20 Bcan be obtained:
2HIOs = I20 6 + H20
Diiodine pentoxide displays oxidizing properties, while when
heated to above 300 °C, it decomposes into iodine and oxygen.
Until recently, bromine was believed to form no compounds in
which its oxidation state is seven. In 1968, however, perbromates
The Halogens 39
and perbromic acid H B r0 4 corresponding to them were prepared by

oxidizing KBr03. Xenon difiuoride XeF2 was found to be the best
oxidizer:
K B rO a + X e F 2 + H 20 = K B r 0 4 + X e + 2 H F
Very little is known to date about the properties of perbromic acid

and its salts. Conversely, periodic acid (H I04) and its salts (perio
dates) have been studied quite well.
The acid itself can be prepared by reacting iodine with HC104:
2H C104 + I 2 = 2 H I 0 4 + C l2
or by the electrolysis of a solution of H I0 3:

H 20 + H I 0 3 = H 2 (cathode) + H I 0 4 (anode)
Periodic acid separates from the solution as colourless crystals of

the composition H I0 4 *2H2 0. This hydrate should be considered as
the pentabasic acid H 5I 0 6 (ortho-iodic) because all the five hydro
gen atoms in it can be displaced by metals with the formation of
salts (for instance, Ag5I0 6). Periodic acid is weak, but it is a stronger
oxidizing agent than HC104.
Diiodine heptoxide I 2 0 7 has not been obtained.
3
THE M A IN SUBGROUP
OF GROUP SIX
The main subgroup of group six of the periodic table includes

oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. The latter is
a radioactive metal; both natural and artificially prepared isotopes
of it are known.
The atoms of the elements being considered have six electrons in
their outer electron shell—two in the s orbital and four in the p
orbital. The oxygen atom differs from the atoms of the other elements
of the subgroup in the absence of a d sublevel in the outer electron
layer:
3d
As indicated in Vol. 1, p. 134, such an electron configuration of the

oxygen atom results in great expenditures of energy for “unpairing”
its electrons that are not compensated by the energy of formation of
new covalent bonds. Consequently, the covalence of oxygen, as a
rule, is two. Sometimes, however, the oxygen atom, having unshared
electron pairs, can play the role of a donor of electrons and form addi
tional covalent bonds in the donor-acceptor way.
In sulphur and the remaining elements of the subgroup, the num
ber of unpaired electrons in an atom can be increased by transferring
the s and p electrons to the d sublevel of the outer layer. In this con
nection, these elements exhibit a covalence equal not only to two,
but also to four aqd six.
All the elements of the given subgroup except polonium are non-
metals, although they are less active than the halogens. They dis
play both negative and positive oxidation states. In compounds
with metals and hydrogen, their oxidation number, as a rule, is
—2. In compounds with non-metals, for example with oxygen, it can
Oxygen 41
be or + 6 . An exception here is oxygen itself. In the magnitude of

its electronegativity, it is inferior only to fluorine (see Table 6 in
Vol. 1, P- 129); therefore, its oxidation state is positive (+2) only
in its compound with this element (OF2). The oxidation state of oxy
gen is negative in its compounds with all other elements and is gen
erally —2. In hydrogen peroxide and its derivatives (see Sec. 3)
it is —1 .
As in the halogen group, the physical and chemical properties of
the elements being considered change regularly with an increase in
their atomic number. The appearance of new electron layers leads to
an increase in the atomic radii, diminishing of the electronegativity,
lowering of the oxidation activity of the uncharged atoms, and to an
increase in the reducing properties of the atoms having an oxidation
number of —2. Consequently, the non-metallic properties vividly
expressed in oxygen are weakened very much in tellurium.
Table 3 contains selected properties of the elements of the main
subgroup of Group VI (except for polonium).
Table 3
Selected Properties of Oxygen and Its Analogues
Oxygen Sulphur Selenium Tellurium
C onfiguration of o u te r e le c tro n la y e r 2s22 p 4 3s23p4 4s24 p 4 5i25p4

of a to m
Io n izatio n en erg y of a to m , eV 13.62 10.36 9 .7 5 9 .0 1
R e la tiv e e le c tro n e g a tiv ity 3 .5 0 2 .6 2 .5 2 .1
A tom ic ra d iu s , nm 0.066 0.104 0.117 0.137
R ad iu s of ion E 2“ , nm 0.136 0.182 0.193 0.211
M e ltin g p o in t, °C - 2 1 8 .8 119.3* 217** 449.8**
B oiling p o in t, °C — 183.0 444.6 685 990
* The monoclinic modification; the m elting point of the rhombic modification,

is 112.8 °C.
** The trigonal modification.
OXYGEN (OXYGENIUM)
9. Oxygen in Nature. Air

Oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. The
atmospheric air contains it in the free state, while water, minerals,
rock, and all the substances which the organisms of plants and ani
mals are built of contain it in the combined state. The overall amount
of oxygen in the Earth’s crust is close to half of its total mass (47%).
42 The Main Subgroup of Croup Six
Natural oxygen consists of three stable isotopes: 160 (99.76 %),

nO (0.04%), and 180 (0.2%).
Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases. In addition to oxy
gen and nitrogen forming the bulk of air, it includes small amounts
of the noble gases, carbon dioxide, and water vapour. It also contains
a certain amount of dust and random impurities. Oxygen, nitrogen,
and the noble gases are considered to be constant constituents of air
because their content in it is the same virtually everywhere. The
content of carbon dioxide, water vapour, and dust, however, may
vary depending on the local conditions.
Carbon dioxide is formed in nature in the burning of wood and coal,
the breathing of animals, and in decay. An especially great amount
of CO2 is discharged into the atmosphere in large industrial centres as
a product of combustion of enormous amounts of fuel.
At some places on the Earth, C0 2 is released into the air owing to
volcanic activity, and also from underground sources. Notwith
standing the continuous evolution of carbon dioxide into the atmos
phere, its content in the air is quite constant, forming on an average
about 0.03% (vol). The explanation is the absorption of C0 2 by
plants, and also its dissolution in water.
Water vapour may be present in the air in various amounts from
fractions of a per cent to several per cent, depending on the local con
ditions and the temperature.
The dust in the air consists mainly of minute particles of the miner
als forming the Earth’s crust, coal particles, plant pollen, and also
various bacteria. The amount of dust in the air varies quite consid
erably: it is lesser in cold weather and greater in warm weather. Af
ter a rainfall, the air becomes cleaner because the raindrops carry
along the dust.
Finally, the random impurities of the air include substances such
as hydrogen sulphide and ammonia liberated in the decay of organ
ic remains, sulphur dioxide S 0 2 produced in the roasting of sul
phurous ores or in the combustion of coal containing sulphur, and
nitrogen oxides formed upon electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
These impurities are usually encountered in negligible amounts
and are constantly removed from
the air, dissolving in rain water.
If we take into consideration
only the constant constituent
parts of air, its composition can
be expressed by the data given in
Table 4.
The mass of one litre of air at
0 °C and standard atmospheric
pressure is 1.293 g. At a tempera
ture of —140 °C and a pressure Fig. 5. D ew ar flasks (cross section)
Oxygen 43
Table 4
Composition of Air
Content, %
Constituent p art of air
by volume by mass
N itro g e n 78.2 75.5

O xygen 2 0 .9 23.2
N oble gases 0 .9 1 .3
of about 4 MPa, air condenses into a colourless transparent liquid.

Notwithstanding its low boiling point (about — 190 °C) at at
mospheric pressure, liquid air can be stored for quite a long time in
Dewar flasks—glass vessels with at least two walls that have the
space between the walls evacuated (Fig. 5).
Ethyl alcohol, diethyl ether, and many gases easily solidify in
liquid air. If, for example, carbon dioxide is passed through liquid
air, it transforms into white flakes similar in appearance to snow.
Mercury immersed in liquid air becomes solid and malleable.
Many substances cooled by liquid air sharply change their proper
ties. For example, zinc and tin become so brittle that they readily
transform into a powder, a lead bell emits a pure ringing sound,
and a frozen rubber ball will be smashed to smithereens if it is
dropped onto the floor.
Since the boiling point of oxygen (—183 °C) is higher than that of
nitrogen (—195.8 °C), oxygen liquefies more easily than nitrogen.
This is why liquid air is richer in oxygen than atmospheric air. In
storage, liquid air becomes still richer in oxygen owing to the evapo
ration chiefly of nitrogen.
Liquid air is produced in large amounts. It is mainly used for ob
taining oxygen, nitrogen, and noble gases from it. Separation is
performed by rectification-fractional distillation.
10. Preparation and Properties of Oxygen

Oxygen was first obtained in the pure state by K. Scheele (Swe
den) in 1772, and then in .1774 by J. Priestly (England), who1sepa
rated it from mercury(II) oxide. Priestly did not know, however, that
the gas he had obtained was contained in the air. Only several years
later did A. Lavoisier, who studied the properties of this gas in de
tail, establish that it is a component of air.
Oxygen is produced in industry at present from air (see Sec. 9).
In laboratories, commercially produced oxygen is used that is sup
plied in steel cylinders under a pressure of about 15 MPa. The most
important laboratory method of its preparation is the electrolysis of
44 The Main Subgroup of Group Six
aqueous solutions of alkalies. Small amounts of oxygen can also be

prepared by reacting a solution of potassium permanganate with an
acidified solution of hydrogen peroxide (see p. 17), or by the ther
mal decomposition of certain oxygen-containing substances, for in
stance potassium permanganate:
2 K M n 0 4 = K 2M n 0 4 + M n 0 2 + 0 2 f
Oxygen is a colourless odourless gas. It is somewhat heavier than
air—the mass of one litre of oxygen in standard conditions is 1.43 g,
and of one litre of air, 1.293 g. Oxygen dissolves sparingly in water:
100 volumes of water at 0 °C dissolve 4.9, and at 20 °C—3.1 volumes
of oxygen.
Oxygen forms diatomic molecules characterized by a high stabil
ity: the standard enthalpy of atomization of oxygen is 498 kJ/mol.
At room temperature, its dissociation into atoms is negligible and
becomes noticeable only at 1500 °C.
We have already mentioned (see Vol. 1, p. 148) that the magnet
ic properties of oxygen point to the presence in the 0 2 molecule of
two unpaired electrons. The latter occupy the antibonding molecu
lar n orbitals (Fig. 52 in Vol. 1, p. 156). The paramagnetic properties
of oxygen manifest themselves, particularly, in that liquid oxygen
is attracted by a magnet.
Oxygen forms compounds with all the chemical elements except
for helium, neon, and argon. It reacts directly with most elements
(exceptions are the halogens, gold, and platinum). The rate of re
action of oxygen with both elementary substances and compounds
depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature. Some
substances, for example, nitrogen monoxide or the hemoglobin of
the blood, even at room temperature combine with the oxygen of
the air at a considerable rate. Many oxidation reactions are accel
erated by catalysts. For instance, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen
ignites at room temperature in the presence of dispersed platinum.
A feature of many reactions of combination with oxygen is the evo
lution of heat and light. This process is known as combustion.
Combustion occurs much more vigorously in pure oxygen than in
air. Although the same amount of heat is liberated here as in combus
tion in air, the process occurs more rapidly, and the heat evolved
is not spent on heating the nitrogen of the air. This is why the tem
perature of combustion in oxygen is considerably higher than in air.
Oxygen plays an exceedingly important role in nature. It partic
ipates in one of the most important vital processes—respiration.
Of great significance is another process which oxygen participates in—
the decomposition and decay of dead animals and plants. Here com
plex organic substances transform into simpler ones (in the long run
into C02, water and nitrogen), and the latter again return to the
general cycle of substances in nature.
Oxygen 45
Oxygen has many applications. It is used to intensify chemical re*

actions in many production processes (for example, in the production
of sulphuric and nitric acids and in the blast furnace process). Oxy
gen is employed to obtain high temperatures. For this purpose, var
ious combustible gases (hydrogen, acetylene) are burned in special
burners. Oxygen is also used in medicine when respiration is diffi
cult.
Mixtures of liquid oxygen with pulverized coal, wood flour, or
with other combustible substances are called oxyliquids. They are
very explosive and are used in blasting jobs.
i i . Ozone
When electric sparks are passed through oxygen or air, a charac
teristic odour appears caused by the formation of a new substance-
ozone. It can be prepared from absolutely pure dry oxygen. Hence
it follows that ozone consists only of oxygen and is an allotropic
modification of it.
The molecular mass of ozone is 48. The atomic mass of oxygen is
16*. Consequently, an ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms.
Ozone is prepared by acting on oxygen with silent electric dis
charges. Devices used for this purpose are known as ozonizers.
In ordinary conditions, ozone is a gas. It can be separated from
oxygen by deep cooling; ozone condenses to form a blue liquid
boiling at —111.9 °C.
The solubility of ozone in water is much greater than that of oxy
gen: 100 volumes of water at 0 °C dissolve 49 volumes of ozone.
The formation of ozone from oxygen can be expressed by the equa
tion
302 = 203 -2 8 5 kJ
from which it follows that the standard enthalpy of formation of

ozone is positive and is 142.5 kJ/mol. In addition, as the coefficients
of the equation show, in the course of this reaction three molecules
of a gas transform into two, i.e. the entropy of the system diminishes.
As a result, the standard change in the Gibbs energy in this reaction
is also positive (163 kJ/mol). Thus, the reaction of transformation of
oxygen into ozone cannot proceed spontaneously—it requires the
expenditure of energy. The reverse reaction—the decomposition of
Fig. 6. S tru ctu re of an ozone m olecule

More precisely, 47.9982 a n d 15.9994, respectively.
ozone—proceeds spontaneously because it is attended by a decrease

in the Gibbs energy of the system- In other words, ozone is an unsta
ble substance.
The ozone molecule has the shape of an isosceles triangle. Its
structure is shown schematically in Fig. 6 . The angle at the vertex
of the triangle is close to 1 2 0 degrees, which indicates that the cen
tral oxygen atom is in the state of sp2 hybridization here. Accord
ingly, from the standpoints of the valence bond method,
the formation of the Os molecule can be described as follows.
The hybrid sp2 orbital of the central atom containing one electron
(Fig. 7, left part) overlaps with the px orbital of one of the extreme
oxygen atoms, the result being the formation of a sigma bond. The
p z orbital of the central atom not participating in the hybridization
is oriented at right angles to the plane of the molecule and also con
tains an unpaired electron. It overlaps with the similarly arranged
p z orbital of the same extreme atom of oxygen, which leads to the
formation of a pi bond. Finally, playing the role of the donor of the
electron pair occupying one of the hybrid sp2 orbitals (Fig. 7, right
part), the central oxygen atom forms a sigma bond with the other
extreme oxygen atom in the donor-acceptor way. Electron dot for
mula A
••
o
a
;0 o:
B
in which the dots stand for the unshared pair of electrons, and the
sigma and pi bonds are indicated by the relevant Greek letters, cor
responds to the structure formed.
Fig. 7. D iagram of th e o rb ita ls of th e c e n tra l oxygen a to m in an ozone

m olecule
According to formula A , the bonds of the central oxygen atom with

the two extreme atoms are not equivalent—one is double, and the
other is single. The identical length of these bonds, however (Fig. 6 ),
points to their equivalence. Hence, in addition to formula A t the
structure of the ozone molecule can with equal right be described
by formula B. From the standpoints of the method of superposition
of electron dot formulas (see Vol. 1, Sec. 44), this signifies that the
formula of the ozone molecule is intermediate between A and B
and can be written in the form:
a/ n\ °
o o
Here, the dashed lines indicate the delocalization of the pi elec-
tron pair, i.e. its belonging to all three oxygen atoms. Consequently,
the pi bond in the ozone molecule is a three-centre one.
A consideration of the structure of the ozone molecule from the
angle of view of the MO method also leads to the conclusion that
a three-centre bonding molecular pi orbital is formed here.
Ozone is one of the strongest oxidizing agents. It oxidizes all
metals except for gold and the platinum metals, and also most
non-metals. It transforms lower oxides into higher ones, and metal
sulphides into sulphates. In the course of the majority of these
reactions, the ozone molecule loses one oxygen atom and transforms
into the oxygen molecule 0 2.
Ozone liberates iodine from a solution of potassium iodide:
2KI + HaO + 0 3 = Ia + 2KOH + 0 2
If we place a piece of paper wetted with solutions of KI and starch
into air containing ozone, it immediately becomes blue. This reac
tion is used for detecting ozone.
Being a strong oxidizing agent, ozone kills bacteria and is there
fore used for disinfecting water and air.
Ozone is poisonous. Its maximum allowable content in air is 10”6%*
Its odour is well discerned at Uvis concentration. The ozone content
in the layer of the atmosphere adjoining the Earth usually ranges
from 10w? to 10~6%. It is formed in the atmosphere by electric dis
charges.
SULPHUR, SELENIUM, TELLURIUM
12. Occurrence and Preparation of Sulphur

Sulphur (Sulfur) occurs in nature in the free state (native sulphur)
and in various compounds. Native sulphur deposits occur in the
Soviet Union in the Kara-Kum desert in Turkmenia, in the Uzbek
SSR, and along the banks of the Volga River. The largest sulphur
deposits in other countries are in the USA, Italy, and Japan.
Compounds of sulphur with various metals are very abundant.
Many of them are valuable ores (for example, lead glance PbS, zinc
blende ZnS, and copper glance Cu2S) used to produce non-ferrous
metals.
Among sulphur compounds, sulphates, chiefly of calcium and
magnesium, are also quite abundant in nature. Finally, sulphur
compounds are contained in the organisms of plants and animals.
The total sulphur content in the Earth’s crust is about 0.1%.
Native sulphur contains impurities. They are separated by taking
advantage of the low melting point of sulphur. But the sulphur
produced by melting from its ore (brimstone) generally still con
tains many impurities. It is further purified by distillation in re
fining furnaces where the sulphur is heated to boiling. The sulphur
vapour is fed into a brick-lined chamber. At first, while the chamber
is cold, the sulphur directly solidifies and is deposited on the walls
as a light-yellow powder (flowers of sulphur). When the chamber gets
heated to above 120 °C, the vapour condenses into a liquid that is
tapped from the chamber into moulds, where it solidifies into rods.
This is how rod sulphur is produced.
Iron pyrites FeS2, also known as pyrite, and polymetallic ores
containing sulphur compounds of copper, zinc, and other non-fer
rous metals are an important source of sulphur. A certain amount of
sulphur (gas sulphur) is prepared from the gases formed in the cok
ing and gasification of coal.
13. Properties and Uses of Sulphur

At ordinary pressures, sulphur forms brittle yellow crystals melt
ing at 112.8 °C; its density is 2.07 g/cm3. It does not dissolve in
water, but does dissolve quite well in carbon disulphide, benzene,
and some other liquids. When these solvents are evaporated, sulphur
/Th
Fig* C rystals of rh o m b ic su lp h u r Fig. 9. A c ry sta l of m onoclinic

su lp h u r
separates from the solution in the form of transparent yellow crys

tals of the rhombic system having the shape of octahedra in which
part of the corners or edges are usually cut off, as it were (Fig. 8 ).
This modification of sulphur is called rhombic.
Crystals having a different shape are obtained if molten sulphur
is slowly cooled and, when it has partly solidified, the remaining
liquid that has not managed to solidify is poured off. In these con
ditions, the walls of the vessel will be coated inside with long dark
yellow needle-shaped crystals of the monoclinic system (Fig. 9).
This modification of sulphur is called monoclinic. It has a density
of 1.96 g/cm3, melts at 119.3 °C, and is stable only at a temperature
above 96 °C. At a lower temperature, the crystals of monoclinic
sulphur become lighter in colour and transform into octahedra of
rhombic sulphur.
Determination of the molecular mass of sulphur according to
the depression of the freezing point of its solutions in benzene led
to the conclusion that sulphur molecules consist of eight atoms
(S8). The same kind of molecules S8 having a cyclic structure form
crystals of rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. Thus, the difference
between the properties of the crystalline modifications of sulphur
is due not to a different number of atoms in the molecules (as, for
instance, in oxygen and ozone molecules), but to the different
structure of the crystals.
Of interest are the changes which sulphur undergoes if it is slowly
heated to its boiling point. At 112.8 °C, it melts and transforms
into a yellow mobile liquid. Upon further heating, the liquid dark
ens and acquires a reddish-brown colour. At about 250 °G, it becomes
so thick that it does not pour out from the inverted vessel.
Above 300 °C, the liquid sulphur again becomes mobile, but its
colour remains dark. Finally, at 444.6 °C, sulphur boils, forming
an orange-yellow vapour. In cooling, the same phenomena occur in
the reverse sequence.
These changes are explained as follows. At temperatures exceed
ing 150-160 °C, the cyclic S8 molecules begin to break up. The chains
of atoms that form combine with one another to make long chains
owing to which the viscosity of the molten sulphur greatly increases.
Further heating results in breaking up of these chains, and the
viscosity of the sulphur diminishes again.
If molten sulphur heated to boiling is poured in a thin stream
into cold water, it transforms into a soft rubbery brown mass that
can be stretched out into filaments. This modification is known as
plastic sulphur. The latter already in a few hours becomes brittle,
acquires a yellow colour, and gradually transforms into the rhombic
modification.
The number of atoms in a molecule of sulphur vapour gradually
diminishes with elevation of the temperature: S8 -> S 6 S4
4—2412
-> S 2 -^S . At from 800 to 1400 °C, sulphur vapour coi&ists mainly
of diatomic molecules, at 1700 °C of atoms.
Sulphur is a typical non-metal. It combines directly with many
metals such as copper, iron, and zinc with the evolution of a great
amount of heat. It also combines with almost all non-metals, but
not so readily and vigor6 usly as with metals.
Sulphur is widely used in the national economy. It is employed
in the rubber industry to cure crude rubber. The latter acquires
its valuable properties only after being mixed with sulphur and
heated to a definite temperature. This process is called vulcanization
of rubber (p. 173). Rubber having a very large sulphur content is
known as ebonite, it is a good electrical insulator.
Flowers of sulphur are used to combat certain plant pests. Sulphur
is also employed for the production of matches, ultramarine (a blue
pigment), carbon disulphide, and a number of other substances.
In countries having rich sulphur deposits, it is used as the starting
material in sulphuric acid production.
14. Hydrogen Sulphide. Sulphides

At a high temperature, sulphur combines with hydrogen to form
the gas hydrogen sulphide.
Hydrogen sulphide is generally prepared in practice by reacting
dilute acids with metal sulphides, for example with iroriÎI) sul
phide: -o
FeS + 2HC1 = FeC l2 + H 2S | , : V‘ k
Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless gas with the ^hi;acteristic
odour of rotten eggs. It is slightly heavier than air, liquefies at
—60.3 °C, and solidifies at —85.6 °C. It burns in air with a bluish
flame and forms sulphur dioxide and water:
2 H 2S + 3 0 2 = 2 H 20 + 2 S 0 2
If we introduce an object such as a porcelain cup into a hydrogen
sulphide flame, the temperature of the latter will lower appreciably,
and the hydrogen sulphide will be oxidized only to free sulphur
that forms a yellow deposit on the cup:
2 H 2S + 0 2 = 2 H 20 + 2S
Hydrogen sulphide readily ignites; a mixture of it with air ex
plodes. Hydrogen sulphide is a strong poison. The prolonged inhala
tion of air containing even small amounts of this gas causes serious
poisoning.
At 20 °C, one volume of water dissolves 2.5 volumes of hydrogen
sulphide. A solution of the latter in water is known asvhydrogen sul
phide water. When left standing in the air, especially in the light,
hydrogen sulphide water soon becomes turbid because of the sulphur
separated. This occurs as a result of oxidation of the hydrogen sul

phide by the oxygen of the air (see the preceding reaction). A solu
tion of hydrogen sulphide in water has the properties of an acid.
Hydrogen sulphide is a weak dibasic acid. It dissociates in steps,
the first step being the major one:
H 2S ^ H + + H S- (Kt = 6 X 10-8)
Further dissociation (the second step)

H S - =»=*= H + + S2- (K2 = 1 (H 4)
occurs to a negligibly small extent.

Hydrogen sulphide is a strong reducing agent. When acted upon
by strong oxidizing agents, it oxidizes to sulphur dioxide or to sul
phuric acid; the depth of oxidation depends on the conditions: the
temperature, pH of the solution, and the concentration of the oxidiz
ing agent. For instance, the reaction with chlorine customarily
proceeds up to the formation of sulphuric acid:
H 2S + 4C12 + 4 H 20 = H 2S 0 4 + 8HCI
Hydrogen sulphide is encountered in nature in volcanic gases and

in the water of mineral springs. It also forms in the decay of pro
teins in dead animals and plants and in the rotting of garbage.
The normal salts of hydrogen sulphide are called suIphides.They
can be obtained in different ways, one of which is the direct contact
ing of the relevant metals with sulphur. If we mix, for instance,
iron filings with powdered sulphur and heat the mixture at one spot,
we can easily induce a reaction of the iron and the sulphur, which
further proceeds spontaneously and is attended by the release of
a large amount of heat:
Fe + S = FeS + 1 0 0 .4 k J
Many sulphides can be prepared by acting with hydrogen sulphide

on aqueous solutions of the salts of the relevant metals. For exam
ple, if hydrogen sulphide is passed through a solution of a copper (I I)
salt, a black precipitate of copper(II) sulphide appears:
C u S 0 4 + H 2S = CuS ♦ + H 2S 0 4

Cu2+ + H 2S = CuS 4 + 2H+
Although an acid is produced in the course of the reaction, the

CuS precipitates: copper(II) sulphide dissolves neither in water nor
in dilute acids. But no precipitate is obtained when hydrogen sul
phide acts on a solution of an iron(II) salt—iron(II) sulphide FeS
4*
is insoluble in water, but dissolves in acids. This difference is ex

plained by the solubility product of CuS being much smaller than
that of FeS (see Table 16 in Vol. 1, p. 263). The reaction of metal
sulphides with acids is treated in greater detail in Vol. 1, p. 268.
Some sulphides such as Na2S and K2S are soluble in water. It is
obvious that they cannot be obtained from salts of the relevant
metals by acting with hydrogen sulphide or other sulphides on
them.
The difference in the solubility of sulphides is taken advantage of
in analytical chemistry for the consecutive precipitation of metals
from solutions of their salts.
Sulphides are salts of a very weak acid and therefore readily
hydrolyze. For example, Na2S when dissolved in water hydrolyzes
almost completely with the formation of the acid salt—sodium
hydrogen sulphide:
N a 2S + H 20 ** N aH S + N aO H
or
s 2- + H 20 =** H S - + O H -
Silver and copper objects blacken in air and in water containing

hydrogen sulphide. This occurs because they become coated with a
film of the corresponding sulphide. The oxidizing agent here is the
oxygen contained in the air or dissolved in the water:
4Ag + 2 H 2S + 0 2 = 2Ag2S + 2 H 20
If a solution of a sulphide such as sodium sulphide is agitated

with sulphur, the latter dissolves in it, and the residue after evap
oration in addition to the sodium sulphide contains compounds
with a greater sulphur content—from Na 2 S2 to Na 2S5. Such com
pounds are called polysulphides.
The sulphides include many compounds having a varying compo
sition. For instance, iron(II) sulphide can have a composition rang
ing from FeS1>01 to FeS1>14.
Natural sulphides are the basic part of ores of non-ferrous and
rare metals and are widely used in metallurgy. Some of them are
also employed as the starting material for the production of sul
phuric acid. A natural polysulphide—iron pyrite FeS2 (see Secs. 12
and 15) is also used for the same purpose. Sulphides of alkali and
alkaline-earth metals are used in the chemical and light industries.
For example, Na 2 S, CaS, and BaS are used in the leather industry
for removing the hair from hides. Sulphides of alkaline-earth met
als, zinc, and cadmium are the basis of luminophors (see p. 294).
Some sulphides have semiconductor properties and are employed
in electronics.
15. Sulphur Dioxide. Sulphurous Acid

Sulphur dioxide S0 2 is formed when sulphur is burned in air or
oxygen. It is also obtained by the calcination (“roasting”) of metal
sulphides in air. An example is iron pyrite:
4FeS2 + 1102 « 2Fe20 3 + 8S02
This reaction is generally used to produce sulphur dioxide in
industry (for other industrial methods of producing S0 2 see p. 59).
Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas (“sulphurous gas”) with the
pungent odour of burning sulphur. It readily condenses into a colour
less liquid boiling at —10.0 °C. Evaporation of liquid S0 2 is at
tended by a sharp drop in the temperature (down to —50 °C).
Sulphur dioxide is well soluble in water (about 40 volumes in one
volume of water at 20 °C); it reacts partly with the water to form
sulphurous afcid:
S 0 2 + H aO =1* H 2S 03
Thus, sulphur dioxide is the anhydride of sulphurous acid. Ele
vation of the temperature diminishes the solubility of S02, and
equilibrium shifts to the left, gradually all of the sulphur dioxide
again separates from the solution.
The S 0 2 molecule is constructed similar to the ozone molecule.
The nuclei of the atoms forming it compose an isosceles triangle:
Here the sulphur atom, like the central oxygen atom in the ozone
molecule, is in the sp2 hybridized state, and the angle OSO is close
to 120 degrees. The pz orbital of the sulphur atom oriented at right
angles to the plane of the molecule does not participate in hybridi
zation. A three-centre pi bond is formed at the expense of this orbital
and the similarly oriented pz orbitals of the oxygen atoms; the pair
of electrons forming it belongs to all three atoms of the molecule.
Sulphur dioxide is used for the production of sulphuric acid, and
also (in considerably smaller quantities) for bleaching straw, wool,
and silk, and as a disinfectant (for destroying mould fungi in base
ments, cellars, wine barrels, fermentation tanks, etc.).
Sulphurous acid H 2 S0 3 is very unstable. It is known only as aque
ous solutions. When an attempt is made to recover sulphurous acid,
it decomposes into S 0 2 and water. For example, when concentrated
sulphuric acid is used to act on sodium sulphite, sulphur dioxide
is liberated instead of sulphurous acid:
Na2S 03 + H2S 04 = Na2S 04 + S 0 2t + H20
A solution of sulphurous acid must be protected from contact

with the air because otherwise it absorbs oxygen from the air and
slowly oxidizes into sulphuric acid:
2 H 2S 0 3 + 0 2 = 2 H 2S 0 4
Sulphurous acid is an excellent reducing agent. For example, it
reduces free halogens to hydrogen halides:
H 2S 0 3 + C la + H 20 = H 2S 0 4 + 2HC1
When reacting with strong reducing agents, however, sulphurous
acid can play the role of an oxidizing agent. For instance, its reac
tion with hydrogen sulphide mainly follows the equation:
H 2S 0 3 + 2 H 2S =* 3S | + 3 H 20
+iv
1 S + 4 * r = S°
-II
2 S = S ° + 2e-
Sulphurous acid is dibasic (Kx « 2 X 10"2, K %= 6.3 X 10“8)

and forms two series of salts. Its normal salts are called sulphites,
and the acid ones hydrogen sulphites (or acid sulphites)*.
Like the acid, sulphites and hydrogen sulphites are reducing
agents. Their oxidation yields salts of sulphuric acid.
The sulphites of the most active metals when calcined decompose
with the formation of sulphides and sulphates (a reaction of dispro-
port ionat ion):
4 N a2S 0 3 = NaaS + 3 N a 2S 0 4
+iv +vi
3 S = S +2e-
+IV -II
1 S +6e~= S
Potassium and sodium sulphites are employed for bleaching some

materials, in the textile industry in the dyeing of fabrics, and in
photography. A solution of Ca(HS03) 2 (this salt exists only in
solution) is used to process wood into sulphite pulp, from which
paper is then made.
16. Sulphur Trloxide. Sulphuric A d d

Sulphur dioxide can attach oxygen, transforming into sulphur
trioxide. In ordinary conditions, this reaction proceeds exceedingly
slowly. It proceeds much more rapidly and easily at an elevated
temperature and in the presence of catalysts.
* Sodium d ith io n a te N a 2S20 4— th e so d iu m sa lt of d ith io n ic acid H 2S 20 4—
is som etim es erroneously n am ed sodium hydrogen su lp h ite.
Sulphur trioxide is a colourless highly mobile liquid with a den

sity of 1.92 g/cm3. It boils at 44.7 °C and freezes at 16.8 °C. In sto
rage, especially in the presence of traces of moisture, this substance
changes, transforming into long silky crystals.
Free molecules of S 0 3 (in the gaseous state) are constructed in the
form of an equilateral triangle with the sulphur atom at it &centre
and the oxygen atoms at its corners. As in the S 0 2 molecule, the
sulphur atom is in the sp2 hybridized state here; accordingly, the
nuclei of all four atoms in the S0 3 molecule are in one plane, and
the valence angles OSO equal 120 degrees:
The sulphur atom in the S 0 3 molecule is bonded to the oxygen

atoms by three two-centre sigma bonds and one four-centre pi bond
(compare with the structure of the S0 2 molecule—Sec. 15). Besides
this, the formation of additional covalent bonds as in the Cl2 mole
cule (p. 2 1 ) is possible at the expense of the unshared 2 p electron
pairs of the oxygen atoms and the free 3d orbitals of the sulphur
atom.
Sulphur trioxide is the anhydride of sulphuric acid; the latter
is formed when S0 3 reacts with water:
' ^ + H 20 = H2S04 + 88 kJ
The structure of sulphuric acid molecules corresponds to the for
mula
H—Q 0
• V
H— ( / \
Anhydrous H 2S0 4 is a colourless oily liquid freezing at 10.3 °C.
When anhydrous sulphuric acid (“monohydrate”) is heated, it
liberates that volatilizes. This proceeds until an azeotropic
solution " is Obtained containing 98.3% (mass) of H 2S0 4 and 1.7%
(mass) ofjwater. The solution boils and is distilled without any change
in its composition at 338.8 °C. An azeotropic solution is also obtained
in the lohg run when dilute sulphuric acid is distilled. In this case,
water is mainly distilled off until the concentration of the acid
reaches 98.3% (mass).
The dissolution of sulphuric acid in water is attended by the
formation of hydrates and the evolution of a very great amount
of heat. For this reason, care must be taken when mixing concen
trated sulphuric acid with water. To avoid splashing out of the
heated surface layer of the solution, it is necessary to pour the sul
phuric acid (as the heavier substance) into the water in small por
tions or in a thin stream; water must never be poured into the acid.
Sulphuric acid avidly absorbs water vapour and is therefore often
used for drying gases. Its ability to absorb water also explains why
many organic substances, especially carbohydrates (cellulose, sug
ar, etc.) become charred when acted upon by concentrated sulphu
ric acid. Carbohydrates contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same
ratio as water does. Sulphuric acid takes away from the carbohy
drates hydrogen and oxygen that form water, while the carbon
separates in the form of charcoal.
Concentrated sulphuric acid, especially when hot, is a vigorous
oxidizing agent. It oxidizes HI and HBr (but not HC1) to the free
halogens, carbon to C02, and sulphur to S02. These reactions can
be expressed by the equations:
8HI + H2S04 = 4Ia + H 2S f + 4H20
2HBr + H2S04 = Br2 + S 0 2 f + 2H20
G + 2H2S04 = C02 f + 2S02 t + 2H20
S + 2H2S04 = 3S02 f + 2H20
Sulphuric acid reacts differently with metals depending on its

concentration. Dilute sulphuric acid oxidizes metals with its hydro
gen ion. It therefore reacts only with the metals that precede hydro
gen in the electromotive series, for example:
Zn + H 2S 0 4 = Z n S 0 4 + H 2 t
Lead, however, does not dissolve in the dilute acid because the
salt PbS04 formed is insoluble.
Concentrated sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent at the expense
of sulphur(VI). It oxidizes all metals in the electromotive series up
to silver inclusively. Its reduction products may vary depending on
the activity of the metal and on the conditions (concentration of
the acid, temperature). When it reacts with metals having a low
activity, for instance with copper, the acid is reduced to S 02:
Cu + 2 H 2S 0 4 = C uS 04 + S 0 2 t + 2 H 20
When it reacts with more active metals, the reduction products

may be either S 02, free sulphur, or hydrogen sulphide. For example,
the following reactions are possible with zinc:
Zn + 2 H 2S 0 4 = Z n S 0 4 + S 0 2 f + 2 H 20
3Zn + 4 H 2S 0 4 = 3 Z n S 0 4 + S * + 4 H 20
4Zn + 5 H aS 0 4 = 4 Z n S 0 4 + H 2S t + 4 H aO
For the action of sulphuric acid on iron, see Sec. 128.

Sulphuric acid is a strong dibasic acid. In the first step in solu
tions w ith a moderate concentration, it dissociates virtu ally com
pletely:
H 2S 0 4 ^ = H + + H SO j
Dissociation in the second step
H S04 H + + S O f- *
proceeds to a smaller degree. The dissociation constant of sulphuric
acid in the second step, expressed through the activity of the ions,
is K 2 = 10-2.
Being a dibasic acid, sulphuric acid forms two series of salts—
normal and acid ones. The normal salts are called sulphates, and the
acid ones hydrogen sulphates (their previous name was bisulphates).
Most salts of sulphuric acid are quite well soluble in water. The
sulphates of barium BaS04, strontium SrS04, and of lead PbS0 4
are practically insoluble. Calcium sulphate CaS04 dissolves only
slightly. The solubility product of BaS0 4 is 1.1 X 10“10, of SrS04,
3.2 X 10"7, of PbS04, 1.6 X 10~8, and of CaS04, 1.3 X 10”4.
Barium sulphate is insoluble not only in water, but also in dilute
acids. Therefore, the formation of a white precipitate that is insol
uble in acids when a barium salt is reacted with a solution indicates
that the solution contains SOJ" ions:
B a2+ + S O |- = B a S 0 4 |
Hence, soluble barium salts are reagents detecting the presence

of the sulphate ion.
The most important salts of sulphuric acid include the following.
Sodium Sulphate Na 2S04. It crystallizes from aqueous solutions
with ten molecules of water (Na2S0 4 *10H2 O). In this form it is
called Glauber's salt after the German chemist and physician Johann
Glauber who was the first to prepare it by reacting sulphuric acid
with sodium chloride. The anhydrous salt is used in the manufacture
of glass.
Potassium Sulphate K 2 S04. It consists of colourless crystals well
soluble in water. It forms a number of double salts, including alums
(see below).
Magnesium Sulphate MgS04. It is contained in sea water. It crys
tallizes from solutions in the form of the hydrate MgS04 *7H2 0.
Calcium Sulphate CaS04. It occurs in nature in large amounts as
the mineral gypsum CaS04 *2H20. When heated to 150-170 °C, gyp
sum loses three-fourths of the water of crystallization in it and trans
forms into plaster of Paris (2CaS04 *H20). When mixed with water
to form a dough, plaster of Paris sets quite rapidly, again transform
ing into CaS04 *2H2 0. Owing to this property, gypsum is used to
fabricate casting moulds and replicas of various objects, and also
as a binder for plastering walls and ceilings. Bandages made with

it are used in surgery to hold broken bones in place.
Anhydrous calcium sulphate is called anhydrite.
Vitriols. This name is commonly used to designate the sulphates
of copper, iron, zinc, and some other metals containing the water
of crystallization.
Blue vitriol CuS04 *5H20 forms blue crystals. It is used for the
electroplating of metals with copper, for preparing certain mineral
pigments, and also as the starting substance in the production of
other copper compounds. In agriculture, a dilute solution of blue
vitriol is used for spraying plants and treating grain seeds before
sowing them in order to destroy the spores of harmful fungi.
For green vitriol FeS0 4 *7H20 see p. 363.
Alums. When a solution of potassium sulphate K 2 S0 4 is added
to a solution of aluminium sulphate A12 (S04) 3 and the liquid is
allowed to crystallize, beautiful colourless crystals form having the
composition K2S04*A12(S04)3*24H20 or KA1(S04 ) 2 *12H20. This
compound is called ordinary or potassium alum and is a double salt
of sulphuric acid and the metals potassium and aluminium (for
the applications of potassium alum see p. 308).
Double salts exist only in the solid state. An aqueous solution of
potassium alum contains the ions K +, Al3+, and S04“.
Alums can contain trivalent metals such as iron and chromium
instead of aluminium, and sodium or ammonium instead of potas
sium. An example is chrome (or potassium chrome) alum K 2S04-
•Cr2 (S04) 3 -24H20.
Disulphuric Acid. Oleum. A solution of sulphur trioxide in sul
phuric acid is known as oleum. It is widely employed in industry,
for instance for the purification of petroleum products, and for the
production of certain dyes and explosives.
In oleum, part of the S0 3 molecules combine with sulphuric acid
to form disulphuric acid H 2 S2 0 7 (its obsolete name is pyrosulphuric
acid):
SOg *f" H 2SO 4 -«-*• H 2S 2O 7
When oleum is cooled, disulphuric acid separates in the form of

colourless crystals.
The salts of disulphuric acid—disulphates—are prepared by heat
ing hydrogen sulphates. For example:
2 K H S 0 4 = K 2S 20 7+ H 20
When heated to above their melting point, disulphates decompose

with the liberation of S0 3 and transform into sulphates:
K 2S 20 7= S 0 3 + K 2S 0 4
17. Production and Uses of Sulphuric Acid

Sulphuric acid is produced com m ercially by oxidizing sulphur di
oxide S 0 2 to the trioxide and then reacting the latter w ith water.
The sulphur dioxide needed for the production of the acid is ob
tained in a number of ways. The most widespread of them is the
roasting of iron pyrite with the access of air (see p. 53).
In the USSR, preference is given, instead of iron pyrite, to flota
tion pyrite—a product obtained in the flotation (see p. 209) of copper
ores having a low copper content, and to coal pyrite obtained in
the concentration of coal having a high sulphur content.
The iron(III) oxide formed in the roasting of iron pyrite (“burnt
pyrites”) is removed from the kilns and can be used for the produc
tion of iron, while the mixture of sulphur dioxide with the oxygen
and nitrogen of the air is passed through purifying equipment where
it is freed of dust and other impurities.
Sulphur dioxide is also produced by burning sulphur. In this case,
a gas is formed that is free of harmful impurities. There is conse
quently no need to use purifying equipment, which considerably
simplifies the production of sulphuric acid.
An important source of sulphur dioxide is the flue gases of non-
ferrous metallurgical works. The significance of this source can be
appreciated from the circumstance that in the production of one
tonne of copper, 7.5 tonnes of S0 2 form, from which over 1 0 tonnes
of sulphuric acid can be manufactured.
A large amount of S0 2 is extracted from flue gases obtained in
the combustion of coal containing a lot of sulphur.
Other starting materials for the production of S0 2 are gypsum
CaS04 «2H20 and anhydrite CaS04. These minerals at 1350-1400 °C
decompose to form S02:
2C aS 04 — 2CaO -f- 2 S 0 2 -f- 0 2
If gypsum mixed in the required proportion with iron(III) oxide

Fe20 3, aluminium oxide A120 3, and silica Si0 2 is calcined, cement
is obtained in addition to sulphur dioxide.
Two processes are used to oxidize S 0 2 in the production of sul
phuric acid: the contact and the chamber ones.
In the contact process, oxygen combines with sulphur dioxide when
these gases are brought into contact with a suitable catalyst. An
indispensable condition for the success of the process is the complete
removal of impurities from the reaction gases because even negli
gible traces of some substances (compounds of arsenic, phosphorus,
etc.) “poison” the catalyst and cause it to rapidly lose its activity.
Vanadium pentoxide V20 5 is employed as the catalyst for oxidiz
ing S02.
In the production of sulphuric acid by the contact process, the

mixture of sulphur dioxide and air after purification passes through
a heater utilizing the gases coming out of the contact apparatus and
enters the contact apparatus. Oxidation of the S0 2 to S0 3 takes place
on the catalyst and is attended by the evolution of a considerable
amount of heat:
2S02 + 0 2 **2S 03 + 1 9 7 kJ
An increase in the oxygen content of the mixture increases the

yield of S03, shifting equilibrium to the right. At 450 °C and excess
oxygen in the mixture, the degree of conversion of S0 2 to S0 3
reaches 95 to 97%.
The sulphur trioxide formed in the contact apparatus is passed
into 96-98% sulphuric acid, which becomes saturated with the S0 3
and transforms into oleum.
In Russia, sulphuric acid was first produced by the contact process
at the Tentelev Plant (now the Krasny Khimik Plant) in Peters
burg. The “Tentelev system” developed by chemists of this plant
was one of the most progressive systems of its time and gained world
wide acknowledgement. Contact plants using this system were erected
in a number of countries, including Japan and the USA.
The Chamber Process. The contact process of sulphuric acid produc
tion began to be used comparatively recently. Before this time, sul
phuric acid was obtained exclusively by the chamber process, whose
essence consists in oxidizing sulphur dioxide by nitrogen dioxide
N 0 2 in the presence of water.
Gaseous nitrogen dioxide reacts with sulphur dioxide as follows:
S 0 2 + N 0 2 + H 20 = H 2S 0 4 + NO
Upon giving up part of its oxygen to the sulphur dioxide, the N 0 2
transforms into a different gas-nitrogen monoxide NO. The latter
reacts with the oxygen of the air and again forms nitrogen dioxide:
2NO + 0 2 = 2N O s
that is used to oxidize new portions of S02.
Hence, in the production of sulphuric acid, the NO is in essence
a catalyst accelerating the process of oxidation of the sulphur
dioxide.
The chemical industry produces several grades of sulphuric acid.
They differ in their concentration, and also in their impurity content.
The major part of the acid produced has a concentration of 91-94%
and a density of 1.825-1.84 g/cm3.
Sulphuric acid is one of the most important products of the funda
mental chemical industry which is responsible for the production
of acids, alkalies, salts, mineral fertilizers, and chlorine. Sulphuric
acid finds its main consumer in the manufacture of mineral fertiliz-
ers. It is also used for the production of many other acids, is em
ployed in large amounts in organic synthesis, in the production of
explosives, for refining kerosene, petroleum oils, and products of
the coke-chemical industry (benzene, toluene), in the fabrication of
paints, and in the pickling of ferrous metals (scale removal).
Before the October Socialist Revolution, the production of sul
phuric acid in Russia was negligible in comparison with other coun
tries. In 1913, all the plants produced a total of only 145 000 tonnes.
Matters changed sharply after the Revolution. The old plants
were expanded and supplied with new equipment. A home base of
raw materials was set up for the sulphuric acid industry and a num
ber of new plants were erected. This made possible a considerable
increase in sulphuric acid production:
Y ear 1940 1964 1977
P ro d u ctio n , th o u s. to n n es 1587 7647 21 100
18. Persulphuric Acid

In the electrolysis of a 50% solution of sulphuric acid, the hydro
gen ions give up their charge at the cathode, and the HSO7 ions at
the anode. After losing their charges, these ions combine in pairs
to form persulphuric acid H 2S 2 0 8:
2HSO4 = H2S20 8 + 2e~
Persulphuric acid is a derivative of hydrogen peroxide and an

intermediate in the preparation of the latter by electrochemical
means (see Sec. 3). Its structure can be expressed by the formula
O O
II II
H —O1— S - O - O — S - O - H
As in hydrogen peroxide, two oxygen atoms are bonded here by a

covalent bond forming the “chain” characteristic of peroxides. Such
acids have been given the common name peracids and, in addition
to sulphur, are known for a number of other elements. Much time
was devoted to studying peracids by L. Pisarzlievsky*, to whom
chemistry is under obligations for his classical investigations in
this field-
* Lev V ladim irovich Pisarzhevsky (1874-1938) w as an o u tsta n d in g scien tist

and teacher who b o ld ly used th e ach iev em en ts of phy sics to stu d y an d ex p lain
chem ical processes. H is m o st im p o rta n t w orks are d evoted to th e stu d y in g of
peroxides an d peracid s, th e dev elo p m en t of th e th e o ry of so lu tio n s, th e a p p lica
tio n of th e electronic th e o ry to c h em istry , and to dev elo p m en t of th e th eo ry of
galvanic cells.
62 The Main Subgroup of Croup Six
All the peracids, like the peroxides, have strong oxidizing

properties.
The salts of persulphuric acid—persulphates—are used for cer
tain technical purposes, as a bleaching means, and as oxidizing
agents in laboratory practice.
19. Thiosulphuric Acid

If we boil an aqueous solution of sodium sulphite Na2 S0 3 with
sulphur and, after filtering off the excess sulphur, let the solution
cool, colourless transparent crystals of a new substance separate
from the solution whose composition is expressed by the formula
Na 2 S2 0 3 *5H2 0. This substance is the sodium salt of thiosulphuric
acid H 2S2 0 3.* The structural formula of thiosulphuric acid is as
follows:
H —0 S
V
Thiosulphuric acid is unstable. It decomposes even at room tem
perature. Its salts—thiosulphates—are considerably more stable.
The greatest use among them is found by sodium thiosulphate
Na 2 S2 0 3 *51120.
When an acid, for instance hydrochloric acid, is added to a solu
tion of sodium thiosulphate, the odour of sulphur dioxide appears,
and after some time the liquid becomes turbid as a result of sulphur
precipitating.
Apparently, first thiosulphuric acid is formed:
N a 2S 20 3 + 2HC1 = H 2S 20 3 + 2N aCl
and it then decomposes according to the equation:
H 2^2^3 = H 20 -f- S 0 2 f -j- S 4
Investigation of the properties of sodium thiosulphate leads to
the conclusion that the sulphur atoms in it are in different oxidation
states: one of them has the oxidation number -f 4, and the other 0.
Sodium thiosulphate is a reducing agent. Chlorine, bromine, and
other strong oxidizing agents oxidize it to sulphuric acid or to
its salt. An example is:
N a 2S20 3 + 4C12 + 5 H 20 = 2 H 2S 0 4 + 2N aCl + 6HC1
* S ubstances th a t can be considered as being produced from oxygen-con

ta in in g acids by th e d isp lacem en t of a ll o r p a rt of th e oxygen in th em b y su lp h u r
are called th io acid s, an d th e sa lts corresponding to th e m —th io salts. P a rtic u la rly ,
th io su lp h u ric acid can be represented as su lp h u ric acid whose m olecule c o n ta in s
a su lp h u r atom in stead of one of th e oxygen ato m s. T his is w hy it is c u sto m ary
p ractice to c all H 2S 20 3 “th io su lp h u ric acid ” .
The oxidation of sodium thiosulphate by weaker oxidizing agents

proceeds differently. Iodine, for example, oxidizes sodium thiosul
phate to the salt of tetrathionic acid H 2S40 6:
I a + 2N a2S 20 8 = 2N aI + N a 2S40 6
This reaction underlies one of the methods of quantitative chem ical
analysis (iodimetry) used to determine the content of certain oxidiz
ing and reducing agents.
Tetrathionic acid H 2S4 0 6 belongs to the group of polythionic acids.
The latter are dibasic acids of the general formula H 2 Sa.06, where x
can take on values from 2 to 6 , and possibly even higher ones. Po
lythionic acids are unstable and are known only in aqueous solu
tions. The salts of polythionic acid$—polythionates—are more
stable, some of them have been obtained as crystals.
Sodium thiosulphate is used in photography as a fixing salt (see
p. 248), in the textile industry for the removal of the chlorine remain
ing after fabric bleaching, in medicine, and in veterinary.
20. Halogen Compounds of Sulphur

When chlorine is passed through molten sulphur, sulphur(I)
chloride is formed that is a liquid boiling at 137 °C. The molecular
mass of this substance, as shown by the density of its vapour, corre
sponds to the formula S2C12, and its name, accordingly, is disulphur
dichloride.
Disulphur dichloride dissolves sulphur in an amount up to 6 6 %
(mass). Water decomposes S2C12 with the formation of sulphur dio
xide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen sulphide:
S2C12 + 2 H aO = SOa -j- H 2S -{- 2 H C 1 .
Disulphide dichloride is used in the vulcanization of rubber.

Two other sulphur chlorides are known (SC12 and SC14) that have
no practical significance. With fluorine, sulphur forms the gaseous
sulphur hexachloride SF6, and with bromine it forms disulphur di
bromide S2 Br2.
21. Selenium. Tellurium

Selenium is scarce in nature. Its content in the Earth’s crust is
0.000 06% (mass). Its compounds occur in the form of impurities
in the natural metal sulphides (PbS, FeS2, etc.). Hence, selenium is
produced from the residues formed in the production of sulphuric
ac d, in the electrolytic refining of copper, and in some other pro
cesses.
Tellurium is one of the rare elements. Its content in the Earth’s
crust is only 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 % (mass).
Selenium, like sulphur, forms several allotropic modifications

in the free state, the most well known of which are amorphous sele
nium, a red-brown powder, and gray selenium that forms brittle
crystals with a metallic lustre.
Tellurium is also known in the form of an amorphous modifica
tion and as light gray crystals with a metallic lustre.
Selenium is a typical semiconductor (see Sec. 76). Its especially
important property as a semiconductor is the sharp increase in its
electrical conductance when illuminated. A barrier layer is formed
at the junction of selenium with a metallic conductor that can pass
an electric current only in one direction. In view of this property,
selenium is used in semiconductor engineering for the fabrication of
rectifiers and photocells with a barrier layer. Tellurium is also a
semiconductor, but its application is more restricted. The selenides
and tellurides of some metals also have semiconductor properties
and are employed in electronics. Tellurium is used in small amounts
as an alloying addition to lead, improving its mechanical properties.
Hydrogen selenide H 2Se and hydrogen telluride H 2Te are colour
less gases with a foul odour. Their aqueous solutions are acids whose
dissociation constants are somewhat greater than that of hydrogen
sulphide.
In their chemical properties, hydrogen selenide and hydrogen tel
luride exhibit an exceedingly great resemblance to hydrogen sul
phide. Like the latter, they are strong reducing agents. They both
decompose when heated. Hydrogen telluride is less stable than H 2Se:
as in the hydrogen halide series, the stability of the molecules di
minishes in the series H 20 -> H 2S -> H 2Se H 2Te. The salts of
hydrogen selenide and hydrogen telluride—selenides and tellurides—
are similar to sulphides as regards their solubility in water and acids.
Hydrogen selenide and hydrogen telluride can be prepared by acting
with strong acids on selenides and tellurides.
The dioxides Se0 2 and Te0 2 are obtained when selenium and
tellurium are burned in air or in oxygen. They are solids in ordinary
conditions and are the anhydrides of selenous H 2 Se0 3 and tellurous
H 2Te0 3 acids. Unlike sulphur dioxide, SeOa and Te0 2 exhibit main
ly oxidizing properties and are readily reduced to free selenium and
tellurium, for instance:
S e 0 2 + 2 S 0 2 + 2 H 20 = 2 H 2S 0 4 + Se *
Strong acids can convert selenium and tellurium dioxides into
selenic H 2 Se0 4 and telluric H 2Te0 4 acids.
Selenic acid H 2Se0 4 is a strong acid. Like sulphuric acid, it has
a low volatility, vigorously combines with water, chars organic sub
stances, and has strong oxidizing properties. Its salts—selenates—
are very similar to sulphates. The barium and lead salts of this acid,
like their sulphate counterparts, are insoluble.
Telluric acid H 2Te04, unlike selenic and sulphuric acids, is very

weak. It separates from a solution as crystals of orthotelluric acid
having the composition H 6Te06. This is a hexabasic acid; it forms
a number of salts, for instance silver orthotellurate Ag6Te06. When
heated, orthotelluric acid detaches two water molecules and trans
forms into the dibasic acid H 2Te04.
All selenium and tellurium compounds are poisonous.
4
THE M A IN SUBO * ° 0 ?
OF GROUP FIVE
rouP bye Peri°dic table includes

The main subgroup of £ antimony, and bismuth,
nitrogen, phosphorus, arse*1*'yive electrons in the outer layer of an
Since these elements haVj aS a whole as non-metals. The ability
atom, they are character^ 0 ^ manifests itself considerably more
to attach electrons, howc^.^responding elements of Groups VI and
weakly in them than in the ^ ^ye outer electrons, the maximum posi-
VII. Owing to the presence (.^Jtients in this subgroup is + 5, and the
tive oxidation number of 0 g Because of the relatively lower elec-
maximum negative one is elements being considered with hydro-
tronegativity, the bond of i hydrogen of Group VI and VII ele-
gen is less polar than that ,r0gen compounds of these elements do
ments. This is why the by aJ1 aqueous solution and, consequently,
not detach hydrogen ions
have no acid properties.
Table 5 j jVitrogen aod Its Analogues
Selected P ro p e rtie s
Phos
phorus Arsenic Antimony Bismuth
plitr°*en
2/ 2»3 3s23p3 4$24p3 5sa5p3 6s26p3

C o n fig u ratio n of o u te r elec
tr o n la y e r of a to m 14. 53 10.49 9.82 8.64 7.3
Io n iz a tio n e n erg y of atom ,
eV 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.7
R e la tiv e e le c tro n e g a tiv ity
A to m ic ra d iu s , n m
M e ltin g p o in t, °C
,
(>.<>71
10.0
0.13
44.1*
257
0.148
**.
**
0.161
630.5
1634
0.182
271.3
1550
B o ilin g p o in t, °C 1.83* 5 .724* 6.68 9.80
M * 3*
D e n sity , g /c m 3
* White phosphorus.
** Sublimes at 615 °C.
3* Liquid at -1 9 6 °C.
4* Gray arsenic.
Nitrogen 67
The physical and chemical properties of the nitrogen subgroup

elements change with an increasing atomic number in the same se
quence that was observed in the groups already dealt with. But since
the non-metallic properties of nitrogen are less pronounced than
those of oxygen, and moreover than those of fluorine, the weakening
of these properties when passing over to the following elements results
in the appearance and increase in the metallic properties. The latter
are perceptible already in arsenic, antimony has both kinds of
properties to an approximately equal extent, and in bismuth the
metallic properties predominate over the non-metallic ones.
The most important properties of the elements of the subgroup
being considered are given in Table 5.
NITROGEN (NITROGENIUM) *
22. Occurrence of Nitrogen. Preparation

and Properties
The major part of nature’s nitrogen is in the free state. Free nitro
gen is the main component of air, which contains 78.2% (vol.) of it.
Inorganic nitrogen compounds are not encountered in nature in
large amounts if we omit sodium nitrate NaN0 3 forming thick de
posits along the Pacific coast of Chile. The soil contains insignificant
amounts of nitrogen, mainly in the form of nitric acid salts. But all
living organisms contain nitrogen as a constituent of the complex
organic compounds called proteins. The transformations which
proteins undergo in the cells of plants and animals form the founda
tion of all vital processes. There is no life without protein, and since
protein must contain nitrogen, we can understand the important
role played by this element in nature.
The total nitrogen content in the Earth’s crust (including the
hydrosphere and the atmosphere) is 0.04% (mass).
The preparation of nitrogen from the air mainly consists in its
separation from oxygen. This is done in industry by evaporating
liquid air in special installations.
Laboratories generally use nitrogen supplied in cylinders under
an increased pressure or in Dewar flasks. Nitrogen can be prepared
by the decomposition of certain of its compounds, for instance ammo
nium nitrite NH 4 N 02, which is decomposed with the liberation of
nitrogen when comparatively slightly heated:
N H 4N 0 2 = N 2 f + 2 H 20
In the nitrogen molecule Na, the atoms are bonded by a triple

bond. The dissociation energy of this molecule is very high (946 kJ/mol),
* The L a tin nam e nitrogenium lite ra lly m ean s “g iv in g b ir th to n itre ”.
5*
68 The Main Subgroup of Group Five
consequently thermal dissociation of nitrogen becomes appreciable

only upon very strong heating (about 0.1% dissociates at 3000 °C).
Nitrogen is a colourless gas having no odour and very poorly solu
ble in water. It is slightly lighter than air: the mass of one litre of
nitrogen is 1.25 grams.
Molecular nitrogen is a substance with a low chemical activity.
At room temperature, it reacts only with lithium. The low activity
of nitrogen is explained by the high stability of its molecules that
underlies the high activation energy of reactions proceeding with
the participation of nitrogen. When heated, however, it begins to
react with many metals—with magnesium, calcium, and titanium.
Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen at a high temperature and pressure
in the presence of a catalyst. Its reaction with oxygen begins at
3000-4000 °C.
Animals placed in a nitrogen atmosphere quickly perish, not be
cause of nitrogen poisoning, but owing to the absence of oxygen.
Nitrogen is mainly used as a reactant in the synthesis of ammonia
and certain other compounds. It is also used for filling electric bulbs,
for providing an inert medium in the industrial conducting of some
chemical reactions, and in the pumping of combustible liquids.
23. Ammonia and Its Saits

Nitrogen forms several compounds with hydrogen. The most im
portant of them is ammonia—a colourless gas with a characteristic
sharp odour (the odour of “smelling salts”).
Ammonia is usually prepared in the laboratory by heating am
monium chloride NH 4 C1 with slaked lime Ca(OH)2. The following
reaction occurs:
2 N H 4C1 + C a(O H )2 =
CaCl2 + 2 H 20 + 2 N H a f
The liberated ammonia con
tains water vapour. It is passed
for drying through soda lime
(a mixture of lime and sodium
hydroxide).
The mass of one litre of ammo
nia in standard conditions is
0.77 g. Since this gas is consid
erably lighter than air, it can be
gathered in an inverted vessel.
When cooled to —33.4 °C under
atmospheric pressure, ammonia
transforms into a transparent liq Fig. 10. A p p a ra tu s for show ing how
uid. The latter freezes at—77.8 °C. a m m o n ia b u rn s in oxygen
Nitrogen 69
The electron configuration and spatial structure of the ammonia

molecule were treated in Vol. 1T Sec. 43. In liquid ammonia, the
NH3 molecules (p = 1.48 D) are bonded to one another by means of
hydrogen bonds. This is the explanation of the comparatively high
boiling point of ammonia (—33.4 °C) which does not correspond to
its low molecular mass (17 amu).
Ammonia dissolves very well in water: one volume of water at
room temperature dissolves about 700 volumes of ammonia. A con
centrated solution contains 25% (mass) of NH 3 and has a density of
0.91 g/cm3. An aqueous solution of ammonia in water is sometimes
called spirits (or spirit) of ammonia. The conventional medicinal
spirit of ammonia contains 10% of NH3. With elevation of the tem
perature, the solubility of ammonia diminishes. Consequently, it
is liberated from a concentrated solution when heated. This is some
times taken advantage of in laboratories to obtain small quantities
of gaseous ammonia.
At a low temperature, the crystal hydrate NH 3 *H20 melting at
—79 °C can be separated from an ammonia solution. A crystal hy
drate of the composition 2NH 3 -H20 is known. The water and ammo
nia molecules in these hydrates are bonded to one another by means
of hydrogen bonds.
Ammonia is quite active chemically. It reacts with many substances.
Since nitrogen has its minimum oxidation number in ammonia
(—3), the latter has only reducing properties. If ammonia is allowed
to flow through a tube inserted into a wider tube (Fig. 10) through
which oxygen is flowing, the ammonia can easily be ignited; it
burns with a pale greenish flame. The combustion of ammonia yields
water and free nitrogen:
4 N H 3 - f 3 0 2 = 6 H sO + 2N 2 f
In other conditions, ammonia can be oxidized to nitrogen mon
oxide NO (see Sec. 29).
Unlike the hydrogen compounds of the non-metals of Groups VI
and VII, ammonia has no acid properties. The hydrogen atoms in
its molecule, however, can be displaced by metal atoms. When the
hydrogen is completely displaced by a metal, a compound called
a nitride is formed. Some nitrides, for instance those of calcium and
magnesium, are obtained upon the direct reaction of nitrogen with
the relevant metal at a high temperature:
3Mg + N 2 = Mg3N 2
Many nitrides become completely hydrolyzed in water with the
formation of ammonia and the metal hydroxide. An example is:
Mg3N 2 + 6 H 20 = 3M g(O H )2 + 2 N H 3 f
The compounds formed when only one hydrogen atom in ammonia

molecules is displaced by a metal are known as metal amides. For
example, sodium amide (sodamide) is obtained as colourless crystals

when ammonia is passed over molten sodium:
2 N H 3 + 2N a = 2 N a N H 2 + H 2 t
Water decomposes sodium amide:
.N a N H 2 + H 20 = N aO H + N H g f
Since sodium amide has strong basic and dehydrating properties,
it is used in some organic syntheses, for example, in the production
of the dye indigo and of certain medicinal preparations.
The hydrogen in ammonia can also be displaced by halogens. For
instance, when chlorine acts on a concentrated solution of ammonium
chloride, nitrogen trichloride NG13 is produced:
N H 4C1 + 3C12 = NC13 + 4HC1
in the form of a heavy oily explosive liquid.

Nitrogen triiodide has similar properties. It forms as a black
insoluble powder when iodine reacts with ammonia. It is harmless
when moist, but the dried compound explodes at the least touch,
liberating a purple iodine vapour.
With fluorine, nitrogen forms the stable compound nitrogen tri
fluoride NF3.
Inspection of Table 6 in Vol. 1 (p. 129) shows that the electroneg
ativity of chlorine and iodine is less, and of fluorine is greater than
that of nitrogen. It thus follows that in the compounds NC13 and
N I3, the oxidation number of nitrogen is —3, while in NF3 it is -[-3.
For this reason, nitrogen trifluoride differs in its properties from
nitrogen trichloride and triiodide. For instance, the reaction of
NC13 or N I 3 with water yields ammonia, whereas when NF3 is
reacted with water, the products include dinitrogen trioxide:
NC13 + 3 H 20 = N H 3 + 3HOC1
2N F3 + 3 H 20 = N 20 8 + 6H F
The nitrogen atom in the ammonia molecule is bonded with the
aid of three covalent bonds to the hydrogen atoms, retaining one
unshared electron pair:
H
h :n :
•♦
H
The nitrogen atom plays the role of an electron pair donor. It
can participate in the formation of a fourth covalent bond with other
atoms or ions having electron-acceptor properties according to the
donor-acceptor method. This explains the ability of ammonia to
enter into combination reactions, which is exceedingly charac
teristic of it.
Nitrogen 71
Examples of complex compounds formed by ammonia as a result

of combination reactions are given in Secs. 8 6 and 87, and also in
Chap. 8 . In Vol. 1 (p. 136), we have already considered the reaction
of the ammonia molecule NH 3 with a hydrogen ion leading to the
formation of the ammonium ion NHJ:
NH3 + H + = NHJ
Ammonia is a proton acceptor in this reaction, and, consequently,
from the standpoint of the proton theory of acids and bases (Vol. 1,
p. 258), it exhibits basic properties. Indeed, reacting with acids
that are in the free state or in a solution, ammonia neutralizes them
and forms ammonium salts. For instance, its reaction with hydrogen
chloride produces ammonium chloride NH 4 C1:
N H 3 + HC1 = N H 4C1
The reaction of ammonia with water also leads to the formation
of not only ammonia hydrates, but also partly of the ammonium
ion:
N H 3 + H 20 = ^ N H J + O H -
The result is an increase in the concentration of OH” ions in the
solution. This is exactly why aqueous solutions of ammonia have
an alkaline reaction. According to an established tradition, how
ever, the aqueous solution of ammonia is generally denoted by the
formula NH4OH and is called ammonium hydroxide, and the alka
line reaction of this solution is treated as the result of dissociation
of the NH4OH molecules.
Ammonia is a weak base. At 18 °C, the equilibrium constant of
its ionization (see the preceding equation) is 1.8 X 10"B. One litre
of a unimolar aqueous solution of ammonia contains only. 0.0042
equivalent of the OH” and NH+ ions. Such a solution has a pH of
11.77 at 18 °C.
Most ammonium salts are colourless and well soluble in water.
In some of their properties, they are similar to the salts of the alkali
metals, especially of potassium (the K + and NH* ions are close in
size).
Since an aqueous solution of ammonia is a weak base, ammonium
salts become hydrolyzed in solutions. Solutions of salts formed by
ammonia and strong acids have a weakly acid reaction.
The hydrolysis of the ammonium ion is usually written as:
N H J + H 20 ** N H 4OH + H +
It is more proper, however, to consider it as a reversible transi
tion of a proton from an ammonium ion to a water molecule:
N H J + H 20 ** N H 3 + H 30 +
When an alkali is added to an aqueous solution of an ammonium
salt, the ions H 3 0 + combine with the ions OH” into water molecules,
72 The Main Subgroup of Croup Five
and hydrolysis equilibrium shifts to the right. The process can be

expressed by the equation
NHJ + OH- ^ N H 3 + H 20
When the solution is heated, the ammonia volatilizes and can
easily be detected by its odour. Hence, the presence of any ammo
nium salt in a solution can be detected by heating the latter with
an alkali (an ammonium ion test).
Ammonium salts are thermally unstable. When heated, they
decompose reversibly or irreversibly. Ammonium salts whose anion
is not an oxidizing agent or exhibits oxidizing properties only to
a small extent decompose reversibly. For example, ammonium
chloride when-heated appears to sublime—it decomposes into am
monia and hydrogen chloride, which again combine into ammonium
chloride on the cold parts of the vessel:
N H 4C1 ** N H 3 + H Cl
In the reversible decomposition of ammonium salts formed by non

volatile acids, only ammonia volatizes. The decomposition prod
ucts—ammonia and the relevant acid—when mixed, however,
again combine with each other. This can be exemplified by the reac
tions of decomposition of ammonium sulphate (NH4 ) 2S0 4 or am
monium phosphate (NH4 )3 P 0 4.
Ammonium salts whose anion exhibits more sharply expressed
oxidizing properties decompose irreversibly: a redox reaction pro
ceeds in the course of which the ammonium ion is oxidized and the
anion is reduced. Examples are the decomposition of NH 4 N 0 2
(Sec. 22) or of ammonium nitrate:
N H 4N 0 3 = N 20 t + 2 H 20
Ammonia and ammonium salts have found widespread applica
tion. We have already mentioned that ammonia even at a low pres
sure (0.7 to 0.8 MPa) readily transforms into a liquid. Since the
evaporation of liquid airimonia is attended by the absorption of
a great amount of heat (1.37 kJ/g), liquid ammonia is used in various
refrigerating equipment.
Aqueous solutions of ammonia are used in chemical laboratories
and production processes as a weak volatile base. They are also em
ployed in medicine and domestically. But the major part of the
ammonia manufactured by the chemical industry goes to produce
nitric acid and other nitrogen-containing substances. The most
important of them include nitrogen fertilizers, primarily ammonium
sulphate and nitrate, and carbamide (p. 1 1 2 ).
Ammonium sulphate (NH4 ) 2 S0 4 is a good fertilizer and is pro
duced in large amounts.
Ammonium nitrate NH 4 N 0 3 is also used as a fertilizer; the frac
tion of assimilated nitrogen in this salt is higher than in other ni-
Nitrogen 73
trates or ammonium salts. Ammonium nitrate also forms explosive

mixtures with combustible substances (ammonals) used for blasting
jobs.
Ammonium chloride, or sal ammoniac, NH 4C1 is used in the dyeing
industry, in textile printing, in soldering and tinning, and also
in galvanic cells. Its use in soldering is based on the fact that it
facilitates the removal of oxide films from the surface owing to which
the solder adheres well to the metal. When the greatly heated metal
comes into contact with ammonium chloride, the oxides on the
metal surface are either reduced or converted into chlorides. The
latter, being more volatile than the oxides, leave the metal surface.
For copper and iron, the main processes occurring here are as fol
lows:
4CuO + 2 N H 4C1 = 3Cu + CuCl2 + N 2 + 4 H 20
Fe30 4 + 8 N H 4C1 - FeC l2 -f 2FeC l3 + 8 N H 3 + 4 H 20
The first of these reactions is a redox one: the copper, being a less
active metal than the iron, is reduced by the ammonia formed when
the NH 4 C1 is heated.
Liquid ammonia and ammonium salts saturated with it are used
as fertilizers. One of the main advantages of these fertilizers is their
increased nitrogen content.
24. Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen.

Preparation of Ammonia
Up to the end of the nineteenth century, ammonia was produced
commercially only as a by-product in the coking of coal. Coal con
tains from 1 to 2% of nitrogen. In the dry distillation of coal, virtual
ly all of this nitrogen separates in the form of ammonia and ammo
nium salts. These two products are separated from the other gaseous
products of dry distillation by passing the coke gas through water.
Ammonia is liberated from this ammonia (or gas) liquor by heating
it with lime.
Ammonia liquor was the only source of ammonia for a long time.
But at the beginning of the twentieth century, new industrial meth
ods of producing ammonia were developed that are based on the
binding, or fixation, as chemists say, of atmospheric nitrogen. To
assess the tremendous significance these discoveries had for mankind,
we must get a clear idea of the role played by nitrogen in vital pro
cesses.
We have already mentioned that nitrogen is an essential constit
uent of proteins and is needed by every living being. Notwithstand
ing the enormous, virtually inexhaustible amount of free nitrogen
in the atmosphere, neither animals nor plants (with a few exceptions)
can use this nitrogen directly for nutrition.
Plants take nitrogen from the soil where it is chiefly contained as

various organic compounds that gradually transform into salts of
nitric acid and of ammonium. These salts dissolve in the soil water,
are absorbed by the roots of plants, and are transformed into proteins
in their cells.
Animals cannot assimilate nitrogen even in the form of salts.
Their food must contain proteins produced by plants or by other
animals. This is why the existence of animals depends completely
on plants; only the latter provide them with the nitrogen they need.
The soil generally contains very minute amounts of nitrogen which
is constantly extracted from it by plants. When a crop is harvested,
the nitrogen extracted by the plants from the soil is taken away
with it. The soil is thus rapidly exhausted, and its fertility gradually
diminishes. Hence, to obtain good crops, the nitrogen in the soil
must constantly be replenished by introducing various nitrogen fer
tilizers into it.
Before World War I of 1914-1918, the chief mineral nitrogen fer
tilizer was the sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre) imported to Europe
from South America. It was also the only kind of starting substance
for the preparation of nitric acid needed in the production of explo
sives and other nitrogen compounds. The limited supplies of natu
ral saltpetre, their remoteness from the main consumers, and, pri
marily, the desire to do without the import of starting materials
confronted the chemical industry of many countries with the task
of using atmospheric nitrogen to produce nitrogen compounds. The
successful coping with this task was one of the major achievements
of chemistry at the beginning of the twentieth century. Several
technical methods of binding atmospheric nitrogen were discovered
during one decade.
The first to be discovered (1904) was the cyanamide process for pro
ducing ammonia. It is based on the ability of nitrogen to react with
calcium carbide CaC2 at a high temperature and form calcium cya
namide* CaCN2:
CaC2 + N 2 = CaCN2 + C +301 kJ
Calcium cyanamide is a powder coloured dark gray by an admixture
of carbon. When reacted with steam at a pressure of about 0.6 MPa,
it readily decomposes with the formation of ammonia and calcium
carbonate:
CaCN 2 + 3 H 20 = C aC 0 3 + 2 N H 3 t + 7 5 kJ
The first calcium cyanamide plant with an annual capacity of
4000 tonnes was erected in 1906 in Italy. In 1921, the world produc
tion of calcium cyanamide reached 500 000 tonnes a year. But after
* C alcium cyanam id e C a = N — C sN can be considered a s a d e riv a tiv e of
cyanam ide H 2f t — CN.
Nitrogen 75
this, the building of new plants virtually stopped because another

method for the commercial production of ammonia—the synthesis
of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen—acquired paramount
significance*.
At room temperature, nitrogen does not react with hydrogen.
But it has been known for a long time that if electric sparks are
passed through a mixture of these gases, a certain amount of ammo
nia is formed. Detailed investigation of this reaction showed that
it is reversible:
N2 + 3H 2 ^ 2 N H 3 + 9 2 kJ
At the high temperature, produced by the electric discharges, equi

librium is shifted greatly to the left—the amount of ammonia pro
duced is very small. For a long time, all attempts to increase this
amount were unsuccessful. Only at the beginning of the twentieth
century were the conditions finally found in which the yield of am
monia becomes sufficient for conducting the process in industrial
conditions. It was found that these conditions are a high pressure
and low temperature (see Vol. 1, Sec. 64).
But at low temperatures, the rate of the reaction is so slow that
too much time would be needed to obtain considerable amounts of
ammonia. Suitable catalysts were found to accelerate the process.
Among the different substances studied, porous iron prepared in a
definite way and containing small amounts of aluminium, potas
sium, calcium, and silicon oxides was found to be the best catalyst
of the process.
The reaction is conducted at a temperature of about 500 °C, the
resulting shift in equilibrium to the left being compensated by a
higher pressure. Figure 11 shows
how the ammonia content changes
when equilibrium is reached in
the system depending on the tem
perature and pressure. It can easi
ly be seen that the same yield of
ammonia can be obtained both at
a comparatively low temperature
and at a higher one if the pressure
* A t present, th e m ajo r p a rt of th e
calcium cyanam ide produced is used
d irectly as a n itro g en fe rtilizer. P a rt
of the calcium cyanam id e is converted
into carbam ide (see p. 112) an d cy a
nide com pounds. I t is also used as a Tem perature,°C
defoliant, i.e. * a substance causing
p la n ts to shed th e ir leaves, w hich fa Fig. 11. Temperature dependence of
c ilita te s h a rv e stin g of a crop w ith the ammonia yield at various
aid of m achinery. pressures
is raised in the latter case. But elevation of the temperature is attend

ed by an increase in the reaction rate, and the required amount
of ammonia is produced in a shorter time.
In synthesizing ammonia on an iron catalyst, the first step of
the reaction is the adsorption of hydrogen and nitrogen molecules
by the iron. The hydrogen molecules dissociate into atoms, while
the nitrogen ones become less stable—part of the bonds in them be
come broken. Next the reaction approximately proceeds as follows:
+ 2H + 2H + 2H
N = N --------> N H — N H — >n h2 nh2 ^ NH, NH.
\ / X. / \ / / '
Fe Fe Fe Fe
The ammonia molecules formed on the surface of the catalyst are

displaced by nitrogen molecules, and conversion is repeated.
All the industrial installations for ammonia synthesis follow the
circulation principle: after the reaction the mixture of gases is cooled,
the ammonia contained in it condenses and is separated, while
the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed with a fresh portion
of gases, again fed onto the catalyst, and so on. The use of circula
tion increases the output of the entire system.
Ammonia can be synthesized at various pressures from 15 to
100 MPa. The greatest favour has been given to systems operating
at a moderate pressure (30 MPa); they are most expedient from the
economical viewpoint.
At present, the synthesis of ammonia is the basic method of bind
ing atmospheric nitrogen.
25. Hydrazine. Hydroxylamine. Hydrazoic Acid

In addition to ammonia, nitrogen forms several other compounds
with hydrogen, which are not so significant, however, as ammonia.
The most important of them are described below.
Hydrazine N2 H4, a colourless liquid boiling at 113.5 °C, is obtained
by reacting sodium hypochlorite NaOCl with a concentrated solu-
tion of ammonia.
The structural formula of hydrazine is:
H H
N -N
H7 XH
The nitrogen atoms in the hydrazine molecule have unshared pairs
of electrons. This underlies the ability of hydrazine to enter into
combination reactions. Hydrazine dissolves well in water; when it
reacts with acids it attaches one or two hydrogen ions in the donor-
Nitrogen 77
acceptor way, forming two series of salts. Examples are hydrazine

hydrochloride N 2H 4 *HC1 and hydrazine chloride N 2 H 4 *21101.
Consequently, hydrazine has basic properties.
Hydrazine is a good reducing agent. When it burns in an atmos
phere of air or oxygen, a very large amount of heat is evolved, and
for this reason hydrazine has found use as a constituent part of the
fuel of rocket engines. Hydrazine and all its derivatives are strong
poisons.
Hydroxylamine NH2OH forms colourless crystals with a melting
point of about 33 °C. Its structural formula is:
H
N-O -H
/
H
In the hydroxylamine molecule, the nitrogen atom has an un

shared pair of electrons. Consequently, like ammonia and hydrazine,
it can enter into combination reactions to form donor-acceptor
bonds. Hydroxylamine dissolves well in water, while with acids
it produces salts, for instance hydroxylamine hydrochloride
(NH20H*HC1). The oxidation state of the nitrogen in hydroxyl
amine is —1. This is why it exhibits both reducing and oxidizing
properties. The reducing power of hydroxylamine, however, is
greater. Particularly, it is used as a reducing agent (mainly in the
form of its salts) in laboratory practice. It is also used in the produc
tion of some organic substances.
Hydrazoic acid HN 3 can be prepared by reacting nitrous acid
HN0 2 with an aqueous solution of hydrazine. It is a colourless liquid
with a pungent odour that boils at 36 °C.
Hydrazoic acid is a weak acid (K = 3 X 10”6). In an aqueous
solution, it dissociates into H+ and Nj ions. The anion of hydrazoic
acid N~ has a linear structure. Its electron dot formula is
[: n = n = n : j-
Both hydrazoic acid itself, and its salts—azides—are very explo

sive. Lead azide Pb(N 3) 2 is used to fill detonating fuses.
26. Oxides of Nitrogen

Nitrogen forms a number of oxides with oxygen. All of them can
be prepared from nitric acid or its salts.
Dinitrogen oxide (nitrous oxide) N20 is produced by heating am
monium nitrate:
N H 4N 0 3 = N 20 t + 2 H 20
Dinitrogen oxide is a colourless gas with a weak odour and a

sweetish taste. It dissolves poorly in water: one volume of water
at 20 °C dissolves 0.63 volume of N 2 0.
Dinitrogen oxide is a thermodynamically unstable compound.
The standard Gibbs energy of its formation is positive (AGf0rm =
= 104 kJ/mol). But owing to the high strength of the bonds in the
N20 molecule, the activation energies of reactions proceeding with
the participation of this substance are high. Particularly, the energy
of decomposition of N20 is great. Therefore, dinitrogen oxide is
stable at room temperature. At elevated temperatures, however,
it decomposes into nitrogen and oxygen; the rate of decomposition
grows with increasing temperature.
Dinitrogen oxide does not react with water, with acids, or with
alkalies.
The electron structure of the N20 molecule was treated in Vol. 1 ,
Sec. 41.
The inhalation of small amounts of dinitrogen oxide deadens the
sensitivity to pain, which is why this gas is sometimes used in a
mixture with oxygen as an anaesthetic. Large amounts of dinitrogen
oxide excite the nervous system, and for this reason it was previously
known as “laughing gas”.
Nitrogen monoxide (or nitrogen oxide, or nitric oxide) is a colour
less gas lending itself to liquefaction with difficulty. Liquid nitro
gen monoxide boils at —151.7 °C and freezes at —163.7 °C. It dis
solves poorly in water: one volume of water at 0 °C dissolves only
0.07 volume of NO.
Nitrogen monoxide with respect to its chemical properties belongs
among the indifferent oxides because it forms no acid.
Like N 2 0, nitrogen monoxide is thermodynamically unstable—
the standard Gibbs energy of its formation is positive (AGJorm =
= 8 6 . 6 kJ/mol). But, again like N 20 , at room temperature NO does
not decompose because its molecules are sufficiently stable. Only
at temperatures above 1000 °C does its decomposition into nitrogen
and oxygen begin to proceed at an appreciable rate. At very high
temperatures, for reasons considered in Vol. 1, Sec. 65, the decompo
sition of NO does not proceed to completion—equilibrium sets in
in the system NO—N 2 —0 2. Because of this circumstance, nitrogen
monoxide can be prepared from elementary substances at tempera
tures of an electric arc (3000-4000 °C).
Nitrogen monoxide is generally prepared in the laboratory by
reacting 30-35% nitric acid with copper:
3Cu + 8H N O s = 3 C u (N 0 3) 2 + 2NO f + 4 H 20
In industry, it is an intermediate in the production of nitric acid

(see Sec. 29).
Nitrogen 79
Nitrogen monoxide is characterized by oxidation-reduction duali

ty. Strong oxidizing agents cause it to oxidize, w hile in the presence
of strong reducing agents it becomes reduced. For exam ple, it is
readily oxidized by the oxygen of the air to nitrogen dioxide:
2NO + 0 2 = 2 N 0 2
At the same time, a mixture of equal volumes of NO and H 2 ex
plodes when heated:
2NO + 2 H 2 = N 2 + 2 H 20 + 6 6 5 kJ
The electron structure of the NO molecule can be described the

best by means of the molecular orbital method. Figure 1 2 contains
an energy-level diagram showing how the MO’s are filled in the
NO molecule (compare with similar diagrams for the N 2 and CO
molecules—Vol. 1, Figs. 51 and 53 on pp. 156 and 157). The mole
cule NO has one electron more than the molecules N 2 and CO. This
electron is in the antibonding orbital Jiab 2p. Hence, the number of
bonding electrons here exceeds that of antibonding electrons by
five. This corresponds to a bond multiplicity of 2.5 (i.e. 5:2 = 2.5).
Indeed, the energy of dissociation of the NO molecule into atoms
(632 kJ/mol) has an intermediate value in comparison with the
relevant values for the 0 2 molecule (498 kJ/mol), in which the bond
multiplicity is two, and the N 2 molecule (945 kJ/mol), in which
the bond is triple. At the same time, as regards its dissociation
Fig. 12. E nergy level d iag ram show ing th e fo rm atio n of an NO m olecule
energy, the NO molecule is close to the molecular ion of oxygen 0+

(644 kJ/mol) in which the bond multiplicity is also 2.5 (see Vol. 1 ,
p. 157).
When one electron is detached from the molecule NO, the ion
NO* is formed containing no antibonding electrons; the bond multi
plicity increases to three (six bonding electrons). Hence, the energy
of dissociation of the NO+ ion (1050 kJ/mol) is higher than that of
the NO molecule and close to the relevant value for the CO molecule
(1076 kJ/mol), in which the bond multiplicity is three.
Nitrogen dioxide N 0 2 is a reddish-brown poisonous gas with a char
acteristic odour. It readily condenses into a reddish liquid (boiling
point 21 °C) that gradually becomes lighter when cooled and freezes
at —11.2 °C forming a colourless crystalline conglomeration. When
gaseous nitrogen dioxide is heated, its colour, conversely, becomes
more intense and at 140 °C it is almost black. The change in the col
our of nitrogen dioxide with elevation of the temperature is attended
by a change in its molecular mass. At a low temperature, the density
of the vapour approximately corresponds to the double formula
N 2 0 4 (dinitrogen tetroxide). Elevation of the temperature is attended
by diminishing of the vapour density, and at 140 °C the latter cor
responds to the formula N 02. The colourless crystals existing at
—11.2 °C and a lower temperature consist of N 2 0 4 molecules. When
heated, the N 2 0 4 molecules dissociate with the formation of mole
cules of dark brown nitrogen dioxide, complete dissociation occurs
at 140 °C. Thus, at temperatures ranging from —11.2 to 140 °C, the
N 0 2 and N 20 4 molecules are in equilibrium with one another:
N 20 4 ^ 2 N 0 2 — 56.9 k J
Above 140 °C, nitrogen dioxide dissociates into nitrogen mon

oxide and oxygen.
Nitrogen dioxide is a very vigorous oxidizing agent. Many sub
stances can burn in an atmosphere of N 02, taking oxygen away from
it. It oxidizes sulphur dioxide to the trioxide, this underlying the
chamber process of producing sulphuric acid (see Sec. 17).
The vapour of N 0 2 is poisonous. Its inhalation causes strong irrita
tion of the respiratory ducts and may result in grave poisoning.
When dissolved in water, N 0 2 reacts with it to form nitric and
nitrous acids:
2 N 0 2 + H 20 = H N 0 3 + H N 0 2
This is why nitrogen dioxide can be considered a mixed anhydride

of these acids.
But nitrous acid is very unstable and rapidly decomposes:
3H N 02 = HNO* + 2NO + H 20
Nitrogen 81
Consequently, the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with water, espe

cially when the latter is hot, proceeds practically as follows:
6 N 0 2 + 2H80 = 4HNOs + 2NO
which can be obtained by summating the two preceding equations

after multiplying the first of them by three.
In the presence of air, the nitrogen monoxide formed is immedi
ately oxidized to nitrogen dioxide, so that in this case the N 0 2 in
the long run is completely transformed into nitric acid:
4 N 0 2 + 0 2 + 2H20 = 4HNOa
This reaction is used in the modern processes for nitric acid pro
duction.
If we dissolve nitrogen dioxide in alkalies, a mixture of the salts
of nitric and nitrous acids is obtained, for instance:
2 N 0 2 + 2NaOH = NaN03 + N aN 02 + H20
Dinitrogen trioxide N 2 0 3 is a dark blue liquid decomposing into
NO and N 0 2 even at low temperatures. An equimolar mixture of
NO and N 0 2 when cooled again forms N 2 0 3:
NO + N 0 2 ** N2Os
Dinitrogen trioxide is the acid anhydride of nitrous acid H N 02.

Dinitrogen pentoxide N20 B is a white crystalline substance that
already at room temperature gradually decomposes into NO2 and
0 2. It can be obtained by reacting diphosphorus pentoxide with
nitric acid:
2HNO„ + PjO* = N20 5 + 2HPO,
Dinitrogen pentoxide is a very strong oxidizing agent. Many organ
ic substances ignite upon contact with it. Dinitrogen pentoxide
dissolves well in water to form nitric acid.
In the solid state, N 2 0 5 is formed by the nitrate ion NOj and the
aitronium ion NOJ. The latter contains the Same number of elec
trons as the C0 2 molecule and, like it, has a linear structure:
0 = N = 0 . In the vapour state, the N 2 C>6 molecule is symmetrical.
Its structure can be represented by the following valence formula in
which the dash lines show the three-centre bonds (compare with the
valence formula of the nitric acid molecule in Vol. 1, p. 146):
N— o — N
6—2412
27. Nitrous A d d
If potassium or sodium nitrate is heated, the relevant salt loses
part of its oxygen and transforms into a salt of nitrous acid H N 02.
Decomposition proceeds more readily in the presence of lead that
binds the liberated oxygen:
K N O s + P b = K N O a + PbO
The salts of nitrous acid—nitrites—form crystals that are well
soluble in water (except for silver nitrite). Sodium nitrite NaN0 2
is used in the production of various dyes.
When a solution of a nitrite is reacted with dilute sulphuric acid
free nitrous acid is obtained:
2 N a N 0 2 + H 2S 0 4 = N a 2S 0 4 + 2 H N O a
It is a weak acid (K = 4 X 10~4) and is known only in very dilute
aqueous solutions. If the solution is concentrated or heated, the
nitrous acid decomposes:
2H N O a = NO + N 0 2 + H 20
The oxidation number of nitrogen in nitrous acid is +3, i.e. it is
intermediate between the minimum and maximum possible values
of nitrogen’s oxidation number. Consequently, HNOa exhibits
oxidation-reduction duality. It is reduced (generally to NO) in
reactions with reducing agents, and is oxidized to H N 0 3 in reactions
with oxidizing agents. The following reactions exemplify what has
been said above:
2 H N 0 2 + 2 K I + H 2S 0 4 = 2NO f + I 2 + K 2S 0 4 + 2 H aO
5 H N 0 2 + 2 K M n 0 4 + 3 H 2S 0 4 = 5 H N 0 3 + 2M nS 04 + K 2S 0 4 +
+ 3 H 20
28. Nitric A d d
Pure nitric acid H N 0 3 is a colourless liquid with a density of
1.51 g/cm3 freezing at —42 °C into a transparent crystalline con
glomeration. It “fumes” in the air like concentrated hydrochloric acid
because its vapour forms minute drops of mist with the moisture
in the air.
Nitric acid is not stable. Even under the influence of light, it
gradually decomposes:
4H N O s = 4 N 0 2 f + 0 2 f + 2 H aO
The rate of decomposition grows with an increase in the tempera
ture and concentration of the acid. The liberated nitrogen dioxide
dissolves in the acid and colours it reddish brown.
Nitric acid belongs to the group of the strongest acids. In dilute
solutions, it decomposes completely into H + and N 0 3 ions.
Nitrogen 83
A feature of nitric acid is its pronounced oxidizing power. Nitric

acid is one of the most vigorous oxidizing agents. It oxidizes many
non-metals into the relevant acids. For example, sulphur when boiled
in nitric acid is gradually oxidized to sulphuric acid, and phos
phorus to phosphoric acid. A glowing coal immersed in concentrat
ed H N 0 3 breaks out into a bright flame.
N itric acid acts on almost all m etals (except for gold, platinum ,
tantalum, rhodium, and iridium), transforming them into nitrates,
and some of them into oxides.
Concentrated H N 0 3 passivates some metals. Already Lomonosov
discovered that iron, which readily dissolves in dilute nitric acid,
does not dissolve in cold concentrated H N 03. It was later found that
nitric acid has a similar action on chromium and aluminium. These
metals transform into a passive state under the action of concen
trated nitric acid (see Vol. 1, Sec. 100).
The oxidation number of nitrogen in nitric acid is -f5. When play
ing the role of an oxidizing agent, H N 0 3 can be reduced to various
products:
+ 4 -|-3 -f- 2 +1 0 —3
n o 2 n 2o 3 no n 2o n 2 n h 4n o 3
Which of these substances is formed, i.e. how far nitric acid is

reduced in each case, depends on the nature of the reducing agent
and on the conditions of the reaction, primarily on the acid concen
tration. The higher the concentration of the H N 03, the less is it
reduced. Nitrogen dioxide N 0 2 is liberated most frequently in reac
tions with concentrated acid. Nitrogen monoxide NO forms in reac
tions of dilute nitric acid with metals having a low activity such
as copper. With more active metals—iron, zinc—N20 is formed.
Greatly diluted nitric acid reacts with active metals such as zinc,
magnesium, and aluminium to form the ammonium ion which pro
duces ammonium nitrate with the acid. Several products are usually
formed simultaneously.
For purposes of illustration, below are given the skeleton equa
tions of metal oxidation reactions involving nitric acid:
Cu + H N 0 3 (co n cen trated ) C u (N 0 3) 2 + N 0 2 t *IT20
Cu + H N 0 3 (d ilu te) Cu (N 0 3)2 + NO f + H 20
Mg + H N O s (d ilu te) M g (N 0 3) 2 + N aO f + H 20
Zn + H N 0 3 (very d ilu te) Z n (N 0 3) 2 + N H 4N 0 3 + H 20
(The above equations are unbalanced, and the student is invited

to balance them himself.)
When nitric acid acts on metals, hydrogen is not liberated as a
rule.
6=
When non-metals are oxidized, concentrated nitric acid, as with

metals, is reduced to N 02, for example:
S + 6 H N 0 3 = H 2S 0 4 + 6 N 0 2 f + 2 H 20
A more dilute acid is generally reduced to NO, for instance:

3P + 5H N O a + 2 H 20 = 3 H 3P 0 4 + 5NO f
The above examples illustrate the most typical cases of the reac
tion of nitric acid with metals and non-metals. In general, however,
oxidation-reduction reactions proceeding with the participation of
HNOs are more involved.
A mixture of one volume of nitric acid and three or four volumes
of concentrated hydrochloric acid is known as aqua regia (the Latin
for “royal water”). Aqua regia dissolves some of the metals that do
not react with nitric acid, including the “royal metal”—gold. The
explanation of its action is that the nitric acid oxidizes the hydrochlo
ric acid with the liberation of free chlorine and the formation of
nitrogen oxychloride or nitrosyl chloride NOC1:
H N 0 3 + 3HC1 = C l2 + 2 H 20 + NOC1
Nitrosyl chloride is an intermediate of the reaction and decomposes:
2NOC1 = 2NO + Cl2
The chlorine at the moment of its liberation consists of atoms, and
this is exactly what explains the high oxidizing power of aqua regia.
The reactions of oxidation of gold and platinum proceed basically
as follows:
Au + H N 0 8 + 3HC1 = A u C13 + NO f + 2 H 20
3 P t + 4 H N 0 3 + 12HG1 = 3 P tC l4 + 4NO f + 8 H 20
The gold(III) chloride and platinum(IV) chloride form the com

plex compounds H[AuC14] and H 2 [PtCl6] with the excess hydrochlo
ric acid.
Nitric acid acts on many organic substances so that one or more
hydrogen atoms in a molecule of an organic compound are displaced
by nitrogroups —N 02. This process is called nitration and is of
great importance in organic chemistry.
The electronic structure of the HNOs molecule was considered
in Vol. 1, Sec. 44.
Nitric acid is one of the most important compounds of nitrogen.
It is used in great amounts in the production of nitrogen fertilizers,
explosives, and organic dyes; it is an oxidizing agent in many chem
ical processes, participates in the production of sulphuric acid
by the chamber process, and is used in the manufacture of cellulose
lacquers and varnishes and of cinema film.
Nitrogen 85
The salts of nitric acid are called nitrates. They all dissolve well
in water, while when heated decompose with the liberation of oxygen,
the nitrates of the most active metals transforming into nitrites:
2 K N 0 3 = 2KNO* + 0 2 f
The nitrates of most of the remaining metals decompose when

heated into a metal oxide, oxygen, and nitrogen dioxide. For exam
ple:
2Cu(N0 3)2 = 2CuO + 4N 02 t + Oa t
Finally, the nitrates of the least active metals (for instance, of
silver and gold) decompose when heated to the free metal:
2AgNOg = 2Ag + 2 N 0 2 f + 0 , f
Nitrates at a high temperature are vigorous oxidizing agents be

cause they readily detach oxygen. Their aqueous solutions, on the
contrary, do not virtually display oxidizing properties.
Of the greatest importance are the nitrates of sodium, potassium,
ammonium, and calcium.
Sodium nitrate NaN0 3 is encountered in large amounts in nature
only in Chile, and for this reason it is often called Chile saltpetre.
Potassium nitrate K N 03, or saltpetre, is also encountered in small
amounts in nature, but is mainly prepared artificially by reacting
sodium nitrate with potassium chloride.
Both these salts are used as fertilizers, potassium nitrate contain
ing two elements needed by plants: nitrogen and potassium. Sodium
and potassium nitrates are also used in the manufacture of glass and
in the food industry for preserving products.
Calcium nitrate Ca(N03) 2 is obtained in large amounts by the
neutralization of nitric acid with lime. It is used as a fertilizer.
For ammonium nitrate NH 4 N 03, see p. 72.
29. The Industrial Production of Nitric Add

The modern industrial methods of producing nitric acid are based
on the catalytic oxidation of ammonia by the oxygen of the air. In
describing the properties of ammonia (see Sec. 23), it was indicated
that it burns in oxygen, the products being water and free nitrogen.
But in the presence of catalysts, the oxidation of ammonia by oxygen
may proceed differently. If a mixture of ammonia and air is passed
over a catalyst, at 750 °C and a definite composition of the mixture
the NH 3 is almost completely converted to NO:
4 N H 8 + 5 0 2 = 4NO + 6H *0 + 907 kJ
The NO formed is easily transformed into N 0 2, and the latter

reacts with water in the presence of the oxygen of the air to produce
nitric acid fsee Sec. 26).
Platinum-based alloys are used as catalysts in the oxidation of

ammonia.
The nitric acid produced by the oxidation of ammonia has a con
centration not exceeding 60%. If necessary, it is concentrated.
The chemical industry markets dilute nitric acid with a concen
tration of 55, 47, and 45%, and concentrated acid—98 and 97%. The
concentrated acid is transported in aluminium tank cars, and the
dilute acid in cars with acid-resistant steel tanks.
30. Nitrogen Cycle in Nature

When organic substances decay, a considerable part of the nitro
gen they contain transforms into ammonia, which under the influence
of the nitrifying bacteria in the soil is oxidized to nitric acid. The
latter, entering into a reaction with the carbonates in the soil, for
example, with calcium carbonate CaC03, forms nitrates:
2 H N 0 3 + C aC 0 3 = C a (N 0 3) 2 + C 0 2 + H 20
A part of the nitrogen, however, is always liberated in decay into

the atmosphere in the free state. Free nitrogen is also released in the
burning of organic substances and of firewood, coal, and peat. Bac
teria also exist that with a limited access of air can remove oxygen
from nitrates, decomposing them with the liberation of free nitrogen.
The activity of these denitrifying bacteria results in part of the ni
trogen being converted from a form assimilable by green plants
(nitrates) to an inaccessible one (free nitrogen). Thus, far from all
the nitrogen in dead plants returns to the soil; part of it is gradually
liberated in the free state.
The continuous depletion of mineral nitrogen compounds ought
to have resulted in the complete cessation of life on Earth long ago
if there were no processes in nature that made up for these losses.
These processes include first of all the electric discharges occurring
in the atmosphere during which a certain amount of nitrogen oxides
is always formed. The latter combine with water into nitric acid
that transforms into nitrates in the soil. Another source of replenish
ing of the nitrogen compounds in the soil is the vital activity of
nitrobacteria^capable of assimilating the atmospheric nitrogen. Some
of these bacteria settle on the roots of plants of the legume family
causing the formation of characteristic nodules. This is why they
have been named nodule bacteria. In assimilating atmospheric ni
trogen, the nodule bacteria convert it into nitrogen compounds,
while plants, in turn, convert the latter into proteins and other
complex substances.
Consequently, there is a continuous nitrogen cycle in nature.
But every year, the parts of plants richest in proteins, for example
grain, are removed from fields with the harvest. This is why it is
Phosphorus 87
necessary to introduce fertilizers into the soil that will make up for
the withdrawal from it of the most important elements needed for
the nutrition of plants.
The study of plant nutrition and the increase of crop yields by
employing fertilizers is the subject of a special branch of chemistry
called agrochemistry. Great contributions to the development of this
science were made by the French scientist J. Boussingault, the Ger
man chemist J. Liebig, and the Russian scientist D. Pryanishnikov*.
PHOSPHORUS
31. Occurrence. Preparation and Properties

Phosphorus belongs to the quite widespread elements. Its content
in the Earth’s crust is about 0.1% (mass). Owing to its easy oxida-
bility, phosphorus is not encountered in nature in the free state.
The most important of the natural compounds of phosphorus is
calcium phosphate (or calcium orthophosphate) Ca3 (P04)2, which
in the form of the mineral phosphorite is sometimes found in large
deposits. The largest phosphorite deposits in the USSR are in South
ern Kazakhstan in the Kara-Tau Mountains. The mineral apatite
containing GaFa or CaCl2 in addition to Ca3 (P0 4) 2 is also encoun
tered quite frequently. Enormous deposits of apatite were discovered
in the twenties of the present century on the Kola Peninsula. This
deposit is the largest in the world.
Phosphorus, like nitrogen, is needed by all living beings because
it enters the composition of some proteins of both a vegetable and
an animal origin. In plants, phosphorus is contained chiefly in the
seed proteins, in animals—in proteins of milk, blood, brain, and
nerve tissues. A large amount of phosphorus is also contained in the
bones of vertebrates, mainly in the form of the compounds
3Ca3 (P0 4) 2 *Ca(0H) 2 and 3Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 *CaC03 *H2 0. Nucleic acids—
complex, organic polymer compounds found in all living organisms—
contain phosphorus in the form of the acid residue of phosphoric
♦ Jean Batist Boussingault (1802-1887) was a member of the Paris Academy

of Sciences from 1839. He discovered that all plants, except leguminous ones,
take nitrogen from the soil, while the leguminous plants add nitrogen to it.
He proved that green plants get their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air.
Justus Liebig (1803-1873) was a professor at the universities of Gissen (from
1824) and Munich (from 1852). From 1860, he was the president of the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences. His main interest was in organic chemistry; in 1840, he
advanced the theory of the mineral nutrition of plants that facilitated the wide
spread introduction of mineral fertilizers into agriculture.
Dmitri Nikolayevich Pryanishnikov (1865-1948), academician, Hero of So
cialist Labour, Lenin and State Prize winner, was the founder and head of the
Soviet school of agrochemists. He is the author of many scientific works, in
cluding works devoted to the nitrogen nutrition of plants.
88 The Mein Subgroup of Group Five
acid. Nucleic acids play a direct role in the transmission of heredi

tary properties of living cells.
Phosphorites and apatites are the starting material for the prepa-
ration of phosphorus and its compounds. The natural phosphorite or
apatite is comminuted, mixed with sand and coal, and heated in
electric furnaces without the access of air.
To understand how the reaction proceeds, let us conceive calcium
phosphate as a compound of calcium oxide and phosphoric anhydride
(3Ca0*P2 0 6); sand consists chiefly of silicon dioxide Si02. At a
high temperature, the silicon dioxide displaces the phosphoric an
hydride and combines with the calcium oxide to form the readily
fusible calcium silicate CaSi03, while the phosphoric anhydride is
reduced by the coal to free phosphorus:
Ca3( P 0 4)2 + 3 S i0 2 = 3 C a S i0 3 + P 20 5
P 20 6 + 5C = 2P + 5CO
Summation of these two equations yields:

Ca3( P 0 4)2 + 3SiO a + 5C = 3 C a S i0 3 + 2P + 5CO
The phosphorus is liberated in the form of a vapour that condenses

in a receiver under water.
Phosphorus forms several allotropic modifications.
White phosphorus is obtained in the solid state when phosphorus
vapour is rapidly cooled; its density is 1.83 g/cm3. Pure white phos
phorus is absolutely colourless and transparent; the commercial
product is usually yellowish and resembles wax in appearance.
White phosphorus is brittle in the cold, but at a temperature above
15 °C it becomes soft and can easily be cut with a knife.
White phosphorus oxidizes very rapidly in the air and glows in
the dark. This explains the name “phosphorus”, which is the Greek
for “light bearing”. When only slightly heated, for which purpose
friction is sufficient, phosphorus ignites and burns, liberating a large
amount of heat. It may ignite spontaneously in the air owing to the
evolution of heat in oxidation. To protect white phosphorus from
oxidation, it is kept under water—it does not dissolve in the latter.
It does dissolve quite well in carbon disulphide.
White phosphorus has a molecular crystal lattice with the tetra
hedral molecules of P 4 at its points. The bond strength between the
atoms in these molecules is comparatively low. This explains the
high chemical activity of white phosphorus.
White phosphorus is a strong poison that is mortal even in small
doses.
If white phosphorus is heated for a long time at 250-300 °C without
the access of air, it transforms into a different modification of the
element having a red-purple colour and called red phosphorus. The
Phosphorus 89
same transformation occurs, but very slowly, under the action of

light.
Red phosphorus sharply differs in its properties from the white
modification. It oxidizes very slowly in the air, does not glow in the
dark, ignites only at 260 °C, does not dissolve in carbon disulphide,
and is not poisonous. Its density is 2.0-2.4 g/cm3. The varying value
of the density is due to the fact that red phosphorus consists of sev
eral forms. Their structure has not been established completely to
date, but they are known to be polymeric substances.
When strongly heated, red phosphorus evaporates (sublimes)
without melting. White phosphorus is obtained when the vapour is
cooled.
Black phosphorus is formed from the white modification when it
is heated to 200-220 °C under a very high pressure. It is similar in
appearance to graphite, is greasy to the touch, and heavier than the
other modifications; its density is 2.7 g/cm3. Black phosphorus is
a semiconductor (see p. 204).
Phosphorus has a variety of applications. A large amount of it is
used in the manufacture of matches.
The red modification is used in the match industry. It is contained
in the compound applied to the sides of a matchbox or to the rubbing
surface of a matchbook. The head of a match consists of a mixture
of combustible substances with potassium chlorate and compounds
catalyzing the decomposition of the salt (Mn02, Fe 2 0 3, etc.).
Besides the match industry, phosphorus has found application in
metallurgy. It is used for the production of certain semiconductors—
gallium phosphide GaP and indium phosphide InP. It is included in
other semiconductors in very small amounts as an essential addition.
It is also included in the composition of some metallic materials,
for instance tin bronze.
When phosphorus burns, a thick white smoke is formed; it is
therefore used to fill missiles (artillery shells, bombs, etc.) intended
for the formation of a smokescreen. A large amount of phosphorus
goes to produce organophosphorus preparations including very
effective insecticides.
Free phosphorus is exceedingly active. It reacts directly with many
elementary substances with the evolution of a large amount of heat.
Phosphorus combines most readily with oxygen, then with the halo
gens, sulphur, and with many metals. In the latter case, phosphides
such as Ca3 P 2 and Mg3 P 2 are formed similar to nitrides. All these
properties manifest themselves especially sharply in white phospho
rus; red phosphorus reacts less vigorously, while the black modifica
tion in general enters into a chemical reaction with difficulty.
32. Phosphorus Compounds with Hydrogen

and the Halogens
With hydrogen, phosphorus forms gaseous hydrogen phosphide or
phosphine PH3. It can be prepared by boiling white phosphorus with
an alkali solution or by reacting hydrogen chloride with calcium
phosphide Ca3 P2:
Ca8 P 2 + 6HC1 = 3CaCla + 2 PH3 f
Phosphine is a colourless gas] with the odour of garlic; it is very
poisonous*. It burns in air to form diphosphorus pentoxide and water
2PH3 + 4 0 2 = P,Ch + 3HaO
The basic properties of phosphine are weaker than those of its
nitrogen counterpart—ammonia. It forms salts only with the strong
est acids, for instance, HC104 and HC1. In these salts the phospho-
nium ion PH 4 is the cation. An example is phosphonium chloride
PH 4 C1. Phosphonium salts are very unstable compounds. When con
tacted with water, they decompose into a hydrogen halide and phos
phine.
Phosphorus combines directly with all the halogens with the evo
lution of a large amount of heat. Of practical importance are chiefly
the compounds of phosphorus with chlorine.
Phosphorus trichloride PC13 is obtained when chlorine is passed
over molten phosphorus. It is a liquid boiling at 75 °G.
In water, PC13 completely hydrolyzes to form hydrogen chloride
and phosphorous acid H 3 POs:
PC18 + 3HaO = H 3 PO3 + 3HC1
When chlorine is passed into phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus
pentachloride PC1B is obtained. In ordinary conditions, it forms a
solid white conglomerate. Phosphorus pentachloride is also decom
posed by water with the formation of hydrogen chloride and phos
phoric acid. Phosphorus forms similar compounds with bromine, io
dine, and fluorine; for iodine, however, the compound P I 5 is unknown.
Phosphorus chlorides are employed in the synthesis of a variety of
organic substances.
33. Oxides and Acids of Phosphorus

The most important oxides of phosphorus are P 20 3 and P 2 Ob.
Diphosphorus trioxide or phosphorous anhydride P 2 0 3 is obtained
in the slow oxidation of phosphorus, or when phosphorus burns with
* A small amount of liquid diphosphine P2 H4 whose vapour self-ignites in

the air is sometimes formed simultaneously with phosphine.
Phosphorus 91
an insufficient access of oxygen, as white crystals melting at 23.8°C.

Its molecular mass at low temperatures corresponds to the formula
p4 0 6 (tetraphosphorus hexoxide). When brought into contact with
cold water, diphosphorus trioxide slowly reacts with it to form
phosphorous acid H 3 P 0 3. Both diphosphorous trioxide and phospho
rous acid have strongly expressed reducing properties.
Diphosphorus pentoxide or phosphoric anhydride P 2 0 6 is formed
when phosphorus burns in the air or in oxygen as a white voluminous
substance resembling snow. The density of its vapour corresponds to
the formula P 4 O10.
Diphosphorus pentoxide combines greedily with water and is
therefore used as a very strong dehydrating agent. In air, diphos-
phorus pentoxide attracts moisture and rapidly transforms into a
deliquescing body of metaphosphoric acid.
Phosphoric Acids, Several acids correspond to diphosphorus pent
oxide. The most important of them is orthophosphoric acid H 3 P 0 4,
which is generally called simply phosphoric acid. The other phospho
ric acids are polymer compounds. In the anion of all phosphoric
acids, the phosphorus atom, which is in the state of sp3 hybridization,
is surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron.
Orthophosphoric acid is built of isolated tetrahedra, while in the
other phosphoric acids the tetrahedra P 0 4 are combined via oxygen
atoms into aggregates containing from two to a very great number—
of the order of 1 0 6 —of phosphorus atoms.
Orthophosphoric (phosphoric) acid H 3 P 0 4 forms colourless trans
parent crystals melting at 42.35 °C. They dissolve very well in
water.
Orthophosphoric acid does not belong to the strong acids. Its dis
sociation constants are K± = 8 X 10“3, K 2 = X 10“8, and K z =
6
= 10~12. Being tribasic, it forms three series of salts: normal salts

and acid ones with one or two hydrogen atoms in the acid residue.
The normal salts of phosphoric acid are called phosphates (orthophos
phates), the acid ones are hydrogen phosphates:
NaaP04; Ca3 (P0 4 )2 —normal, or tertiary phosphates
Na2 HP04; CaHP04 —hydrogen, or secondary phosphates
NaH2 P04; Ca(H2 P0 4 ) 2 —dihydrogen, or primary phosphates
Dihydrogen phosphates are soluble in water; of the hydrogen and
normal phosphates, only the salts of the alkali metals and ammonium
dissolve well.
Phosphates hydrolyze in aqueous solutions. Solutions of normal
salts of the alkali metals have a strongly alkaline reaction. For in
stance, the pH of a 1% solution of Na3 P 0 4 is 12.1. The hydrolysis
of acid salts is attended by dissociation of the acid residue (see
Vol. 1 , Sec. 92). This is why solutions of hydrogen phosphates of the
alkali metals have a weakly basic reaction, and solutions of dihy-
92 The Mein Subgroup of Croup Five
drogen phosphates of these metals have a weakly acid one. For in
stance, the pH of a 1 % solution of Na2H P 0 4 is 8.9, and of NaH 2P 0 4,
6.4.
In the laboratory, phosphoric acid can be prepared by oxidizing
phosphorus with 30% H N 03. The reaction proceeds as follows:
3P + 5HN0 3 + 2H20 = 3H3 P0 4 + 5NO f
Phosphoric acid is produced commercially by the extraction and
thermal methods. The former is based on treating natural phosphates
with sulphuric acid:
Ca3(P 04)2 + 3H2S04 = 3CaS04 I + 2H3P 0 4
The phosphoric acid thus formed is filtered from the calcium sul
phate and is concentrated by evaporation. The thermal method
consists in reducing natural phosphates to free phosphorus, burning
the latter, and dissolving the phosphoric anhydride obtained in wa
ter. The thermal phosphoric acid produced by this method has a high
purity and concentration.
In addition to the production of fertilizers described in the follow
ing section, phosphoric acid is used in the preparation of reagents
and many organic substances, and for providing protective coatings
on metals. Calcium and ammonium phosphates are employed in the
production of enamels and in the pharmaceutical industry.
All the other phosphoric acids are products of joining together of
the P 0 4 tetrahedra. The majority of these acids have not been recov
ered in the free state, but are known as mixtures, in aqueous solu
tions, or as salts. Depending on how the P 0 4 groups are joined up
into phosphate complexes, these acids are divided into polyphosphor-
ic and metaphosphoric acids. Polyphosphoric acids and their salts—
polyphosphates—are built of the chains —P 0 3 —0 —P 0 3—. In meta
phosphoric acids and their salts—metaphosphates—the P 0 4 tetra
hedra form rings.
Of the polyphosphoric acids, only the simplest one—diphosphoric
(or pyrophosphoric) acid—H 4 P 2 0 7 has been separated in the crystal
line state. It forms colourless crystals melting at 61 °C. The P 2 0*~
ion is built of two P 0 4 tetrahedra with a common oxygen atom. The
structural formula of diphosphoric acid is
OH OH
Diphosphoric acid dissolves well in water and is somewhat strong

er than H 3P 0 4 (its dissociation constants are Kx — 1.4 X 10
K 2 = 10”2, K s = 2 X 10“7, K 4 — 4 X 10~10). Its] salts are known
as diphosphates (or pyrophosphates).
Phosphorus 93
Metaphosphoric acids have the general formula where

n can have any value from 3 to 8. Frequently, however, their compo
sition is expressed by the simplest formula H P 0 3. These acids are
vitreous substances. In solution, they acquire the form of polymers
having a cyclic structure. With time, the rings break open, and chain
polyphosphoric acids are formed. Metaphosphoric acids are poisonous.
Salts of metaphosphoric acids—metaphosphates—are known. Some
of them have been separated as crystals, for example, Na3P30 9,
Na4P4Oi2, and Ca3(P30 9)2. Metaphosphates are used for softening
water and lowering its corroding activity, for removing scale from
steam boilers, and are also included in the composition of certain
detergents.
34. Mineral Fertilizers
We have mentioned above that the introduction into the soil of

the elements needed for the growth and development of plants is of
tremendous importance for raising the yields of agricultural crops.
These elements are introduced into the soil in the form of organic
(manure, peat, etc.) and mineral (products of the chemical processing
of mineral raw materials) fertilizers. Their production is one of the
most important branches of the chemical industry.
The most important mineral fertilizers are phosphorus ones. Nat
ural phosphorus compounds—phosphorites and apatites—contain
phosphorus in the form of the insoluble normal phosphate Ca3(P04)2
that is poorly assimilated by plants. To prepare readily assimilable
fertilizers, phosphorites are processed chemically to convert the nor
mal salt into the acid one. The most important phosphorus fertiliz
e rs— superphosphate, double superphosphate, and precipitate—are
produced in this way.
To manufacture superphosphate, finely comminuted natural phos
phorite is mixed with sulphuric acid. The mixture is vigorously
agitated and charged into continuously operating chambers where
the reaction terminates:
Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2H2 S0 4 = 2CaS04 + Ca(H2 P0 4 ) 2
The result is a mixture of calcium sulphate with dihydrogeri phos
phate Ca(H2P 0 4)2 that dissolves comparatively readily in water.
It is this mixture in the granulated or comminuted form that is
called superphosphate.
Simple superphosphate is a fertilizer with a comparatively low
content of nutritious substances.
Double superphosphate is the product of decomposition of natural
phosphate by phosphoric acid:
Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 4H3 P0 4 = 3Ca(H2 P0 4 ) 2
Double superphosphate contains no calcium sulphate, which low

ers the cost of its transportation and introduction into the soil.
Precipitate is a phosphorus fertilizer including calcium hydrogen
phosphate CaHP04, which is insoluble in water, but dissolves when
introduced into acid soils.
The phosphorus fertilizers described above are called single ones
because they contain only one of the elements needed by plants.
More prospective are compound or mixed fertilizers containing sever
al nutritious substances. Such fertilizers include Ammophos and
Nitrophoska.
Ammophos is prepared by reacting phosphoric acid with ammonia.
Depending on the degree of neutralization, either monoammonium
phosphate NH 4 H 2 P 0 4 or diammonium phosphate (NH4 )2 H P 0 4 is
formed.
Nitrophoska is a triple fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium. It is prepared by fusing ammonium hydrogen phos
phate (NH4 ) 2H P 04, ammonium nitrate NH 4 N 03, and potassium
chloride (or sulphate).
Before the October Revolution, virtually no mineral fertilizers
were produced in Russia; the entire output of several small plants
in 1913 was only 89 000 tonnes. The erection of new plants began in
the USSR only in 1925-1926 and was conducted in the following pe
riod on a large scale.
In 1977, the output of mineral fertilizers was 96.7 million tonnes.
Together with the growth in the quantity of fertilizers produced, their
assortment is also being improved. It is planned to considerably step
up the production of the most effective combined and compound fer
tilizers.
For microfertilizers, see p. 245.
ARSENIC, ANTIMONY, BISMUTH
35. Arsenic (A rsen icu m )

Arsenic occurs in nature chiefly in compounds with metals or
sulphur and only rarely in the free state. The arsenic content in the
Rarth’s crust is 0.0005% (mass).
Arsenic is generally prepared from mispickel (arsenopyrite)
FeAsS. When heated in air, diarsenic trioxide As2 0 3 is formed, which
is further reduced with carbon to free arsenic.
Like phosphorus, arsenic exists in several allotropic modifications.
The most stable of them in ordinary conditions and when heated is
metallic or gray arsenic. It forms a steel-gray brittle crystalline
solid with a metallic lustre on a fresh fracture. The density of gray
arsenic is 5.72 g/cms. When heated under atmospheric pressure, it
sublimes- Unlike the other modifications, gray arsenic prossesses

jnetal conductance.
Arsenic does not dissolve in water. It oxidizes very slow ly in air
at room temperature, but when heated strongly it burns and forms
the white oxide As2 0 3, em itting a characteristic garlic-like odour.
At an elevated temperature, arsenic reacts directly w ith m any ele
ments. Strong oxidizers transform it into arsenic acid, for instance:
2As + 5Cla + 8H20 = 2H8As04 + 10HC1
Both free arsenic and all of its compounds are strong poisons.
Arsenic exhibits the oxidation states + 5 , + 3 , and —3 in its
compounds.
Arsenic trihydride or arsine AsH3 is a colourless very poisonous gas
with a characteristic garlic-like odour and dissolves only slightly in
water. Arsine is formed when all arsenic compounds are reduced
with nascent hydrogen. For example:
As20 3 + -6Zn + 6H2S 0 4 = 2AsH3 t + 6ZnS04 + 3H20
Arsine is comparatively unstable and when heated readily decom
poses into hydrogen and free arsenic. This property of arsine is used
for detecting arsenic in various substances. The substance being
analysed is treated with a reducing agent and if it contains a com
pound of arsenic or arsenic in the free state, AsH 3 is formed. Next
the reduction products are heated, the arsine decomposes, and the
liberated arsenic forms a characteristic black glittering deposit on
the cold parts of the apparatus called an “arsenic mirror”.
Arsenic forms compounds known as arsenides with some metals.
Many arsenides can be considered as the products of displacement
of hydrogen in arsine by metal atoms, for instance, Cu3As and Ca3 As2.
Arsenic produces two oxides with oxygen: As2 0 3 and As2 0 6.
Diarsenic trioxide or arsenous anhydride As20 3 is obtained when
arsenic burns in air or when arsenic ores are calcined. It is a white
substance called white arsenic. Diarsenic trioxide dissolves rather
poorly in water: a solution saturated at 15 °C contains only
1.5% As2 0 3. When diarsenic trioxide dissolves in water, it reacts
with it to form arsenic(III) hydroxide or arsenous acid:
As20 3 + 3H20 = 2As(OH)3
Arsenic(III) hydroxide is amphoteric, but its acid properties pre
dominate.
Arsenous acid H 3 As0 3 has not been, obtained in the free state and
is known only in an aqueous solution in which equilibrium sets in:
H 3As03 *=* H 20 + HAs02
This equilibrium is greatly shifted to the right, i.e. the predomi
nating form is metaarsenous acid HAsOa. The dissociation constant
of this acid is K = 6 X 10“10. When alkalies react with As2 0 3,
salts of arsenous acid called arsenites are obtained* for instance:

As20 8 + 6K0H = 2K3As08 + 3H20
The compounds of arsenic(III) display reducing properties; when
they are oxidized, compounds of arsenic(V) are obtained.
Arsenic acid H 3 As0 4 in ordinary conditions is in the solid state;
it dissolves well in water. Its strength is almost equal to that of phos
phoric acid. Its salts—arsenates—are very similar to the relevant
phosphates. Meta- and diarsenic acids are also known. The calcina
tion of arsenic acid yields diarsenic pentoxide, or arsenic anhydride
As2 0 5 in the form of a white vitreous mass.
The acid properties of arsenic acid are much more pronounced
than those of arsenous acid. This is a particular case of the general
law according to which an increase in the oxidation number of an
element is attended by a growth in the acid properties of its hydro
xides and weakening of the basic ones (see p. 37).
Being tribasic, arsenic acid forms normal (arsenates) and acid
(hydrogen and dihydrogen arsenates) salts, for instance, Na3As04,
Na 2HAs04, and NaH 2As04.
In an acid medium, arsenic acid and arsenates exhibit oxidizing
properties.
It was noted in Vol. 1, Sec. 99, that the electrode potentials of
processes occurring with the participation of water, hydrogen ions,
or hydroxide ions have higher values when the acidity of the solution
is greater. In other words, if water and its dissociation products
participate in an electrochemical process, an oxidizing agent exhib
its its oxidizing properties more strongly in an acid medium, and a
reducing agent exhibits its reducing properties more strongly in an
alkaline medium. This general law can be illustrated quite well
using arsenic compounds as an example. Arsenic acid and its salts
in an acid medium react with reducing agents, transforming into
arsenous acid or arsenites. For instance:
K8As04 + 2KI + H2S04 = K3As08 + I2.+ K2S 04 + H20
Here, the reduction process is described by the equation:
AsOJ- + 2H+ + 2er = AsOf- + HaO
and the oxidation process by the equation:

21- = i 2+ 2 <r
Reduction can be seen to proceed with the participation of water
and H + ions, and oxidation without their participation. Conse
quently, the pH of the medium affects only the potential of the reduc
tion process: the lower the pH, the higher is this potential and the
stronger an oxidizing agent is the ion AsO®~.
At the same time, in an alkaline medium, arsenous acid and its

salts are readily oxidized, transforming into arsenates, for example:
K3As08 + I2 + 2K0H = K3As0 4 + 2KI + H20
Here, the reduction process is described by the equation:
I2 + 2er = 21-
and the oxidation process by the equation

AsO§- + 20H - = AsOf- + H 20 + 2er
In this case, the water and OH’ ions participate only in oxidation.
Hence, here the pH of the medium afiects only the potential of the
oxidation process: the higher the pH, the lower is this potential and
the stronger a reducing agent is the AsO|~ ion.
We thus see that the direction of oxidation-reduction reactions
proceeding with the participation of water and its dissociation prod
ucts can change when passing from an acid medium to an alkaline
one.
Sulphides of Arsenic. If we pass hydrogen sulphide into an arse
nous acid solution acidified with hydrogen chloride, a yellow precip
itate of diarsenic trisulphide As2S3 is formed that does not dissolve
in hydrochloric acid. The reactions can be expressed by the equations
H3As03 + 3HG1 ^ AsCla + 3HaO
2AsCl3 + 3H2S = As2S3 I + 6HG1
A yellow precipitate of diarsenic pentasulphide As2SBcan be pre
pared in a similar way by acting with hydrogen sulphide on a solu
tion of arsenic acid in the presence of hydrogen chloride:
H8As04 + 5HG1 AsC15 + 4HaO
2AsGlfi + 5HaS = As2S5 I + 10HC1
When arsenic sulphides react with the sulphides of the alkali met
als Na2 S, K 2 S, or with ammonium sulphide (NH4 ) 2 S, salts of
thioarsenous (H3 AsS3) and thioarsenic (H 3AsS4) acids are formed that
are soluble in water. The acids H 3AsS3 and H 3 AsS4 can be considered
as the corresponding oxygen-containing acids of arsenic in which
the entire oxygen is displaced by sulphur:
As2S3+ 3NaaS = 2Na3AsS8
sodium
thioarsenite
As2S8+ 3Na2S = 2Na8AsS4
sodium
thioarsenate
The use of free arsenic is limited. But arsenic compounds are
employed in medicine, and also in agriculture as insecticides, i.e.
as means for destroying harmful insects.
Diarsenic trioxide is used as a poison for rodents.
7-2412
The Main Subgroup of Group Five
36. Antimony (S tib iu m )

Antimony generally occurs in nature as sulphur compounds in
the form of stibnite or antimonite Sb2 S3. Although the antimony
content in the Earth’s crust is comparatively low [0.000 05% (mass)],
antimony has been known since ancient times. This is explained by
the widespread occurrence of stibnite in nature and the ease with
which antimony can be extracted from it. When roasted in air,
stibnite transforms into distibium trioxide Sb2 0 3 from which anti
mony is prepared by reduction with carbon (coal).
Free antimony forms silvery crystals with a metallic lustre and
having a density of 6 . 6 8 g/cm8. Reminding one of a metal in its
appearance, crystalline antimony is distinguished by its brittleness
and conducts heat and electric current much more poorly than the
ordinary metals. Antimony has other allotropic modifications in
addition to the crystalline form.
Antimony is introduced into certain alloys to make them harder.
An alloy consisting of antimony, lead, and a small amount of tin
is called type metal and is used to make type for printing shops. An
alloy of antimony with lead (from 5 to 15 % of Sb) goes to make the
plates of lead accumulators, plates and pipes for the chemical indus
try. Antimony is also used as an addition to germanium for im
parting definite semiconductor properties to it.
In tsarist Russia, notwithstanding the existence of a raw material
base, no antimony was produced. The production of antimony from
local ores was begun only after the October Revolution.
Antimony greatly resembles arsenic in its compounds, but differs
from it in its more pronounced metallic properties.
Stibine, or antimony hydride SbH 3 is a poisonous gas formed in
the same conditions as arsine. When heated, it decomposes into
antimony and hydrogen even more readily than arsine.
Antimony forms compounds with metals—antimonides—that can
be considered as the products of displacement of the hydrogen in
stibine by metal atoms. In these compounds, antimony, as in SbHs,
has an oxidation number of —3. Some antimonides such as AlSb,
GaSb, and InSb have semiconductor properties and are used in the
electronic industry.
Diantimony trioxide, or antimonous anhydride Sb 2 0 3 is a typical
amphoteric oxide with a certain predomination of basic properties.
In strong acids, for example, sulphuric acid and hydrogen chloride,
diantimony trioxide dissolves to form salts of antimony(III):
Sb2 0 3 + 3H2 S0 4 = Sb2 (S0 4 ) 3 + 3H20
Diantimony trioxide also dissolves in alkalies to form salts of
antimonous H 3Sb0 3 or metaantimonous HSbOa acid. For instance:
Sb2 0 3 + 2NaOH = 2NaSb02 + H20
Antimonous acid, or antimony(III) hydroxide Sb(OH) 3 is obtained

as a white precipitate when salts of antimony(III) are reacted with
alkalies:
SbCl3 + 3NaOH = Sb(OH)3 \ + 3NaCl
The precipitate dissolves readily both in an excess of the »lkali
and in acids.
The salts of antimony (I II), as salts of a weak base, hydrolyze in
an aqueous solution to form basic salts:
SbClg + 2H20 Sb(OH)2Cl + 2HC1
The resulting basic salt Sb(OH)2Cl is unstable and decomposes
with the detachment of a water molecule:
Sb(OH)2Cl = SbOCl | + H20
The group SbO in the salt SbOCl plays the role of a monovalent
metal and is known as antimonyl. The basic salt itself is called
antimonyl chloride or antimony(III) oxychloride.
Diantimony pentoxide, or antimonic anhydride Sb2 0 6 has chiefly
acid properties. Antimonic acid existing in several forms in an aquer
ous solution corresponds to it. The salts of antimonic acid are named
antimonates.
The antimony sulphides Sb2S 3 and Sb2 S 5 are similar in their
properties to the relevant arsenic sulphides. They are orange-red sub
stances dissolving in alkali metal and ammonium sulphides with
the formation of thiosalts. Antimony sulphides are used in the
production of matches and in the rubber industry.
37. Bismuth ( B ism u th u m )

The last member of the subgroup, bismuth, is characterized by
the predominance of metallic properties over non-metallic ones,
and can be treated as a metal.
Bismuth is rather scarce in nature. Its content in the Earth’s
crust is 0.000 02% (mass). It occurs both in the free state and in
compounds—bismuth ochre or bismite Bi2 0 3 and bismuth glance or
bismuthinite Bi2 S3.
Bismuth in the free state is a lustrous pinkish-white brittle metal
with a density of 9.8 g/cm3. It is used both in the pure state and in
alloys. Pure bismuth finds its chief use in power-producing nuclear
reactors as a heat-carrying agent. It forms fusible alloys with some
metals. For instance, an alloy of bismuth with lead, tin, and cad
mium melts at 70 °C. Such alloys are used, particularly, in automat
ic fire extinguishers whose functioning is based on the melting of a
plug made from such an alloy. They are also used as solders.
Bismuth does not oxidize in the air at room temperature, but burns
when heated, forming bismuth(III) oxide Bi2 0 3. Hydrogen chloride
7*
and dilute sulphuric acid do not react with bismuth. It dissolves in

nitric acid of low concentration and in hot concentrated sulphuric
acid:
B i + 4H N O s = B i(N 0 3)3 + NO f + 2HaO
2Bi + 6 H 2S 0 4 = B i2(S 0 4)3 + 3 S 0 2 f + 6HaO
Bismuthine, or bismuth hydride BiH 3 is very unstable and decom
poses even at room temperature.
Bismuth(III) oxide Bi2 0 3 forms when bismuth is calcined in air,
and also when bismuth nitrate decomposes. It is bas c in nature and
dissolves in acids to form salts of bismuth(III).
Bismuth(III) hydroxide Bi(OH) 3 is obtained as a white precipitate
when alkalies react with dissolved bismuth salts:
B i(N 0 3)3 + 3N aO H = B i(O H )3 \ + 3N aN O s
Bismuth(III) hydroxide is a very weak base. This is why the salts
of bismuth(III) are readily hydrolyzed, transforming into basic
salts that are poorly soluble in water.
Bismuth(III) nitrate Bi(N0 3 )3 -5H20 crystallizes from the solu
tion obtained as a result of the reaction of bismuth with nitric acid.
It dissolves in a small amount of water acidified with nitric acid.
Dilution of the solution with water is attended by hydrolysis and
precipitation of the basic salts whose composition depends on the
conditions. Often a salt having the composition B i0N 0 3 is formed.
The radical BiO—bismuthyl—plays the role of a monovalent metal:
B i(N 0 3)3 + H 20 ^ B iO N 0 3 + 2H N O a
Bismuth(III) chloride BiCl3 forms hygroscopic crystals hydrolyzed

by water to bismuthyl chloride BiOCl.
Bismuth(III) sulphide Bi2 S3 forms as a black-reddish brown precip
itate when hydrogen sulphide reacts with solutions of bismuth
salts. The precipitate does not dissolve in sulphides of the alkali
metals and ammonium: unlike arsenic and antimony, bismuth forms
no thiosalts.
Compounds of bismuth(III) are used in medicine and in the veteri
nary science.
Compounds of bismuth(V) can be prepared by acting with very
strong oxidizing agents on compounds of bismuth(III). The most
important of them are bismuthates—salts of bismuth acid, which has
not been prepared in the free state, for instance potassium bismuth-
ate K B i03. These compounds are very strong oxidizing agents.
5
THE M AIN SUBGROUP
OF GROUP FOUR
The main subgroup of Group IV of the periodic table includes five

elements—carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead.
The size of the atoms grows when going from carbon to lead. It
should therefore be expected that the ability to attach electrons and,
consequently, the non-metallic properties will weaken, while the
readiness to give up electrons will grow. Indeed, already germanium
exhibits metallic properties, while in tin and lead they predominate
over the non-metallic ones. Thus, only the first two members of
Group IV are non-metals, germanium is included among both
metals and non-metals, while tin and lead are metals.
Table 6
Selected Properties of Carbon and Its Analogues
Germa
Carbon* Silicon nium Tin Lead
C onfiguration of o u te r e le c 2s22p2 3sa3p8 4s24p2 5s25p2 6s26p2

tr o n la y e r of a to m
Io n iz a tio n en e rg y of a to m 11.26 8 .1 5 7.90 7 .34 7.42
E — E+, eV
R e la tiv e e le c tr o n e g a tiv ity 2 .5 1 .8 1 .8 1 .8 1 .9
A tom ic ra d iu s , n m 0.077 0.134 0.139 0.158 0.175
S tan d ard e n th a lp y of a to 715.0 451.9 379.1 302.1 195.0
m iz a tio n a t 2 5 °C, k J p e r
m o le of a to m s
M e ltin g p o in t, °C 3750** 1420*** 936 231.9 327.4
B oiling p o in t, °C . . . 3300 2850 2620 1745
D e n sity , g /c m 3 D iam o n d 2.33*** 5.32 W h ite 11.34
3.52 7 .2 9
G ra p h ite G ray
2 .2 6 5 .8 5
* In the standard state, carbon is in the form of graphite.

** At a pressure of 12 MPa.
*** Crystalline silicon.
102 The Main Subgroup of G roup Four
Oxidation states of + 2 and + 4 are characteristic of the elements

of this groups. Compounds of carbon and silicon in which their oxi
dation state is + 2 are few in number and have a comparatively low
stability.
Selected properties of the elements of the main subgroup of Group
IV and the elementary substances they form are given in Table 6 .
CARBON ( C A R B O N E U M )
38. Occurrence
Carbon occurs in nature both in the free state and in the form of
numerous compounds. Free carbon is encountered as diamond and
graphite. Diamonds form separate crystals or intergrowths of a small
size whose mass usually ranges from thousandths to tenths of a gram.
The greatest of all found diamonds weighed 621.2 g. The crystals
sometimes have a colour due to impurities. The greatest diamond
deposits are found in Africa (Zair, the Union of South Africa), in
Brazil, and in India.
The major graphite deposits were formed as a result of the action
of high temperatures and pressures on coal. Graphite deposits are
encountered in various regions of the USSR.
Charcoal, also consisting of carbon, is prepared artificially. Sub
stances are encountered in nature, however, that are close in their
composition to charcoal. These are the various kinds of mineral coal
that form thick deposits at many places on the Earth. Some coals
contain up to 99% of carbon.
Carbon compounds are very widespread. In addition to mineral
coal, the Earth contains large accumulations of petroleum, which is
a complex mixture of various carbon-containing compounds, mainly
hydrocarbons. Salts of carbonic acid, especially calcium carbonate,
are encountered in enormous amounts in the Earth’s crust. The air
always contains carbon dioxide. Finally, plants and animals con
sist of substances in whose formation carbon plays the chief role.
Thus, this element is among the most widespread ones on the Earth,
although its total content in the Earth’s crust is only about 0.1%
(mass).
Carbon occupies an absolutely exclusive place among the ele
ments in the number and diversity of its compounds. The number of
carbon compounds that have been studied to date is assumed to be
about two million, whereas the number of compounds of all the
other elements taken together totals only hundreds of thousands.
The diversity of the carbon compounds is explained by the ability
of its atoms to combine with one another into long chains or rings
(see Sec. 48).
Carbon 103
39. Allotropy of Carbon

In the free state, carbon is known in the form of diamond crystalliz
ing in the cubic system, and graphite belonging to the hexagonal
system. Such forms of it as charcoal, coke, and carbon black have an
unordered structure. Two other modifications of carbon—carbine
and polycumulene—have been synthesized. They consist of linear
chain polymers of the type . . . —C=C—C==C— . . . or . . .= C =
_-C =C = . . . . Carbine has semiconductor properties. When strongly
heated without the access of air, it transforms into graphite.
Diamond is a colourless transparent substance that refracts light
rays exceedingly strongly. It crystallizes in a cubic face-centered
lattice. One half of the atoms occupy the corners and centres of the
faces of one cube, and the other half—the corners and centres of the
faces of another cube displaced relative to the first one in the direc
tion of its spatial diagonal. The carbon atoms in diamond are in
the state of sp3 hybridization and form a three-dimensional tetra
hedral lattice in which they are bonded to one another by means of
covalent bonds*. The distance between the atoms in the tetrahedra is
0.154 nm. The structure of diamond is shown in Fig. 13.
Of all elementary substances, diamond has the greatest number of
atoms per unit volume—the carbon atoms are packed very tightly
in diamond. This, together with the high bond strength in the carbon
tetrahedra, underlies the fact that the hardness of diamond is supe
rior to that of all known substances. This is why it is widely used
in industry, almost 80% of all diamonds extracted are used for tech
nical purposes. Diamond is used for processing various hard ma
terials for drilling rock. Though it is very hard, diamond is brittle.
The powder obtained in the comminution of diamond goes to polish
precious stones and diamonds themselves. Properly cut and polished
transparent diamonds are used in jewelry.
Owing to the high value of diamonds, many attempts were made
to produce them artificially from graphite. For a long time, howev
er, these attempts were unsuc
cessful. Only in 1955, using a very
high pressure (of the order of
1010 Pa) and prolonged heating at
about 3000 °C, did American and
simultaneously Swedish scientists
succeed in producing synthetic
diamonds. A method of producing
synthetic diamonds was also de
veloped in the USSR, and their
* Such a te tra h e d ra l b o n d in g is also
Fig. 13. T he stru c tu re of d iam o n d
The arrows show the bonds
ch aracteristic of sa tu ra te d h y d ro car between the atoms in the
bons an d th e ir d e riv a tiv e s (p. 124). tetrahedra
104 The Main Subgroup of Group Four
commercial production was begun in 1961, In addition, in 1969, fila

mentary diamond crystals were synthesized in the USSR at a con
ventional pressure. The filamentary crystals or “whiskers” have a
structure virtually deprived of defects, and are featured by a very
high strength.
When calcined in oxygen, diamond burns and forms carbon di
oxide. If diamond is strongly heated without the access of air, it
transforms into graphite.
Graphite consists of dark-gray crystals with a slight metallic lus
tre. It has a layer lattice. All the carbon atoms here are in the state
of sp 2 hybridization. Each of them forms three covalent sigma bonds
with its neighbours, the angles between the directions of the bonds
being 120 degrees. The result is the formation of a plane lattice con
sisting of regular hexagons with the carbon atom nuclei at their
corners. The distance between adjacent nuclei is 0.1415 nm.
Three electrons of each carbon atom participate in the formation of
the sigma bonds. The fourth electron of the outer layer occupies the
2p orbital that does not take part in hybridization. Such non-hybrid
electron clouds of the carbon atoms are oriented at right angles to
the plane of the layer and, overlapping one another, form delocalized
pi bonds*. The structure of graphite is shown in Fig. 14.
The adjacent layers of the carbon atoms in a graphite crystal are
quite far from one another (0.335 nm). This points to the low strength
of the bond between carbon atoms in different layers. Adjacent
layers are bonded to one another chiefly by van-der-Waals forces,
but the bond partially has a metallic nature, i.e. is due to “collecti
vization” of the electrons by all the atoms of the crystal**. This
explains the comparatively high electrical conductance and thermal
conductance of graphite not only in the direction of the layers, but
also in one perpendicular to them.
The structure of graphite considered above underlies the great
anisotropy of its properties. For instance, the thermal conductivity
of graphite in the direction of the layer planes is 4.0 J/(cm-s*K),
while in the perpendicular direction it is 0.79 J/(cm«s«K). The elec
trical resistance of graphite perpendicular to its layers is 1 0 4 times
greater than in their direction.
The individual layers of atoms in a graphite crystal that are bond
ed to one another comparatively weakly, readily separate. This
explains the low mechanical strength of graphite. If we pass a piece
of graphite over paper, minute graphite crystals having the form of
scales adhere to the paper, leaving a gray line on it. This is why
graphite is used for making pencils.
* The sigm a an d p i bonds in a benzene m olecule are form ed in a sim ila r

w ay. T h is system of bonds w ill be tre a te d in g re a te r d e ta il in Sec. 45.
** The n a tu re of th e m e ta llic bond is d e a lt w ith in Sec. 76.
Carbon 105
Graphite does not ignite in the air even when strongly heated,
but readily burns in pure oxygen, transforming into carbon dioxide.
Owing to its electrical conductance, graphite is employed for
making electrodes. A mixture of graphite with clay goes to fabricate
refractory crucibles for melting metals. Graphite mixed with oil is
an excellent lubricant because its scales fill the irregularities of the
material to create a smooth surface facilitating sliding. Graphite is
also used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.
In addition to natural graphite, artificial graphite is also used in
industry. It is chiefly prepared from the best grades of coal. Conver
sion occurs at temperatures of about 3000 °C in electrical furnaces
without the access of air. Natural and, especially, artificial graphite
is used to make materials employed in the chemical industry. Owing
to their high chemical stability, they are used for furnace linings,
pipes, etc.
Graphite is stable therm odynam ically w ithin a broad range of
temperatures and pressures, particularly in ordinary conditions.
0.1415 nm
Fig. 14. T h e s tr u c tu r e of g ra p h ite

106 The Main Subgroup of Croup Four
Consequently, when calculating the thermodynamical quantities for

carbon, graphite is adopted as its standard state. Diamond is ther
modynamically stable only at high pressures (above 1 0 9 Pa). The
Tate of transformation of diamond into graphite, however, becomes
appreciable only at temperatures above 1000 °C. At 1750 °C, dia
mond transforms rapidly into graphite.
“Amorphous” Carbon. When carbon-containing compounds are
heated without the access of air, a black substance separates from
them that is called amorphous carbon or simply carbon. This carbon
consists of very minute crystals with the unordered structure of
graphite. Carbon dissolves in many molten metals such as iron,
nickel, and platinum. The density of this carbon varies from 1.8 to
2 . 1 g/ cm3.
Amorphous carbons differ noticeably in their properties depending
on what substance they have been prepared from and how this was
done. In addition, they always contain impurities that greatly
affect their properties. The most important technical grades of amor
phous carbon are coke, charcoal, bone charcoal, and carbon black.
Coke is produced by the dry distillation of bituminous coal. It is
mainly used in metallurgy in smelting metals from their ores.
Charcoal is obtained when wood is heated without the access of
air, the valuable products of dry
distillation such as methyl alco
hol and acetic acid also being col
lected. Charcoal is used in metal
lurgy and in forging.
Owing to its porous structure,
charcoal has a high adsorptivity.
Let us perform the following
experiment to observe the adsorp
tion of gases by charcoal. We
fill a glass tube with ammonia
and lower its open end into a ves
sel with mercury (Fig. 15). We
next heat a piece of charcoal on
a burner, immerse it in the mer
cury, and bring it under the open
end of the tube with ammonia.
The charcoal floats to the surface
of the mercury in the tube, and
the mercury immediately begins
to rise owing to the ammonia
being adsorbed by the charcoal.
Activated carbons (Vol. 1, T - , . ..
p. 336) adsorb ey es specially F'» «•
well. They are used to adsorb the am m o n ia
Carbon 107
vapours of volatile liquids from the air and gas mixtures, in gas
m a s k s , and also as a catalyst in certain chemical production processes.
Amorphous carbon is capable of adsorbing not only gases, but
also solutes. This was discovered at the end of the 18th century by
the Russian academician T. Lovits.
Bone charcoal (or boneblack) is prepared by charring degreased
bones. It contains from 7 to 11% of carbon, about 80% of calcium
phosphate, and other salts. Bone charcoal is distinguished by its
very high adsorptivity, especially with respect to organic dyes, and
is used to remove various pigments from solutions.
Carbon black is the purest amorphous carbon. It is produced on a
commercial scale by the thermal decomposition of methane, and
also by burning substances rich in carbon such as pitch and turpen
tine with an inadequate supply of air. Carbon black is used as a
black paint (India ink, printer’s ink), and also in the rubber in
dustry as an important component of rubber.
40. Chemical Properties of Carbon. Carbides
Amorphous carbon, graphite, and especially diamond are all inert

at low temperatures. Heating increases their activity: amorphous
carbon readily combines with oxygen and is a good reducing agent.
The most important process in metallurgy*—the smelting of metals
from their ores—is achieved by reducing metal oxides with carbon
(or carbon monoxide).
With oxygen, carbon forms carbon dioxide C0 2 and carbon
monoxide CO.
At very high temperatures, carbon combines with hydrogen, sul
phur, silicon, boron, and many metals. Amorphous carbon enters
into the reaction more readily than graphite, and moreover than
diamond.
Compounds of carbon with metals and other elements that are
electropositive with respect to carbon are known as carbides. They
are obtained by calcination of the metals or their oxides with carbon.
Carbides are crystalline bodies. The nature of the chemical bond
in them may vary. For example, many carbides of metals of the
main subgroups of Groups I, II, and III of the periodic table are
salt-like compounds with an ionic bond predominating. Among them
are aluminium carbide A14C3 and calcium carbide CaC2. The former
can be considered as the product of the substitution of hydrogen by
a metal in methane CH4, and the latter in acetylene C2 H2* Indeed,
aluminium carbide reacts with water to form methane:
A14C3 + 12H 20 = 4A 1(0H )3 + 3CH* f
and calcium carbide reacts with water to form acetylene:

CaC2 + 2 H 20 = C a(O H )2 + C2H 2 f
In silicon carbide SiC (see Sec. 64) and tetraboron carbide B 4 C,

the bond between the atoms is covalent. These substances are hard,
refractory, and chemically inert.
Most metals of the secondary subgroups of Groups IV-VIII form
carbides in which the bond is close to a metallic one (see Sec. 76),
owing to which these carbides in some respects are similar to metals,
for instance they are good electrical conductors. They are also char
acterized by a great hardness and refractoriness. Carbides of this
group are used in a number of branches of industry.
Most of the valuable properties of irons and steels are due to the
presence in them of iron carbide Fe3C (see Sec. 124).
41. Carbon Dioxide. Carbonic Acid

Carbon dioxide C0 2 is constantly formed in nature in the oxidation
of organic substances (the decay of vegetable and anim al remains,
respiration, the burning of fuel). It is liberated in large amounts
from volcanic fissures and from the waters of mineral springs.
Carbon dioxide is generally prepared in the laboratory by reacting
marble CaC03 with hydrogen chloride in a Kipp gas generator:
CaCOs + 2HC1 = C aCl2 - f H 20 + C 0 2 f
Large amounts of carbon dioxide are obtained in industry in the

calcination of limestone:
CaC03 = CaO *f C 0 2 f
Carbon dioxide in conventional conditions is a colourless gas about

1 ,5 times heavier than air, owing to which it can be poured like a
liquid from one vessel into another. The mass of one litre of C0 2
in standard conditions is 1.98 g. The solubility of carbon dioxide in
water is not great: one volume of water at 20 °C dissolves 0.88 vol
ume of C02, and at 0 °C—1.7 volumes. Carbon dioxide is used in pre
paring soda according to the Solvay process (see p. Ill), for the syn
thesis of carbamide (p. 1 1 2 ), for the preparation of salts of carbonic
acid, and also for the aeration of soft, mineral, and other beverages.
Carbon dioxide transforms into a liquid at room temperature under
a pressure of about 0.6 MPa. Liquid carbon dioxide is stored in steel
cylinders. When it is rapidly poured out of a cylinder, much heat is
absorbed owing to evaporation so that the C0 2 transforms into a
white snow-like substance that sublimates without melting at
—78.5 °C. Solid carbon dioxide under the name of “dry ice” is used
to store perishable food products, in the production and storage of
ice-cream, and also in many other cases when a low temperature is
needed.
A solution of C0 2 in water has a slightly sour taste and a weakly
acidic reaction due to the presence in the solution of a small amount
Carbon 109
of c a r b o n i c acid HaG0 3 formed as a result of the reversible reaction:

C O , + H 20 ^ H 2C 0 3
Consequently, carbon dioxide is the anhydride of carbonic acid.

Equilibrium of the above reaction is greatly shifted to the le f t -
only a very small amount of the dissolved C 0 2 transforms into car
bonic acid.
Carbonic acid H 2 G0 3 can exist only in an aqueous solution. When
the latter is heated, carbon dioxide evaporates, the equilibrium of
formation of H 2C0 3 shifts to the left, and in the long run pure water
remains.
Carbonic acid is very weak. In a solution, it dissociates mainly
into H+ and HGO; ions and forms only a negligible amount of COf~
ions:
H 2C 0 3 H + + HCO 3 3* 2 H + + CO§-
The dissociation constant of carbonic acid according to the first
step, which takes into account the equilibrium of the ions with the
entire amount of carbon dioxide in the solution (both in the form of
C0 2 and in the form of carbonic acid), is expressed by the relationship:
[H+][HCOj]
Ki 4.5x10-*
[C 0 2+ H 2C 0 3]
The dissociation constant according to the second step is:

[H+][COM
K2 [HCOs]
4.7 XlO*11
Carbonic acid is dibasic and forms two series of salts—normal and

acid. The normal salts are called carbonates, and the acid ones
hydrogen carbonates (or acid carbonates or bicarbonates).
The salts of carbonic acid can be obtained either by reacting car
bon dioxide with the relevant alkali, or by means of exchange re
actions between the soluble salts of carbonic acid and salts of other
acids. For example:
N aO H + C 0 2 =* N a H C 0 3
N a H C 0 3 + N aO H = N a 2C 0 3 + H 20
B aC l 2 + N a 2G 0 3 = B a C 0 3 | + 2NaCl
Carbonic acid when reacting with weak bases produces only basic
salts in the majority of cases, an example of which is copper carbon
ate hydroxide (GuOH)2G03. The mineral of this composition en
countered in nature is known as malachite.
When reacted with even such weak acids as acetic acid, all carbon
ates decompose with the liberation of carbon dioxide. This reaction
is often used to detect carbonates because the liberation of C0 2 is
easily discovered by the characteristic hissing sound.
All the carbonates except those of the alkali metals decompose
with the liberation of C 0 2 when heated. The decomposition products
are generally oxides of the relevant metals, for instance:

MgCOs = MgO + C02 f
CaCOg = CaO -{- C02 t
Alkali metal hydrogen carbonates transform into the carbonates
when heated:
2NaHCOa = Na2C08 + C02 f + H20
Most hydrogen carbonates, and also potassium, sodium, rubidium,
cesium, and ammonium carbonates are soluble in water. The car
bonates of the other metals are insoluble.
Solutions of alkali metal carbonates because of hydrolysis have
a strongly alkaline reaction:
Na2 C03 + H20 3 * NaHCOg + NaOH
or
CO§- + H20 ** HCOg + OH'
An exceedingly abundant salt of carbonic acid in nature is calci
um carbonate CaCOs. It occurs as limestone, chalk, and marble.
Calcium carbonate does not dissolve in water. This is why lime
water (a solution of calcium hydroxide) becomes turbid when carbon
dioxide is passed through it:
Ca(OH)2 + C02 = CaC03 I + H20
It C0 2 is passed through lime water for a long time, however, the
initially turbid liquid gradually becomes clarified and, finally, be
comes absolutely transparent. Dissolution occurs because of the
formation of the acid salt—calcium hydrogen carbonate:
CaCOg + H20 + COa = Ca(HC08 ) 2
Calcium hydrogen carbonate is an unstable substance. When its
solution is boiled or is left to stand for a long time in air, the hydro
gen carbonate decomposes with the liberation of C0 2 and the for
mation of the normal salt.
The solubility of hydrogen carbonates in water explains the con
stant migration of carbonates in nature. The soil and ground water
containing COa seeps through the'soil and especially through strata of
limestone, dissolves the calcium carbonate and carries it along in
the form of the hydrogen carbonate into streams, rivers, and oceans.
Thence it gets into the organisms of sea animals and goes to build
up their skeletons or, liberating carbon dioxide, again transforms
into calcium carbonate and is deposited in stratified form.
In addition to calcium carbonate, another carbonate encountered
in nature in large amounts is magnesium carbonate MgC03, known
as magnesite. Magnesium carbonate, like calcium carbonate, readi
ly dissolves in water containing C0 2 and transforms into the soluble
hydrogen carbonate.
Carbon 111
Some carbonates are valuable ores and are used for the production
of metals (for example, chalybite or spathic iron FeC03, smithso-
nite ZnC03).
Sodium Carbonate (Soda) Na2C03. In the form of a crystal hydrate,
soda corresponds to the formula Na2CO3 '10H 2 O. But this crystal
hydrate readily erodes—it loses part of its water of crystallization*
Soda is one of the chief products of the basic chemical industry*
It is used in large amounts by the glass, soap, pulp and paper, tex
tile, petroleum, and other branches of industry, and also goes to
prepare various salts of sodium. It also finds domestic use, mainly
as a detergent.
At present, soda is produced commercially by the Solvay process
based on the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate when sodium
chloride reacts with ammonium hydrogen carbonate in an aqueous
solution.
A concentrated sodium chloride solution is saturated with ammo
nia, and then carbon dioxide obtained by the calcination of lime
stone is passed into it under pressure. Reaction of the ammonia with
carbon dioxide and water yields ammonium hydrogen carbonate:
NHS + C02 + H20 = NH4 HC0S
The latter enters into an exchange reaction with the sodium chloride
to form ammonium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate:
NH4 HC0„ + NaCl = NaHCO* | + NH4 C1
The sodium hydrogen carbonate has a comparatively low solu
bility in cold water, precipitates, and is filtered off.
When sodium hydrogen carbonate is calcined, it decomposes into
the carbonate, water, and carbon dioxide, which is recycled:
2NaHCOs = Na2 C08 + COa t + H20
The ammonia is recovered by heating the solution containing the
ammonium chloride with slaked lime:
2NH4 C1 + Ca(OH) 2 = 2NH, f + CaCl2 + 2H20
It is also recycled.
Thus, the only residue of the process is calcium chloride that re
mains in the solution after the liberation of the ammonia and has a
limited application.
Sodium carbonate prepared by the Solvay process contains no
water of crystallization and is called soda ash.
A part of the sodium hydrogen carbonate is used without any
further processing. It is employed in medicine under the name bi
carbonate of soda, and in the baking of bread and in the food industry
under the name baking soda.
The production of soda ash in the USSR is continuously growing.

In 1957, it was 1.6 million tonnes, which is about triple the amount
produced in 1940, and in 1976 it reached 4.8 million tonnes.
Potassium carbonate, or potash, K 2 G03 is a white powder that is
deliquescent in humid air and well soluble in water. It is employed
for the production of soap, in the fabrication of refractory glass, and
in photography. Potash is prepared by reacting carbon dioxide with
a solution of potassium hydroxide. The latter is obtained in the
electrolysis of a potassium chloride solution:
2KOH + COa = K2COs + H 20
An important compound—carbamide, or urea, CO(NH2) 2 is pro-

duced by reacting carbon dioxide with ammonia under pressure:
C 02 + 2 N H a = G O (N H 2) a + H aO
This method of producing carbamide was discovered in 1870 by

A. Bazarov.
Carbamide is a white crystalline substance well soluble in water.
It is used in agriculture as a highly concentrated nitrogen fertilizer*
and in farming as an addition to the fodder of ruminants. Carbamide
is used to manufacture cheap plastics called carbamide plastics. It is
also the starting compound for the preparation of many organic
substances and medicines. Some carbamide derivatives have herbi-
cidal properties—they are used to combat weeds.
42. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide CO is a colourless poisonous gas that condenses

into a liquid only at —192 °C and freezes at —205 °C. Carbon mon
oxide dissolves very poorly in water and does not react with it
chemically.
The electron structure of the CO molecule was discussed in Vol. 1,
p. 157. As shown in Fig. 53 of Vol. 1, the six valence electrons of
the carbon and oxygen atoms occupy three bonding molecular or
bitals, forming a triple bond of high strength (1076 kJ/mol).
The formation of the triple bond in the CO molecule can also be
explained by the method of valence bonds. At the expense of the
two unpaired electrons in each of the interacting atoms
2p 2p
2s 2s
t i H I t
ft H
Carbon 113
two covalent bonds appear:
Ph t t
si n
♦ 1♦1 t i l o
This diagram shows that one of the orbitals of the outer electron
layer of the carbon atom remains unoccupied by electrons, so that
this atom can be an acceptor of an electron pair. The oxygen atom,
however, retains an unshared electron pair on one of the p orbitals
and, consequently, has electron donor properties. The result is the
formation of still another covalent bond—a donor-acceptor one:
c ff t 1
Ti i i
H I II
In the molecule thus formed, each atom has eight electrons in its
outer layer. The structure of the CO molecule can be depicted by
the formula:
C- 0
The arrow here shows the donor-acceptor bond.
The reaction of formation of carbon monoxide from the elementary
substances is described by the equation:
c + - 0 2 = C0f
The standard Gibbs energy of this reaction is —137 kJ/mol, but

the standard Gibbs energy of the reaction
C + O a= C 0 2 1
is much more negative (—394 kJ/mol). This is why at moderate tem
peratures carbon (coal) burns with the formation of C02, while vir
tually no carbon monoxide, even with insufficient oxygen, is formed.
Matters are different upon elevation of the temperature. When from
400 to 500 °C is reached, a reaction begins between the carbon and
the carbon dioxide formed:
C + C02 = 2CO t
8—2412
This reaction is endothermic, and at 298 K the change in the

standard Gibbs energy is positive (+120 kJ/mol). In the course of
combination, however, the number of gas molecules doubles, and
the entropy of the system grows very greatly. Hence, the entropy
component of the Gibbs energy is negative. With elevation of the
temperature, this addend begins to predominate (in absolute value)
over the enthalpy term, and as a result the change in the Gibbs
energy becomes negative when the reaction proceeds. Already at
800 °C, the degree of conversion of C0 2 to CO reaches 80%.
The above reaction between carbon and C0 2 resulting in the for-
mation of carbon monoxide is conducted on a very large scale in
the blast-furnace process (see Sec. 125), and also in gas producers
(see Sec. 45).
Carbon monoxide is generally prepared in laboratories by adding
formic acid HCOOH to heated sulphuric acid. The latter removes
water from the formic acid, liberating carbon monoxide:
HCOOH = CO f + H20
This reaction shows that carbon monoxide can be considered as
the anhydride of formic acid. Although formic acid cannot be pre
pared directly from carbon monoxide and water, its salts are formed
when alkali metal hydroxides react with carbon monoxide at 150-
200 °C:
NaOH + CO = HCOONa
Carbon monoxide burns in air with a bluish flame with the evo
lution of a great amount of heat, transforming into C02:
2CO + 0 2 « 2C02 +566 kJ
In sunlight or in the presence of activated carbon (a catalyst),
carbon monoxide combines directly with chlorine, forming an ex
ceedingly poisonous gas called phosgene:
CO + Cl2|= COCl2
Phosgene is an important industrial product. It is employed in
the production of a number of organic and inorganic substances, for
instance, dyes.
Carbon monoxide combines with many metals forming metal
carbonyls, for example iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO) 6 and nickel tetra-
carbonyl Ni(CO)4. The latter two substances are volatile, very poison
ous liquids. Most metal carbonyls are crystalline substances. Of the
greatest practical significance are the carbonyls of nickel, cobalt,
and iron. They are used to prepare highly pure metals (see Sec. 79),
and for the application of metal coatings. They are also catalysts of
many important chemical reactions.
The chemical bonds in the molecules of metal carbonyls are
formed according to the donor-acceptor method at the expense of the
Carbon 115
unpaired electron pairs of the CO molecule and the free orbitals of

the excited metal atom. For example, an excited iron atom has
five unoccupied orbitals:
This is why the iron carbonyl molecule has a composition corres

ponding to the formula Fe(CO)6.
At an elevated temperature, carbon monoxide is a good reducing
agent that plays an important role in metallurgy in reducing metals
from their oxides (see Secs. 78 and 125). It is also used as a gaseous
fuel (see Sec. 45) and is one of the reactants in the production of a
number of organic compounds.
Carbon monoxide is very poisonous and is especially dangerous
because it has no odour (poisoning may occur without being noti
ced). The explanation of the poisonous action of carbon monoxide
is that CO readily combines with the hemoglobin of the blood and
renders it incapable of transferring oxygen from the lungs to the
tissues. When fresh air is inhaled, the compound formed (carboxy-
hemoglobin) gradually decomposes, and the hemoglobin restores its
ability to absorb oxygen.
43. Compounds of Carbon with Sulphur

and Nitrogen
Of great practical importance among the compounds of carbon
with sulphur and nitrogen are carbon disulphide CS2 and hydrogen
cyanide HCN.
Carbon disulphide CS2 is prepared by passing sulphur vapour
through a layer of red-hot coal. It is a colourless volatile liquid with
a high refraction index boiling at 46 °C. When stored for a long time,
carbon disulphide turns yellow and acquires an unpleasant odour.
Carbon disulphide is poisonous and readily ignites. It is a good
solvent of sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, various fats, and resinous
substances. It is used for combatting plant pests and in the pro
duction of rayon (p. 166).
Hydrogen Cyanide HCN. At a high temperature, for instance in an
electric arc, carbon can combine directly with nitrogen to form the
colourless poisonous gas dicyanogen whose molecular mass corresponds
to the formula C2 N2. In its chemical properties, dicyanogen resem-
8*
bles the halogens somewhat. Like them, with hydrogen it forms the
compound HCN having acid properties and known as hydrogen cy
anide (or hydrocyanic acid).
Hydrogen cyanide is a colourless, very volatile liquid boiling at
26.7 °C and having the characteristic odour of bitter almond.
In an aqueous solution, hydrogen cyanide dissociates only insig
nificantly into ions (K = 8 X 10~10).
Hydrogen cyanide is a strong poison that is fatal even in negli
gible doses (less than 0.05 g).
The salts of hydrogen cyanide are called cyanides. Of these salts,
potassium cyanide has the greatest application.
Potassium cyanide KCN forms colourless crystals that dissolve
well in water. Potassium cyanide is as poisonous as hydrogen cya
nide. In the air, under the action of CO2, it decomposes quite rapidly,
iberating hydrogen cyanide and transforming into the carbonate:
2KCN + H20 + C02 = K2COa + 2HCN
Being a salt of a very weak acid, potassium cyanide becomes
greatly hydrolyzed in water:
CN“ + H20 ** HCN + OH-
This is why a solution of potassium cyanide has an alkaline re
action and a strong odour of hydrogen cyanide. Sodium cyanide has
similar properties.
Potassium and sodium cyanides are capable of dissolving gold and
silver in the presence of the oxygen of the air. This underlies their
use for extracting these metals from their ores (see Sec. 8 8 ). They
are also employed in organic synthesis and in galvanic gold and
silver plating.
44. Fuel and 11s Kinds

Petroleum, natural gas, coal, and also many carbon compounds
play an important role in modern life as energy sources. The com
bustion of coal and carbon-containing compounds yields heat that is
used for production processes, heating, and preparing food. The major
part of the heat obtained is converted into other kinds of energy and
goes to perform mechanical work.
The main kinds of fuel include mineral or fossil coal, generally
called simply coal, peat, wood, petroleum, and natural gas.
Coai is burned directly or processed into more valuable kinds of
fuel—coke, liquid and gaseous fuel.
In tsarist Russia, the amount of coal mined could not cover the
requirements of even the poorly developed industry, and coal was
imported. The only local supplier of coal for the entire country at
that time was the Donets Basin.
Carbon 117
After the October Revolution, tremendous changes occurred in

the coal mining industry. New coal basins were placed into operation
in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and in Eastern Siberia. The mining of
coal was also commenced in a number of other regions of the country.
In 1940, the coal output in the Soviet Union was 166 million ton
nes, in 1954 it was 347 million, and in 1977—722 million tonnes.
The fraction of coal in the total production of fuel, however, is
constantly diminishing because of the growth in the fraction of pe
troleum and naturil gas.
Coal consists of the metamorphosed remains of ancient vegetation.
The older the coal, the richer it is in carbon.
Three main kinds of coals are distinguished.
Anthracite, or hard coal, is the oldest coal. It is distinguished by
its high density and glance (this is why it is sometimes referred to
as glance or glossy coal). Its average carbon content is 95%. It forms
about 5.5% of the total coal resources in the USSR.
Bituminous, or soft coal, contains from 75 to 90% of carbon. It is
the most widely used of all coals.
Lignite, or brown coal, contains from 65 to 70% of carbon. It has
a brown colour. Being the youngest of all coals, it often retains
traces of the structure of the tree from which it formed. Brown coal is
highly hygroscopic and has a great ash content (from 7 to 38%),
and for this reason it is used only as a local fuel and as a starting
material for chemical processing (valuable kinds of liquid fuel—
petrol and kerosene—are produced by its hydrogenation, p. 14).
Peat is the product of the first stage of coal formation. It is depos-
ited at the bottom of bogs from the dying parts of bog lichens. The
USSR is the richest country in the world as regards its explored
peat deposits. The carbon content in peat is 55 to 60%. The main
drawback of peat as a fuel is its high ash content. It is used as a lo
cal fuel.
The dry distillation of peat yields some valuable chemical prod
ucts, and also peat coke. The latter contains very little sulphur,
which allows it to be used for smelting high-quality iron.
Wood (firewood) occupies a secondary place in the overall fuel
balance. During recent years, its use in industry has been con
tinuously diminishing.
Petroleum found widespread use as a fuel since the internal-com
bustion engine, running on petroleum-refining products, was in
vented at the end of the 19th century.
But petroleum is not only a convenient and highly calorific fuel.
It is also an important starting material for the production of the
most diverse chemical products (synthetic alcohols, detergents,
rubber-like materials, solvents, etc.). Casing-head and refinery gases
are also widely used as a starting material for the chemical industry.
The production of petroleum is constantly growing in the USSR:
Year 1913 1940 1954 1977

Output, million tonnes 10.3 31.1 59.3 546
Natural gas, consisting of methane and other saturated hydrocar
bons, is a very cheap and convenient fuel. The importance of natural
gas is evident from the fact that during the 25 years from 1937 to
1962 its production in the capitalist countries increased almost six
times.
The use of natural gas in the USSR began on an appreciable scale
only after the second world war. Major deposits of natural gas were
discovered in the Ukrainian SSR, the Krasnodar Region, Central
Asia, and in a number of regions in Siberia. At present, many gas
pipelines have been laid having a great length. They join the sources
of natural gas production to the regions of the industrial and domestic
use.
The gas industry belongs to the most rapidly developing branches
of our heavy industry. The rates of its growth are characterized by
the production of natural gas and of gas obtained by the processing
of coal and shale. The total gas production in the USSR is shown by
the following figures:
Year 1913 1940 1955 1977
Output, thousand milli
on m3 0.02 3.4 10.4 346
Natural gas is an excellent fuel; it is also an exceedingly valuable
and economically profitable raw material for the organic synthesis
industry. A number of new chemical enterprises have been erected in
the USSR based on natural gas; quite a few existing enterprises are
also being converted to this kind of raw material.
Identical amounts of fuel produce different amounts of heat when
burnt. Consequently, to assess the quality of a fuel, its heating value
is determined, which is the amount of heat liberated in the complete
combustion of one kilogram of fuel.
Approximate heating values (in kJ/kg) for various kinds of fuel
are given below:
Dry wood 19 000 Anthracite 34 000
Dry peat 23 000 Charcoal 34 000
Brown coal 28 0 0 0 Petroleum 44 000
Bituminous coal 35 000 Natural gas 50 000
45. Gaseous Fuel

All kinds of solid fuel and petroleum are inferior to natural gas in
their heating value. The high heating value of gaseous fuel is due to
the fact that unlike solid kinds of fuel or the large molecules of pe
troleum hydrocarbons, no energy is spent to break the bonds between
Carbon 119
the carbon atoms. In addition, gaseous fuel mixes completely with

air, so that only a very small excess amount of oxygen in comparison
with the theoretical value is needed for its combustion. This lowers
the heat losses for heating the excess oxygen (air). A gas can be
heated preliminarily, owing to which the temperature of the flame is
increased. It can be conveniently transported over great distances
with the aid of gas pipelines.
The most important kinds of gaseous fuel include natural gas
(see Sec. 44), producer gas, and coke gas.
Producer gas is prepared from solid fuel by the partial oxidation
of the carbon that it contains at a high temperature. This process is
called gasification of solid fuel. It is carried out in special equip-
ment—gas producers, consisting of a vertical shaft into which fuel
is charged from the top, while air, oxygen, steam, or a mixture of
these substances is blown in from the bottom. Depending on the
composition of the gases blown in, there are distinguished straight,
water, mixed, and other producer gases.
Straight gas is obtained when air is blown in. In the bottom part
of the producer, the following reaction occurs:
C + 0 2 = CO2 +393.5 kJ
Owing to the large amount of heat thus liberated, the temperature
reaches 1400 to 1600 °C, the higher layers of coal become heated,
and the coal reacts with the C02:
C + C02 = 2CO -1 7 2 kJ
The gas produced consists chiefly of carbon monoxide and nitrogen*
Mixed (complex) gas is obtained when a mixture of air and steam
is blown in. Simultaneously with the above reactions, the carbon
reacts with the steam:
C + H20 = CO + H 2
Thus, the composition of the mixed gas, in addition to carbon
monoxide and nitrogen, includes hydrogen, which increases its
heating value. Mixed gas is used in industry as a fuel. It is the most
widespread and cheap of all the artificial combustible gases.
Water gas is obtained when steam is fed onto red-hot coal. The
gas contains up to 8 6 % of CO and H 2 and is used not as a fuel, but
for the synthesis of chemical products.
Coke gas is the name given to the gas produced by heating bitu
minous coal to 900-1100 °C without the access of air. This gas in the
pure state or in a mixture with natural gas is used as a fuel for
heating open-hearth furnaces, furnaces in the glass and ceramic in
dustry, and also in municipal facilities. Coke gas is also a starting
material in the synthesis of chemical products.
Coke gas is a mixture of various combustible gases. Its composition
depends on the starting material, but on an average is expressed by
the following figures (in per cent by volume):

Hydrogen 59
Methane 25
Other hydrocarbons 3
Carbon monoxide 6
Useless admixtures (C02, N2* 0 2) 7
Underground Gasification of Coal. Coal can be converted into a
gaseous fuel by gasifying it directly at the place where it is deposited
(underground). The first to advance the idea of such a process was
D. Mendeleev in 1888.
At present, work on the underground gasification of coals and
combustible shales is in hand in the USSR and a number of foreign
countries.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
46. General
Carbon compounds (except for a few of the simplest ones) have
long been referred to as organic compounds because in nature they
are encountered almost exclusively in the organisms of animals and
plants, participate in vital processes, or are products of the vital
activities or decay of organisms. Unlike organic compounds, sub
stances such as sand, clay, various minerals, water, carbon monoxide
and dioxide, carbonic acid, its salts, and other salts encountered in
"inanimate” nature are called inorganic or mineral substances.
The division of substances into organic and inorganic ones was the
result of the nature of organic compounds, which have specific
properties. It was considered for a long time that it is impossible in
principle to obtain the carbon-containing substances formed in or-
ganisms by synthesis from inorganic compounds.
The formation of organic substances was attributed to the influence
of a special incognizable "vital force” acting only in living organisms
and underlying the specific nature of organic substances. This theory,
which was a variety of the idealistic notions of nature, was named
vitalism (from the Latin vis vitalis—vital force). The vitalists
attempted to find in the phenomena of animate nature a proof of the
existence of certain mysterious forces in the world that do not lend
themselves to investigation and do not obey the general physicochem-
ical laws. The conception of the vitalists was formulated the most
completely by one of the most authoritative chemists of the first
half of the 19th century—the Swedish scientist J. Berzelius. The
vitalistic viewpoints hindered progress in the studying of the nature
of organic substances and were refuted in the course of development
of science.
In 1824, the German chemist F. Wohler, a pupil of Berzelius, for

the first time in history produced oxalic acid HOOC—COOH, an or
ganic compound that up to that time was produced only from plants,
from the inorganic substance dicyanogen NC—CN by heating it with
water. In 1828, Wohler synthesized a substance of an animal origin
for the first time: by heating the inorganic compound ammonium
cyanate NH 4 CNO, he obtained urea (carbamide) (NH 2 )2 CO; previ
ously this substance was obtained only from urine.
Soon other organic substances were synthesized in laboratory con
ditions: in 1845 in Germany, H. Kolbe synthesized acetic acid, in
1854 in France, M. Berthelot prepared a fat synthetically, in 1861
A. Butlerov in Russia synthesized a saccharide substance, and so on.
At present, many organic compounds are synthesized. Moreover,
it was found much simpler and cheaper to produce many organic
substances synthetically than to separate them from natural sub
stances. The greatest success of chemistry in the fifties and sixties
of the 2 0 th century was the first synthesis of simple proteins—the
hormone insulin and the enzyme* ribonuclease. This proved the pos
sibility of preparing synthetically even proteins—the most complex
organic substances that are participants without fail of all vital
processes; according to the definition of F. Engels: “Life is a way of
existence of protein bodies”.
With the development of the synthesis of organic compounds,
the distinction between these compounds and inorganic ones was
destroyed, but the name “organic compounds” remained. Most car
bon compounds known at present are not even encountered in or
ganisms, but have been prepared artificially.
47. Features of Organic Compounds

We have already indicated that the number of carbon compounds
studied to date is exceedingly great. But notwithstanding the diver
sity of the natural organic substances, they generally consist of a
small number of elements. In addition to carbon, they almost
always include hydrogen, frequently oxygen and nitrogen, and some
times sulphur and phosphorus. These elements were called organo-
gens (i.e. elements giving birth to organic molecules)**.
The phenomenon of isomerism (p. 130) is especially widespread
among organic compounds. There are numerous carbon compounds
* Hormones are substances produced by the internal secretion glands—
regulators of the most important functions of the organism of human beings and
animals (for instance, insulin is a hormone of the pancreas—a regulator of sugar
exchange). For enzymes, see Vol. 1, p. 190.
** With the development of chemistry, organic substances containing many
other elements were synthesized. Compounds in which metals (Li, Na, K, Mg,
Zn, Hg, Al, Sn, Pb, etc.) and certain non-metals (for instance, Si, As) are di
rectly bonded to carbon were called organo-element compounds.
having an identical qualitative and quantitative composition and

an identical molecular mass, but absolutely different physical and,
quite frequently, chemical properties. For example, two different
isomeric organic substances have the composition C2 H 6 0, and,
accordingly, the molecular mass 46.07. They are ethyl alcohol—a
liquid boiling at 78.4 °C and miscible with water in any proportions,
and dimethyl ether—a gas that is virtually insoluble in water and
differs noticeably from ethyl alcohol in its chemical properties (see
also p. 131).
Isomerism, particularly, is a reason why there is such a great di
versity of organic substances.
Unlike mineral substances, organic ones behave specifically when
heated. Their melting point does not exceed 350 to 400 °G, while in
the majority of cases they melt below 200-100 °C. When heated with
out the access of air, organic substances can undergo deep changes as
a result of which new substances are formed having absolutely differ
ent properties, or (at temperatures of the order of 400-600 °C) they
can undergo complete decomposition and charring. If heating is
conducted in the presence of the oxygen of the air or other oxidizing
agents, organic substances usually burn to the end* *; the carbon and
hydrogen in them are completely transformed into carbon dioxide
and water, while the nitrogen is generally liberated in the free state* *.
One of the most important features of organic compounds making
an imprint on all their chemical properties is the nature of the bonds
between the atoms in their molecules. The overwhelming majority
of these bonds have a strikingly expressed covalent nature. This is
why organic substances are mainly non-electrolytes, do not ionize
in solution, and comparatively slowly react with one another. The
time needed for the completion of reactions between organic sub
stances is usually measured in hours, and sometimes in days. For
this reason, various catalysts in organic chemistry are highly im
portant.
Finally, it is necessary to stress once more the exclusive biologi
cal role of organic compounds. Many of them are direct carriers,
participants, or products of processes occurring in living organisms,
or, like enzymes, hormones, vitamins and the like, are biological
catalysts, initiators, and regulators of these processes.
* Valuable organic substances distinguished by their exclusive stability to
the action of oxidizing agents and high temperatures have been prepared only
synthetically. They include perfluorocarbons (perfluoroparaffins or perfluoroal-
kanes) and fluoroplastics (p. 172).
** This underlies the quantitative analysis of organic substances: the content
of carbon and hydrogen in a burned substance is determined according to the
amount of C02 and H2 0 formed, the volume of the liberated N2 is measured
directly according to its volume, while the oxygen content is established accord
ing to the difference between the mass of the burned substance and that of the
other elements contained in it.
48. The Theory of the Chemical Structure

of Organic Compounds
The chemical nature of organic compounds, the properties dis
tinguishing them from inorganic compounds, and also their diversity
were explained in the theory of chemical structure (see Vol. 1,
Sec. 38) formulated by Butlerov in 1861.
According to this theory, the properties of compounds are deter-
mined by their qualitative and quantitative composition, their chemic
al structure, i.e. the sequence of combination with one another of
the atoms forming a molecule, and their mutual influence. The
theory of the structure of organic compounds, developed and sup
plemented by the latest ideas in the field of the chemistry and
physics of atoms and molecules, especially by the notions of the
spatial structure of molecules, the nature of chemical bonds, and
the nature of the mutual influence of atoms, forms the theoretical
foundation of organic chemistry*.
The following principles are the basic ones in the modern theory
of the structure of organic compounds.
1 . All the features of organic compounds are determined first
of all by the properties of the element carbon.
In accordance with the position carbon occupies in the periodic
table, the outer electron layer of its atom (the L shell) has four elec
trons. It does not exhibit a clearly expressed inclination to give up
or attach electrons, and in this respect it occupies an intermediate
position between metals and non-metals. It is characterized by
a sharply expressed ability to form covalent bonds. The structure
of the outer electron layer of the carbon atom can be pictured as
follows:
C
2s
It
nr 2p
c*
2s
2p
t TTTTT
normal state excited state
An excited carbon atom can participate in the formation of four
covalent bonds. Consequently, in the overwhelming majority of its
compounds, carbon displays a covalence equal to four.
For instance, the simplest organic compound—the hydrocarbon
methane—has the composition CH4. Its structure can be depicted
* Butlerov’s teaching on the mutual influence of atoms was developed in

greater detail by his pupil V. V. Markovnikov (1838-1904), a professor at the
Moscow University, and also by many other of his pupils and followers both in
this country and abroad. The study of the mutual influence of atoms is one of
the most important problems in the modern chemistry of organic compounds.
by the following structural (a) or electron dot (b) formulas:

H
H
h —c - h h : c :h
H
H
(a) (b)
The electron dot formula shows that the carbon atom in the
methane molecule has a stable eight-electron outer shell (an elec
tron octet), and the hydrogen atoms, a stable two-electron shell
(an electron doublet).
All four covalent bonds of carbon in methane (and in other simi
lar compounds) are equivalent and symmetrically directed in space.
The carbon atom, as it were, is at the centre of a tetrahedron (a
regular tetrahedral pyramid), while the four atoms combined with it
(in methane—four hydrogen atoms) are at the corners of the tetra
hedron (Fig. 16). The angles between the directions of any pair of
bonds (the valence angles of the carbon) are identical and equal
109°28\
The explanation is that in the carbon atom, when it forms cova
lent bonds with four other atoms, four hybrid spz orbitals symmet
rically arranged in space and extended in the direction towards
Fig. 16. T e tra h e d ra l m odel of a Fig. 17. F o rm atio n of sigm a bonds

m e th an e m olecule in a m e th an e m olecule
Fig. 18. S p h erical m odel of a

m eth an e m olecule
the tetrahedron corners are formed from one s and three p orbitals
,tS a result of sp3 hybridization.
Overlapping of the sp3 hybrid electron clouds of the carbon with
the electron clouds of the other atom (in methane with the spherical
clouds of the hydrogen atom Is electrons) causes four tetrahedrally
directed covalent sigma bonds to be formed (Fig. 17; see also Vol. 1,
Sec. 42).
The tetrahedral structure of the methane molecule is clearly
shown by its spatial models—a spherical (Fig. 18) or segment
(Fig. 19) one. The white spheres (segments) depict the hydrogen
atoms, and the black ones, the carbon. The spherical model charac
terizes only the mutual arrangement of the atoms in space, while
the segment one, in addition, gives an idea of the relative inter
atomic distances (the distances between the atomic nuclei). As
shown in Fig. 18, the structural formula of methane can be con
sidered as the projection of its spatial model onto the plane of the
drawing.
2. An exclusive property of carbon underlying the diversity of
organic compounds is the ability of its atoms to combine with one
another by means of stable covalent bonds, forming carbon chains
of a virtually unlimited length*:
I I I I I
------- C — C — C — C - C --------
I I I I I
The valences of the carbon atoms not participating in the mutual
bonding are used to attach other atoms or groups (in hydrocarbons
for attaching hydrogen).
For example, the hydrocarbons ethane (C2He) and propane (C3H8)
contain chains consisting of two and three carbon atoms, respectively.
Their structure is shown by the following structural and electron
dot formulas:
H H H H H
i i 1i 1i 1i
1 1
—C—C—H H —C—C—C—
i i i1 i1 i1
1 1
H H H H H
HH HH H
h :c : g : h h :C:c : c : h
HH HH H
ethane propane
Compounds are known containing hundreds of carbon atoms in
the chains and even more.
* A p art from carbon, c h ain s of id e n tic a l ato m s are form ed b y its analogue
from Group IV —-silicon. These ch ain s, how ever, c o n ta in n o t over six S i-atom s.
Long chains of su lp h u r ato m s are know n, b u t th e com pounds c o n ta in in g th e m
are not stable.
126 The Main -Subgroup of Group Four
The growth of a carbon chain by one carbon atom leads to an

increase in the composition by a CH2 group. Such a quantitative
change results in a new compound having somewhat other properties,
i.e. differing qualitatively from the initial compound; the general
nature of the compounds, however, is retained. For instance, in
addition to the hydrocarbons methane (CH4), ethane (C2 H6), propane
(C3 H8), there also exist butane (C4 H10), pentane (C5H12), and so on.
Among the enormous diversity of organic substances, consequently,
we can separate series of compounds of a single kind in which each
following member differs from the preceding one by a CH2 group.
Such series are called homologous, their members with respect to
one another are known as homologues, and the existence of such
series is called the phenomenon of homology.
Consequently, the hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane, etc.
are homologues of the same series called the series of saturated hydro
carbons, or, according to the name of the first representative—the
methane series.
Since carbon bonds are directed tetrahedrally, carbon atoms form
ing a chain are arranged not along a straight line, but in a zigzag
fashion, and since the atoms can rotate about the axis of a bond,
the chain can take on different conformations:
Such a chain structure allows the terminal (6 ) or other non-adja-

cent atoms of carbon (c) to approach each other. As a result of the
formation of a bond between these atoms, the carbon chains may
Organic Compounds 12?
4-lose up into rings, for instance:
\ / \ /
c — c
\ / \ — c — c ----
/
c\ / c
c
/ \
(c)
Thus, the diversity of organic compounds is also explained by

the circumstance that with an identical number of carbon atoms
in a m olecule, compounds are possible w ith an open chain of the
c a r b o n atoms, and also compounds whose molecules contain rings
(cyclic compounds).
3. The covalent bonds between carbon atoms formed by one pair
of shared electrons are called single bonds.
A bond between carbon atoms can be formed by two or three
shared pairs of electrons instead of one. The result is chains with
multiple—double or triple—bonds. These bonds can be depicted as
follows:
X C= -C = C -
/ \
The simplest compounds containing multiple bonds are the hydro
carbons ethylene (with a double bond) and acetylene (with a triple
bond):
H— C— C—
X
II
X
H. .H
H :C S :C :H
H H
ethylene acetylene
Hydrocarbons with multiple bonds are called unsaturated. Ethyl
ene and acetylene are the first representatives of two homologous
series—ethylene hydrocarbons and acetylene hydrocarbons.
The single covalent bond C—C (or C : C) formed by the over
lapping of two sps hybrid electron clouds along the line connecting
the centres of the atoms (along the bond axis), as, for example, in
ethane (Fig. 20) is a sigma bond (see Vol. 1, p. 139). The C—H
bonds are also sigma bonds—they are formed by overlapping of the
sp3 hybrid cloud of the C atom and the spherical cloud of the is
electron of the H atom along the bond axis.
The multiple carbon-carbon bonds have a somewhat different
nature. For instance, in an ethylene molecule upon the formation
of the double covalent bond C=C (or C :: C), one s orbital and
only two p orbitals in each carbon atom participate in hybridization
(sp2 hybridization), one of the p orbitals of each carbon atom is
not hybridized. As a result, three sp2 hybrid electron clouds are
formed that participate in the formation of three sigma bonds.
Altogether, an ethylene molecule has five sigma bonds (four C—H
and one C—C). They are all arranged in one plane at angles of about
120 degrees with one another (Fig. 21).
Thus, one of the electron pairs in the C=C bond forms a sigma
bond, while the second bond is formed by p electrons not partici
pating in hybridization; their clouds retain the shape of dumbbells,
are oriented at right angles to the plane in which the sigma bonds
are arranged, and overlap above and below this plane (Fig. 22),
forming a pi bond (see Vol. 1, p. 139). Hence, the double C=C
bond is a combination of one sigma and one pi bond.
The triple bond C=G (or C •• C) is a combination of one sigma
bond and two pi bonds. For example, in the formation of an acetylene
molecule, in each of the carbon atoms, one s orbital and only one p
Fig. 20. Formation of sigma bonds in an ethane molecule
Fig. 21. Formation of sigma bonds in an ethylene molecule

orbital participate in hybridization (sp hybridization). The result

j„ formation of two sp hybrid electron clouds participating in
tjie formation of two sigma bonds. The clouds of two pi electrons
of each carbon atom are not hybridized; they retain their configu
ration and participate in the formation of two pi bonds. Acetylene
thus contains altogether three sigma bonds (one G—C and two C—H
directed along a single straight line) and two pi bonds oriented in
two mutually perpendicular planes (Fig. 23).
Multiple (i.e. double and triple) bonds readily transform into
single ones in reactions; a triple bond first transforms into a double
J110t and the latter into a single one. This is due to their high reactiv
ity and occurs when atoms are added to a pair of carbon atoms with
a multiple bond.
The transition of multiple bonds into single ones is explained
by the fact that pi bonds usually have a lower strength and, conse
quently, a greater lability than sigma bonds. When pi bonds are
formed, the p electron clouds with parallel axes overlap to a consid
erably smaller extent than electron clouds overlapping along the
bond axis (i.e. hybrid s electron clouds, or p electron clouds oriented
along the bond axis).
Fig. 22. Formation of a pi bond in an ethylene molecule
0.120mn
l< H
Fig. 23. Formation of pi bonds in an acetylene molecule
9-2412
Multiple bonds are stronger than single ones. For instance, the
strength of the C=C bond is 535 kJ/mol, that of the C=C bond is
423 kJ/mol, and of the C—C bond only 264 kJ/mol.
It follows from the above that in formulas, two lines of the three
in the bond C=C and one line of the two in the bond C=C signify
a bond having a lower strength than the single bond C—C.
Figures 24 and 25 show spherical and segment spatial models of
compounds having a double (ethylene) and a triple (acetylene)
bond.
4. The theory of structure explained the numerous cases of iso
merism of organic compounds.
Chains of carbon atoms may be unbranched or branched:
I I I I I I I I I I I I
- C - C - C - C —C - C - — c - c - c - c —c - c -
For instance, the composition C5H 12 corresponds to three saturated

hydrocarbons (pentanes) having different chain structures—one
with an unbranched chain (normal structure) and two with a branched
Flg. 24. Models of an ethylene molecule:

a—spherical; 6—segment
Fig. 25. Models of an acetylene molecule:

a—spherical; b—segment
structure (isostructure):
CH, —C H j- CHS— CH2—CHs
pentane
CHS CH3
C H ,-C -C H , CH„ — iH a -C H j—CHS
CHS
isopentanes
The composition C4 H 8 corresponds to three unsaturated hydrocar

bons (butylenes)—two with a normal structure but isomeric with
respect to the position of the double bond, and one having an iso
structure:
CHS
CH8= CH — CHj - C H , C H ,-C H = C H -C H j c h 2= c - c h 8
butylenes isobutylene
Two cyclic hydrocarbons also having the composition C4 H 8 and

isomeric to each other with respect to the ring size are isomers of
the above alkenes. They are
H2C -C H 2 ch2
I I / \
HaC- CH2 H2C------CH —CH8
cyclobutane methylcyclopropane
While having the same composition, compounds may differ
in their structure owing to a different position of atoms other than
carbon in the carbon chain, for example:
CH3—CHo—CH2 CH3-CH-CH3
Br Br
Isomers of propyl bromide C8 H 7 Br
CH3— CH2—0 H GHg —0 —CH8
ethyl alcohol C2 H60 dimethyl ether C2HoO
Isomerism may be due not only to different order in the joining

of the atoms. Several kinds of spatial isomerism or stereoisomerism
are known, consisting in that with an identical composition and
order in the joining of the atoms, the relevant isomers (stereoiso
mers) differ in the arrangement of the atoms (or groups of atoms)
in space.
For example, if a compound has a carbon atom bonded to four
different atoms or groups of atoms (an asymmetrical atom*), then
* The presence of such an atom leads to asymmetry of the molecules. It is

evident that both models in Fig. 26 are asymmetrical—a plane of symmetry
cannot be drawn through either of them.
9*
two stereoisomeric forms of such a compound are possible. Figure 26

#
shows two tetrahedral models of lactic acid CH3 —CH—COOH in
I
OH
which the asymmetrical carbon atom (indicated by an asterisk
in the formula) is at the centre of the tetrahedron. It is not difficult
to see that these models cannot be superimposed in space: they are
mirror images and show the spatial configuration of molecules of two
different substances (in the given example of lactic acids) differing
in certain physical, and chiefly in biological properties. Such iso
merism can be referred to as mirror stereoisomerism, and the rele-
vant isomers are called enantiomers*. The difference in the spatial
structure of enantiomers can also be represented by structural for
mulas in which the different arrangement of atomic groups with an
asymmetric atom is shown. For instance, for the enantiomers of
lactic acid shown in Fig. 26, we have:
COOH COOH
| aa>
C* —OH § cd h o —<!:*—H
1 %
ch3 CHS
We have already mentioned that carbon atoms joined by a double

bond are in the same plane as the four bonds joining them to other
atoms; the angles between the directions of these bonds are approx
imately the same (see Fig. 22). When different atoms or groups are
joined to each of the carbon atoms with a double bond, geometric
stereoisomerism, or cis-trans-isomerism, is possible. An example is
COOH COOH
©
5§
Fig. 26. Tetrahedral models of molecules of lactic acid enantiomers
* Stereoisomers with asymmetrical atoms including enantiomers differ in

their optical properties, namely, in their influence on the polarized light passed
through them; this is why they are also called optical isomers (see a textbook on
organic chemistry).
the spatial geometric isomers of dichloroethylene CHC1==CHC1:

H Cl H Cl
\ / \ /
c c
II ll
c c
/ \ / \
H Cl Cl H
cis-dicliloro- trans-dichloro-
ethylene ethylene
(boiling point (boiling point 48 °C)
60 °C)
In the molecules of one isomer, the chlorine atoms are at the same
side of the double bond, and in those of the other isomer at opposite
sides. The former configuration is called a cis-, and the latter a
rrarcs-configuration. Geometric isomers differ from one another in
their physical and chemical properties. They exist because the double
bond excludes the possibility of free rotation of the atoms it joins
about the bond axis (such rotation requires breaking of the pi bond,
see Fig. 22).
5. Mutual influence in the molecules of organic substances is
exhibited first of all by atoms directly bonded to each other. In this
case, the influence is determined by the nature of the chemical bond
between them, the magnitude of the difference between their electro
negativities, and, consequently, by the degree of polarity of the
bond.
For example, if we judge by the summary formulas, all four
hydrogen atoms in a methane molecule (CH4) and a methyl alcohol
molecule (CH4 0) should have identical properties. But it will be
shown below that one of the hydrogen atoms in methyl alcohol is
capable of being substituted by an alkali metal, whereas in methane
the hydrogen atoms do not exhibit such an ability. The explanation
is that in the alcohol, the hydrogen atom is directly bonded not
to the carbon, but to the oxygen:
-*-H H->-
methane m ethyl alcohol
In the above structural formulas, the arrows on the bond lines

conditionally show the displacement of the electron pairs forming
a covalent bond owing to the different electronegativity of the atoms.
In methane, such a displacement in the bond H C is not great
because the electronegativity of carbon (2.5) is only slightly greater

than that of hydrogen (2.1) (see Table 6 in Vol. 1 , p. 129). Also,
the methane molecule is symmetrical. In the alcohol molecule, how
ever, the bond 0 H is considerably polarized because the oxygen
(its electronegativity is 3.5) attracts the electron pair to a much
greater extent. For this reason, the hydrogen bonded to the oxygen
acquires a greater mobility, i.e. is detached more readily in the
form of a proton.
The mutual influence of atoms not bonded directly to one another
is also of significance in organic molecules. For instance, in methyl
alcohol under the influence of the oxygen, the reactivity not only
of the hydrogen atom bonded to the oxygen grows, but also that
of the hydrogen atoms not bonded directly to the oxygen, but to the
carbon atom. Hence, methyl alcohol is quite readily oxidized, whereas
methane is relatively stable to the action of oxidizing agents. The
explanation is that the oxygen of the hydroxyl group attracts quite
a+ a-
considerably the pair of electrons in the bond C 0 joining it to
the carbon whose electronegativity is smaller. As a result, the
effective charge (see Vol. 1, p. 130) of the carbon atom becomes more
positive. This causes additional displacement of the electron pairs
also in the bonds H G in methyl alcohol in comparison with the
same bonds in a methane molecule. Under the action of oxidizing
agents, the H atoms bonded to the carbon atom that the group OH
is bonded to detach themselves considerably more readily than in
hydrocarbons and combine with oxygen to form water. The carbon
atom bonded to the OH group undergoes further oxidation (p. 155).
The mutual influence of atoms not bonded directly to one another
can be transmitted over a considerable distance along the chain of
carbon atoms and is explained by the displacement of the electron
cloud density in the entire molecule caused by the different electro
negativities of its atoms or atomic groups. The mutual influence
can also be transmitted through the space surrounding a molecule
as a result of overlapping of the electron clouds of close atoms.
49. Classification of Organic Compounds
The following three series are distinguished among organic com
pounds, depending on the structure of the carbon chains.
Compaunis with an open chain of the carbon atoms, also known as
acyclic or aliphatic compounds or compounds of the fatty series*.
Depending on the nature of the bonds between the carbon atoms,
these compounds are divided into saturated ones, containing only
single bonds in their molecules, and unsaturated ones whose molecules
have multiple (double or triple) bonds between the carbon atoms.
* The last name has a historic origin: the first compounds with long open
carbon chains that were studied were acids contained in fats.
Compounds with a closed chain oi the carbon atoms, or carbocyclic

ones. These compounds, in turn, are subdivided into:
(a) compounds of the aromatic series; they are characterized by
the presence in their molecules of a special cyclic arrangement of six
carbon atoms—the benzene ring. This ring is distinguished by the
Mature of the bonds between the carbon atoms and imparts special
chemical properties called aromatic properties to the compounds con-
Gaining it (pp. 146, 148).
(b) alicyclic compounds—all the remaining carbocyclic compounds.
They are distinguished according to the number of carbon atoms
in the ring and, depending on the nature of the bonds between these
atoms, may be saturated or unsaturated.
Heterocyclic Compounds. The molecules of these compounds have
rings containing heteroatoms, i.e. atoms of other elements (oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, etc.) in addition to the carbon atoms.
The compounds of each of the series indicated above are subdivided
into classes.
The simplest compounds in the acyclic and carbocyclic series are
hydrocarbons consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. All the other
compounds of these series are considered to be hydrocarbon derivatives
formed by the replacement of one, two, or several hydrogen atoms
in a hydrocarbon molecule by other atoms or groups of atoms*.
The residues of hydrocarbons formed when one, two, or several
hydrogen atoms are detached from their molecules are called hydro
carbon radicals. Monovalent radicals are designated by the symbol
R—, divalent ones by the symbol —R— (or R < ), and trivalent
ones by the symbol —R < .
The atoms or groups of atoms replacing hydrogen in a parent hydro
carbon form functional or characteristic** groups giving rise to the
general chemical properties of substances belonging to the same
class of hydrocarbon derivatives. Below are given the general for
mulas and names of some classes of organic compounds (the formulas
and names of the functional groups are given in parentheses).
Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons:

R—F R—Cl R -B r R—I
fluoroderlvatives chloroderivatives bromoderlvatives iododerl vat Ives
* Heterocyclic groupings—five-membered, six-membered, etc.—containing

aitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, or other heteroatoms are taken as the basis for the
classification in the series of heterocyclic compounds.
** The term characteristic groups has been adopted in the systematic nomen
clature of organic coinpounds being worked out by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (I UPAC).
136 The Main Subgroup of G roup Four
Oxygen-containing com
pounds:
R — OH R —0 —R or R—0 —R'
ils and phenols
alcohols phe ethers
(-O____
H isan
analcohol
alcohol or phe-
nolic hydroxyl group)
0 0 0
./ ✓
R—o f R —C R—C R- c
\ N \
H R' OH
aldehydes ketones carboxylic acids
/ 0 V
C = 0 is a carbonyl group) I ~
—CC is a carboxyl group I
\ /
\ OH '
0 0 0
/ il II
R —C or A —C R -C R— C—0 —C—R
\ \ acid anhydrides
OR OR' Cl
esters acid chlorides
Nitrogen-containing com
pounds:
R R
R —NO, R -N H * R—NH li—j
nitrocompounds amines
(—NOa is a nttro
group)
NH, —N are aminogroups
Sulphur-containingcom
pounds:
R —SH R -S -R R —SOaOH
thioalcohols and thiophenols thioethers sulphonic acids
(—SH is a sulphhydryl or or sulphides (—S 0 2 0H is a sulpho
mercapto group) group)
Organoelement com
pounds:
(a) Organometallic compounds*:
I II s^ III
V / ’
R —M R —M—R M—R M
/ / X
R R R
♦ I II III IV
M, M, Mt M are mono-, di-, tri-, and tetravalent metals.
(b) Organosilicon compounds:

R R R
X \ /
R —SiHs R — SiH2- R SiH —R Si
/ X
B/ R R
Compounds are possible with repeating identical functional groups:
0 0
HO —R —OH R - C - R ' —C - R \- R - - /
diatomic II li / \
alcohols 0 0 HO <
diketones dibasic acids
Many organic compounds contain two or more different functional
groups (polyfunctional compounds). Examples are:
O 0
h 2n - r - oh HO—R —C h 2n ^ r - c
amino alcohols X / \
OH OH
oxyacids amino acids
(alcohol acids)
Compounds with different functional groups have a dual nature.
For example, amino acids exhibit properties of both amines and
acids simultaneously, but both properties are altered somewhat
owing to the mutual influence of the functional groups.
The classes of organic substances are very diverse. Below we shall
briefly consider only the most important of them.
50. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) *

The simplest representative of this class is methane CH4. It is
a colourless light combustible gas having no odour and almost
insoluble in water. Its boiling point is —161.5 °C, and its freezing'
point is —182.5 °C.
Methane occurs quite frequently in nature. It is the main con
stituent of natural gas deposits (up to 97%), is contained in a con
siderable amount in casing head gas (liberated in the extraction of
petroleum), and also in coke gas. It is evolved from the bottom of
swamps, ponds, and stagnant bodies of water where it is formed
as a result of the decomposition of plant remains without the access
of air, which is the origin of its name marsh gas. Finally, methane
* According to the rules of the 1UPAC systematic nomenclature, the satu
rated hydrocarbons are called alkanes. Their old name—paraffins—is also en
countered quite often. It originates from the Latin words parum affinttatis—
deprived of affinity—and reflects the exclusive lack of activity of these hydro
carbons in reactions.
constantly accumulates in coal mines, where it is called mine gas

or firedamp.
A mixture of methane with air is extremely explosive (especially
in the proportion 1 : 1 0 ).
The methane molecule is quite stable. In ordinary conditions,
methane reacts actively (with an explosion) with fluorine, reacts
very slowly with chlorine, and does not react almost at all with
bromine. The reaction with chlorine or bromine is accelerated by
light, and also by heating, and consists in the consecutive replace
ment of atoms of hydrogen by halogen atoms with the formation of
halogen derivatives, for example:
CH4 + C12 — CH3 C1 + HC1
methyl
chloride
(chloro-
methane)
GH3 C1 + C12 CH2Clo + HCl, and so on
dichloro-
methane
Methane burns with a bluish or almost colourless tiame, evolving
a great amount of heat (879 kJ/mol). In ordinary conditions, it is
not oxidized by a solution of potassium permanganate (the purple
colour of the KMn0 4 solution does not vanish upon contact with
saturated hydrocarbons).
We have already indicated that methane is the first representative
of the homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes:
CH4 C2 H3 C3 H0 C4 Hio C5 H1 2 CjH^ . . . C1 0 H22i etc.
methane ethane propane butane pentane exane becane
In the molecules of these compounds, all the bonds between the
carbon atoms are single ones, and the carbon atoms are “saturated”
with hydrogen to the limit. The composition of any of the homol-
ogues corresponds to the general formula CnH 2 n + 2 (where n is
the number of carbon atoms). This regularity allows us to write
the formula showing the composition of a saturated hydrocarbon
having any number of carbon atoms, for instance, G18H 38 (octade-
cane) and C100 H 202 (hectane).
The composition of the monovalent radicals obtained by detach
ing a hydrogen atom from a molecule of a saturated hydrocarbon is
expressed by the formula CnH 2n+1—. Their names are formed by
replacing the suffix -ane in the name of the hydrocarbon with the
suffix —yl. For instance, methyl CH3— is derived from methane,
ethyl C2 H 6— from ethane, propyl C3 H7— from propane, and in
general an alkyl from an alkane.
As in other homologous series, a general law of nature—the law
of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones—
manifests itself in the methane series. The change in the composition
of a molecule by the group CH2 every time results in a new substance

which, although having much in common with its neighbours in
the series, difiers in some properties from them. The difference be
tween homologues is clearly exhibited in their physical properties.
The lower members of the saturated hydrocarbon series (from CH4
to G4 H10) are gases; the middle members (from C6 H 12 to ClflH84)
are liquids at a temperature up to 20 °C; the remaining members in
ordinary conditions are solids. In all cases, the boiling and freezing
points grow with an increasing molecular mass of the hydrocarbon.
At the same time, the saturated hydrocarbons in a chemical re
spect are similar to methane. They are very inert, enter only into
reactions of hydrogen substitution that proceed very slowly, and
do not decolourize solutions of bromine and potassium perman
ganate when cold.
All the saturated hydrocarbons burn and can be used as fuel. They
are contained in petroleums and their distillation products. In
fractional distillation, petroleum is separated into fractions (distil
lates) differing in their boiling points, and the following petroleum
products are obtained:
(a) petrols or gasolines (boiling point 40 to 180 °C) contain hydro
carbons from C5 H 12 to C10 H22; upon repeated distillation light
petroleum products boiling in narrower limits can be separated from
them, namely, petroleum ether (40-70 °G), aviation petrol (70-100°C),
and motor vehicle petrol (1 0 0 - 1 2 0 °G);
(b) paraffin oils or kerosenes (boiling point 180-270 °C) contain
hydrocarbons from CJ0 H 22 to ClflHS4;
(c) solar or gas oils (boiling point 270-36Q °C) contain mixtures
of hydrocarbons from C12 to C20; they are used to prepare lubricating
oils and various kinds of diesel fuel;
(d) the residual material (petroleum residues up to 40-50%) con
tains still heavier (higher) hydrocarbons; it is used to produce heavy
lubricating oils, vaseline (petrolatum), and paraffin wax.
We have indicated on a previous page that a growth in the number
of carbon atoms in molecules is attended by a sharp growth in the
number of isomers of the saturated hydrocarbons. Methane CH4,
ethane C2 H6, and propane C3 H 8 have no isomers; there are two bu
tanes C4 H10:
ch3
CH8—CH2-C H 2—CHg ch 3—c h —c h 8

butan isobutane
(boiling point - 0 .5 °C; (boiling point -1 1 .7 °C;
m elting point -1 3 8 .4 °C) m elting point -1 5 9 .6 °C)
There are three isomeric pentanes CBH12, five hexanes C6 H14,

nine heptanes C7 H16, 18 octanes C8 H18, and 35 nonanes C9 H 20. All
these hydrocarbons have been obtained. There can be 75 decanes
Ci0H22, and 4347 isomeric hydrocarbons can have the formula

CibH32. Only some of the isomers are known for the higher homo-
logues, but the possibility in principle of their existence was predicted
and proved by Butlerov. He carried out the first synthesis of a hy
drocarbon with a branched chain—isobutane.
Both individual homologues and their isomers differ from one
another not only in their physical, but also in their chemical prop
erties. Great branching of the carbon chain often results in ele
vation of the freezing point, and a high content of such hydrocarbons
in petrols may limit the possibility of using the latter in cold weather.
The difference in chemical properties tells, particularly, in the
inclination of some of the hydrocarbons in motor vehicle fuel to
knock.
The knocking of engine fuel consists in the exceedingly rapid
decomposition (explosion) of hydrocarbons that occurs suddenly
when the combustible mixture is compressed in an engine cylinder.
Knocking does not make it possible to achieve a high compression
ratio of the combustible mixture*, and results in the excessive
consumption of fuel and rapid wear of the engine. The knocking
properties of a fuel depend on the structure of the hydrocarbon
chains in the hydrocarbon molecules it is composed of. Isomers
having a greatly branched chain knock with much greater difficulty
than isomers with an unbranched chain.
The antiknocking properties of engine fuel are characterized
by its octane number. The standard substances used for compari
son in determining the octane number are the hydrocarbon heptane
C7Hx6 with an unbranched chain of atoms that knocks very readily
and one of the isomers of octane (isooctane) having a branched
chain of atoms with a low inclination to knocking:
CH„—CHt - CHt —CHa— CH2—CH* - CH*
heptane
CH, CH,
I I
CH, — C— CH, — CH — CH,
CH,
isooctane
The octane number of heptane is assumed to be zero, and that of
isooctane, 100. If the octane number of a fuel is 80, this signifies
that the fuel, when mixed with air (at the same compression ratio),
knocks as a mixture consisting of 80% isooctane and 2 0 % heptane.
The octane number of fuel is increased by raising its content of
hydrocarbons with a branched chain of carbon atoms, and also by
adding antiknocking agents, usually lead tetraethyl, a small amount
of which considerably diminishes knocking.
* An increase in the compression ratio raises the power of an engine.
Tetraethyl lead is a heavy poisonous liquid whose molecules have

the structure:
CHs -C H 2 CHs —CHs
Pi /
c h s- c h / X CHs-C H j
Tetraethyl lead belongs to organometallic compounds—substances
in which the hydrocarbon radicals are directly bonded to an atom
of a metal. These substances are finding greater and greater use.
51. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

The simplest unsaturated hydrocarbon with a double bond—
ethylene CaH 4 (CHa=C H a), as indicated previously, is the parent
of the homologous series of unsaturated ethylene hydrocarbons*:
CjH| Cj Hj CjHj C5H10 C«Hla C2aHaa, etc,
ethylene propylene butylene amylene hexylene decylene
The composition of any hydrocarbon of this series is expressed

by the general formula CnH a„ (where n is the number of carbon
atoms).
The composition of the members of the homologous series of un
saturated acetylene hydrocarbons (with a triple bond), whose parent
is acetylene CaHa (CH==CH), is expressed by the general formula
C,Han- a.
The general formula C„Ha„_a also expresses the composition of
hydrocarbons with two double bonds—dienes. Examples of those
deserving special mention are butadiene (or divinyl) C4 H 8 and iso-
pirene C5H8:
CH,
CHa= C H -C H = CH1 CH1 = C -C H = CH1
butadiene (dlvinyl) Isoprene
Hydrocarbons are known with a greater number of Rouble bonds

(polyenes) or triple ones (polyynes).
Unsaturated hydrocarbons can be prepared from saturated ones
by the catalytic detachment of hydrogen (the reaction of dehydro
genation). For instance, ethylene is obtained from the ethane con-
* Previously, the ethylene hydrocarbons or alkenes were also called olefins,

and hydrocarbons with two double bonds—diethylenes or diolefins. According to
the IUPAC systematic nomenclature, hydrocarbons of the ethylene series are
called alkenes, with two double bonds—dienes, while hydrocarbons of the
•ceiylene series are called alkynes.
tained in casing head gast and butadiene from butane:

ch 3—c h 3 — talyst > ch 2= ch 2
-h 2
ethane ethylene
catalyst
CH3-C H 2-C H 2-CH3 » ch 2= ch —c h = ch 2
- 2H 2
butane butadiene
Isoprene can be prepared by the dehydrogenation of isopentane:
CH8 ch 3
CH2-C H -C H 2-C H 3 -Ca.talys-1»GH2=C -C H =C H 2

-2 H 2
isopentane isoprene
The gaseous and liquid products of cracking of petroleum hydrocar
bons are an important source for the production of ethylene and its
homologues. Cracking is the name given to the process of cleaving
hydrocarbons with long chains into molecules of a shorter length
occurring in the presence of catalysts (catalytic cracking) or when
saturated hydrocarbons are heated to 500-700 °C under pressure
thermal cracking). For example,
CH3—CHa—CHs-CHg CH3-CH3 + CH2=CH2
butane ethane ethylene
■CHS—(CH2)2-C H s + CH2=CH2
butane ethylene
CH3—(CH2)4—CH,
hexane CH3-C H 2—CHS + CH2=C H -C H s
propane propylene
The cracking of petroleum products makes it possible to obtain
mixtures of low-boiling hydrocarbons (for example, petrol) from
hydrocarbons with a high boiling point. In cracking, unsaturated
hydrocarbons are always obtained together with saturated ones. The
unsaturated hydrocarbons formed in cracking, and also those pro
duced by the dehydrogenation of saturated hydrocarbons contained
in casing head gases, are finding greater and greater use in the indus
try of organic synthesis as a starting material for the production
of plastics, chemical fibres, alcohols, rubber-like materials, deter
gents, solvents, and other valuable products.
The physical properties of the alkenes and alkynes vary in their
homologous series with the same regularity as in the saturated hydro
carbons—the alkanes: the lower representatives are gases, next come
liquids, and then substances with gradually growing melting and
boiling points that are solids in ordinary conditions.
The unsaturated hydrocarbons sharply differ from their saturated
counterparts in their chemical properties; they are exceedingly
reactive and enter into a variety of combination reactions. Such
reactions consist in the attachment of atoms or groups of atoms to
the carbon atoms bonded by a double or triple bond. The multiple
bonds break quite readily and transform into single ones.
For instance, ethylene and acetylene readily attach bromine,

transforming into the relevant di- and tetrahalogen derivatives:
CHo=CHa + Br2 CH2Br-CH 2Br
etnylene dibromoethane
CH=CH_t?i^.CHBr=CHBrJ^!i. CHBr,—CHBr2
acetylene dibromoethylene tetrabromoethane
The reaction can be used for detecting unsaturated hydrocar
bons—the reddish brown colour of bromine rapidly vanishes.
Another qualitative reaction showing the presence of multiple
bonds is oxidation with potassium permanganate: unsaturated
compounds are oxidized very readily with the breaking of their
.multiple bonds, and the purple colour of the KMn0 4 vanishes.
An important property of unsaturated hydrocarbons is the ability
of their molecules to combine with one another or with molecules
of other unsaturated hydrocarbons (a p olymerization reaction,
p. 170).
Ethylene C2H 4 is a colourless gas with a weak pleasant odour,
quite well soluble in water. Its boiling point is —103.8 °C, and its
freezing point is —169.5 °C. It burns in air with a slightly glowing
flame.
Ethylene is a very important starting material for the prepa
ration of a number of synthetic products, especially of ethyl alcohol,
ethylene oxide, ethylene glycol (antifreeze), polyethylene (p. 171),
and others.
A cetylene G2H 2 is a colourless gas with a characteristic weak
odour. Its boiling and freezing points are —83.8 °C and —80.8 °C,
respectively. Commercial acetylene produced from calcium carbide
has an unpleasant odour due to the impurities in it. Acetylene burns
in air with a greatly smoking flame, liberating a large amount of
heat. This is why a mixture of acetylene and oxygen is widely used
for the welding and cutting of metals (au togenousw elding; the flame
temperature reaches 3150 °C). It is an explosion hazard; a mixture
with air containing from 2.3 to 80.7% acetylene explodes from
a spark. It dissolves with difficulty in water; under a small pressure
(1.2 to 1.5 MPa) it dissolves quite well in acetone (up to 300 volumes)
and is safe in this form.
The action of water on calcium carbide CaC2 (see p. 107) is to
date one of the widespread methods of producing acetylene:
CaC2 + 2H20 CH=CH + Ca(OH)2
A new modern method of producing acetylene is the pyrolysis (con
version at elevated temperatures) of hydrocarbons, chiefly methane:
2CH. 1500 ^ > CH=CH+3H2
A cetylene, likeethylene, isavaluablechemical startingmaterial.
It is usedto produce acetic aldehyde, ethyl alchol, acetic acid,
syntheticrubbers, plastics, andotherproducts.
The investigations conducted by A. Favorsky (1860-1945) and

his pupils in the field of unsaturated hydrocarbons, especially the
alkynes, are of great significance. Favorsky discovered a great
number of various regroupings of the molecules in chemical reactions
and showed how to control these processes.
52. Saturated Cyclic Hydrocarbons

(Cycloalkanes)
V. Markovnikov showed in the eighties of the 19th century that
unlike American petroleum, the petroleum extracted in Baku con
tains mainly cyclic hydrocarbons having five or six carbon atoms
in a ring. The carbon atoms in the molecules of these hydrocarbons
are joined by single bonds as in the molecules of saturated hydro
carbons with an open chain—the alkanes or paraffins, which makes
them similar in their properties to the latter. This is the reason
why such cyclic hydrocarbons are now called cycloparaffins or,
according to the IUPAC systematic nomenclature, cycloalkanes.
They relate to the alicyclic compounds (p. 135).
Examples of cycloalkanes are:
CHa CHa CH*
HSC— CH, H ,C — i l l H,C U,C \ . H - C H .- C H ,
H*C CH2 HaC CR2 H2C

2CM CH*
CH. H,C
H2C I CH—CH,
1
\ / \ / X / \ /
CHt CHa CH2 CH,
cyclopentane m ethyl- cyclo- methyletnylcyclohexane
cyclopentane hexane
53. Aromatic Hydrocarbons

A very important group is formed by the cyclic hydrocarbons of
the aromatic series; the simplest of them are benzene CeH , and its
homologues, for instance toluene (methylbenzene) CeH 4 —CH3 and
ethylbenzene C8H 6 —CHaCHs, whose composition corresponds to
the general formula CnHan_e, and whose structure is customarily
expressed by the formulas
CH CH CH8 CH CH*-CHS
/ \ s \ /
HC CH HC C H ^ V
HC CH HC CH HC CH
V / X / X /
CH CH CH
benzene toluene C7 H 8 ethylbenzene GsHio
C«H«
All these compounds contain a special cyclic grouping of six

carbon atoms—the benzene aromatic ring (nucleus). The structural
formula of the benzene ring with three double and three single bonds
alternating was proposed back in 1865 by the German chemist
A. Kekule. To simplify its writing, the benzene ring is depicted
by a hexagon in which the symbols C and H in the ring are omitted:
CH3 c h 2—ch 3
benzen® toluene ethylbenzene
The monovalent benzene radical C«H5—, or ^ , formed

when a hydrogen atom is detached from any carbon atom of the
benzene ring, is known as phenyl.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are known having m ultiple bonds in their
side chains, for example styrene, and also m ultinuclear ones con
taining several benzene rings, for instance naphthalene and anthra
cene:
CH CH CH CH CH CH
/ \ / / \ / \ / \ / \ / ^
HC C HC c CH H< C C CII
1 II || II 1 1
II
Jc Ib HC c CH HC1 S A L
X / X / \ / \ / \ s \ s
CH CH CH CH CH CH
styrene C«Hs naphthalene CiqH s anthracene C1 4 H 10
e simplified notation:
CH=CH»
/ \ / \ / \
f 'Y fY v I0I 1
1
\ / \ / \^ \ / \ ^ \ /
styrene naphthalene anthracene
Aromatic hydrocarbons are contained in the coal tar produced

in the coking of bituminous coal. Another important source for
obtaining them is the petroleum of some deposits, for example of
the Maikop one (USSR). To meet the enormous demand for aromatic
hydrocarbons, they are also produced by the catalytic aromatc-
zation of the acyclic hydrocarbons of petroleum.
This problem was successfully solved by N. Zelinsky (see Vol. 1,
p. 322) and his pupils B. Kazansky and A. Plate, who converted many
saturated hydrocarbons into aromatic ones. For instance, heptane
C7Hlfl when heated in the presence of a catalyst is converted into
10—2412
toluene:
CH CH8
H
p; 300 °c +4H2
->
C CH
\ / .
^n2 CH
heptane toluene
Aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives are widely used for
the production of plastics, synthetic dyes, medicines and explosives,
synthetic rubbers, and detergents.
Benzene and all the compounds containing the benzene ring were
called aromatic (at the beginning of the 19th century) because the
first representatives of this series to be studied were fragrant sub
stances or compounds separated from natural aromatic substances.
At present, numerous compounds with no pleasant odour, but having
a collection of chemical properties known as aromatic properties,
are also included in this series.
Benzene is a colourless liquid with a characteristic odour. Its
boiling and melting points are 80.1 °C and 5.5 °C, respectively.
The aromatic properties of benzene determined by the features of
its structure are expressed in the relative stability of the benzene
ring notwithstanding the unsaturated composition of benzene. For
example, unlike unsaturated compounds with alkene double bonds,
benzene is stable to the action of oxidizing agents—like the saturated
hydrocarbons, it does not decolourize a solution of potassium per
manganate. Combination reactions are not characteristic of benzene.
Conversely, benzene and the other aromatic compounds enter into
reactions of replacement of hydrogen atoms in the benzene ring.
The most important of these reactions are described below.
Halogenation Reaction. The action of bromine or chlorine (in the
presence of catalysts) results in the formation of halogen derivatives:
Br
+H B r
bromobenzene
Sulphonation Reaction. The action of concentrated sulphuric acid
(with heating) yields sulphonic acids:
H SO*OH
+ | ho - S O sOH — +H *0
sulphuric acid benzene sul

phonic acid
Nitration Reaction. The action of concentrated nitric acid (in the

presence of concentrated H 2 S04) produces nitrocompounds:
H I NO,
/ y - ------- • j /y
|| + L 5 .9 j-N°2-* | || + H*°
%/ %/
nitric acid nitrobenzene
The nitration of toluene yields an explosive—trinitrotoluene
(trotyl):
ch3
0 2N I NO.
N02
Many other aromatic polynitrocompounds (containing three and
more nitro groups —N 02) are also used as explosives. Nitrocom
pounds can be reduced to amines (Sec. 61).
It follows from the above that formula (1) of benzene (see below)
in the form of a ring with alternating double and single bonds (Ke-
kule’s formula) does not accurately express the nature of the bonds
between the carbon atoms in the benzene ring. According to this
formula, benzene must have three localized pi bonds, i.e. three pairs
of pi electrons each of which is fixed in place between two carbon
atoms. If these pi electrons are designated by dots, the structure of
benzene can be represented by formula (2 ):
H H H
| |
\ C. M A. M
H\
^
1
C
II f
C
:l
H H ''
iOi
C ^ S t
H H H
(1 ) (2 ) (3 )
Experiments show, however, that the benzene ring does not have
the usual double bonds alternating with single ones, and that all
the bonds between the carbon atoms in benzene are equivalent. The
length of each of them (0.140 nm) is intermediate between the length
of a single C—G bpnd (0.154 nm) and that of the alkene double bond
C=C (0.134 nm) in other (non-aromatic) organic compounds.
Each of the carbon atoms in the benzene ring is in the state of sp2
hybridization and uses three valence electrons to form sigma bonds
10 *
with the two adjacent carbon atoms and with one hydrogen atom.
All six carbon atoms and all the sigma bonds C—C and C—H are
in one plane (Fig. 27). The cloud of the fourth valence electron of
each of the carbon atoms (i.e. the cloud of the p electron not parti
cipating in hybridization) has the shape of a dumbbell and is oriented
at right angles to the benzene ring plane. Each of such p electron
clouds overlaps above and under the plane of the ring with thep
electron clouds of the two adjacent carbon atoms. This is shown in
Fig. 28a and, in projection, in Fig. 28fe. The density of the pi electron
clouds in benzene is distributed uniformly between all the C—C
bonds. In other words, the six pi electrons are shared by all the
carbon atoms of the ring and form a single annular cloud (an aromatic
electron sextet). This is how the equivalence (levelling out) of the
aromatic bonds giving rise to the characteristic (aromatic) properties
of the benzene ring is explained. The uniform distribution of the
Fig. 27. Formation of sigma bonds in a benzene molecule
h* —<
to w
Fig. 28. Overlapping of pi-electron clouds in a benzene molecule
cloud of pi electrons and the levelling out of the bonds in benzene

are sometimes depicted by formula (3) (see above).
Accordingly, instead of the generally adopted symbol of the ben
zene ring in the form of a hexagon with alternating double and single
bonds corresponding to Kekule’s formula (la), benzene is depicted
by a hexagon with a circle inside (3a):
Figure 29 shows a segment model of a benzene molecule.

From the viewpoint of the method of superposition of valence
(electron dot) formulas, the structure of the benzene molecule repre
sented by formula (3) should be considered as an intermediate one
between the two possible structures of benzene expressed by the
Kekule formulas:
H H
| I
H C H H C I
\ J \ / \ / \ /
c c C G
X
c cII
II
C
1
G
/ \ / \ / \ / \
H C H H C ]
i
1 1
H H
Since in the benzene molecule three electron pairs are shared by

all six carbon atoms of the benzene ring, the bonds they form are
six-centered ones (see Vol. 1,
Sec. 44).
54. Halogen Derivatives

of Hydrocarbons
Halogen derivatives are com

pounds that can be considered
as the products of replacement
of one or more hydrogen atoms
in a hydrocarbon molecule by
halogen atoms. Examples of this class of compounds are given

below.
Methylene dichloride (dichloromethane) CH2 C12 is a liquid boiling
at 40.1 °C. It is used as a solvent.
Chloroform (trichloromethane) CHC13 is a liquid boiling at 61.2 °C.
It is used for narcosis in surgical operations and as a solvent.
Carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane) CC14 is a heavy non
combustible liquid boiling at 76.8 °C. It is used as a solvent in
extracting fats and oils from plants, for removing grease spots from
clothes, and in fire extinguishers.
Difluorodichloromethane (Freon-12) CF2C12 is a liquid boiling at
29.8 °C. It is not poisonous and does not react at room temperature
with metals. When it evaporates, it absorbs a large amount of heat.
It is used (like other Freons—polyfluorochlorohydrocarbons) in
refrigerating installations, and also as a solvent for the formation
of aerosols.
Vinyl chloride CH2 = C H —Cl is a derivative of ethylene. It is
a colourless gas. It is produced by attaching hydrogen chloride to
acetylene. It is readily polymerized and is used for the production
of polyvinyl chloride (p. 172).
Tetrafluoroethylene CF2 =C F 2 is a colourless gas. It is produced
by the pyrolysis of Freon-22 (CHF2C1) and is used in the production
of fiuoroplastics (p. 172).
Some halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons are included in the
composition of poisonous chemicals—chemical means for combatting
harmful insects (insecticides) and fungi infecting plants (fungicides).
55. Alcohols and Phenols

Alcohols are derivatives of saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons
in whose molecules one or several hydrogen atoms are replaced by
hydroxyl groups*. For instance, methyl alcohol (methanol) CH3—OH
is a hydroxyl derivative of methane CH4, ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
CH3 —CH2—OH is a derivative of ethane CH3 —CH3. Derivatives
of aromatic hydrocarbons with the group OH in the benzene ring
are called phenols. For instance, phenol C6H5—OH (or<^ ^ -O H ),
a derivative of benzene C0 H e, is the simplest representative of the
class of phenols.
Like water molecules (see Vol. 1, Sec. 70), the molecules of the
lower alcohols are joined to one another by hydrogen bonds. Hence,
* The alcohols also include the derivatives of cycloalkanes (for example,
cyclohexanol C6Hn OH—a derivative of cyclohexane C6H12), and the derivatives
of aromatic hydrocarbons containing the OH group in a side chain instead of in
the benzene ring (for example, the aromatic benzyl alcohol C6H5—CH2— OH is a
derivative of toluene C6H5—CH3).
they are associated liquids and have higher boiling points than the
hydrocarbons whose derivatives they are, and than other organic
substances having the same composition and molecular mass, but
not containing hydroxyl groups. Phenols in ordinary conditions,
aS a rule, are crystals.
A common property of alcohols and phenols is the mobility of
the hydroxyl group hydrogen. For instance, when an alcohol is
reacted with an alkali metal, this hydrogen is replaced by the metal,
and solid compounds are produced called alcoholates that are soluble
in alcohol. An example is:
2CH3—CH2—OH + 2Na 2CH3—CHa—ONa+H2 \
ethyl alcohol sodium alcoholate
(ethylate)
Formally, such a reaction reminds one of the formation of salts
from acids, but alcoholates are similar to salts of very weak acids
and are completely hydrolyzed by water to form an alcohol and an
alkali again:
CH3—CHa— ONa+HaO CH3—CHa—OH + NaOH
This is the reason why no alcoholates are formed when alcohols
react with aqueous solutions of alkalies.
In phenols, the mobility of the hydroxyl group hydrogen is higher
under the influence of the aromatic benzene ring. They form metal
derivatives—phenolates—not only when reacted with alkali metals,
but also, unlike alcohols, when reacted with alkalies:
^ ^ — OH + NaOH 0 N a + H 20
phenol sodium phenolate
Phenolates, unlike alcoholates, are not decomposed by water,
but in aqueous solutions they too, like salts of weak acids and strong
bases, are partly hydrolyzed, and their solutions have an alkaline
reaction. A phenol is displaced from a phenolate even by carbonic
acid.
Alcohols are essentially not electrolytes. The dissociation constant
of ethyl alcohol is close to 1 0 "18, whereas the dissociation constant
of water is close to 1 0 "16, i.e. ethyl alcohol is a weaker acid than
water. The dissociation constant of phenol is somewhat higher
(1.3 X 10-10).
Alcohols and phenols react with acids to form esters, for example:
C H 3 -0 ^ r S T H 0 ;U N 0 a CH8—O—NOa+ H aO
m ethyl nitric m ethyl ester of nitric acid
alcohol acid (methyl nitrate)
Of special interest are the esters of alcohols and phenols with
organic acids (see Sec. 59).
Alcohols are oxidized considerably more easily than the relevant
hydrocarbons. Here aldehydes or ketones are formed (p. 155).
Methyl alcohol or methanol CH3OH is a colourless liquid boiling

at 64.5 °C. I t is very poisonous: small oral doses of it cause blindness,
and large ones—death. Methyl alcohol is synthesized in large quan
tities from carbon dioxide and hydrogen at a high pressure (2 0 -
30 MPa) and temperature (400 °C) in the presence of a catalyst (about
90% ZnO and 10> Cr2 Os):
CO + 2H2 CHgOH
Methyl alcohol is also formed in the dry distillation of wood;
this is why it is also known as wood alcohol. It is used as a solvent,
and for producing other organic substances.
Ethyl alcohol or ethanol CH3CH2OH (boiling point 78.4 °C) is
one of the most important starting substances in the modern industry
of organic synthesis. It has been prepared from time immemorial
using various sugar-containing substances such as grape sugar or
glucose that transforms into ethyl alcohol by “fermentation” caused
by ferments (enzymes) produced by yeast fungi. The reaction follows
the formula
C6H120 6 — 2C2H60H + 2C02f
glucose ethyl
alcohol
Glucose is contained, for example, in the free state in grape juice,

upon whose fermentation grape wine containing from 8 to 16%
alcohol is obtained.
The starting material for the production of alcohol may be the
polysaccharide starch (p. 164) contained, for instance, in the tubers
of potatoes, and in the grain of rye, wheat, and corn. To convert
the starch into saccharide substances (glucose), it is first hydrolyzed.
For this purpose, flour or crushed potatoes are scalded with hot water
and cooled. After this, malt—germinated barley grains that are
dried and then ground with water—is added. The malt contains
diastase (a complex mixture of enzymes) that catalyzes the sacchar-
ization of the starch. Upon completion of the saccharization, yeast is
added to the liquid obtained, and its enzyme (zimase) causes alcohol
to be formed. It is distilled off and then purified by redistillation.
At present, another polysaccharide—cellulose, which forms the
main part of wood, is also saccharized. To do this, cellulose is hy
drolyzed in the presence of acids (for example, sawdust is treated at
150-170 °C with 0.1-5% sulphuric acid under a pressure of 0.7-
1.5 MPa). The product also contains glucose and is fermented into
alcohol with the aid of yeast (hydrolysis alcohol).
Finally, ethyl alcohol can be prepared synthetically from ethylene.
The net reaction consists in the addition of water to ethylene (in
the presence of catalysts):
CHa=C H a+ H aO CH3—CH*—OH
Recent years have seen the construction of plants synthesizing

ethyl alcohol from ethylene and an increase in the production of
alcohol from wood in the USSR. This made it possible to save a large
amount of food products*.
In addition to alcohols with one hydroxyl group in a molecule
(monatomic alcohols), alcohols are known whose molecules contain
several hydroxyl groups (polyatomic alcohols).
Examples are the diatom ic alcohol ethylene glycol and the triatom ic
alcohol glycerine (glycerol):
c h 2— c h 2 ch 2—c h — ch 2
OH OH OH OH
ethylene glycerine
glycol
Ethylene glycol and glycerine are high-boiling liquids with a

sweet taste mixing with water in any proportions. Ethylene glycol
is used as a component of antifreezes, i.e. substances having a low
freezing point and replacing water in the radiators of motor vehicles
and aircraft in cold weather. An aqueous solution of ethylene glycol
(58%) freezes only at —50 °C. Ethylene glycol is also employed for
the preparation of the synthetic fibre Lavsan (Dacron or Terylene,
p. 176). I t is very poisonous when taken orally.
The nitric ethers ot ethylene glycol and glycerine
whose trivial names are nitroethylene glycol and nitroglycerine,

are strong explosives and are used in the manufacture of dynamites.
Phenol C6H5OH forms colourless crystals melting at 41 °C. It has
a characteristic odour and antiseptic (disinfecting—suppressing
the development of harmful microorganisms) properties. We have
already indicated that the acid properties of hydroxyl hydrogen are
displayed much more strongly in phenol than in alcohols; this hydro
gen can be replaced with a metal not only in reactions with alkali
metals, but also with alkalies. For this reason, phenol is also known
as carbolic acid.
Phenol is contained in coal tar, and is also prepared synthetically
from benzene. It is used in large amounts for the synthesis of drugs,
dyes, plastics (phenolic plastics, p. 175), and for purifying petro
leum lubricating oils.
* From 5500 tonnes of dry sawdust (the residues of a medium capacity

sawmill during a year), it is possible to produce 790 tonnes of alcohol (reduced to
the 100% product). This allows about 3000 tonnes of grain or 10 000 tonnes of
potatoes to be saved.
56. Ethers
Ethers are defined as organic compounds whose molecules consist
of two hydrocarbon radicals joined by an oxygen atom. They are
usually prepared catalytically by detaching a molecule of water
from two molecules of the same or different alcohols. For example:
C2H5—|‘0 H + iT j0 --C 2H6 C2H5- - 0 - C 2H5+ H 20
ethyl ethyl diethyl ether
alcohol alcohol
CH o h + h ] o - c 2h 5 c h 3- o - c2h 5+ h 2o
methyl ethyl methyl-ethyl
alcohol alcohol ether
Most ethers are liquids almost insoluble in water. They are quite
inert in a chemical respect: unlike alcohols, they have no mobile
hydrogen, therefore they do not react with metallic sodium; unlike
esters (see Sec. 59), they do not become hydrolyzed. The most impor
tant of the ethers is diethyl ether (C2 H 5 )2 0 —a mobile liquid with
a characteristic odour boiling at 35.6 °C. It is widely used as a sol
vent, and in medicine for narcosis and as a constituent of certain
drugs.*
57. Aldehydes and Ketones

Molecules of these compounds contain the divalent carbonyl group
y C = 0 . In aldehydes, it is joined to one H atom and to a hydro
carbon radical1", and in ketones to two hydrocarbon radicals:
0 0
/
H -C ch 3- c
\
H H
formic aldehyde acetic aldehyde
(formaldehyde) (acetaldehyde)
ch3 ch3
\ \
c=o c=o
/ /
ch3 ch 3—c h 2
dim ethyl ketone m ethyl-ethyl ketone
(acetone)
The presence of the carbonyl group in both aldehydes and ketones
underlies the definite similarity of their properties. There are also
differences, however, associated with the fact that one of the bonds
of the carbonyl group in aldehyde molecules is used for joining
hydrogen. Therefore, they contain a special aldehyde functional
* In formic aldehyde, the carbonyl group is joined to two hydrogen atoms
group (or —C H =0). Aldehydes are very readily oxidized
at the expense of the hydrogen of this group and transform into

carboxylic acids (see the following section). For instance, when
acetic aldehyde is oxidized, acetic acid is formed, which is widely
used in industry and domestically:
o 0
/ /
2CHg—C + 0* 2CH,—C
H OH
acetic aldehyde acetic acid
Owing to their property of being readily oxidized, aldehydes are

vigorous reducing agents; in this they appreciably differ from ketones,
which are oxidized much more difficultly. For example, aldehydes
reduce silver(I) oxide to metallic silver (the “silver mirror” reaction—
the silver is deposited on the walls of the vessel forming a mirror
coating) and copper(IX) oxide to copper(I) oxide*:
O 0
f /
CH3—C + Ag20 CH3—C +2Ag
H OH
0 0
CHa—C + 2CuO CHg-C +C u 20

X \
H OH
Ketones are not oxidized in these conditions, therefore the two

reactions are used as qualitative ones allowing aldehydes to be
distinguished from ketones.
Aldehydes and ketones can be prepared by oxidizing the relevant
alcohols, i.e. those having the same carbon skeleton and the hydroxyl
group at the carbon atom that forms the carbonyl group in the aide***
hyde or ketone produced. For example:
3CH3—CH2OH + K2Cr20 7+ 4H2S04 ->*
ethyl alcohol
* Silver(I) oxide is generally used for these reactions in the form of its colour
less solution in aqueous ammonia. Such a solution contains the complex com
pound [Ag(NH3)2]OH. The copper(II) oxide is taken in the form of an alkaline
solution of its complex compound with tartaric acid (Fehling’s solution—a blue
solution); the copper(I) oxide precipitates as a red sediment; the blue colour of
the reagent vanishes.
-> 3CH8—C + Cr2(S04)*+ K2S04+ 7H20

H
acetic aldehyde
5CH8—CH—CH3+ 2KMn04+ 3H 2S04 ->
I
OH
Isopropyl alcohol
5CH,—C—CHg + 2MnS04+ KaS04+ 8H20
II
0
dimethyl ketone
(acetone)
Formic aldehyde, or formaldehyde CH2= 0 is a gas with a sharp
unpleasant odour that is well soluble in water. It has antiseptic and
also tanning properties. An aqueous solution of formaldehyde (usually
40%) is called formalin. It is widely used for disinfection, preserving
anatomical preparations, for treating seeds before sowing, etc.
Considerable amounts of formaldehyde are used to prepare phenol-
formaldehyde resins (p. 175). Formaldehyde is produced from methyl
alcohol by catalytically oxidizing it with the oxygen of the air
or by dehydrogenation (the detachment of hydrogen):
2CH8—OH + 0 2 2CHa=^0 + 2H20
CH8—OH CHa= 0 + H2
These reactions proceed when methyl alcohol vapour (in the first
case mixed with air) is passed over heated catalysts.
Acetic aldehyde, or acetaldehyde, CH3 —C H = 0, is a low-boiling
colourless liquid (boiling point 21 °C) with a characteristic odour
of rotten apples, well soluble in water. In industry, it is prepared
by adding water to acetylene in the presence of mercury(II) salts as
a catalyst:
Hg2+
c h = c h + h 2o ------ > ch 3—c h = o
acetylene acetic aldehyde
This reaction, which is of great practical significance, was dis
covered by M. Kucherov (1850-1911). Acetic aldehyde can then be
oxidized to acetic acid; it is also used for many other syntheses.
Acetone, or dimethylketone, CH3 —CO—CH3, is a colourless
liquid with a characteristic odour boiling at 56.2 °G. It mixes with
water in any proportions. It is a very good solvent for many organic
substances. It is widely used in the paint, lacquer, and varnish
industry, in the production of some kinds of artificial fibre, shatter
proof organic glass, motion picture films, smokeless powder, and
for dissolving acetylene (in cylinders).
Acetone is also used as the starting substance for the synthesis
of a number of organic compounds.
58. Carboxylic Acids

These compounds are characterized by the presence in the relevant
0
molecules of the carboxyl group (carboxyl) —C " , or simpler
x OH
—COOH, which is the functional group of this class of compounds.
Examples of these acids are:
0 0 0
/ / /
H -C CHg—G CHo—CHa—C
X \ \
OH OH OH
formic acetic propanoic
acid acid acid
Inspection of the above formulas shows that the complex carboxyl

group is a combination of the carbonyl — and hydroxyl —OH
groups. The latter under the influence of the carbonyl group differs
appreciably from the hydroxyl group of alcohols, and the hydrogen
in it detaches in the form of a cation in aqueous solutions. Carboxylic
acids undergo electrolytic dissociation, for example:
CHS—COOH ** CHS—COO- + H+
These acids form salts with bases:

CHj-COOH+NaOH — CHS—C 00N a+ H ,0
sodium
acetate
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, consequently their salts undergo

reversible hydrolysis. Depending on the number of carboxyl groups
iu a molecule, carboxylic acids are divided into monobasic, dibasic,
etc. acids.
Carboxylic acids, like inorganic acids, produce esters with alcohols
(see the following section), and they are often encountered in this
form in natural products.
Acetic acid CH3—COOH (anhydrous) is a liquid with a pungent
irritating odour boiling at 118.1 °C. At +16.7 °C, it freezes into
a crystalline mass resembling ice (1 0 0 %, or “glacial” acetic acid).
It mixes with water in any proportions. It is widely used as a con
diment and a preservative. It is sold for domestic use in the form
of an 80 % (vinegar essence) and 9 % (vinegar) aqueous solution. Th©
long known natural or wine vinegar is a product containing acetic
acid and obtained in the souring of grape vine (as a result of the
microbiological oxidation of the ethyl alcohol contained in the

wine). Acetic acid is also used in many syntheses and as a solvent.
At present, both domestic and technical acetic acid is chiefly syn
thesized from acetylene—by adding water to it according to the
Kucherov reaction (see above) and oxidizing the acetaldehyde
formed.
Higher Fatty Acids. These acids include saturated and unsaturated
carboxylic acids with a straight carbon atom chain containing 16,
18, and more carbon atoms; natural fats contain acids of this kind
(see the following section). The most important of them are the
following saturated acids: palmitic acid C15 H 31COOH, or
CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH, and stearic acid G17H 35 COOH, or CH3 (CH2)16COOH,
and also the unsaturated oleic acid C17H 33 COOH, or CH3 (CH2 )7CH=
=CH(CH 2 )7COOH. The higher saturated acids are wax-like sub
stances, and the unsaturated ones are liquids (resembling vegetable
oil). The sodium and potassium salts of the higher fatty acids are
called soaps (for instance, C17 H 36 COONa—sodium stearate,
C15 H 31COOK—potassium palmitate, etc.). Sodium soaps are solid,
and potassium ones, liquid. ___
Benzoic acid C6H 5 —COOH, or ^ COOH, is the simplest
monobasic acid of the aromatic series. It forms colourless crystals
(plates) melting at 121.5 °C. It is an antiseptic. It is used for pre
serving food products, and also in many organic syntheses.
Oxalic (ethanedioic) acid HOOC—COOH is the simplest dibasic
carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline substance (the anhydrous acid
melts at 189 °C, and the dihydrate C2H 20 4 -2H20 at 101.5 °C). It
dissolves in water, and is poisonous. It is contained in many plants
in the form of the potassium hydrogen salt. It is used in dyeing
fabrics.
Terephthalic acid HOOC—C6 H4—COOH is a dibasic carboxylic
acid of the aromatic series. Its structural formula is:
0 0
OB' \> H
The synthetic fibre Lavsan (Terylene, Dacran) (see Sec. 63) is
produced from terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol (see Sec. 55).
Lactic acid CHS—CH—COOH is an example of compounds with
I
OH
mixed functional groups—it exhibits the properties of an acid and
an alcohol (an alcohol-acid). It is formed in the lactic fermentation
of sugar-containing substances caused by special bacteria. It is
contained in sour milk, the brine of sauerkraut, and siloed fodder.
Salicylic acid HO—CflH4—COOH is the analogue of lactic acid

in the aromatic series. It has the structure
,OH
y✓---- vs— c/
yO
' XOH
It belongs to compounds w ith m ixed functional groups—it
exhibits the properties of an acid and a phenol (a phenol-acid).
It is an antiseptic. It is used (especially its salts and esters) as a
drug, and also in many syntheses.
59. Carboxylic Acid Esters. Fats

The products of the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols or
phenols are esters. For instance:
0 0
H -C S ____ + .... i h o- c 2h 6 ** h - c + h 20
N I OH oc2h 5
formic ethyl ethyl ester

acid alcohol of formic
acid (ethyl formate)
CHa- h 2o
x \ = /
acetic phenol phenyl ester
acid of acetic acid
(phenyl acetate)
The reaction of formation of an ester from an acid and an alcohol

(or phenol) is called an esterification reaction. It is catalyzed by
hydrogen ions and is therefore accelerated in the presence of mineral
acids.
Esters are insoluble (or almost insoluble) in water, but dissolve
in organic solvents. Their solutions do not conduct an electric
current.
Esters, unlike ethers, are decomposed by water at a certain rate—
they are hydrolyzed with the formation of an acid and an alcohol (or
phenol) again. Consequently, as shown in the equations of the above
reactions, esterification is reversible and reaches a state of dynamic
equilibrium. Hydrogen ions, like any catalyst (see Vol. 1 , Sec. 60),
accelerate not only the esterification reaction, but also the reverse
reaction of hydrolysis. Hence, equilibrium in esterification is reached
more rapidly in the presence of a mineral acid.
The hydrolysis of esters is increased by hydroxide ions. When
heated with alkalies, esters decompose to form an alcohol (or phenol)
and a salt of the acid:

.0 ,0
CH3—C f + NaOH C H s-G f + C2 H6OH
X 0CaH, N 0Na
ethyl ester sodium
of acetic acid acetate
(ethyl acetate)
The reaction of the alkaline hydrolysis of esters is known as a

saponification reaction.
Many esters of carboxylic acids and saturated alcohols have
a pleasant odour and are often encountered in plants, imparting
a fragrance to flowers, and an aroma to fruit and berries. Some of
the esters are produced artificially and under the name of “fruit
essences” are widely used in confectionery, in the manufacture of
soft beverages, and in the perfume industry. Isoamyl acetate
CHaCOOCsHu (oil of pears) is used as a solvent of celluloid and
other plastics.
Fats. Natural animal and vegetable fats (the latter are customarily
called oils) are mixtures of esters formed by the higher, fatty acids
(see the preceding section) and the triatomic alcohol glycerine.
Below is shown the formation of the ester of glycerine and stearic
acid:
CH2—0 l H HO 1—CO—C1?H„ CHt —0 —CO—CmH3,
c!h —0 IH + HO GO—C17Hs5 -+• dlH—0 —CO—C17H „ + 3 H ,0
1
1h HO UCO— CH.—0 —CO—C.iH»»
o
X
1
The composition of solid fats mainly includes esters of the saturat

ed (palmitic and stearic) acids and that of liquid vegetable oils,
esters of an unsaturated (oleic) acid. Hydrogen (in the presence of
nickel as a catalyst) causes liquid fats to transform into solid ones
owing to the attachment of hydrogen at the place of the double bond
between the carbon atoms in the esterified molecules of the unsat
urated acid. This process is known as the hydrogenation or solidi
fication of fats and is used, for instance, to produce margarine,
employed as a substitute of butter, from vegetable oils.
Like all esters, fats are liable to hydrolysis (saponification). The
hydrolysis of fats, which proceeds slowly by itself, is catalyzed
by strong acids and enzymes formed in living organisms. Alkalies
also facilitate the hydrolysis of fats.
When a fat is hydrolyzed in a neutral or acid medium, the products
are glycerine and the acids indicated above, while when it is hy
drolyzed in an alkaline medium, the products include the salts of
the free acids—soaps (see the preceding section) instead of the free
acids themselves.
Some oils, for example linseed oil, consist of esters of glycerine

and unsaturated higher acids whose molecules contain two or three
double bonds each (“highly saturated” or “polysaturated” fatty
acids). Such oils are oxidized in air and when applied to a surface
form solid and strong films. They are called drying oils. To speed up
the drying process, the oils are preliminarily boiled with an addition
of siccatives—oxides of metals (cobalt, manganese, or lead) that
are catalysts in the process of film formation. This is how the drying
oil used in the manufacture of oil paints is obtained.
Fats are used for many technical purposes. But of especially great
significance is their use as an important constituent part of the food
ration of man and animals in addition to carbohydrates (see the
following section) and proteins (see Sec. 62). The discontinuation
of the use of food fats in engineering and their replacement with
non-edible substances is one of the very important problems of the
national economy.
60. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and substances converted into them
in hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are products of a vegetable and animal
origin. In addition to proteins and fats, they are a very important
constituent part of the food of man and animals; many of them are
used as a technical raw material. Carbohydrates are classified into
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates. They do not
lend themselves to hydrolysis—they are not decomposed by water
into simpler carbohydrates.
Glucose, or grape sugar, C6 H 1 2 0 6, is the most important of the
monosaccharides. It forms white crystals with a sweet taste that
readily dissolve in water. It is contained in grape juice, in many
kinds of fruit, and also in the blood of man and animals. Muscular
work is done chiefly at the expense of the energy evolved when
glucose is oxidized.
Glucose is a hexatomic aldehyde-alcohol; its structure can be
represented by formula (a):
H H OH H 0 H H OH 0
»5 |* lj h 1 // * Is I* Is II2 ■>
HOCH — c —c — c —c — c HOCHt- C - C - C - C - c h , oh
2 1 * 1* 1* r xh I I I
OH OH H OH OH OH H
glucose fructose
(a) (b)
Glucose is obtained in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharides
starch and cellulose (under the action of enzymes or mineral acids).
*1-2412
It is used to provide a high-caloric diet or as a medicine, in the

finishing of fabrics, and as a reducing agent in the manufacture
of mirrors.
Fructose, or fruit sugar, C6H 12 Ofl, is a monosaccharide that accom
panies glucose in many fruit and berry juices. It is much sweeter
than glucose. Honey contains a mixture of these two monosaccha
rides. It is a hexatomic ketone-alcohol; its structure is expressed
by formula (6 ) given above.
The formulas of glucose (a) and fructose (b) show the relative
spatial arrangement of the H atoms and OH groups at the asym
metrical (p. 131) carbon atoms (marked with an asterisk) in the
carbon chain characteristic of these monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides, being aldehyde- or ketone-alcohols, are com
pounds with mixed functional groups. Their nature is made more
complicated by the possibility of intramolecular reactions between
the alcohol hydroxyl groups and the aldehyde or ketone carbonyl
group. As a result, monosaccharides exist and enter into a reaction
not only in the straight-chain form, but also in cyclic forms. The
carbon chain of a monosaccharide, for instance glucose (a), can take
on the conformation (p. 126) of a “claw” (see formula c below); the
first carbon atom carrying the carbonyl group approaches the alcohol
group at the fifth carbon atom; the hydrogen atom from the OH
group moves (as shown by the dotted arrow) to the carbonyl oxygen,
while the oxygen at the fifth carbon atom combines with the first
(carbonyl) carbon atom (this is also shown by a dotted arrow). As
a result, the six-menibered ring containing an oxygen atom closes.
In this way, two cyclic alpha- and beta-forms of glucose are produced
that differ in the spatial arrangement of the H atom and the OH
group at the first carbon atom (which becomes asymmetrical in the
ring). This can be depicted by the perspective formulas*:
®ch 2oh «CH2OH 6 CH.OH
I r Ov OH
H H H JCL— OH H
6
I5 O
9 * OH9 r C -fo tJ 1 H J j p
I \l 3 2l la 21
HO NC----C OH HO, V — ^ HO NC— CT H
H OH H OH H OH
(c)
glucose glucose glucose
cyclic alpha-form straight-chain cyclic beta-form
carbonyl form
Perspective formulas are more often written in a simplified way,
without the symbols of the C’s forming the ring and the H’s bonded
* In perspective formulas, the atoms forming a ring are arranged, as it
were, in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the plane of the drawing; the thick
lines designate the bonds between the atoms of the ring extending forward to*
wards the observer.
to thorn-
glucose glucose glucose

alpha-form straight-chain beta-form
form
The formulas of the cyclic forms show (the dotted arrow) that
the reverse transition of the H atom from the OH group at the first
carbon atom to the oxygen of the ring is possible. The ring opens,
and the straight-chain form is produced.
Natural crystalline glucose (grape sugar) is the cyclic alpha-form
(the melting point of the monohydrate is 83 °C, and of the anhydrous
form is 146 °C). When dissolved in water, it transforms into the
straight-chain form, as shown above in the formula, and through
it to the beta-form; dynamic equilibrium sets in between all the
forms*. The beta-form can also be separated in the crystalline state
(its melting point is 148-150 °C). In an aqueous solution, it also
produces an equilibrium system containing all the forms. The
straight-chain form exists only in solutions, in very small amounts
(fractions of a per cent), and has not been separated in the free state.
Isomeric forms of compounds capable of transforming into one
another are called tautomeric forms, or tautomers, and their very
existence is known as the phenomenon of tautomerism; it is quite
widespread among organic compounds.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates that when heated with water
in the presence of mineral acids or under the influence of enzymes
become hydrolyzed and decompose into two monosaccharide mole
cules.
Beet, or cane sugar (saccharose), C12 H 22 On , is the most important
of the disaccharides. It is produced from sugar beets (containing up
to 28% saccharose of the dry matter) or from sugar cane (whence
the names occur). It is also contained in the sap of birch and maple
trees and in some kinds of fruit. Saccharose is a very valuable food
product. It hydrolyzes into a molecule of glucose and one of fructose
{the mixture of these monosaccharides formed is called inverted
sugar):
C1 2 H 2 2 O1 1 “I” H20 —
>- C6 H1 2 0 6 -f- C6 H1 2 Oe
saccharose glucose fructose
* In an equilibrium system of monosaccharides, their cyclic forms with a
ftve-membered oxygen-containing ring are also produced. They are unstable and
have not been recovered in the free crystalline state. But many natural and
synthetic compounds that are derivatives of five-membered cyclic forms of
the monosaccharides are known (see textbooks on organic chemistry).
II*
Polysaccharides. These carbohydrates differ in many respects

from mono- and disaccharides—-they have no sweet taste, and most
of them are insoluble in water. They are complex high-molecular
compounds that hydrolyze under the catalytic influence of acids or
enzymes with the formation of simpler polysaccharides, then disac
charides, and, in the long run, a multitude (hundreds and thousands)
of molecules of monosaccharides. The most important representatives
of the polysaccharides are starch and cellulose. Their molecules are
built up of the units —C6 H 10 O5—. These are residues of six-mem-
bered cyclic forms of glucose molecules that have lost a water mole
cule. Hence, the composition of both starch and cellulose is expressed
by the general formula (C#H10 O5)x. The difference between the prop
erties of these polysaccharides is due to the spatial isomerism of
the monosaccharide molecules forming them: starch is built up
of units of the alpha-form, and cellulose of units of the beta-form
of glucose (see textbooks on organic chemistry).
Starch (CeHÔs)* is a white (granulated in a microscope) powder
insoluble in cold water; in hot water it swells and forms a colloidal
solution (starch paste); when treated with an iodine solution, it
becomes blue (a characteristic reaction). Starch molecules are not
uniform in size—the value of x in them fluctuates from hundreds
to 1000-5000 and more.
Starch is formed as a result of photosynthesis in the leaves of
plants; it is also deposited “as a reserve” in tubers, roots, and grains.
In the digestive tract of man and animals, starch is hydrolyzed
and transforms into glucose, which is assimilated by the orga
nism.
In industry, starch is converted into glucose (the saccharification
process) by boiling it for several hours with dilute sulphuric acid
(the catalytic influence of sulphuric acid on the saccharification
of starch was discovered in 1811 by the Russian scientist K. Kirch-
hoff). The acid is removed from the solution by adding chalk to it,
which forms insoluble calcium sulphate with the acid. The sulphate
is filtered off, and the solution is evaporated. The thick sweet mass
obtained, known as starch molasses, contains a considerable amount
of the products of starch hydrolysis in addition to glucose. Molasses
is used to prepare confectionary products and for a variety of tech
nical purposes.
When pure glucose is needed, the starch is boiled longer, which
converts it more completely into glucose. The solution obtained after
neutralization and filtration is condensed until glucose crystals
begin to precipitate from it.
If dry starch is heated to 200-250 °C, it partly decomposes, and
the result is a mixture of less complex polysaccharides than starch
called dextrin. The latter is used for finishing fabrics and for pro
ducing glue. The transformation of starch into dextrin explains the
formation of the shiny crust on baked bread, and also the lustre of
starched linen.
Cellulose (CeHÔg)* is a fibrous substance, the main constituent
of the shells of plant cells. The value of x in cellulose molecules is
usually about 3000, but it may reach 6000 to 12 000. The purest
natural cellulose—cotton fibre—contains from 85 to 90% cellulose.
The wood of softwood species contains about 50% of cellulose (wood,
in addition to cellulose, contains its companions, the most important
of which are lig n in — a natural polymer built up of several aromatic
oxygen-containing compounds of the benzene series, and hem i-
celluloses— other polysaccharides that are relatives of cellulose).
Cellulose is very important. It is sufficient to mention that an
enormous amount of cotton fibre is used to manufacture cotton
fabrics. Cellulose is used to make paper and cardboard, and by
chemical processing—a great variety of products such as artificial
fibre, plastics, varnishes, smokeless powder, and ethyl alcohol (see
p. 152).
The most widespread industrial method of separating cellulose
from wood consists in the treatment of wood pulp at an elevated
temperature and pressure with a solution of calcium hydrogen sul
phite Ca(HS03)2. The wood decomposes, the lignin in it passes into
solution, while the cellulose remains unchanged. Next the cellulose
is separated from the solution, washed with water, dried, and deliv-
9 red for further processing. The cellulose produced in this way is
often called sulphite cellulose.
Cellulose does not dissolve in water, diethyl ether, and ethyl
alcohol, it does not decompose under the influence of dilute acids,
and is stable to the action of alkalies and weak oxidizing agents.
When treated in the cold with concentrated sulphuric acid, cel
lulose dissolves in it to form a viscous solution. If this solution is
poured into an excess of water, a white flaky product is formed
known as amyloid, which is partly hydrolyzed cellulose. It is similar
lo starch in its reaction with iodine (a blue colour; cellulose does
not give this reaction). If unsized paper is dipped for a short time
into concentrated sulphuric acid and then immediately rinsed, the
amyloid thus formed cements the paper fibres together, making it
denser and stronger. This is how parchment paper is made.
Upon the prolonged treatment of cellulose with concentrated solu
tions of mineral acids, it hydrolyzes when heated, the product being
glucose.
Cellulose molecules contain alcohol hydroxyl groups: each glucose
residue contains three such groups, and the formula of cellulose can
be written as [C0 H 7 O2 (OH)3 ]a;. Consequently, both ethers and esters
can be prepared from it.
The esters of cellulose and nitric acid—cellulose nitrates (nitro
cellulose)— may have the composition [C6H 7 0 2 (0H) 2 (0N 0 2)I*,
[C0 H7 O2 (OH)(ONO2)2]*, and lC6 H 7 0 2 (0N 02)3]ac. They are used to

produce smokeless powder (pyroxyline), celluloid, nitrolacquers, etc.
The acetic acid esters of cellulose (cellulose acetates, or acetyl cellu
lose), for example [CgH^ÔCOCH^g]*, are used to produce incom
bustible photographic and cinema films, various transparent plas
tics, and lacquers.
Of great industrial significance is the chemical processing of
cellulose into artificial fibre (p. 177).
Artificial fibre is produced from cellulose in three ways: by the
viscose, acetate, and copper-ammonia methods.
In the viscose method, cellulose is treated with sodium hydroxide,
and then with carbon disulphide. The orange mass formed, referred
to as xanthogenate, is dissolved in a weak solution of sodium hydrox
ide to produce viscose. The latter is forced through special caps
with minute apertures (spinnerets) into a precipitation bath contain
ing an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid. As a result of reacting
with the sulphuric acid, the alkali is neutralized, and the viscose
decomposes, detaching the carbon disulphide and forming lustrous
threads of cellulose of a somewhat modified composition. These
threads are viscose fibre (viscose rayon).
In the acetate method, a solution of cellulose acetate in acetone
is forced through spinnerets towards a counterflow of warm air.
The acetone evaporates, and the jets of the solution transform into
very thin threads—acetate fibre.
A less widespread method is the copper-ammonia one in which
a characteristic property of cellulose is used, namely, its ability to
dissolve in an ammonia solution of copper(II) oxide, [Cu(NH3 )4 ](OH) 2
(Schweizer’s reagent). The cellulose is again separated from
this solution by acids. The fibre threads are produced by forcing
the copper-ammonia solution through spinnerets into a precipitation
bath containing an acid solution.
61. Amines
These organic compounds are derivatives of ammonia. They can
be considered as the products of replacement of one, two, or all
three hydrogen atoms in the ammonia molecule by hydrocarbon
radicals:
H H ch3 ch3
j j J
h —n : c h s- n : CHg—n : c h 3- n :
i
i 1
H h H ch3
ammonia methyl dimethyl trimethyl
amine amine amine
Amines are organic bases. At the expense of the free (unshared)
pair of electrons belonging to the nitrogen atom, their molecules,
like the ammonia one (Vol. 1, p. 135) can gain protons, detaching
them for instance, from water or acid molecules. Amines form com-
plex hydroxides with water, and substituted ammonium salts

vvith acid:
H H
I
CH3- N : + H - O - H CHS—N—H OH”
I
H H
methyl ammonium hydroxide
CH3 CH3 ~+
c h 3—n : + h —ci CH.—N—H cr
H I
dim ethyl ammonium chloride
Amines of the fatty series containing simple hydrocarbon radicals

are encountered in the products of protein decomposition.
Of great industrial significance are the aromatic amines containing
aromatic hydrocarbon radicals. The most important of them is
aniline C6 H 5 —NH2. It is prepared by reducing nitrobenzene in the
presence of a catalyst:
" > - n o 2 + 3h 2 ^ ____ ^>—n h 2+ 2 H j,o
nitrobenzene aniline
This reaction was discovered in 1842 by N. Zinin and is known
as the Zinin reaction. It is hard to overestimate the significance of
this discovery. Aniline and other aromatic amines prepared in
a similar way from various nitrocompounds are used in the pro
duction of numerous synthetic dyes, drugs, photographic reagents,
plastics, explosives, and other valuable materials.
Nikolai Nikolayevich Zinin, a
prominent Russian chemist and the
founder of the famous Kazan
school of organic chemists, was horn
in 1812. His scientific and pedago
gical activities were first associated
with the Kazan University, where
in 1842 he discovered the reaction of
aniline preparation. A small
amount of this substance
prepared personally by Zinin has
been carefully kept up to the
present time at the chemical
laboratory of the university. In
1847, Zinin moved to Petersburg,
Nikolai Nikolayevich Zinin where he headed a department at
(1812-1880) the Academy of Medicine and
Surgery, and in 1865 he was elected a member of the Russian

Academy of Sciences.
In addition to the synthesis of aniline, Zinin conducted a number
of other organic syntheses that were of great practical
significance.
Zinin was the first president of the Russian Chemical Society
founded in 1868 (it is now the All-Union Mendeleev
Chemical Society).
62. Amino Adds and Profeins

Of great biological significance are amino acids—compounds with
mixed functional groups—which like amines contain amino groups
—NHa and simultaneously, like acids, contain carboxyl groups
—COOH. The simplest compounds exemplifying amino acids are
amino acetic acid, or glycine, and amino propionic acid, or alanine.
The structure of other natural amino acids of this type can be repre
sented by the general formula given below (where R is a hydrocarbon
radical that may also contain various functional groups):
CHS R
HaN—c h 2 H2 N -C H —i
glycine general formula

of natural amino
acids
Amino acids are amphoteric compounds: they form salts witli

bases (at the expense of the carboxyl group) and with acids (at the
expense of the amino group).
The hydrogen ion detaching itself in dissociation from the carbo
xyl of an amino acid can transfer to its amino group with the for
mation of an ammonium grouping. Hence, amino acids also exist
and enter into reactions in the form of bipolar ions (intra-salls);
R R
h 4 n —Ah —COOH ** h 8 n +—Ah —COO"
amino acid bipolar ion
(intra-salt)
This explains why solutions of amino acids containing one carbo

xyl and one amino group have a neutral reaction.
Molecules of proteins are built up of amino acids. Upon completl
hydrolysis under the influence of mineral acids, alkalies, or enzymeif
proteins decompose to form mixtures of aminoacids.
Proteins are natural high-molecular nitrogen-containing organiO
compounds. They play a paramount role in all vital processes and
Organic Compounds
are carriers of life. Proteins are contained in all the tissues of orga
nises, the blood, and the bones. Enzytnes and many hormones are
contplex proteins. Skin, hair, wool, feathers, horns, hoofs, bones,
mid! threads of natural silk are all formed by proteins. Proteins,
Ilka carbohydrates and fats, are a very important and essential
constituent part of food.
Proteins include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and often
nnlphur, phosphorus, and iron. The molecular mass of proteins
Ih very high, from 1500 to several millions.
The problem of the structure and synthesis of proteins is most
Important in today’s science. Much has been achieved in this field
In the last few decades. It has been established that tens, hundreds,
Mild thousands of amino acids forming giant protein molecules com
bine with one another, liberating wrater at the expense of their
mirboxyl and amino groups. The structure of the chain of such a
molecule can be represented as follows:
R R' R R"
H2 N—CH—C— . .• —NH—CH—C—NH—CH—C—NH— CH —C— . . .
II II II II
0 0 0 0
R"
I
. . . —NH—CH—C f
x OH
In protein molecules, the groups of atoms —CO—NH— repeat
ninny times. They are lmown as amide, or in the chemistry of pro
teins—peptide groups. Proteins are accordingly related to the natu-
iitI high-molecular compounds polyamides or polypeptides.
The entire diversity of proteins is formed by 20 different amino
nr Ids. The sequence in which the residues of the amino acids forming
n protein combine with one another is strictly specific for each pro-
inln. Methods have been found of establishing this sequence, and
mm n result, the structure of some proteins has been found exactly.
And the most remarkable achievement in this field was the synthe-
«l« of the simplest proteins from amino acids. We have already
indicated that in the fifties and sixties of the present century, the
Imrmone insulin and the enzyme ribonuclease were prepared synthet
ically. Hence, the possibility in principle of synthesizing even
more complex proteins has been proved.
63. Natural .and Synthetic High-Molecular

Compounds (Polymers)
lllgh-molecular compounds, or polymers, are defined to be complex
•ulwtances with large molecular masses (of the order of hundreds,
tlmuMnnds, and millions) whose molecules are built up of a multitude
of repeating elementary units formed as a result of the combination

with one another of identical or different simple molecules—mono
mers.
The following two processes lead to the formation of high-molecu
lar compounds: (a) a polymerization reaction—a process as a result
of which molecules of a low-molecular compound (a monomer) com
bine with one another by means of covalent bonds to form a new
substance (polymer) whose molecular mass is an integral number of
times greater than that of the monomer; polymerization is character
istic chiefly of compounds with multiple (double or triple) bonds;
(b) a poiycondensation reaction—a process of formation of a polymer
from low-molecular compounds containing two or more functional
groups attended by the liberation of substances such as water, am
monia, and a hydrogen halide at the expense of these groups; the
composition of an elementary unit of the polymer in this case differs
from that of the initial monomer.
Examples of natural high-molecular compounds are starch and
cellulose built up of elementary units that are the residues of a mono
saccharide (glucose), and also proteins whose elementary units are
* amino acid residues; other examples are natural rubbers or caou
tchoucs (see below).
Synthetic high-molecular compounds or, as they are otherwise
called, synthetic high polymers, are acquiring a greater and greater
significance. They include a variety of materials usually prepared
from an available and cheap starting material. They are the basis
for the production of plastics—complex compositions into which
various fillers and additions are introduced to impart the required
collection of technical properties to the polymers, and also of syn
thetic fibres (see p. 177).
Polymers and plastics based on them are valuable substitutes
for many natural materials (metals, wood, leather, glues, etc.).
Synthetic fibres successfully compete with natural ones—silk, wool,
and cotton. It is important to stress that in a number of properties
materials based on synthetic polymers are often superior to natural
ones. Plastics, fibres, and other compounds can be produced with
a collection of preset technical properties. This makes it possible
to solve many problems of modern engineering that could never
have been solved with the use of only natural materials. The plans
for the development of the USSR’s national economy provide for
the widespread and constantly growing development of the produc
tion of synthetic polymers and various materials based on them*.
Polymerization Resins. These compounds include polymers pre
pared by the polymerization of mainly ethylene hydrocarbons or
their derivatives.
* In 1977, the amount of plastics and synthetic resins produced in the
Soviet Union was 3.3 million tonnes.
polyethylene is a polymer formed in the polymerization of ethyl-

one, for instance when it is compressed to 150-250 MPa at 150-250 °C
/high-pressure polyethylene)
. . . + CHa=CHa + CHa=CHa + CHa=CHa + . . . - *
— . . . —CHa—CH2 —CHa—GHa—CHa—CHa— . . .
polyethylene
or, more briefly,
rcCHa = CHa (—CHa—CHa—)a
ethylene polyethylene
A polymerization reaction can be represented as the result of
opening of the double bonds in a multitude of molecules of an unsatu
rated compound (ethylene in the given case) and the following com
bination of these molecules with one another into a single gigantic
macromolecule. The quantity n is referred to as the degree of poly
merization —it shows the number of monomer units forming a macro
molecule. The polymerization of ethylene is initiated by introducing
a small amount (0.05-0.1%) of oxygen.
Catalysts have been found that cause ethylene to polymerize at
low pressures. For instance, in the presence of triethyl aluminium
(CaH 6 )3 A.l with an addition of titanium(IV) chloride TiCl4 (a Ziegler
catalyst), polymerization occurs at atmospheric pressure (low-pres
sure polyethylene is produced); on chromium oxides (the Phillips
catalyst) a polymer is formed at a pressure of up to 10 MPa (medium-
pressure polyethylene).
Polyethylene is a saturated hydrocarbon with a molecular mass
ranging from 10 000 to 400 000. It is a wax-like but hard material
melting at 110 to 125 °C, colourless and semitransparent in thin
layers and white in thick ones. It has a high chemical stability,
waterproofness, and a low gas permeability. It is used as an electri
cal insulating material, and also for making films employed as
a packing material, for fabricating light-weight unbreakable plates
and dishes, hoses and pipes for the chemical industry. The properties
of polyethylene depend on how it was made; for example, high-
pressure polyethylene has a lower density and a lower molecular
mass ( 1 0 000 to 45 000) than its low-pressure counterpart (a molecu
lar mass of 70 000 to 400 000), which affects its technical properties.
Only high-pressure polyethylene may be used for contact with food
products because low-pressure polyethylene may contain remnants
of catalysts—heavy metal compounds that are harmful for a person’s
health.
Polypropylene is a polymer of propylene, the alkene homologue
following ethylene:
reCHa=CH . . . —CHa—CH—GHa—CH— . ..
I I I
CHS CHa CH,
propylene polypropylene
Polymerization occurs in the presence of catalysts. Depending

on the polymerization conditions, polypropylene is prepared differing
in the structure of its macromolecules, and, consequently, in its
properties. In appearance, it is a rubber-like mass more or less hard
and elastic. It differs from polyethylene in its higher melting point.
For instance, polypropylene with a molecular mass above 80 000
melts at 174-175 °C. Polypropylene is used for electrical insulation,
for making protective films, pipes, hoses, gear wheels, components
of instruments, and also high-strength and chemically stable fibre.
The latter is employed in the production of ropes, fishnets, and the
like. Polypropylene films are considerably stronger and more trans
parent than polyethylene ones. Food products in a polypropylene
packing can be sterilized, cooked, and warmed up.
Polystyrene is formed in the polymerization of styrene:
nC H 2—CH . . . — C H 2— CH —C H 2— CH — C H a— CH — . . .
I I I I
C6H6 C6H5 CcH6 CflHa
styrene polystyrene
It can be obtained as a transparent vitreous mass. It is used as
an organic glass, for the fabrication of consumer goods (buttons,
combs, etc.), and as an electrical insulator.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is produced by the polymerization of
vinyl chloride:
nCH2=CH . . . —CH2—CH—CH2—CH—CH2—CH— . ..
Cl Cl Cl kl
vinyl polyvinyl chloride
chloride
It is an elastic mass, very stable to the action of acids and alka
lies. It is widely used for lining pipes and vessels in the chemical
industry. It is employed for insulating electrical conductors, making
artificial leather, linoleum, and waterproof coats. The chlorination
of polyvinyl chloride yields perchlorovinyl resin from which the
chemically stable synthetic fibre Ghlorin is prepared.
Polytetrafluoroethylene is a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene:
wCF2= CF2 —»- (—CF2—CF2—)n
tetrafluoro- polytetrafluoro*
ethylene ethylene
Polytetrafluoroethylene is produced in the form of plastics known
as Teflon or Fluoroplast. It is very stable with respect to alkalies
and concentrated acids, as well as to other reagents. It is superior
to gold and platinum in its chemical stability. It is not combustible,
and has high dielectrical properties. It is used in chemical and
electrical engineering.
Polyacrylates and polyacrylonitrile. Of great importance are the
polymers of the unsaturated acrylic CH2 = C H —COOH and metha-
crylic CH2 ==C(CH3)—COOH acids, especially of their methyl
esiers—methyl acrylate and methyl methacrylate, and also acrylic

acid nitrile (or acrylonitrile) GH2 =C H —C=N, a derivative of this
icid in which the carboxyl group —COOH is replaced with the
jrroup —C=N. The structure of the most important of these poly
mers is expressed by the formulas:
/ GH3
-CH*—CH— \ —CHj—C— / —CHa—CH—\
I
COOCHj ,/„ V COOCH,A V is N )n
polym ethyl polymethyl polyacrylonitrile
acrylate methacrylate
Polymethyl acrylate and polymethyl methacrylate are solid,
colourless, transparent polymers that resist heating and the action
o.t light and transmit ultraviolet rays. They are used to make sheets
of strong and light-weight organic glass widely employed for various
components. Polyacrylonitrile is used to produce Nitron (or Orion)—
svnthetic fibres employed in the fabrication of knitted wear and
fabrics (for clothing and technical needs).
Caoutchoucs (raw rubbers) are elastic materials from which com
mercial rubber is prepared by special treatment. Caoutchoucs are
used in engineering to manufacture tyres for motor vehicles, aero
planes, bicycles, for electrical insulation, and also for the production
of consumer goods and medical instruments.
Natural caoutchouc is a high-molecular unsaturated hydrocarbon
whose molecules contain a great number of double bonds; its com
position can be expressed by the formula (CgH^ (where the quan
tity n ranges from 1000 to 3000); it is a polymer of isoprene:
ch3 / gh8 V
2] 3 4 I 1 2 3 4 I
/iCH. = C— C H = C I i2 -+• C = C H —CHo— /
isoprene natural caoutchouc
(polyisoprene)
Examination of this equation shows that in the polymerization

of isoprene both its double bonds open, while in an elementary unit
of the polymer a double bond appears at a new site—between car
bon atoms 2 and 3.
Natural caoutchouc is contained in the latex of rubber plants,
chiefly tropical ones (for instance, the Brazilian tree hevea).
Another natural product—gutta-percha—is also a polymer of
isoprene, but with a different configuration of its molecules.
Caoutchouc is sticky, weak, and becomes brittle when the temper
ature is lowered slightly. To impart the required strength and
elasticity to articles made from it, caoutchouc is vulcanized—sul
phur is introduced into it, and the mixture is then heated. The
vulcanized product is called rubber.
174 The Mein Subgroup of Group Four
In vulcanization, the sulphur is attached to the double bonds

of the caoutchouc macromolecules and “cross-links” them, forming
disulphide “bridges”:
S— . . . S— ...
1 |2 3 4 1 |2 3 4
. . . —CH2—C----- CH—c h 2- c h 2 —c —c h —c h 2
1 1
CHS s ch3 I
1
1
ch3 s ch 3 s
i I2 I3 4 1 I2 (3 4
•CHa—C— -CH—CHa—CH2--C — CH —CH.
1 S
I 1
1
s—. s - ...
Vulcanization results in the caoutchouc losing its plasticity and

becoming elastic.
The absence in the USSR of natural caoutchouc made it necessary
to develop a method for the artificial preparation of this very impor
tant material for the national economy. Soviet chemists discovered
and for the first time in the world brought to life (1928-1930) a pro
cess for the production of synthetic rubber on a commercial scale.
According to the process proposed by S. Lebedev (1874-1934),
the starting mateiial for the production of synthetic rubber is the
unsaturated hydrocarbon butadiene or divinyl (p. 141), which
polymerizes similar to isoprene:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
nCH2 =CH—CH=CH2 -> (—CH2 —CH=CH—CH2- ) n
butadiene synthetic rubber
(polybutadiene).
In Lebedev’s process, the starting butadiene was obtained from

ethyl alcohol. At present, it is obtained from the butane of casing
head gas.
The chemical industry now produces many various kinds of
synthetic rubber superior in some properties to the natural product.
In addition to polybutadiene rubber, wide use is made of copolymer
rubbers—the products of the joint polymerization (copolymerization)
of butadiene with other unsaturated compounds, for example with
styrene or acrylonitrile:
1 2 3 4
/- C H 2 —CH=CH—CHa—CH2—CH— \
V <Lh6 ) n
butadiene-styrene rubbe
1 2 3 4
/ —CHa—CII=CH—CHa—CH2 —CH— \
V C=N /„
butadiene-nitrile rubber
In the molecules of these rubbers, the butadiene units alternate

v/ith the units of styrene and acrylonitrile, respectively.
The preparation of a synthetic polyisoprene rubber close in its
properties to natural rubber has been developed in the USSR and
j.3 being introduced into production.
Condensation Resins. These resins include polymers prepared by
a polycondensation reaction.
Phenol formaldehyde resins are high-molecular compounds formed
owing to a reaction between phenol (C6H 5 OH) and formaldehyde
(CH2 = 0 ) in the presence of acids (HC1, etc.) or alkalies (NaOH,
NH4OH) as catalysts:
OH OH _______ OH
i
w|
O:
H Hi.. I iH 0 Hi I H
S \ / V * ------ ~Tf..........:\ / \ /
... + rV
> /
+ 1 +
ch2
\/
+ II +
ch 2
\ /
OH OH
C OH
' ■• \ A / CHs\ / l\ / CH!V V CH' \

+ « h 2o
%/ \/
phenol formaldehyde resin
The process is attended by the liberation of water. Phenol form

aldehyde resins have a remarkable property: when heated, they
first become soft, while upon further heating (especially in the pres
ence of the relevant catalysts) they harden. These resins are used
to prepare valuable plastics—phenolic plastics (phenoplasts). The
resins are mixed with various fillers (wood flour, comminuted paper,
asbestos, graphite, etc.), with plasticizers and dyes, and the result
ing compound goes to prepare various articles by hot pressing
techniques. Phenol formaldehyde resins have recently found new
fields of application, for instance, in the production of building
components from wood residues, and the manufacture of shell moulds
in foundries.
Polyesters. An example of these compounds is the product of
polycondensation of the dibasic aromatic terephthalic acid with
the diatomic alcohol ethylene glycol:

0 0
II ^ v *
*HO—C—^ ^ —G—0 H -f nHO—CH2 —CH2 —0 H
terephthalic acid «thylene glycol
f «—^
G y ___—G—0
- v ' —CH2—CHj—0 — J ^) + mHjO
polyethyleneterephthalate
Polyethyleneterephthalate is a polymer iri whose molecules an

ester grouping repeats many times. In the USSR, this polyester is
produced under the trade name Lavsan (in the United States it is
known as Dacron, and in Western Europe as Terylene). It is used
to manufacture fibres similar to wool, but considerably stronger and
going to make non-wrinkling fabrics. Lavsan has a high resistance
to heat, moisture, and light, and is stable against alkalies, acids,
and oxidizers.
Polyamides. Polymers of this kind are synthetic analogues of
proteins. Their chains contain repeating amide groups —CO—NH —
like those in proteins. In the chains of protein molecules, they are
separated by a unit of one C-atom, and in synthetic polyamides—by
a chain of four and more C-atoms. The fibres produced from synthet
ic polyamides—Capron, Enant, and Anid—are in some properties
considerably superior to natural silk. In the textile industry, they
are used to produce attractive and durable fabrics and knitted
goods. In engineering, Capron or Anid strings and ropes are used
because of their high strength; these polymers are also used for the
cord of motor vehicle tyres, for making nets and various technical
fabrics.
Capron (Nylon-6 ) is a polycondensate of aminocaproic acid con
taining a chain of six carbon atoms:
0 0
*0 II II
nNH2— (CH2)5— C f . —NH—(CH2 )6 —C—NH—(CHa)6 —C—.. .+mUtO
x OH
aminocaproic Capron
acid
Enant is a polycondensate of aminoenanthic acid containing

a chain of seven carbon atoms.
Anid (Nylon-6 , 6 or Perlon) is prepared by the polycondensation
of the dibasic adipic acid HOOC—(CH2)4—COOH and hexamethyl-
ene diamine NH 2 —(CH2 ) 6 —NH2. The structure of the Anid chain is:
( ° II )
\ —C—(CHa)4 —C—NH—(CH2 )9 —NH—/ n
Silicon 177
Natural and Chemical Fibres. All textile fibres employed in the

production of various kinds of yarn are divided into natural and
chemical ones.
Natural fibres are formed in plants (cotton, linen, and other fibres
consisting of cellulose) or from the secretions of living organisms
iwool, silk threads secreted by the mulberry silkworm, consisting
of proteins).
Chemical fibres include all the artificially produced ones. They
are divided, in turn, into artificial fibres (for instance, rayon) pro
duced in the chemical processing of natural substances (chiefly
cellulose) and synthetic fibres produced from specially synthesized
chemical materials (chiefly synthetic high-polymers).
The artificial fibres include those of viscose, acetate, and copper-
ammonia silk produced by the processing of cellulose (p. 166).
Examples of synthetic fibres are those considered above, which are
produced from addition (Chlorin, Nitron) or condensation (Lavsan,
Capron, Enant, Anid) polymers.
The production of chemical fibres is of a tremendous significance
for the national economy. Its development improves the well-being
of the people. It allows the constantly growing demand for consu
mer’s goods such as various fabrics, knitted wear, and artificial
furs to be met. In engineering, the existence of diverse chemical
fibres with a definite collection of properties makes it possible to
solve many important problems.
In 1977, 1088 thousand tonnes of chemical fibres were produced
in the USSR.
SILICON (SILICIUM )

Silicon is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s
crust. It forms 27% (mass) of the part of the Earth’s crust accessible
for investigation and occupies the second place, after oxygen, with
respect to abundance.
Silicon is encountered in nature only in compounds: in the form
of silicon dioxide Si02, also known as silica, and of salts of silicic
acids (silicates). The most widespread in nature are aluminosili
cates, i.e. silicates containing aluminium. Among them are feld
spars, micas, kaolin, etc.
In the same way as carbon, which is contained in all organic
substances, is the most important element in the kingdom of plants
and animals, so is silicon the chief element in the kingdom of min
erals and rocks.
The content of silicon in most organisms is very insignificant.
But some marine organisms accumulate large amounts of silicon.
Sea plants rich in it include Diatoma, among marine animals con

taining a lot of silicon are Radiolaria and silicon sponges.
Free silicon can be prepared by roasting fine white sand, which
is silicon dioxide, with magnesium:
SiOt + 2Mg = 2MgO + Si
A brown powder of amorphous silicon is formed.
Silicon dissolves in molten metals. When a solution of silicon
in zinc or in aluminium is slowly cooled, the silicon separates as
well-formed octahedral crystals. Crystalline silicon has a steel lustre.
Highly pure silicon crystals having a minimum number of struc
tural defects are characterized by a very low electrical conductivity.
Impurities and violations of the regular structure sharply increase
their conductivity.
Silicon is chiefly used in metallu rgy and in semiconductor engi
neering. In metallurgy, it is employed for removing oxygen from
molten metals and is a component of many alloys. The most impor
tant of them are alloys based on iron, copper, and aluminium. In
semiconductor engineering, silicon is used in the manufacture of
photoelectric cells, amplifiers, and rectifiers. Semiconductor devices
based on silicon withstand heating to 250 °C, which broadens their
sphere of application.
Silicon is produced commercially by reducing silicon dioxide in
electrical furnaces:
SiO, + 2 G = Si + 2 GO \
The silicon obtained in this way contains from 2 to 5% impurities.
The high-purity silicon needed for the manufacture of semiconductor
devices is produced in a more complicated way. Natural silica is
converted to a silicon compound that lends itself to deep purifica
tion. Next the silicon is separated from the pure substance obtained
by thermal decomposition or by the action of a reducing agent.
One of these methods consists in converting silica to silicon chloride
SiCl4, purifying this product, and reducing the silicon from it with
the aid of highly pure zinc. Very pure silicon can also be produced
by the thermal decomposition of silicon iodide Sil 4 or silaiie SiH4.
The obtained silicon contains very little impurities and is suitable
for manufacturing some semiconductor devices. To produce a still
purer product, it is additionally purified, for example by zone refin
ing (see Sec. 79).
In the chemical respect, silicon, especially the crystalline modi
fication, has a low activity. At room temperature, it combines
directly only with fluorine. When heated, amorphous silicon readily
combines with oxygen, the halogens, and sulphur.
Acids, except for a mixture of hydrogen fluoride and nitric acid,
do not react with silicon, but alkalies vigorously react with it,
Silicon 179
liberating hydrogen and forming salts of silicic acid H 2 SiOs:

Si + 2KOH -f H£0 = KjSiOj + 2H* f
In the presence of traces of an alkali playing the role of a cata
lyst, silicon also displaces hydrogen from water.
If a mixture of sand and coke taken in a definite proportion is
heated in an electrical furnace, a compound of silicon with carbon
is formed—silicon carbide SiC, called carborundum:
Si0 2 + SC = SiC + 2CO t
Pure carborundum is a colourless very hard crystalline substance
(its density is 3.2 g/cms). The commercial product is usually coloured
dark gray by impurities.
The internal structure of carborundum is like that of diamond
in which half of the carbon atoms have been uniformly replaced
with silicon atoms. Each carbon atom is at the centre of a tetrahed
ron at whose corners silicon atoms are located; each silicon atom,
in turn, is surrounded in a similar way by four carbon atoms. The
covalent bonds joining all the atoms in this structure, as in diamond,
are very stable. This explains the great hardness of carborundum.
Carborundum is produced in large amounts. It has a variety of
applications associated with its great hardness and refractoriness.
Carborundum powder goes to make grinding wheels, whetstones,
and carborundum cloth. Slabs for the construction of floors, plat
forms, and passages in underground railways and railway stations
are made on its basis. It is used to manufacture muffles and linings
for various furnaces and kilns. A mixture of carborundum and
silicon powders is the material used to fabricate Silite rods for
electrical furnaces.
At a high temperature, silicon combines with many metals to
form silicides. For example, when silicon dioxide is heated with an
excess amount of metallic magnesium, the reduced silicon combines
with magnesium to form magnesium silicide Mg*Si:
4Mg + SiO* = Mg2Si + 2MgO
65. Compounds of Silicon with Hydrogen

and the Halogens
The reaction of hydrogen chloride with magnesium silicide Mg*Si
yields silane SiH4, which is similar to methane:
MgsSi - f 4HC1 = 2MgClj + SiH4 f
Silane SiH 4 is a colourless gas that self-ignites in air and burns
with the formation of silicon dioxide and water:
SiH4 + 20 j = SiO* + 2H*0
12*
In addition to SiH4, several other hydrogen compounds of silicon

are known that bear the common name silanes, for instance disilane
Si 2He and trisilane Si3 H8. The silanes are similar to the relevant
alkanes, but are less stable. The bond between the silicon atoms is
evidently much less stable than that between carbon atoms, and
this is why the chains —Si—Si—Si— are readily decomposed. The
bond between silicon and hydrogen is also not stable, which points
to the considerable weakening of the non-metallic properties in
silicon.
Silicon tetrachloride SiCl4 is produced by heating a mixture of
silicon dioxide with coal in a stream of chlorine:
Si0 2 + 2C + 2C12 = SiCl4 + 2CO f
or by the chlorination of commercial silicon. It is a liquid boiling
at 57 °C.
Silicon tetrachloride becomes completely hydrolyzed in water and
forms silicic and hydrochloric acids:
SiCl4 + 3H20 = H 2 Si0 8 + 4HC1
Owing to this reaction, a dense smoke is formed when SiCl4 eva
porates in humid air. Silicon tetrachloride is used to synthesize
organo-silicon compounds.
Silicon tetrafluoride SiF 4 is formed when hydrogen fluoride reacts
with silicon dioxide:
Si0 2 + 4HF = SiF4 f + 2H20
It is a colourless gas with a pungent odour.
Like silicon tetrachloride, SiF4 hydrolyzes in aqueous solutions:
SiF4 + 3HaO = H 2 SiOs + 4HF
The hydrogen fluoride thus formed reacts with the SiF4. The
product is fluosilicic (or silicofluoric) acid H 2 SiF6:
SiF4 + 2 HF = H 2 SiF6
The complete process is expressed by the equation
3SiF4 + 3H20 = 2HaSiFtt + H 2 Si0 3
The strength of fluosilicic acid is close to that of sulphuric acid.
Its salts—fluosilicates (or silicofluorides) are mostly soluble in wa
ter. The salts of sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium are only
slightly soluble, and the barium salt is virtually insoluble. The
acid itself and all the fluosilicates are poisonous.
Sodium fluosilicate Na2SiF 6 is used as an insecticide, and is also
a component of mixtures for producing cements and enamels. The
soluble fluosilicates of magnesium, zinc, and aluminium are used in
construction. These substances make the surface of building stone
such as limestone and marble waterproof, which is explained by the
formation of poorly soluble fluorides and silica.
Silicon 181
66. Silicon Dioxide

The most stable compound of silicon is silicon dioxide, or silica,
Si02- II occurs both in the crystalline and the amorphous form.
Crystalline silicon dioxide is chiefly found in nature as the mineral
quartz. The transparent colourless crystals of quartz having the
shape of hexagonal prisms with hexagonal pyramids on their ends
are known as rock crystal (Fig. 30). Rock crystal coloured lilac by
impurities is called amethyst, and coloured brownish is called smoky
topaz. But quartz is most often encountered as continuous semitrans
p a r e n t bodies, colourless or of a variety of colours. Flint is a variety
of quartz. The finely crystalline varieties include agate and jasper.
Quartz is also a component of many complex rocks such as granite
and gneiss.
Ordinary sand consists of fine quartz grains. Pure sand is white,
but it is most often coloured yellow or reddish by iron compounds.
Crystalline silicon dioxide is very hard, insoluble in water, and
melts at about 1610 °C, transforming into a colourless liquid. Cool
ing of this liquid yields a transparent vitreous body of amorphous
silicon dioxide similar in appearance to glass.
Amorphous silicon dioxide occurs in nature much less frequently
than the crystalline compound. Deposits of fine porous amorphous
silica called tripoli, diatomite, or infusorian earth are encountered
on the bottom of seas and oceans. These deposits were formed from
;.he Si0 2 contained in the organisms of Diatoma and certain infu
soria.
Acids except for hydrogen fluoride do not act on silicon dioxide.
Hydrogen fluoride readily reacts with it to form silicon fluoride and
water (see p. 30).
Silica in the form of sand is widely employed in construction, in
the manufacture of glass (see Sec. 6 8 ), ceramics (see Sec. 69), cement
(see Sec. 70), and abrasives. A
special field of application of
cuartz is associated with the cir
cumstance that it can deform
under the action of an electric
field. This property of quartz crys
tals is utilized in sound-recording
and sound-reproducing apparatus
and for generating ultrasonic os
cillations.
67. Silicic Acids
and Their Salts
Silicon dioxide is an acid oxide.
The silicic acids poorly soluble
in water correspond to it. Their general formula is /&Si02 -mH 2 0.

Orthosilicic acid H 4 Si04, metasilicic (or silicic) acid H 2 Si03, and
some other acids have been recovered in the free state. Metasilicic acid
quite easily forms supersaturated solutions in which it gradually
polymerizes and passes over into the colloidal state. Stable sols of
silicic acid having a high concentration can.be prepared with the
aid of stabilizers. These solutions are used in certain production
processes, for example in the manufacture of paper and for water
treatment.
In the absence of stabilizers, the sol of silicic acid transforms into
a gel. When the latter is dried, porous products (silica gels) are
formed that are used as a drying agent (desiccant) and adsorbent.
The salts of silicic acids—silicates—are insoluble in water in the
majority of cases; only sodium and potassium silicates are soluble.
They are produced when silicon dioxide is melted with potassium
and sodium hydroxides or carbonates, for instance:
SiOa + 2NaOH = Na2 S108 + H20
SiOa “I- K.2 CO3 = KjSiOg -j- COa t
Owing to their being similar in appearance to glass and to their
solubility in water, sodium and potassium silicates are known as
soluble glass.
Soluble glass in the form of aqueous solutions called water glass
is used in the production of acid-resistant cement and concrete (see
Sec. 70), for keroseneproof plasters over concrete, for impregnating
fabrics, for preparing flameproof wood paints, and for the chemical
stabilization of weak soils.
In solutions, Na2Si0 3 and K 2 Si0 3 are greatly hydrolyzed; these
solutions have an alkaline reaction.
Silicates are exceedingly widespread in nature. We have already
mentioned that the Earth’s crust consists mainly of silica and various
silicates. The natural silicates include feldspars, micas, clays, asbes
tos, talc, and many other minerals. Silicates are components of a
large number of rocks such as granite, gneiss, basalt, and various
schists. Many precious stones, for example, emerald, topaz, and
aquamarine, are well-formed crystals of natural silicates.
The composition of natural silicates is generally expressed by
quite complicated formulas. Owing to the complex nature of these
formulas and also to the fact that the existence of the relevant poly-
silicic acids has not been proved, it is customary practice to write
them somewhat differently than the ordinary formulas of salts.
The matter is that any salt of an oxyacid can be considered as a
compound of an acid oxide with a basic one (or even with two basic
oxides if the salt is a double one). For example, CaC03 can be consid
ered as a compound of GaO and C02, A12 (S0 4) 3 as a compound of
A12 0 3 and 3SOs, and so on. This is why, when representing the com-
Silicon 183
position of silicates, the formulas of silicon dioxide and all the ox
ides forming the silicate are usually written separately and joined
by dots.
Below are given the formulas of some natural silicates:
Kaolin Al2 0 8 *2Si0a*2H20 or H4 Al2 Si2 0 9
White mica Ka0*3AJ2 0 8 *6Si0a*2Ha0 or H4 K2 Al6 Si0 O2r
Asbestos CaO-3MgO«4SiOa or CaMg8 Si4 0 1 2
We have already mentioned that silicates containing aluminium
are referred to as aluminosilicates. The most important of them are
feldspars.
Feldspars, in addition to silicon and aluminium oxides, include
oxides of potassium, sodium, or calcium. Common feldspar, or
orthoclase, contains potassium oxide. Its composition is expressed
by the formula K 2 0« Al2 0 3 -6Si02. The predominating colour of
feldspars is white or red. Feldspars are encountered in nature both as
continuous deposits and as constituents of complex rocks.
Aluminosilicates also include micas distinguished by their ability
to split into thin flexible flakes. Micas have a complex composition
and in addition to silicon and aluminium contain hydrogen, potas
sium, or sodium; some micas also include calcium, magnesium, and
iron. Ordinary white mica, whose large transparent sheets owing to
their refractoriness are often used to close openings in various fur
naces and kilns, is a potassium and aluminium silicate. Micas con
taining a large amount of iron and magnesium are black. Micas are
not often encountered separately, but many rocks contain them. The
most widespread complex rocks—granites and gneisses, consist of
minute crystals of quartz, feldspar, and micas.
Minerals and rocks on the Earth’s surface, coming into contact
with the atmosphere and being subjected to the mechanical and
chemical action of water and air, gradually change and break down.
This destruction is called erosion. For example, water containing
carbon dioxide acts on orthoclase so that K 20 detaches and com
bines with C0 2 to produce potash K 2C03. Part of the S i0 2 also de
taches, while the residue combines with water and forms a new sili
cate-kaolin, which is the basis of various clays.
The decomposition of orthoclase can be expressed by the equation:
K2 0-A la0 8 -6Si0a + C02 + »HaO »
= K 2 C08 + 4Si02.(n — 2)Ha0 + A l 2 0 8 -2Si0a-2Ha0
kaolin
Pure kaolin occurs comparatively rarely. It is coloured white and
contains only an insignificant impurity of quartz sand. Such kaolin
is used for the manufacture of porcelain. Ordinary clay is a mixture
of kaolin with other substances imparting a yellowish brown or
bluish colour to it.
Silicon compounds play an important role, in the national econo
my. The applications of silicon dioxide were treated in the preceding
section. A number of silicate rocks, for instance, granites, are used

as building materials. Silicates are the starting materials in the
production of glass, ceramics, and cement (see the following sections).
Mica and asbestos are used as electrical and thermal insulation.
Silicates are used to make fillers for paper, rubber, and paints.
Some aluminosilicates have a porous structure and are capable of
ion exchange. Such silicates—natural and especially artificial ones—
are used for softening water (see Sec. 98). In addition, owing to their
greatly developed surface, they are used as catalyst supports, i.e.
as materials impregnated with a catalyst.
68. Glass
When mixtures of many silicates with other silicates or with sil
icon dioxide are heated, transparent amorphous products of fusion
called glasses are produced.
As regards their structure, glasses are supercooled systems. The
cations and anions of the substance forming a glass are arranged
relative to one another as in a liquid, i.e. with the observance of
only close-range order (see Vol. 1, Sec. 53). At the same time, the
nature of the motion of ions in glasses—mainly oscillations—is
characteristic of the solid state. This structure is reflected in that
unlike substances in the crystalline state, glasses do not have exact
melting and freezing points. When heated, a glass softens, gradu
ally transferring to the liquid state. When a molten glass is cooled,
solidification also occurs gradually.
Glass was known to mankind from ancient times. But during many
centuries, it was used only for manufacturing window glass and
vessels. At present, glasses are produced having a variety of proper
ties, and they are used for different purposes. Different starting
materials are used to manufacture glasses with definite properties.
In addition, the properties of glasses depend on the technology fol
lowed in their production.
Ordinary window glass, as well as the glass used to make the major
part of domestic glassware (bottles, jars, glasses, etc.), consists chief
ly of sodium and calcium silicates fused with silicon dioxide. The
composition of such a glass is approximately expressed by the for
mula Na20-CaO*6SiO2. The starting materials for its production
are white sand, soda, and lime or chalk. The following reactions
occur when a mixture of these substances is fused:
CaC03 -f* S 1O 2 = CaSiOs -f- CO 2 t
N&gCOs -j- S i 0 2 — N a2S i0 3 -f- C 0 2 f
Sodium sulphate Na2 S0 4 and coal are often used instead of soda.
The coal reduces the sodium sulphate to sodium sulphite Na2S0 3
that enters into a reaction with the sand to form sodium silicate:
2Na*S04 + 2SiOg + C = 2NaaSi0 3 + 2SOa t + COt f
Silicon 185
If soda is replaced with potash in melting glass, refractory glass is

produced. It is used for manufacturing vessels capable of withstand
ing strong heating.
When silicon dioxide is melted with potash and lead oxide, a
heavy glass called crystal or flint glass is produced. It contains potas
sium and lead silicates. This glass has a high refractive index and
acquires a high lustre when polished. It is used to make optical
glasses and high-quality tableware.
The properties of glass are greatly affected by replacing part of
the Si0 2 with boric anhydride B2 0 3. The addition of the latter im
proves the hardness of the glass, increases its resistance to chemical
action, and lowers its sensitivity to sharp temperature changes. This
glass is used to produce high-quality chemical glassware.
Glass is customarily listed among the substances that are insolu
ble in water. Upon the prolonged action of water on ordinary glass,
however, the water extracts some sodium silicate from it. If, for
example, we shake powdered glass with water and then add a few
drops of phenolphthalein to it, the liquid acquires a pink colour,
which indicates an alkaline reaction (owing to the hydrolysis of
the Na2Si03).
In addition to the kinds of glass listed above, of great significance
is the glass produced directly from quartz melted in an electrical
furnace.
Quartz glass can withstand higher temperatures than ordinary
glass. It transmits ultraviolet rays, which are retained by ordinary
glass. A very valuable property of quartz glass is its exceedingly
low coefficient of thermal expansion. This, signifies that the volume
of quartz glass remains almost unchanged when it is heated or cooled.
Consequently, articles made from it can be greatly heated and
then immersed in cold water: they do not crack.
Quartz glass is employed for making laboratory vessels and in the
chemical industry. It is also used for making mercury-arc lamps
whose light contains a lot of ultraviolet rays. These lamps find many
applications in medicine, for scientific purposes, and in filming mo
tion pictures. The shortcomings of quartz glass include the difficulty
of working it and its brittleness.
Molten glass can be drawn through fine orifices (spinnarets) to
produce filaments from 2 to 1 0 micrometres in diameter—glass fibre.
It is not brittle and has a very high tensile strength. Fabrics from this
fibre are non-flammable, have thermal, electrical and sound insu
lating properties, and are chemically stable.
The valuable properties of the materials manufactured from glass
fibre underly their widespread use in various fields of engineering.
Of great importance here are the availability and low cost of the
basic starting material and the comparative simplicity of producing
the glass fibre.
New building materials known as glass fibre laminates are pro

duced by combining glass fibre with various synthetic resins. Their
weight is from one-third to one-fourth that of steel, but they are not
inferior to it in strength. This allows them to be used with great
success as substitutes of both steel and wood. Glass fibre laminates
are used, for example, to manufacture pipes withstanding a high
hydraulic pressure and not subjected to corrosion. Glass fibre lami
nates are finding ever growing application in the motor vehicle, avi
ation, and ship-building industries.
The vitreous state of a substance is thermodynamically unstable.
Glasses exist only because the viscosity grows very rapidly when
molten glass is cooled so that crystallization has no time to occur.
By introducing additions accelerating crystallization into the start
ing substances and conducting the melting process in definite con
ditions, it is possible to obtain crystalline glass materials known as
glass-ceramics, Sitalls, or Pyrocerams.
As regards their structure, Sitalls are fine crystals fused together
by films of uncrystallized glass. They have a high strength, hardness,
chemical and thermal stability. Sitalls belong to insulators with
respect to their electrical properties. They can be used to make cheap
and strong building materials, electrical insulators, radio compo
nents, and apparatus for chemical production processes
69. Ceramics
The name ceramics includes materials and articles made from re
fractory substances such as clay, and the carbides and oxides of
certain metals. Depending on their application, there are distinguished
building, refractory, chemically stable, domestic, and technical
ceramics. Building ceramics includes brick, roofing and facing
tiles, pipes and tubes. Refractory ceramics is used for the internal
lining of various furnaces, for instance blast, steel-making, and glass
furnaces. Chemically stable ceramics resists the action of chemically
aggressive media not only at room, but also at elevated temperatures.
It is used in the chemical industry. Domestic ceramics includes fa
ience and porcelain articles. Technical ceramics is used to make
insulators, capacitors, motor vehicle and aircraft spark plugs, high-
temperature crucibles, and thermocouple tubes.
The process of manufacturing ceramic articles consists in preparing
the ceramic mass, moulding, drying, and roasting. These operations
are conducted differently depending on the nature of the starting
materials and on the requirements which the product must meet.
For example, in manufacturing bricks, the raw material—clay with
additions of other minerals—is comminuted, mixed, and moistened.
The plastic dough obtained is moulded, dried, and roasted (usually
at 900 °G). In roasting (also known as firing, baking, and calcination),
Silicon 187
sintering occurs owing to the chemical reactions in the solid phase*

Sintering is conducted in strictly definite conditions and results in
the production of a material having the preset properties. The basic
reaction occurring in the roasting of clay can be schematically repre
sented by the equation:
3[Al2 0 3 •2Si0 2 «2H2 0] = 3Ala0 8 -2Si0 2 + 4SiOa + 6H20 f
Some ceramic articles are coated with a glaze—a thin layer of a

vitreous material. For this purpose, the article with a layer of pow-
dor consisting of quartz, feldspar, and certain additions applied to it
is roasted again. The glaze makes a ceramic article waterproof, pro
tects it from dirt, acids and alkalies, and imparts a lustre to it.
70. Cemenf
The most important materials manufactured by the silicate indus
try include cement, which is used in enormous amounts in construc
tion work.
Ordinary cement silicate cement) is produced by roasting a mix
ture of clay and limestone. In roasting of the cement mixture, the
calcium carbonate decomposes into carbon dioxide and calcium ox
ide; the latter reacts with the clay to yield calcium silicates and alu-
minates.
The cement mixture is generally prepared artificially. But lime
stone and clay rocks called marls are sometimes encountered in
nature whose composition is exactly that of a cement mixture.
The chemical composition of cements is customarily expressed in
percentages of the oxides contained in them, the main ones of which
are CaO, A12 0 3, Si02, and Fe2 0 3.
When silicate cement is mixed with water, a dough is obtained
that hardens after some time elapses. The transition from the doughy
state to the hard one is called “setting”.
Cement sets in three steps. The first one consists in the reaction of
the surface layers of the cement particles with water as follows:
3CaO *Si02 + rtH20 = 2CaO-Si02 .2H20 + Ca(OH) 2 +
+ (» — 3)HaO
Calcium hydroxide separates in the amorphous state from the
solution contained in the cement dough, envelops the cement grains,
and transforms them into a bound mass. This forms the second step—
setting proper of the cement. Next, the third step begins—crystalli
zation or hardening. The calcium hydroxide particles consolidate
and transform into long needle-shaped crystals that make the cal
cium silicate mass more compact. This is attended by a growth in
the mechanical strength of the cement.
When cement is used as a binder, it is usually mixed with sand and

water. This mixture is known as cement mortar.
Concrete is prepared by mixing cement mortar with gravel or crushed
stone. Concrete is an important building material. It is used to
erect vaults, arches, bridges, reservoirs, residential buildings, etc.
Structures made from concrete containing a carcass of iron or steel
beams or bars are called reinforced-concrete ones.
Only a small amount of cement was produced in tsarist Russia.
After the October Revolution, the constantly growing demand of
the national economy for building materials resulted in a consider-
able growth in the cement industry, which was speeded up during
recent years in connection with the broad program of industrial and
residential construction. This is illustrated by the following figures:
Year 1913 1940 1953 1977
Cement produced, million tonnes 1.8 5.7 16.0 127
In addition to silicate cement, other kinds of cement are produced,

particularly alumina and acid-resistant cements.
Alumina cement is produced by fusing a finely ground mixture of
bauxite (a natural aluminium oxide) with limestone. The fraction of
aluminium oxide contained in this cement is greater than in silicate
cement. Its main components are various calcium aluminates.
Alumina cement hardens much more rapidly than silicate cement.
In addition, it resists the action of sea water more effectively.
Alumina cement is much more expensive than its silicate coun
terpart, and for this reason it is used in construction only in special
cases.
Acid-resistant cement is a mixture of finely ground quartz sand and
an “active” silica substance having a highly developed surface. This
substance is either tripoli first subjected to chemical treatment, or
artificially produced silicon dioxide. After a solution of sodium si
licate is added to the above mixture, a plastic dough is obtained
that transforms into a stable njass resisting all acids except for hy
drogen fluoride.
Acid-resistant cement is mainly used as a binder in the lining of
chemical apparatus with acid-resistant tiles. It is sometimes used
instead of the more costly lead.
71. Organosilkon Compounds
A great number of silicon compounds are known in which the

silicon atoms are chemically bonded to carbon atoms. They are
called organosilicons.
In 1936, the Soviet scientist K. Andrianov developed a method of
synthesizing high-molecular organosilicon compounds that is now
Silicon 189
the basis of an industrial process for the manufacture of a number of

p ro d u c ts having valuable properties.
Andrianov synthesized esters of derivatives of orthosilicic acid
S i ( O H )4 in which one, two, or three hydroxyl groups were replaced
by hydrocarbon radicals, for example:
CH 3 ch 3 o- ch3
I I I
CH3—S i—0 —C H 3 C H 3—S i—0 —C H 3 C H 3—S i - 0 —C H s
I I I
ch3 0 —c h 3 o -c h 3
Hydrolysis of these esters ought to produce the corresponding hy

droxyl-containing compounds of silicon, but they immediately con
dense with the detachment of water molecules and the formation of
7)olycondensates. For instance, the substances produced in the hydrol
ysis of the mixture of (CH3) 2Si(OCH3) 2 and (CH3)3 SiOCH3 can fur
ther condense as follows:
CH.3 CH S C H , ________ CH,
I.
CH,—S i - o | H + HO I - Si—0| H+ HO —S i— o j H+ HO J -Si—CH 3 —►
| J---------» | I--------- I
CH, CH, CH, ch 3
ch 3 ch 3 ch 3 ch 3
I I I I
—> CH3- - S i - 0 - S i - - 0 - S i - - 0 - S i - C H 3+ 3 H 20
I I I I
ch 3 ch 3 ch 3 ch 3
With a small degree of condensation (if tho molecules contain

about ten silicon atoms), the products are liquids used as lubricat
ing oils. Their valuable properties include the insignificant change
in the viscosity within a broad temperature interval, and their
chemical stability. In comparison with conventional lubricants,
which are mixtures of saturated hydrocarbons, they are considerably
more resistant to high temperatures.
A higher degree of condensation results in products of a resinous
nature. Owing to the high strength of the Si—0 bond, such resins
have a high resistance to heating. They are also excellent electrical
insulators and are employed to insulate conductors where convention
al insulation may be rapidly destroyed as a result of the high tem
perature. Organosilicon resins are used to produce rubbery materials
that retain their elasticity at temperatures from —60 to + 2 0 0 °C
and are not destroyed even at 300 °G.
Organosilicon compounds are used to waterproof glass, paper,
abrics, and building materials.
GERMANIUM, TIN, LEAD
72. Germanium
This element, vnose existence was predicted in[1871 by D. Men
deleev on the basis of his periodic law, was discovered in 1886 by
the German chemist C. Winkler (see Vol. 1, p. 56). The total con
tent of germanium in the Earth’s crust is about 0.0007% (mass).
Minerals containing considerable amounts of germanium are extreme
ly rare. It is usually produced from the by-products obtained in
processing non-ferrous metal ores, and also from the ash remaining
when certain grades of coal are burned.
In a compact state, germanium has a silver colour and is similar
in appearance to a metal. At room temperature, it is stable to the
action of air, oxygen, water, hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric
acids. Nitric and concentrated sulphuric acids oxidize it to the di
oxide Ge02, especially when heated:
Ge + 2H2S 04 = Ge02 | +[2SO a t 4 2H20
Germanium also reacts with alkalies in the presence of hydrogen
peroxide to form salts of germanic acid—germanates. For instance:
Ge + 2NaOH - f 2H20 2 = NaGe03 4 3H20
Compounds of germanium(II) have a low stability. Much more
characteristic of germanium are its compounds in which its oxida
tion number is +4.
Germanium dioxide Ge0 2 forms white crystals having a density
of 4.703 g/cm8 appreciably soluble in water, the solution conducting
an electric current. The dioxide is produced in various ways, for
instance, it can be prepared by heating germanium in oxygen or by
oxidizing it with concentrated nitric acid.
Germanium dioxide is an amphoteric compound with greatly pre
dominating acid properties. As a result, it can readily dissolve in
alkalies to form germanates.
Germanium Hydrides. Germanium tetrahydride GeH4 can be pre
pared by reacting germanium tetrachloride GeCl4 with sodium amal
gam in a stream of hydrogen or by decomposing an alloy of germani
um with magnesium by means of acids. It is a colourless gas which,
like arsenic hydride, decomposes when heated and forms a metallic
mirror on the walls of the reaction vessel.
In the preparation of the simplest germanium hydride, a small
amount of its homologues Ge2 H 6 and Ge8 H 8 are formed.
Germanium has semiconductor properties, and this underlies its
chief application. The germanium used to manufacture semiconductor
devices is subjected to very thorough purification. This is done in var
ious ways. One of the most important of them is zone melting (see
Sec. 79). To impart the required semiconductor properties to the puri-
fled germanium, a very small amount of definite impurities is intro

duced into it. They include elements of Groups five and three of the
periodic table, for example, arsenic, antimony, aluminium, and
gallium. Semiconductor equipment based on germanium (rectifiers,
amplifiers) are widely used in radio and television engineering, in
radar and computer equipment. Germanium is also used to make
resistance thermometers.
Of the germanium compounds, mention must he made, fo exam
ple, of Ge02, which is included in the composition ofjglasses having
a high refractive index in the infrared part of the spectrum.
73. Tin (S ta n n u m )
Tin does not belong to the widespread metals (its content in the
Earth’s crust is 0.04%), but it is readily extracted from its ores.
This is why it was known to man in the form of its alloys with cop
per (bronze) back in ancient times. Tin is usually encountered in the
form of its oxygen compound Sn0 2 known as cassiterite or tinstone,
[t is produced from the latter by reduction with coal.
Tin in the free state is a silvery-white soft metal. When a tin rod
is bent, a characteristic crackling noise is heard due to friction be
tween the individual crystals. Tin is soft and ductile and can easily
he rolled into thin sheets called tin foil.
In addition to the ordinary white tin crystallizing in the tetrago
nal system, there is another modification—gray tin—that crystal
lizes in the cubic system and has a lower density. White tin is stable
at temperatures above 14 °C, and gray tin below this temperature.
Hence, when white tin is cooled, it transforms into gray tin. In
connection with the considerable change in the density of the metal
attending this transition, it spills out in the form of a gray powder.
This phenomenon was called tin plague. The rate of this transition
of white tin into the gray modification is the highest at a temperature
of about —30 °C; it becomes still higher in the presence of seeds of
gray tin crystals.
Alloys of tin with antimony and copper are used in the manufac
ture of bearings. These alloys (tin Babbitt metals) have high anti
friction properties. Alloys of tin with lead—solders—are widely used
in soldering. Tin is included as an alloying element in some copper
alloys.
Tin does not oxidize in the air at room temperature, but when
heated to above its melting point, it gradually transforms into tin
dioxide Sn02.
Water does not react with tin. Dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric
acids react with it very slowly, which is explained by the large over
voltage of hydrogen liberation on this metal. Concentrated solutions
of the above acids, especially when heated, dissolve tin. Tin(II
chloride is obtained in hydrochloric acid, and tin(IV) sulphate in

sulphuric acid:
Sn + 2HC1 = SnClj + H* f
Sn + 4HaS0 4 = Sn(S04 ) 2 + 2SOa f + 4HaO
Tin reacts with nitric acid the more vigorously, the higher are
the concentration of the acid and the temperature. In dilute acid,
soluble tin(II) nitrate is formed:
4Sn + 10HNO, = 4Sn(NO,)a + NH4 NOs + 3HaO
and in concentrated acid—compounds of tin(IV), chiefly insoluble
beta-stannic acid whose composition approximately corresponds to
the formula H 2 Sn03:
Sn + 4HNOs = HaSnOs t + 4NOa f + HaO
Concentrated alkalies also dissolve tin. In this case, stannites
are produced—salts of stannous acid H 2Sn02:
Sn -f 2NaOH = NaaSnOa + Ha f
In solutions, stannites exist in hydrated forms producing hy-
droxostannites, for instance:
NaaSnOa + 2HaO = Naa(Sn(OH)J
In air, tin becomes covered with a thin oxide film having a protect
ing action. Therefore, in conditions of a moderate corrosive action,
it is a chemically stable metal. About 40% of all the tin produced is
employed for coating iron articles coming into contact with food
products, primarily cans. This is explained by the above-mentioned
chemical stability of tin, and also by the fact that it is easily applied
to iron and that the products of its corrosion are harmless.
Tin forms stable compounds in which it has the oxidation number
+ 2 or + 4 .
Compounds of Tin(II). T in (II) oxide SnO is a dark brown powder
formed when tin(II) hydroxide Sn(OH)s decomposes in an atmo
sphere of carbon dioxide.
T in(II) hydroxide Sn(OH) 2 is produced in the form of a white
precipitate when alkalies react with a salt of tin(II):
Sna+ + 20H - = Sn(OH)al
Tin(II) hydroxide is an amphoteric compound. It readily dissolves
in both acids and alkalies, in the latter case with the formation of
hydroxostannites:
Sn(OH) 2 + 2NaOH = Naa[Sn(OH)4]
T in (II) chloride SnCla-2H20 forms colourless crystals. When
tin(II) chloride is heated or greatly diluted with water, it partly
hydrolyzes with the formation of a precipitate of the basic salt:
SnCla + HtO -f* SnOHCl \ + HCl
Tin(H) chloride is a reducing agent. For instance, it reduces

iron(IH) chloride FeCl3 to iron(II) chloride FeCl2:
2FeCl3 + SnC l2 = 2FeC la + SnC l4
When tin(II) chloride reacts with a solution of mercury(II) chlo
ride (corrosive sublimate) HgCl2, a white precipitate of mercury(I)
chloride (calomel) Hg 2Cl2 is formed:
2H gC l2 + SnC l2 = H g 2C l2 4 + SnCl4
With excess tin(II) chloride, reduction proceeds even further, and
metallic mercury is obtained:
H g 2C l2 + SnC la = 2 Iig + SnC l4
Compounds of Tin(IV). Tin dioxide Sn0 2 is encountered in nature
and can be prepared artificially by burning the metal in air or by
oxidizing it with nitric acid and then roasting the product. Tin
dioxide is used to prepare white glazes and enamels.
Tin(IV) hydroxides are called stannic acids and are known in
j,wo modifications: alpha-stannic acid and beta-stannic acid.
Alpha-stannic acid H 2Sn0 3 can be prepared by the action of an
aqueous solution of ammonia on a solution of tin(IV) chloride:
SnC l4 + 4 N H 4OH = H 2S n 0 3 4 + 4 N H 4Cl + H aO
The white precipitate when dried gradually loses water and trans
forms into tin dioxide. Hence, an acid of a definite composition can
aot be obtained. This is why the formula of alpha-stannicjacid given
above is only the simplest of the possible ones. It would be more
correct to depict the composition of this acid by the formula 77iSn0 2 -
rsH20 .
Alpha-stannic acid is easily dissolved in alkalies to form salts
containing the complex anion [Sn(OH)6]2~ and known as hydroxo-
stannates:
H 2S n 0 3 + 2N aO H + H 20 = N a 2[S n(O H )fl]
Sodium hydroxostannate separates from solutions in the form of
crystals whose composition can be expressed by the formula
Na2Sn0 3 *3H2 0. This salt is used as a mordant in dyeing and as a
filler for silk. Silk fabrics treated before dyeing with solutions of
tin compounds sometimes contain up to 50% (mass) of tin.
Acids also dissolve alpha-stannic acid with the formation of tin(IV)
salts. An example is:
H 2SnO s + 4HC1 ^ SnCl4 + 3 H aO
When there is an excess of hydrogen chloride, tin(IV) tetrachloride
adds two molecules of hydrogen chloride to form the complex chlo-
rostannic acid H 2 [SnCl6]. The ammonium salt of this acid
(NH4) 2[SnCl0] has the same application as sodium hydroxostannate.
Beta-stannic acid is produced in the form of a white powder when
concentrated nitric acid reacts with* tin (see above). Its composition
is just as indefinite as that of alpha-stannic acid. Unlike the latter,
13-2412
it does not dissolve in acids or in solutions of alkalies. But by fusion

with alkalies, it can be transferred into a solution in the form of a
stannate. Alpha-stannic acid when stored in contact with the solu
tion from which it was recovered also gradually transforms into
beta-stannic acid.
Tin(IV ) chloride or tin tetrachloride SnCl4 is a liquid boiling at
112 °C and strongly fuming in air. Tin(IV) chloride is formed when
chlorine reacts with metallic tin or with tin(II) chloride. It is pro
duced on a commercial scale chiefly by treating discarded tin plate
(old tin cans) with chlorine.
Tin(IV) chloride dissolves in water and can be separated from a
solution in the form of various crystal hydrates, for instance SnCl4 -
5H 2 0.
In aqueous solutions, especially in dilute ones, tin(IV) chloride
becomes hydrolyzed, the product being alpha-stannic acid:
SnCl4 + 3H20 ** H 2Sn03 + 4HG1
Tin(IV) hydride or stannane SnH 4 is a colourless, very poisonous
gas. It liquefies at —52 °C, while at room temperature it gradually
decomposes into tin and hydrogen.
Tin Sulphides. When hydrogen sulphide reacts with a solution of
tin(II) chloride, a brown precipitate of tin(II) sulphide SnS is
obtained. In the same conditions, a yellow precipitate of tin disul
phide [or tin(IV) sulphide] SnS2 is obtained from a solution of tin(IV)
chloride. Tin disulphide can also be prepared by heating tin shavings
with sulphur and ammonium chloride. The disulphide obtained in
this way has the form of golden yellow scales, and under the name of
“gold tinsel” is used to gild wood.
Tin disulphide dissolves in solutions of alkali metal and ammonium
sulphides, the product being readily soluble salts of thiostannic acid
H 2SnS3:
SnS2 + (NH4)2S = (NH4)2SnS3
Free thiostannic acid is unknown. When acids act on its salts
(thiostannates), hydrogen sulphide is liberated, and tin disulphide is
obtained again:
(NH4)2SnS3 + 2HC1 = SnS2 4 + H2S f + 2NH4C1
Tin(II) sulphide does not dissolve in alkali metal and ammonium
sulphides, but ammonium and alkali metal polysulphides dissolve
it with the formation of thiostannates:
SnS + (NH4)2S2 = (NH4)2SnS3
74. Lead (P lu m bu m )
The lead content in the Earth’s crust is 0.0016% (mass). The
most important ore from which lead is extracted is lead glance or
galenite PbS.
The first metallurgical operation in producing lead is roasting,

during which the lead sulphide transforms into the oxide:
PbS + 30a = 2PbO + 2SOa
The lead (I I) oxide obtained is melted in a mixture with coke, the
product being black lead. It contains admixtures of many metals
and is subjected to further purification.
Lead is a bluish-white heavy metal. It is very soft and can be cut
with a knife.
Lead is widely used in engineering. The greatest amount of it goes
to make cable sheathing and accumulator plates. At sulphuric acid
plants, lead is used to make the housings of the towers, the coils of
the coolers, and other important components of the apparatus. Lead
goes to make ammunition and shot. It is included in many alloys,
for example bearing alloys, type metal, and solders. Lead is a good
absorber of gamma radiation and is used for protection from the lat
ter when working with radioactive substances.
A certain amount of lead is used in the production of tetraethyl
lead (see p. 141).
In air, lead rapidly becomes coated with a thin film of oxide that
protects it from further oxidation. Water by itself does not react
with lead, but in the presence of air lead is gradually destructed by
water with the formation of lead(II) hydroxide:
2Pb + Oa + 2HaO = 2Pb(OH)a
When it comes into contact with hard water, however, lead be
comes covered with a protective film of insoluble salts (chiefly lead
sulphate and basic lead carbonate) that prevents the further action
of the water and the formation of the hydroxide.
Dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids almost do not react with
lead. This is associated with the considerable overvoltage of hydrogen
liberation on lead, and with the low solubility of lead chloride and
sulphate that cover the surface of the dissolving metal. In concentrated
sulphuric acid, especially when heated, lead vigorously dissolves
with the formation of the soluble acid salt Pb(HS04)2.
Lead dissolves readily in nitric acid, and at a higher rate in an
acid having a moderate concentration than in a concentrated acid.
The explanation is that the solubility of the corrosion p roduct-
lead nitrate—diminishes with an increase in the acid concentration.
Lead dissolves comparatively easily in acetic acid containing dis
solved oxygen.
Lead also dissolves in alkalies, although at a low rate; dissolving
is more vigorous in, hot dilute solutions. The products are hy-
droxoplumbites, for instance:
Pb + 4KOH + 2HaO = K4[Pb(OH)6] + Ha f
potassium
hydroxoplumbite
(3 *
All soluble compounds of lead are poisonous.

Lead is characterized by the oxidation numbers + 2 and + 4 . The
compounds with the oxidation number + 2 are considerably more
stable and numerous.
Compounds of Lead(II). Lead(II) oxide PbO is a yellow powder
formed when molten lead is heated in air. After roasting at about
500 °C, it acquires a reddish-yellow colour, and in this form is known
as litharge. Lead(II) oxide is used for filling the cells in accumulator
plates and in the production of certain grades of glass, it is also the
starting material for preparing other lead compounds.
Lead(II) hydroxide Pb(OH) 2 is formed when alkalies react with
soluble salts of lead(II). It has amphoteric properties and dissolves
in acids with the formation of salts of lead(II), and in alkalies with
the formation oi hydroxoplumbites, for instance:
Pb(OH)a + 4NaOH = NaJPb(OH) J
When Pb(OH) 2 is fused with dry alkalies, salts called plumb!tes
are obtained:
Pb(OH)a + 2NaOH = Na2PbOa + 2H20
sodium
plumbite
Lead(II) chloride PbCl2 is produced in the form of a white pre

cipitate when solutions of lead(II) salts are reacted with hydrogen
chloride or soluble chlorides. Lead(II) chloride is only slightly sol
uble in cold water, but its solubility grows greatly with elevation
of the temperature.
Lead(II) iodide P b l 2 settles as a yellow precipitate from solutions
of lead(II) salts when iodide ions are introduced into them. It is
virtually insoluble in cold water, but dissolves well in hot water to
form a colourless solution. When the latter is cooled, the lead(II)
iodide precipitates in the form of golden yellow crystals.
Lead(II) acetate Pb(CH3COO)a is among the few well soluble salts
of lead widely used in laboratory practice. Lead(II) acetate has a
sweet taste and is also known as lead sugar. It is used to dye fabrics
and to produce other lead compounds.
Lead(II) sulphate PbS0 4 settles as a white precipitate when sul
phuric acid or soluble sulphates are added to solutions of lead(II)
salts. Lead(II) sulphate is almost insoluble in water and in dilute
acids, but dissolves quite readily in concentrated solutions of alka
lies with the formation of plumbites. Concentrated sulphuric acid
also dissolves lead(II) sulphate, transforming it into the acid salt
Pb(HS04)2.
Lead(II) sulphide PbS is formed as a black precipitate when hydro
gen sulphide reacts with lead(II) salts. This is why a paper wetted
with a solution of a lead (I I) salt rapidly darkens if the air contains
even insignificant amounts of hydrogen sulphide. This is used to de

tect h 2s.
Reducing properties are not characteristic of lead(II) salts, unlike
lin(II) salts. Compounds of lead(II) can be transformed into ones
ot lead(IV) only by means of very strong oxidizing agents.
Compounds of Lead(IV). Lead dioxide Pb0 2 is a dark brown pow
der that forms when strong oxidizing agents react with the oxide or
salts of lead(II). Lead dioxide, like tin dioxide, is an amphoteric
oxide with acid properties predominating in it. Salts corresponding
>;o plumbic acid H 2 P b03, which does not exist in the free state, are
called plumbates. For example, the fusion of lead dioxide with cal
cium oxide yields calcium plumbate CaPbOs:
CaO -f P b02 = CaPb03
Most plumbates are insoluble in water. Sodium and potassium
olumbates are soluble; they are greatly hydrolyzed in solution.
The basic properties of lead dioxide are exhibited in the formation
of very unstable salts of lead(IV). For instance, when lead dioxide
is reacted with hydrogen chloride, lead(IV) chloride PbCl4 is formed
at the first moment; however, it readily parts with chlorine and trans
forms into lead(II) chloride PbCl2:
P b02 + 4HC1 = PbCl4 + 2H20
PbCl4 - PbCl2 + Cl2 f
All lead(IV) compounds are very strong oxidizing agents. Lead
dioxide P b 0 2 finds practical application as an oxidizing agent in
•rhe chemical industry.
Two mixed oxides of lead are known: Pb 3 0 4 and Pba0 3. They can
he considered as combinations of lead(II) and lead(IV) oxides,
namely, 2PbO-PbOa (i.e. Pb 3 0 4), and PbO *Pb03 (i.e. Pb 20 3). Red
lead, or minium Pb 3 0 4 is a bright red substance. It is the basis of a
paint used to protect metals from corrosion.
75. The Lead Accumulator
A lead (or lead-acid) accumulator ready for service consists of
lead grids, one set of which is filled with lead dioxide and the other
with metallic spongy lead. The grids are immersed in a 35-40% solu
tion of H 2 S04; at this concentration, the electrical conductivity of a
sulphuric acid solution is maximum.
In operation of the accumulator—in its discharge—an oxidation-
reduction reaction proceeds in it in the course of which the metallic
lead is oxidized:
Pb + SO|- = PbS04 + 2e~
and the lead dioxide is reduced:
PbO£ +SO J- + 4H+ + 2e- « PbS04 + 2H80
The electrons given up by the atoms of the metallic lead in oxida

tion are accepted by the lead atoms of the PbOa in reduction; the
electrons are transferred from one electrode to the other through the
external circuit.
Hence, the metallic lead is the anode in a lead accumulator and
is charged negatively, while the P b 0 2 is the cathode and is charged
positively.
Migration of the ions occurs in the internal circuit (in the H 2S0 4
solution) when an accumulator is operating. The SO\~ ions migrate
towards the anode, and the H + ions towards the cathode. The direc
tion of this migration is due to the electric field appearing as a re
sult of the electrode processes: anions are used up at the anode, and
cations at the cathode. Hence, the solution remains electrically neu
tral.
If we add the equations corresponding to the oxidation of the lead
and the reduction of the lead dioxide, we get the net equation of the
reaction proceeding in a lead accumulator during its operation (dis
charge):
Pb + PbOa + 4H + + 2SOJ- = 2PbS04 + 2H20
The e.m.f. of a charged lead accumulator is about 2 V. As an ac
cumulator becomes discharged, the materials of its cathode (PbOa)
and anode (Pb) are used up. The sulphuric acid is also used up. The
voltage across the accumulator terminals drops. When it becomes less
than the value tolerated by the service conditions, the accumulator
is charged again.
For charging, an accumulator is connected to an external source of
direct current (its plus terminal is connected to the plus of the
source, and the minus to the minus). The current flows through the
accumulator in a direction opposite to that in discharging. As a re
sult, the electrochemical processes at the electrodes are reversed.
Now the following reduction process occurs on the lead electrode:
PbS04 + 2e~ = Pb + SOJ-
i.eMthis electrode becomes the cathode. At the P b 0 2 electrode, an
oxidation process occurs:
PbS04 + 2HaO = Pb02 + 4H+ + SOJ- + 2e~
consequently, this electrode is now the anode. The ions in the solu
tion migrate in the directions opposite to those in which they trav
elled during operation of the accumulator.
Summating the last two equations, we get the equation of the
reaction proceeding in the charging of an accumulator:
2PbS04 + 2HaO = Pb + P b02 + 4H+ + 2SOJ-
It is not difficult to notice that this process is opposite to the one
occurring in operation of an accumulator: when an accumulator is
charged, the substances needed for its operation are again produced
in it.
6
C O M M O N PROPERTIES
OF METALS. ALLOYS
In the preceding chapters, we treated the properties of non-metals

and of only a few elements relating to metals. Before considering the
remaining metals by groups of the periodic table, we shall stop to
deal with their common properties and the ways of extracting them
from their natural compounds.
76. Physical and Chemical Properties
of Metals. The Electron Structure of Metals,
Dielectrics, and Semiconductors
Metals have a number of common properties. The common physi
cal properties of metals include their high electrical conductance,
high thermal conductance, and plasticity or ductility, i.e. the abili
ty to be deformed at ordinary and elevated temperatures without
rupture. The ductility of metals is of a very great practical signifi
cance. Owing to this property, metals lend themselves to forging,
rolling, drawing into a wire, and pressworking. Metals also possess a
metallic lustre due to their good light reflecting power, and opacity
(in a highly dispersed state, metals are usually black and dull).
Table 7 gives values of the electrical resistivity and thermal con
ductivity of selected metals. For comparison, the relevant data are
also given for two non-metals—iodine and sulphur.
Table 7
Electrical Resistivity p and Thermal Conductivity %
of Selected Elementary Substances at 20 °C
K X,
Substance p, Q-cm J/(cm*s*K) Substance p, Q-cm J/(cm-s*K)
A lum inium 2 .6 6 X 1 0 - 6 2.26 N ick el 6 .8 4 x 1 0 - ° 0.586

Copper 1 .6 1 x 1 0 - ° 3.85 S ilv er 1 .5 9 X 1 0 -° 4.586
Iron 9 .7 1 X 1 0 -° 0.732 Iodine About 1016
Lead 2 0 .6 X 1 0 " ° 0.347 Sulphur About 1023 0.0025
200 Common Properties of Metals. Alloys
In the chemical respect, all metals are characterized by a compara

tive readiness to give up their valence electrons and, as a conse
quence, by the ability of forming positively charged ions and exhibit
only a positive oxidation state in their compounds. Many metals,
for instance iron, chromium, and manganese, have different, but
always positive, oxidation states in different compounds. In this
connection, metals in the free state are reducing agents. The reducing
power of different metals is not the same. For reactions in aqueous
solutions, it is determined by the position of the metal in the
electromotive series and the concentration (activity) of its ions in
solution.
The reason for the common nature of both the physical and chemi
cal properties of metals is the common nature of the structure of
their atoms and of the crystal lattices of metals.
A common feature of metal atoms is their greater dimensions in
comparison with non-metal atoms (see Vol. 1, Sec. 33). The outer
electrons in metal atoms are at a considerable distance from the
nucleus and are bound to it comparatively weakly—metal atoms
are characterized by low ionization potentials (see Vol. 1, Sec. 34,
Tables 4 and 5) and an affinity for an electron that is close to zero
or negative. This is why metals readily part with their valence elec
trons, playing the role of reducing agents, and, as a rule, are not
capable of gaining electrons, i.e. of exhibiting oxidizing properties.
Let us now consider the features of the structure of metals in the
crystalline state. We have already noted that metals have a high
electrical conductance, the current carriers in metals being electrons.
This indicates that metals contain “free” electrons capable of mov
ing along a crystal under the action of even weak electric fields.
At the same time, non-metals in the crystalline state are usually
dielectrics (insulators) and, consequently, contain no free electrons.
These distinctions can be explained on the basis of the method of
molecular orbitals (the MO method).
It was shown in Vol. 1, Sec. 45, that when two identical atoms
interact, instead of the two initial atomic orbitals equivalent from
the energy viewpoint, two molecular orbitals are formed that cor
respond to different energy levels (Vol. 1, Fig. 45). If three atoms
interact, and their valence orbitals appreciably overlap, then not
two, but three molecular orbitals are formed that belong to all three
atoms to an equal extent (delocalized orbitals) and are characterized
by three different energy values. With the consecutive increase in
the number of interacting atoms, the addition of each of them leads
to the formation of another energy level and to the further delocal
ization of the molecular orbitals (i.e. to their extension to a greater
number of atoms); the total number of energy levels will equal the
number of interacting atoms. Such a process is shown schematically
in Fig. 31.
Common Properties of Metals. Alloys 201
A glance at this figure shows that a growth in the number of atoms

is attended by an increase in the number of allowed energy states
and a decrease in the distance between adjacent energy levels. When
the number of interacting atoms is small, a comparatively great
energy has to be spent for transferring an electron from an energy
level to the nearest higher one. But when the number of atoms N
is great (in a macroscopic crystal N has the order of the Avogadro
constant), adjacent levels differ so negligibly that a virtually con
tinuous energy band is formed, and an electron can pass over to the
nearest higher level with the expenditure of a negligibly small
energy. If such a nearest level is not occupied by electrons, the elec
tron at the preceding level behaves like a “free” one; owing to the
delocalized nature of the orbitals it can travel along the crystal with
infinitesimally small energy actions.
The molecular orbitals forming an energy band are filled in the
order of the consecutive growth in the energy. In accordance with
Pauli’s principle, each MO can accommodate two electrons.
In a crystal of an alkaline metal, for example potassium, the atom
ic orbitals of the inner electron layers do not virtually overlap.
It may be considered that in this case a continuous energy band is
set up only at the expense of the outer electron layer orbitals and is
filled by electrons of this layer. In a crystal containing N atoms, an
energy band of N levels is formed from the initial atomic s orbitals
of the outer layer. This band accommodates N outer $ electrons of
the alkali metal atoms, which occupy N/2 energy levels (two elec
trons at each level). The collection of these levels occupied by va
lence electrons is called a valence band. In the case being consid
ered, the valence band occupies only half of the available energy
levels. The other levels remain unfilled and form a conduction band
(Fig. 32). Here, in direct proximity to the upper occupied levels,
there are free levels which electrons can pass over to under the action
of an electric field. This is exactly what makes it possible for elec
trons to carry a current, i.e. what ensures the electrical conductance
of a metal.
1 2 4 8 N
Number of atoms
Fig. 31. Form ation of energy le v els when the number of interacting atom s
grows
A band consisting of N levels is also formed in a crystal of a metal

of the main subgroup of Group two (for example, calcium) from the
initial atomic 5 orbitals of the outer layer. But, since here each atom
has two outer s electrons, this band has to accommodate 2 N elec
trons, so that all its levels will be completely occupied. Upon the
interaction of the atoms of a metal, however, not only the outer s
orbitals, but also the outer p orbitals overlap. The result is also the
formation of a continuous energy band not filled by electrons. The
bands formed by the s and p orbitals overlap (Fig. 33), so that in
this case too the conduction band containing the free energy levels
directly adjoins the valence band. Hence, the crystal considered must
also have a high electrical conductance.
Figures 32 and 33 show a sharp boundary between the valence
and conduction bands. Actually, this boundary is blurred; owing to
thermal motion, electrons can pass from the upper levels of the va
lence band to the lower levels of the conduction band. The ability of
these electrons to freely migrate along a crystal and carry energy from
one part of it (heated) to another (colder) is the reason why metals
have a high thermal conductance. Thus, both the electrical and the
thermal conductance of metals are explained by the possibility of
free migration of conduction band electrons. This is exactly why
parallelism is observed between the values of the electrical conduc
tance and thermal conductance for most metals. For instance, the
best conductors of electricity—silver and copper—also have the
highest thermal conductivity (see Table 7).
Heating is attended by more intensive oscillations of the atoms
of a metal about their equilibrium positions in the crystal lattice,
which hampers the motion of the electrons. Consequently, the elec
trical resistivity of metals grows with elevation of the temperature.
Fig. 32. F illin g of energy levels by Fig. 33. F illin g of energy levels by
electrons in an alk ali m etal electrons in a crystal of a
crystal: m ain subgroup m etal of
a—occupied levels (valence band); Group two:
b —unoccupied levels (conduction a—-valence band formed from
band) initial outer s orbitals;
b--conduction band formed from
Initial outer p orbitals
The picture of the electron structure of solid metals considered

al3 0 ve shows that the valence electrons establishing a chemical bond
belong not to two or several definite atoms, but to the entire metal
crystal. The valence electrons are capable of migrating within the
crystal- The chemical bond thus formed is known as a metallic bond,
and the collection of “free” electrons in a metal, as an electron gas.
The metallic bond is characteristic of metals, their alloys, and inter-
metallic compounds (see p. 2 2 0 ).
The ductility of metals is also explained by the specific properties
of the metallic bond. When a solid body experiences a mechanical
a c tio n , individual layers of its crystal lattice become displaced
relative to one another. In crystals with an atomic structure, this
results in breaking of the covalent bonds between the atoms belong
ing to different layers, and the crystal is demolished. In crystals
with an ionic structure, mutual displacement of the layers inevitably
leads to ions with a like charge being neighbours. Forces of electro
static repulsion appear, and the crystal is also demolished. In a
metal, however, displacement of individual layers of its crystal lat
tice is attended only by a certain redistribution of the electron gas
bonding the metal atoms to one another, but the chemical bonds
are not broken—the metal deforms without rupture.
Unlike metals, crystals of elementary substances formed by non-
metals do not usually have an appreciable electronic conductance
(see Table 7); they are dielectrics (insulators). Although continuous
energy bands can also form here, the conduction band is separated
from the valence one by a forbidden band, i.e. by a considerable ener
gy gap AE (Fig. 34, dielectric). The energy of thermal motion or of
a weak electric field is insufficient for surmounting this gap, and no
electrons pass from the valence band to the conduction one. Thus,
in dielectrics, the electrons cannot freely migrate along a crystal
and be carriers of an electric current.
<b) (b)
(•)
Metal Dielectric Semiconductor
Fig. 34. Arrangement of energy bands in a m etal, dielectric, and semiconductor:

a—valence band: b—conduction band
Semiconductors have specific properties distinguishing them from

both metals and dielectrics. At low temperatures, their electrical
resistance is quite high, and in these conditions they display proper
ties of dielectrics. But when heated or illuminated, the electrical
conductance of semiconductors sharply grows and may reach values
comparable with the conductance of metals.
The dependence of the electrical properties of semiconductors on
the temperature and illumination is explained by the electron struc
ture of their crystals. Here, as in dielectrics, the valence band is
separated from the conduction band by the forbidden band (Fig. 34,
semiconductor). But the width of the forbidden band AE is not great
for semiconductors. Consequently, under the action of quanta of ra
diant energy or when heated, the electrons occupying the upper lev
els of the valence band can pass into the conduction band and carry
an electric current. With elevation of the temperature or with a
growth in the illumination, the number of electrons passing into
the conduction band increases; accordingly, the electrical con
ductance of the semiconductor grows.
When electrons pass over to the conduction band, energy levels
not completely occupied by electrons appear in the valence bands.
They are known as electron vacancies or “holes”. In an electric field,
the holes behave like positive electric charges. Hence, a current can
be carried in semiconductors both by the electrons of the conduction
band (n-conductivity, from the word negative), and by the holes of
the valence band (p-conductivity, from the word positive).
77. The Crystalline Structure of Metals

The structure of metals is studied in various ways. They can be
divided into two groups. The first group includes methods of studying
the internal structure of crystals, and the second—methods of
studying their external forms.
The internal structure of crystals is studied chiefly with the aid
of X-ray structural analysis (see Vol. 1, Sec. 50). Its data have been
used to establish the kinds and parameters of lattices for all metals.
< 1>
I»
<
<•> (M (c)
Fig. JJ. Basic kinds of crystal la ttices of m etals:
a-body-centred cubic; 6 - face-centred cubic; c - hexagonal
The crystal lattices of metals may be of different kinds. Most met

als, however, are characterized by three kinds of lattices: body-
centred cubic (Li, Na, K, V, Cr, Fe* *, Pb, W , etc.), face-centred
cubic (Al, Ca, Fe**, Ni, Gu, Ag, Au, etc.), and hexagonal (Be,
y[g, Cd, Ti, Co, Zn, etc.). Figure 35 shows the unit cells (see Vol. 1,
See. 50) of these kinds of lattices.
" The dimensions, shape, and mutual arrangement of the crystals in
a metal are studied by metallographic methods. The most complete
assessment of the structure of a metal in this respect is given by a
microscopic analysis of its microsection. A sample is cut out from
the metal being studied and its surface is ground, polished, and
pickled in a special solution (a pickling agent). Pickling reveals the
structure of the sample, which is examined or photographed with the
aid of a metallographic microscope.
Metal crystals are usually small in size. Consequently, any metal
article consists of a large number of crystals. This structure is called
polycrystalline. When a metal crystallizes from the molten state,
the growing crystals prevent one another from acquiring a regular
shape. This is why the crystals of a polycrystalline body have an
irregular shape and unlike regularly faced crystals are called crystal
lites or grains. The grains differ from one another in the spatial orien
tation of their crystal lattices (Fig. 36).
In the pickling of a microsection, the boundaries of the grains
are eroded to a greater extent and become deeper. Light falling on
them is scattered, and in the field of view of the microscope the
boundaries of the grains seem dark, while the grains themselves
am light (Fig. 37).
Special ways are used to obtain pieces of metals that are a single
crystal—monocrystals. Monocrystals of metals, and also of non-
metals, are prepared for scientific research and for special branches
of engineering (semiconductors, lasers, etc.).
The internal structure of a met
al grain is not strictly regular.
Metals, like all real crystals (see
Vol. 1, Sec. 51), have structural
defects. Many properties of met
als greatly depend on the nature
and the number of the defects
in the metal. For instance, va
cancies play an important role in
diffusion processes. These process
es occur, for example, when the
* At temperatures up to 911 and
from 1392 °G to melting. Fig. 36. Different orientations of
* At temperatures from 911 to crystal lattices in a
1392 °C. polycrystalline body
hot surface layer of a metal article is saturated with other

elements for protection against corrosion or for imparting hard
ness to the surface of the article. The atoms of the foreign
element penetrate into the metal chiefly at the sites of vacan
cies. The number of vacancies grows with elevation of the tempera
ture, and this is one of the reasons why the diffusion process is ac
celerated.
Some mechanical properties of metals depend on the number of
dislocations and their ability of migration along the metal. For
instance, the high ductility of metals is explained by the migration
of the dislocations.
Plastic shear in a metal crystal is shown schematically in Fig. 38.
The external force F initially causes a slight displacement of the
atoms in vertical rows 7, 2, and 3 (Fig. 38a). With an increase in
the force F, this displacement grows, and row 1 of atoms (above
shear plane AA) moves past the neutral position between T and 2'.
Row 2 transforms into a surplus plane and forms a dislocation
(Fig. 386), which we have already seen in Fig. 62 of Vol. 1 (p. 171).
As a result of the formation of a dislocation, the lattice becomes dis
torted at both sides of the shear plane. Consequently, now even
a small force F causes the vertical rows of atoms above the shear
plane to become displaced—the dislocation like a relay race will be
consecutively transferred to rows 5, 4, and so on.
Fig. 37. Microstructure of metal (magnification 100X)

At a certain moment, the position shown in Fig. 38c will occur.

Finally, however, the dislocation will pass out onto the surface and
wjH vanish as shown in Fig. 38rf.
Thus, plastic shear in a real metal occurs not by simultaneous
shear of an entire atomic plane, which would require the expenditure
0|! much more energy, but by motion of the dislocations along the
shear plane.
Metal crystals deprived of dislocations have a very high strength.
Among them are the filamentary crystals or “whiskers” grown in
special conditions. Their strength is many times superior to that of
ordinary specimens of the relevant metal and is close to the theoreti
cal value calculated for the crystal lattice of a metal having no struc
ture defects.
On the other hand, the appearance of a very great number of differ
ently oriented dislocations in a metal also leads to an increase in
its strength because the crystalline structure of the metal is greatly
distorted and migration of the dislocations is hampered. This explains
the phenomenon of work hardening—hardening of a metal through
plastic deformation. When a greatly deformed metal is heated,
the distortions of its structure due to shear gradually vanish—the
metal returns to a structurally more stable state; its ductility grows,
while its hardness and strength diminish.
78. Extraction of Metals from Their Ores

The overwhelming majority of metals occur in nature in the form
of compounds with other elements. Only a few metals are encoun
tered in the free state. They are known as native metals. Gold and
(a) (b)
Pig. 38, Dislocation diagram of plastic shear

platinum occur almost exclusively in the native state, and silver

and copper—partly. Native mercury and some other metals are also
encountered.
Gold and platinum are extracted either by mechanical separation
from the rock containing them, for example by washing, or by extrac
tion from the rock with the aid of various reagents and the follow
ing separation from the solution. All other metals are extracted by
the chemical processing of their natural compounds.
Minerals and rocks that contain metal compounds and are suitable
for the industrial extraction of these metals are called ores. The main
ores contain metal oxides, sulphides, and carbonates. The extraction
of metals from their ores is the task of metallurgy—one of the most
ancient branches of the chemical industry. Metallurgical processes
occurring at high temperatures are known as pyrometallurgical ones.
For example, iron and steel are produced in this way.
The most important method of extracting metals from their ores
is based on reducing their oxides with coal or CO. If, for example,
red copper ore Cu20 is mixed with coal and heated, the coal reduces
the copper and transforms into carbon monoxide, while the copper is
recovered in the molten state:
Cu20 + C = 2Cu + CO f
Iron is smelted by reducing iron ores with carbon monoxide.
In processing sulphide ores, the sulphides are first converted to
oxides by roasting in special kilns, and then the oxides obtained
are reduced with coal. For example:
2ZnS -{- 30 2 = 2ZnO -{- 2S0 2 f
ZnO -j- C = Zn -j- CO f
In addition to pyrometallurgical methods, hydrometallurgieal ones
are also used in extracting metals. They consist in the extraction of
metals from their ores in the form of their compounds using aqueous
solutions of various reagents with the following recovery of the metal
from the solution. This method is used, for example, to recover gold
(see Sec. 8 8 ).
Ores are usually a collection of minerals. Minerals containing the
metal being extracted are called ore minerals, while all others are
called barren or dead rock. The latter most frequently consists of
sand, clay, and limestone, which are high-melting substances. To
facilitate the melting of the metal, special substances called fluxes
are mixed with the ore. The fluxes form low-melting compounds
known as slags with the substances of the barren rock. The slags
are usually gathered on the surface of the molten metal and are re
moved. If the barren rock is limestone, sand is used as the flux. For
ores containing a large amount of sand, the flux is limestone. In
both cases, calcium silicate is formed as the slag because sand mainly
consists of silicon dioxide.
The content of barren rock in many ores is so great that the direct
melting of the metal from such ores is not justified economically. The
ores are preliminarily concentrated—part of the barren rock (gangue)
is separated from them. The concentration of the ore mineral grows
In the remaining concentrate. Ores are concentrated in various ways.
The flotation, gravitational, and magnetic methods are in the great
est favour.
The flotation method is based on the different wettability of min
eral surfaces by water. The finely comminuted ore is treated with wa
ter to which a small amount of a flotation reagent has been added
that increases the difference between the wettabilities of the ore
mineral and barren rock particles. Air is vigorously blown through
the mixture formed; its bubbles adhere to the grains of the minerals
that are wetted more poorly. These minerals are carried together with
the air bubbles up to the surface and are thus separated from the
barren rock.
G ravitational concentration is based on the difference in density
and, consequently, in the speed of dropping of mineral grains in a
liquid.
The magnetic method is based on the separation of minerals ac
cording to their magnetic properties.
Not all metals can be produced by the reduction of their oxides
with coal or CO. Let us calculate, for instance, the standard Gibbs
energy of the reaction of chromium reduction:
Cr2 0 3 + 3CO = 2Cr + 3COa f
Using Table 7 of Vol. 1, p. 213, we find AGf0 rm(Gr2 0 3) =
« -1059.0 kJ/mol, AGfVrn (C02) = —394.4 kJ/mol, ‘ and
AGform (CO) = -137.1 kJ/mol, whence AG° = 3 (-394.4) —
- [-1059.0 + 3(—137.1)1 = +267.1 kJ. The value obtained is
positive. This shows that at 25 °C and standard concentrations of
the reactants, the reaction does not proceed in the desired direction.
The positive value and great magnitude of AG° show that the reac
tion does not proceed in the direction of reduction of the metal not
only in standard conditions, but also at temperatures and concen
trations appreciably differing from the standard ones.
Stronger reducing agents such as hydrogen, magnesium, aluminium,
and silicon are used for metals that cannot be reduced by carbon or
carbon monoxide. The reduction of a metal from its oxide with the
aid of another metal is known as metallothermics. If, particularly,
aluminium is the reducing agent, then the process is called alumino-
thermics. Metals such as chromium and manganese are mainly pro
duced by aluminothermics, and also by reduction with silicon. If
we calculate AG° for the reaction
Cr2 0 8 + 2A1 = 2Cr + AlaOs
4-2412
we get a negative value (—523 kJ). This indicates that chromium

can be reduced by aluminium spontaneously.
Finally, metals whose oxides are the most stable (aluminium, mag
nesium, etc.) are produced by electrolysis (see Vol. 1, Sec. 103).
79. Production of Highly Pure Metals

The last few decades have seen a growth in the demand for highly
pure metals in connection with the development of new branches of
engineering. For example, the reliable operation of a nuclear reactor
requires that the content in the fissioning materials of such “danger
ous” impurities as boron and cadmium must never exceed millionths
of a per cent. Pure zirconium—one of the best structural materials
for atomic reactors—becomes absolutely unsuitable for this purpose
if it contains even an insignificant admixture of hafnium. The ger
manium used as a semiconductor may contain not more than one
atom of phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony per ten million atoms of
the metal. Even a negligible admixture of lead or sulphur is abso
lutely prohibited in the heat-resistant alloys widely employed, for
instance, in rocket building. ,
New methods of purifying substances have been developed for
industrial purposes. We shall consider the most important of them.
Refining in a Vacuum. This method is based on the difference be
tween the volatilities of the metal being purified and the impurities
in it. The starting metal is charged into a special vessel connected to
a vacuum pump. After evacuation of the vessel, its bottom part is
heated. In the course of distillation, either the impurities* (if they
are more volatile than the basic metal) or the purified metal (if the
impurities are less volatile) are deposited on the cold parts of the
vessel. Air must be continuously evacuated during the process be
cause the presence of even small amounts of oxygen would result in
oxidation of the surface of the molten metal and, consequently, in
retardation of the evaporation process.
Zone melting consists in the slow pulling of a bar of the metaJ
being purified through an annular furnace. The zone of the bar that
is in the furnace at a given moment melts. As the bar is moved along,
the molten zone travels from the beginning of the bar to its end.
Zone melting is used for a metal that has been preliminarily puri
fied. The content of impurities in it is already not great, so that the
basic metal and the impurities form a homogeneous solid solution.
When the bar moves through the annular furnace, the metal melts
at the front boundary of the zone and crystallizes at its rear boundary.
The composition of the crystals formed that are in equilibrium with
* More exactly, in this case the basic metal greatly enriched with the impuri
ties is deposited.
(he melt differs from that of the melt (see p. 217). Impurities of one
cet of metals become concentrated in the molten zone and move
‘ ether with it to the end of the bar; impurities of other metals are
concentrated in the crystals formed, remain behind the moving zone
and upon multifold repetition of the process move towards the begin
ning of the bar. As a result, the middle part of the bar is the purest;
it is cut out and used.
Zone melting is used to purify other substances in addition to
metals.
Thermal Decomposition of Volatile Metal Compounds. Carbonyl
process . This process is used to produce highly pure nickel and iron.
Nickel to be purified is heated in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide
under a pressure of about 20 MPa. The nickel reacts with the CO to
form volatile nickel tetracarbonyl Ni(CO) 4 (its boiling point is
42 °C); the impurities contained in the starting metal do not partic
ipate in the reaction. The Ni(CO) 4 formed is distilled off, and then
heated to a higher temperature. As a result, the carbonyl decomposes
with the separation of highly pure metal.
When iron is purified, synthesis and the following decomposition
of iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO)B (boiling point 105 °C) are conducted
in a similar way.
The iodide process makes it possible to produce highly pure tita
nium, zirconium, and some other metals. Let us consider this pro
cess using titanium as an example. The initial metal in the form of a
powder is heated to 100-200 °C with a small amount of iodine in a
sealed apparatus. Titanium filaments heated by an electric current
to 1300-1500 °C are stretched out in the apparatus. The titanium (but
not the impurities) forms with the iodine the volatile T il 4 that de
composes on the heated filaments. The pure titanium is deposited on
them, while the iodine forms new portions of the iodide with the
initial metal. The process goes on continuously until the entire
metal is transferred to the titanium filaments.
The process can be represented as follows:
Ti (contaminated)+
100—200 *G 1300- 1500 °C
+ 2I2(vap.) — -----►Til4(vap.)------------------------------------------- >Ti(pure)+2I
80. Alloys
The most diverse materials, both natural and man-made, are used
to manufacture equipment in the various branches of today's indus
try. But the main part of modern equipment—machines and mecha
nisms—are manufactured chiefly from metallic materials—metals,
alloys of metals with one another and with certain non-metals, first
14*
of all with carbon. This is associated with the fact that of all kinds
of materials, metal ones have the most valuable mechanical proper
ties. In addition, the properties of metallic materials are very nume
rous and diverse.
In the liquid state, most metals dissolve in one another and form
a homogeneous liquid alloy. Upon crystallization from the molten
state, different metals behave in different ways. The following three
cases are the main ones.
1. In the solid state, the metals being mixed do not dissolve and
do not react chemically with one another. In these conditions, an
alloy is a mechanical mixture and consists of crystallites of each of
the two components* that can be clearly seen in a microsection
(Fig. 39).
2. The metals being mixed react with each other to form a chemi
cal compound.
3. In crystallization from a melt, the solubility of the metals in
each other is retained. Homogeneous crystals are formed. In this
case, the solid phase is called a solid solution (Fig.]40). For some met
als, their mutual solubility in the solid state is unlimited, whereas
other metals dissolve in each other only up to definite concentra
tions.
81. Phase Diagrams of Metal Systems

Of very great importance in studying the properties of alloys are
phase diagrams characterizing the state of alloys of different compo
sitions at different temperatures. Such diagrams show thermodynam
ically stable states, i.e. states corresponding to the minimum Gibbs
energy of the system. They are also known as equilibrium diagrams
because they show what phases can coexist in the given conditions.
Phase diagrams are obtained experimentally. This is usually done
by plotting cooling curves and determining the temperatures of
transformations according to the stops and points of inflection of the
curves due to the heat effects of these transformations. To obtain the
cooling curves, a number of mixtures of different compositions are
prepared from the two metals of the system being studied. Each of
these mixtures is melted. The liquid alloys (melts) obtained are
slowly cooled, and the temperature of the cooling alloy is registered
in definite intervals of time. The results of the observations are used
to construct cooling curves by laying off the time along the axis of
abscissas and the temperature along the axis of ordinates (Fig. 41).
The left part of Fig. 41 shows the form of a cooling curve for a pure
* There are apparently no metals that are absolutely insoluble in each other
in the solid state. But when the mutual solubility of the metals does not exceed
hundredths of a per cent, it is customary practice to consider that they are in*
soluble in each other.
niolten metal. First, the temperature smoothly lowers along curve

ak. At point ft, the curve breaks, and the solid phase begins to form
(crystallization), which is attended by the evolution of heat, owing
to which the temperature remains constant for a certain time (the
curve is parallel to the axis of abscissas). When all of the molten
metal solidifies, the temperature again drops smoothly along curve
cb .
Sometimes breaks in the dropping of the temperature are also
observed on the cooling curve of a solid metal. This points to proc
esses associated with the evolution of heat that occur in the solid
substance, for example, a transition from one crystalline form to
another.
The cooling curve for an alloy of two metals has a somewhat differ
ent form. Such a curve is shown at the right of Fig. 41. Point ft, as
on the first curve, corresponds to the beginning of solidification—the
beginning of separation from the melt of crystals of one of the metals
it contains. The composition of the melt that remains liquid changes,
and the temperature of its solidification constantly lowers during
39. Microstructure of a bimetal Fig. 40. Microstructure of a bimetal

alloy forming a mechanical alloy forming a solid solution
mixture
K _L_ J Y
X 0 20 40 60 80 100
Concentration of Y,%
R®. 41. Cooling curves Fig. 42. Coordinates for plotting a

phase diagram of a bimetal
lic system
crystallization. But the heat liberated in crystallization nevertheless

retards the course of cooling, owing to which a break occurs in the
curve at point k. Crystals separate, and the temperature smoothly
lowers until a temperature is reached at which the alloy crystallizes
without any change in its composition. Here the temperature stops
dropping (point A^). When crystallization terminates, the tempera
ture drops along curve cb.
Having an adequate set of alloys with a varying content of the
components >and having determined in each alloy the temperatures of
transformation, we can plot a phase diagram. In phase diagrams, the
temperature is laid off along the vertical axis, and the composition
of the alloy (the concentration of one of the components) along the
horizontal one. For alloys consisting of two components designated
by the symbols X and Y, their composition is characterized by a point
on the section of the horizontal axis corresponding to 1 0 0 %. The
extreme points correspond to the individual components. Any point
between the extreme ones characterizes the composition of a binary
alloy. The numbers in Fig. 42 indicate the content of component Y.
For instance, point K corresponds to an alloy consisting of 20% Y
and 80% X.
Let us consider four simple cases—four kinds of diagrams corre
sponding to the kinds of alloys mentioned above: a mechanical mix
ture, a solid solution with unlimited solubility, one with limited
solubility, and a chemical compound.
Phase Diagram for Alloys Forming Mechanical Mixtures of the
Individual Components. Figure 43 shows a phase diagram of the
system Pb-Sb as an example of phase diagrams of this kind. Points
AandB in the diagram are the melting points of the system compo
nents: of lead (327 °C) and antimony (631 °C). In alloys of this kind,
the addition of one component to another, according to Raoult’s
law, lowers the freezing (crystallization) point. Curve AE shows the
temperature of crystallization of lead from melts rich in lead, and
curve BE the temperature of crys
tallization of antimony from melts —--------------
rich in antimony. Examination
of the figure shows that an in
crease in the content of the second
component lowers the freezing
points of both the lead and the
antimony. Point E belongs to ^
both curves: both metals simul IV v
taneously crystallize from a melt ----- I—I
---------1
-------- 1
--------1 Sb
-------- oD
0 13 20 40 60 80 100
whose composition corresponds to Concentration of Sb, % (mass)
this point. This joint crystalli
zation occurs at (the lowest tem Fig. 43. Phase diagram of system
perature. The composition cor- Pb-Sb
responding to point E is called the eutectic composition, and the

corresponding alloy is called a eutectic alloy or simply a eutectic
(from the Greek “eutektos”—easily melted). For the system Pb-Sb,
the eutectic consists of 13% Sb and 87% Pb; it melts and crystal
lizes at 246 °C.
Let us consider the crystallization of a melt in greater detail.
Assume that we have a melt containing 40% Sb and 60% Pb (point
k in Fig. 43). When this melt is cooled to 395 °G (point Z), crystals
begin to separate from it. They will be crystals of the component
present in an excess amount in comparison with the eutectic, in the
given case antimony. Now the melt consists of two phases. Two points
correspond to it in the phase diagram: point Z (melt) and point m
(antimony crystals). The crystallization of a certain amount of
antimony will change the composition of the melt; it will become
leaner in antimony and, consequently, richer in lead. The point in
the diagram corresponding to the melt will shift somewhat to the
left. Since cooling is being continued, this point will again reach the
curve—a certain amount of antimony crystals will again separate
from the melt. Hence, as cooling and crystallization continue, the
point corresponding to the melt moves downward and to the left
along the antimony crystallization curve, while the point correspond
ing to antimony crystals moves downward along the right-hand
vertical axis. When the melt reaches the eutectic composition, very
fine crystals of both components (the eutectic) will begin to separate
from it, until the entire amount of the substance taken crystallizes.
The alloy obtained will be a mixture of the eutectic with antimony
crystals.
If we start with a melt containing a small percentage of antimony
(less than the eutectic amount), the entire process will occur similar
to that described above, the only difference being that first crystals
of lead will separate instead of antimony. The alloy obtained will
have a structure that is a mixture of the eutectic with lead crystals.
Finally, if we start with a melt having the eutectic composition, the
entire melt will crystallize at 246 °C and will be a eutectic. Figure 44
shows the structure of alloys of the system Pb-Sb.
If the upper curves in the diagram in Fig. 43 (AE and BE) show
the temperature of the beginning of crystallization, then the lower
one—the horizontal line passing through point E —shows the tem
perature at which crystallization of the melt terminates. A glance at
the figure shows that for systems having phase diagrams of the kind
being considered, the temperature of termination of crystallization
does not depend on the composition of the mixture.
In the melting of solid alloys, the horizontal line passing through
point E shows the temperature of the beginning of melting. In the
case being considered, this temperature does not depend on the
composition of the melt because melting begins froln the eutectic
contained in all alloys of the system (except for the individual

components). The temperature of the alloy will remain constant
until all the eutectic contained in it melts. Further heating results
in elevation of the temperature—the crystals of the pure component
that in the initial alloy were mixed with the eutectic begin to melt.
The composition of the melt will become richer in this component,
and the point corresponding to the melt will move along the relevant
Fig. 44. Structure of lead-antimony alloys:

a—alloy containing excess of lead; 5—eutectic alloy; c —alloy containing excess
of antimony
branch of the upper curve. When melting terminates, i.e. when the
solid phase vanishes, the composition of the melt will be the same
as that of the initial alloy. Thus, if we start with a solid alloy, the
horizontal line passing through point E shows the temperature of
the beginning of melting, while curves A E and BE show the termi
nation of melting.
It is clear from what has been said above that region /in th e
diagram in Fig. 43 depicts a melt, regions I I and I I I depict the
coexistence of a melt and crystals of the excess component, and
regions IV and V depict a mixture of the eutectic with grains of
lead (region IV) or antimony (region V).
We have already mentioned that the composition of the alloy
taken is laid off along the horizontal axis of the diagram. But for
regions corresponding to the equilibrium of two phases, we can
use this axis to find the compositions of these phases. Assume, for
instance, that an alloy of 5% Sb and 95% Pb is heated to 270 °C.
Point a in the phase diagram (Fig. 45) corresponds to this alloy.
We draw through this point a horizontal line up to its intersection
with the nearest lines of the diagram. This gives us points b and c.
They show that equilibrium of lead crystals (point b) with a melt
whose composition is determined by the abscissa of point c (approxi
mately 10% Sb and 90% Pb) corresponds to the alloy taken at 270 °C.
Phase Diagram for Alloys with Unlimited Solubility in the Solid
State. Figure 46 contains a phase diagram of the system Ag-Au that
is a very simple example of this kind of diagrams. As in the preced
ing cases, points A and B represent the melting points of the com
ponents. The shape of the melting (bottom) and freezing (top) curves
is due in this case to the fact that the crystals separating when the
melt is cooled always contain both components (except, naturally,
in the crystallization of pure silver or gold).
Let us see how the melts crystallize in this case. Assume that the
initial liquid alloy corresponds to point d in the diagram (Fig. 46).
Concentration o£ Au, % (mass)
45. Part of phase diagram of Fig. 46. Phase diagram of system

system Pb-Sb Ag-Au
When it is cooled to the temperature tx (point e), crystallization

begins. The crystals are a solid solution richer in the refractory
component—gold (point p). Consequently, in the course of crystalli
zation, the liquid phase becomes leaner in the refractory component,
and the point in the diagram corresponding to the melt shifts some
what to the left. As cooling proceeds, this point moves downward,
again reaches the curve, and crystallization continues. Thus, cool
ing of the melt is attended by separation of crystals of a solid solu
tion enriched in the refractory component—gold, and enrichment
of the melt in the low-melting component—silver. The correspond
ing points in the diagram shift: the composition of the liquid phase
changes along the top line, and that of the solid solution along the
bottom one. When the process is conducted slowly, crystallization
terminates when a temperature t2 is reached at which the crystals
formed have the composition of the initial alloy (point r).
Thus, region / in the phase diagram of the system being considered
(Fig. 46) depicts a melt, region / / —the coexistence of a melt and
crystals of the solid solution, and region I I I depicts a solid solution.
In equilibrium, the points on both curves in the diagram are related:
for each temperature there are a melt of a definite composition and
crystals also of a definite composition, but different than that of
the melt (for example, point p corresponds to point e).
In the course of crystallization, the temperature of the system
lowers, and equilibrium between the melt and the crystals formed
earlier, i.e. at a higher temperature, is violated. Therefore, crystal
lization is attended by diffusion as a result of which, in slow conduct-
Pig. 47. Phase diagram of system Pb-Sn

ing of the process, the grains of the entire alloy are homogeneous and
have the same composition. In rapid cooling, the diffusion processes
do not have time to occur, and the alloy is not homogeneous.
As in the preceding case, the compositions of the equilibrium
phases—the melt and the solid solution in equilibrium with it—
can be established along the horizontal axis of the diagram. For
instance, the system which point s corresponds to consists of a melt
whose composition corresponds to point e, and crystals of a compo
sition corresponding to point p.
Phase Diagram for Alloys with Limited Mutual Solubility in the
Solid State. In alloys of this kind formed by the components X
and Y, a liquid phase and two solid solutions can exist: a solution
of component X in Y and a solution of component Y in X. In the
simplest case, these two solid solutions form a eutectic. The system
pb-Sn whose phase diagram is shown in Fig. 47 belongs to this
kind. We shall note first of all that here region I depicts a melt,
region I I a solid solution of tin in lead, and region I I I a solid solu
tion of lead in tin.
To understand what phases the other regions in the diagram and
the curves on it correspond to, let us consider how melts crystallize
in a system of this kind.
We shall first proceed from a liquid alloy rich in lead (point d
in Fig. 47). When this melt is cooled to the temperature tx (point e),
separation of crystals of a solid solution of tin in lead will begin.
The composition of these crystals corresponds to point p\ they are
richer in lead than the initial melt so that in crystallization, the
melt becomes leaner in lead. As in the preceding cases, the points
in the diagram corresponding to the melt and the crystals formed
shift: the composition of the liquid phase changes along line A E ,
and that of the crystals along line AD. When the temperature t2
is reached (point r), the crystals formed have the composition of the
initial alloy. If the process is conducted sufficiently slowly, then
at the temperature tz crystallization terminates as in systems with
unlimited mutual solubility (see above).
Curve ADF shows the solubility of tin in solid lead at different
temperatures. The solubility can be seen to be the greatest at 183.3 °C.
Consequently, when the crystals cool to the temperature t3 (point s)f
the solid solution becomes saturated. A transformation in the solid
state begins in it: crystals of the solid solution based on lead whose
composition corresponds to point s will transform into crystals
of the solid solution based on tin whose composition corresponds
to point q. At a constant temperature, the crystals of these two
solid solutions will be in equilibrium. Upon further cooling, how
ever, equilibrium will be violated, and the transformation of one
set of crystals into another will continue. The crystals of the lead-
based solid solution will become lean in tin—their composition will
vary along curve DF, simultaneously the composition of the tin-

based crystals of the solid solution will change along curve CG.
Now let us consider the cooling of a liquid alloy that is not so
rich in lead (point /). Upon cooling to the temperature (point g)y
crystals of the lead-based solid solution will begin to separate from
the melt; their composition corresponds to point h. As these crystals
separate, the melt becomes richer in tin: its composition changes
along line AE, and that of the separating crystals along line AD.
When the point corresponding to the melt reaches point E , crystals
of both solid solutions separate from the melt, the composition of
the crystals .of the lead-based solid solution corresponds to point D,
and that of the crystals of the tin-based solid solution to point C.
It is obvious that point E is the eutectic point, and the separating
mixture of crystals is the eutectic mixture.
In the region of temperatures below 183.3 °C, the solubility of
lead in tin and of tin in lead diminishes with lowering of the tem
perature. Hence, upon further cooling of the alloy, the composition
of the crystals formed changes. That of the crystals of the solid
solution of tin in lead changes along curve DF, and of the crystals
of the solid solution of lead in tin along curve CG.
The crystallization of melts rich in tin occurs in a similar way.
In this case, crystallization begins with liberation of the tin-based
crystals of the solid solution.
We can conclude from the above that regions IV and V in the
diagram depict the coexistence of a liquid melt and crystals of the
lead-based (region IV) or tin-based (region V) solid solution, while
regions VI and V II depict mixtures of the eutectic crystals with
crystals of the lead-based and tin-based solid solution, respectively.
Phase Diagram for Alloys Forming Chemical Compounds. Metals
form numerous intermetallic compounds. The enthalpies of forma
tion of such compounds are generally small, only in separate cases
(for instance, when aluminium reacts with molten copper) is their
formation attended by a considerable exothermic effect. Many
metals form several compounds, for example AuZn, Au3Zn5, AuZn8,
Na4Sn, NaSn, NaSn2.
Figure 48 shows a phase diagram of the system Mg-Pb. This is
a very simple example of systems in which chemical compounds are
formed: lead forms only one compound Mg2Pb with magnesium,
while in the solid state these metals do not dissolve in each other.
This diagram differs from those considered earlier in the presence
of a maximum on the curve of the beginning of crystallization. This
maximum (point C) corresponds to the melting point of the com
pound Mg2Pb. The abscissa of the maximum point indicates the
composition of the compound. The diagram contains two eutectics
Ex and Z?2. Eutectic Ex is a mixture of Mg and Mg2Pb crystals,
while eutectic E 2 is a mixture of Pb and Mg2Pb crystals.
Thus, a diagram of a system with a chemical compound consists,

a3 it were, of two diagrams of the first kind. If the components of
the system form two or more chemical compounds with one another,
then the diagram consists, as it were, of three, four, and more sepa
rate diagrams of the first kind.
The crystallization of alloys in this and similar cases occurs simi
larly to the crystallization of alloys forming diagrams of the first
kind. The difference is that crystals of the compound are formed
in addition to the separation of crystals of the individual compo
nents. In cooling, magnesium separates from melts along line A E U
lead along line E^B, and Mg2Pb along line E tCE2. For instance, if
we cool a liquid alloy containing 40% Pb (i.e., 60% Mg), then magne
sium crystals will first separate from it. When the temperature
lowers to 460 °G, the entire remaining liquid part of the alloy will
begin to solidify at this temperature, forming a eutectic mixture
of very fine crystals of magnesium and the chemical compound
MgaPh.
When a liquid alloy containing 75% Pb is cooled, first Mg2Pb
crystals will separate. This will occur until the temperature lowers
to 460 °C—the eutectic temperature. Similar processes with the
separation of the eutectic E t (at 250 °C) will occur when the alloy
contains more than 80% Pb.
It is not difficult to see that region I in Fig. 48 depicts the liquid
alloy, regions I I to V depict equilibria of the liquid alloy and the
relevant crystals (in region I I —Mg crystals, in regions I I I and
IV—Mg2Pb crystals, in region V—Pb crystals), and regions V I-IX
depict solid alloys [Mg+ eutectic Et (VI), Mg4P b + eutectic Ex
(VII), Mg2Pb + eutectic E 2 (VIII), and Pb-(-eutectic E2 (IX)].
We have considered the simplest, but at the same time the most
important kinds of phase diagrams. For many systems, the phase
Rg. 48. Phase diagram of system Mg-Pb

diagrams have a considerably more complicated nature. For exam

ple, a number of metals and alloys undergo transformations in the
solid state, passing from one modification to another. The relevant
phase diagrams contain curves dividing the regions of stability
of these modifications.
There are methods for constructing the phase diagrams of ternary
systems, i.e. systems consisting of three components.
The phase diagrams for technically important systems have
been studied and are given in special publications. They find a wide
spread application in various fields of science and engineering, are
a scientific foundation for the choice of alloys having given proper
ties, in investigating methods of the thermal processing of alloys,
and in developing and creating new alloys. An example of a system
having a very great practical importance is the Fe-C system. The
phase diagram of this system is treated in Sec. 124.
In addition to phase diagrams, of great significance are composi
tion-property diagrams. In these diagrams, the composition of the
system is laid off along the axis of abscissas, as in phase diagrams,
while quantities characterizing various properties of the system,
for instance the density, electrical conductance, and resistance to
corrosion, are laid off along the axis of ordinates.
The top of Fig. 49 schematically shows phase diagrams for the
four main kinds of alloys, while its bottom shows the typical “com
position-property” diagrams corresponding to them. It can be seen
Fig. 49. Typical phase diagrams and the shape of the “composition-property”
diagrams corresponding to them
that in the formation of a mechanical mixture (Fig. 49a), the prop

erties of alloys change linearly and their values are within the
interval between the values of these properties for the individual
components. A non-linear relation is observed for the formation
of solid solutions (Fig. 496 and c). Some properties here may differ
quite considerably from those of the metals forming the alloy.
Finally* when a chemical compound is formed, a maximum or
minimum corresponding to the compound appears in the “compo
sition-property” diagrams.
N. Kurnakov* used the method of constructing “composition-
property” diagrams as the basis of the method of physicochemical
analysis which he developed for investigating systems. At present,
physicochemical analysis is one of the main ways of studying alloys
and in general systems consisting of several components: salts,
oxides, etc.
82. Corrosion of Metals

Metallic materials—metals and alloys based on metals, when
coming into contact with their environment (gaseous or liquid)
are subjected to destruction at a certain rate. The cause of this
destruction is chemical reaction: metals enter into oxidation-reduc
tion reactions with substances surrounding them and become oxi
dized.
The spontaneous destruction of metallic materials occurring as
a result of the chemical action of their environment is known as
corrosion.
The total mass of the metallic materials used in the form of various
articles in the world’s economy is very great. Consequently, notwith
standing the generally low rate of corrosion, enormous amounts of
metal are lost irretrievably every year owing to corrosion. Approxi
mate calculations show that the world’s loss of metal due to corro
sion amounts to 20 million tonnes a year. But still greater harm is
associated not with the loss of metal, but with spoiling of articles
caused by corrosion. The outlay for the repair or replacement of
components of vessels, motor vehicles, chemical apparatus, and
instruments is many times greater than the cost of the metal which
they are made from. Finally, the indirect losses caused by corrosion
are also appreciable. Among them are, for example, the leakage
of oil or gas from corroded pipes, the spoiling of food products,
* Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (1860-1941), a Russian scientist, academi
cian, State Prize winner, is the author of works on the theory of solutions and
alloys, the chemistry of complex compounds, and is the founder of physicoche
mical analysis. He gave much attention to studying the nature of salt solutions;
his works in this field facilitated the effective use of the country’s salt resources
and led to the discovery of potassium salt deposits near Solikamsk.
and the loss of health and sometimes even the life of people when
this is due to corrosion. Hence, the combatting of corrosion is an
important problem of the national economy. This is why huge sums
are spent for protection against corrosion.
The most important cases of corrosion include corrosion in gases
(gas corrosion) and corrosion in solutions of electrolytes (electrochem
ical corrosion). Corrosion in gases occurs at elevated temperatures
when the condensation of moisture on the surface of a metal is
impossible. The fittings of furnaces, the components of internal
combustion engines, the blades of gas turbines, etc. are corroded by
gases. Metal subjected to heat treatment also undergoes gas corro
sion. Gas corrosion results in the formation of the relevant com
pounds—oxides, sulphides, etc.—on the surface of a metal.
Heat-resistant alloys are used to manufacture apparatus coming
into contact with corroding gases. Iron and steel are made heat-
resistant by adding chromium, silicon, and aluminium to them,
alloys based on nickel or cobalt are also used. Protection against
gas corrosion is also provided by saturating the surface of an article
in the hot state with certain metals having a protective action.
These metals are aluminium and chromium. Their protective action
is due to the formation on their surface of a very thin but strong
oxide film preventing reaction of the metal with its environment.
When aluminium is used, this method is called alu m inizing, and
when chromium is used—th erm ochrom izing.
Electrochemical corrosion includes all cases of corrosion in aque
ous solutions. For example, the underwater parts of vessels, steam
boilers, and pipelines laid in the earth are subjected to electro
chemical corrosion. The corrosion of metal in a humid atmosphere
is also electrochemical corrosion. As a result of electrochemical
corrosion, the oxidation of a metal may lead either to the formation
of insoluble products (for instance, rust), or to the transition of the
metal into solution in the form of ions.
Water, usually contains dissolved oxygen capable of being reduced:
0 3 + 4H + + 4 e - = 2HaO
In addition, water contains hydrogen ions also capable of being
reduced:1"
2 H+ + 2e~ = Ha
Dissolved oxygen and hydrogen ions are the most important
oxidizing agents that cause the electrochemical corrosion of metals.
Let us see what metals can be oxidized by the oxygen dissolved
in water and what by the hydrogen ions. The potential corresponding
to the electrode process
Oa + 4H+ + 4<r = 2HaO
is (see Table 18 in V ol. 1, p. 300):
q> = 1.228 - 0.059 pH
In neutral media (pH = 7), it will have the value:

<p = 1.228 - 0.059 x 7 a? 0.8 V
Consequently, the oxygen dissolved in water or in a neutral
aqueous solution can oxidize the metals whose potential is lower
than 0.8 V; they occupy the part of the electromotive series from
its top to silver.
The potential corresponding to the electrode process
2H+ + 2e~ = H2
in a neutral medium is about —0.41 V (see Vol. 1, p. 304). Hence,
the hydrogen ions in water and in neutral aqueous solutions can
oxidize only the metals whose potential is less than —0.41 V—these
include the metals from the top of the electromotive series to cad
mium. It must be noted that cadmium and the metals close to it
in the electromotive series have on their surface a protective oxide
film preventing their reaction with water. Therefore, the number
of metals that can be oxidized by the hydrogen ions in neutral media
is still smaller.
Thus, water containing dissolved oxygen is much more dangerous
as a corroding medium than water that does not contain it and can
oxidize metals only with hydrogen ions.
When metallic materials are used, the question of the rate of
their corrosion is very important. In addition to the nature of the
metal and the oxidizing agent and to the concentration of the latter,
the rate of corrosion can be affected by various impurities contained
both in the metal itself and in the corroding medium—in the at
mosphere or the solution.
Two different cases can be observed in the corrosion of a metal
containing inclusions of another metal, depending on the amount
of the inclusions.
The Amount of the Inclusions of the Foreign Metal Is Very Small.
These inclusions do not virtually change the magnitude of the
potential of the basic metal in the given solution. In this case,
acceleration of corrosion may be observed if the overvoltage of the
oxidizing half-reaction on the inclusion metal is less than on the
basic metal.
We can indicate as an example the corrosion of zinc containing
small admixtures of iron or copper in hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric
acid. When the zinc contains only hundredths of a per cent of any
of these metals, the rate of its reaction with the above acids is hun
dreds of times higher than for zinc that has been subjected to special
purification. The explanation is that the overvoltage of the liberation
of hydrogen on copper and on iron is lower than on zinc, while the
limiting step (see Vol. 1, Sec. 61) of the reaction
Zn + 2H+ = Zna+ + Ha
is exactly the process of reduction of the hydrogen ions.
IS—2412
The Amount of the Inclusions of the Foreign Metal Is Considerable.

The potential of such inclusions differs from that of the basic metal.
In this case, in addition to the magnitude of the overvoltage of the
oxidizing half-reaction on the inclusion metal, the rate of corrosion
may be affected by the polarizing action (see Vol* 1, Sec. 104) of the
inclusion metal on the basic one. If the inclusion metal has a higher
potential than the basic one, the latter is subjected to anode polar-
ization, and the rate of its corrosion grows. For example, aluminium
containing inclusions of iron or copper corrodes much more rapidly
than highly pure aluminium.
The rate of corrosion of a metal also grows when it contains non-
metallic impurities whose potential is higher than that of the basic
metal. For instance, inclusions of oxides or slags in steel greatly
lower its resistance to corrosion.
The impurities contained in the environment may be absorbed
on the surface of a metal and also catalytically affect corrosion,
accelerating or inhibiting it. For example, most iron alloys corrode
much more rapidly in sea water than in water having the same
oxygen concentration, but containing no chlorides. This is due to
the fact that the chloride ions adsorbed on the surface of the iron
prevent the formation of protective layers on it.
We mentioned in Vol. 1 (p. 304) that some metals in definite con
ditions become passive—layers or films consisting of adsorbed
oxygen, of an oxide of the given metal, or its salt are formed on its
surface. The presence of such layers and their structure greatly affect
the rate of corrosion of a metal. In a number of cases, these layers
have a protective action owing to which the metal corrodes only
at a negligibly slow rate. In the atmospheric air, passivating films
are formed on chromium, nickel, aluminium, and zinc.
Important cases of electrochemical corrosion include corrosion
in natural water, in solutions, atmospheric corrosion, corrosion
in the soil, corrosion in non-uniform aeration, and contact corrosion.
Atmospheric corrosion is corrosion in humid air at room temper
ature. The surface of a metal in humid air may be coated with
a film of water containing various gases, first of all oxygen. The
rate of atmospheric corrosion depends on the conditions. Partic
ularly, it is affected by the huiftidity of the air and the content
in it of gases forming acids with water (C02, S02). The state of the
metal’s surface is also of great significance: the rate of atmospheric
corrosion grows sharply when a surface has roughnesses, microcracks,
pores, gaps, and other spots facilitating the condensation of moisture.
Corrosion in soil* leads to the destruction of underground pipes,
cable sheathings, and components of structures. The metal in these
cases comes into contact with the moisture of the soil containing
* This kind of corrosion is often inaccurately called soil corrosion.

dissolved air. Depending on the composition of the ground water,

and also on the structure and mineralogical composition of the soil,
the rate of this kind of corrosion may be very diverse.
Corrosion in non-uniform aeration is observed when a component
or a structural member is in a solution, but the access of dissolved
oxygen to its different parts is not the same. The parts of the metal
lo which the access of oxygen is minimum corrode to a much greater
extent than the parts to which the access of oxygen is greater. Such
a non-uniform distribution of corrosion is explained as follows. In
the reduction of oxygen
0 2 + 4 H + H- 4wr = 2 H a0
hydrogen ions are consumed, and the solution, consequently, becomes
somewhat more alkaline. Metals, and particularly iron, become
passive more readily in an alkaline solution. Therefore, the aerated
parts of the metal become passive, and the rate of corrosion on them
diminishes. On non-aerated parts, no passivation occurs—here
a metal oxidation process occurs, and its ions pass into solution:
M = Mz+ + ze~
Hence, in non-uniform aeration of a metal, spatial separation
ol the oxidation-reduction reaction occurs: oxygen is reduced on
the more aerated sections, and the metal is oxidized on the less
aerated sections of the surface. Localization of the oxidation process
results in local corrosion—the intensive destruction of the metal on
separate sections. Local corrosion leads to the appearance of pits
on the surface of the metal that with time may transform into
through holes. It is sometimes difficult to-detect the development
of pits, for example owing to the remnants of scale on the surface
of the metal. This kind of corrosion is especially dangerous for the
sheathing of vessels, for industrial chemical equipment, and in a
number of other cases.
Contact corrosion may occur when two metals with different
potentials come into contact with each other either in an aqueous
medium or in the presence of moisture condensing from the air. As
in the case of considerable inclusions treated above, the metals have
a polarizing action on each other: the metal with the lower potential
is subjected to anode polarization, and the rate of its corrosion near
the place of contact sharply grows.
Contact corrosion is observed, for example, in heat supply plants
when the copper heating coils are joined to iron boilers or pipes.
Intensive corrosion of the iron occurs near the joints. But the ratio
between the potentials of the contacting metals depends not only on
the nature of the metals, but also on that of the substances dissolved
in the water, on the temperature, and on other conditions, and does
not always correspond to the mutual position of the metals in the
electromotive series. For instance, when iron and zinc come into
15-
contact, the latter intensively corrodes at room temperature, bw

in hot water the polarity of the metals changes, and the iron begins
to dissolve.
A variety of methods are used to prevent electrochemical corrosion
and afford protection from it. The most important of them are as
follows:
(1 ) the use of chemically stable alloys;
(2 ) the protection of the metal surface with coatings;
(3) treatment of the corrosive medium;
(4) electrochemical methods.
Among chemically stable alloys, the greatest favour is given t©
stainless steels, whose composition includes up to 18% chromium
and up to 1 0 % nickel.
The coatings used for the protection of metals can be metal, non-
metal, and those formed as a result of chemical or electrochemical
processing of the metal surface.
The metals forming protective films on their surface are generally
used as coating ones. We have already mentioned that these metals
include chromium, nickel, zinc, cadmium, aluminium, tin, and
some others. Metals having a high electrode potential—silver and
gold—are used much less frequently. There are various ways of
applying metal coatings; the methods of electroplating (see Vol. 1 .
Sec. 103) have the greatest advantages.
Non-metallic coatings include lacquers, varnishes, paints, en
amels, phenol formaldehyde, and other resins. The greatest preference
is given to various surface finishes for prolonged protection of metal
structures, components, machines, and instruments against cor
rosion.
The coatings produced by the chemical or electrochemical treat
ment of a metal are mainly protective oxide or salt films. Examples
are the oxidizing of aluminium (the creation on its surface of stable
oxide films), and the phosphorizing of steel articles (the creation
of protective films consisting of phosphates).
The method of treating the environment is suitable for cases when
the article to be protected is used in a restricted volume of liquid.
The method consists in removing dissolved oxygen from the solution
in which the component being protected is used (deaeration) or in
adding substances retarding corrosion—inhibitors—to the solution.
Various inhibitors are used depending on the nature of the metal
and the solution: sodium nitrite, potassium chromate and dichro
mate, sodium phosphates, certain high-molecular organic compounds,
and others. The protective action of these substances is due to the
fact that their molecules or ions are adsorbed on the surface of the
metal and catalytically diminish the rate of corrosion, while some
of them (for instance, chromates and dichromates) transfer the metal
into the passive state.
The electrochemical methods of metal protection include cathode

protection and the method of protectors. In cathode protection,
the structural member or component being protected is connected
to the negative pole of a source of electrical energy and becomes the
cathode. Pieces of iron are used as the anodes. When the current is
appropriate in the circuit, the oxidizing agent is reduced on the
article being protected, while the substance of the anode is oxidized.
The method of protectors is carried out by attaching a large plate
made from a more active metal—a protector—to the metal being
protected. The protector of steel articles is usually made of zinc or
a magnesium-based alloy. With a good contact between the metals,
the metal being protected (iron) and that of the protector (for instance
2 j[nc) have a polarizing action on each other. According to the mutual
position of these metals in the electromotive series, the iron under
goes cathode polarization, and the zinc—anode polarization. As a
result, the reduction of the oxidizing agent present in water (gener
ally dissolved oxygen) occurs on the iron, while the zinc is oxidized.
Both protectors and cathode protection can be employed in media
that are good conductors of an electric current, for instance in sea
water. Particularly, protectors are widely used for protecting the
underwater parts of seagoing vessels. It is quite obvious that the
losses incurred as a result of corrosion of the hull of a seagoing
vessel and the associated loss of time for repairs are very great and
exceed the cost of the protectors many times:
7
FIRST GROUP OF
THE PERIODIC TABLE
ALKALI METALS
The metals of the main subgroup of Group one—lithium, sodium,

potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium—are called alkali metals.
This name is associated with the fact that the hydroxides of the two
main representatives of this group—sodium and potassium—have
long been known under the name of alkalies. H. Davy in 1807 was
the first to obtain free potassium and sodium from these alkalies by
subjecting them to electrolysis in the molten state.
Table 8
Selected Properties of the Alkali Metals
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
Configuration of
outer electron
layer of atom 2 s1 3s1 4s1 5s1 6 s1 7s1
Atomic radius, nm 0.155 0.189 0.236 0.248 0 . 2 6 8 0.280
Ionization energy
E E+, eV 5.39 5.14 4.34 4.18 3.89
Radius of ion E+,
nm 0.068 0.098 0.133 0.149 0.165 0.178
Standard enthalpy
of atomization
of metal at
25 °C, kJ per
mole of atoms 150.8 91.7 90.3 82.0 78.1
Density, g/cm3 0.53 0.97 0 . 8 6 1.53 1.90 2 . 1 - 2 .4
Melting point, °C 179 97.8 63.55 38.8 28.5 About 20

Boiling point, °C 1350 883 776 705 690 620
Standard elec
trode potential
of process
E++ e - = E, V —3.045 -2.714 —2.924 —2.925 —2.923
Alkali Metals 231
Alkali metal atoms have one electron in their outer electron layer.
The electron layer preceding the outer one has two electrons in the
lithium atom, and eight electrons in the atoms of the other alkali
metals. Having only one electron that is at a considerable distance
from the nucleus in their outer electron layer, atoms of these ele
ments part with this electron quite readily, i.e. are characterized by
a low ionization energy (see Table 8 ). The singly-charged positive
ions formed have a stable electron configuration corresponding to
a noble gas (the lithium ion has the configuration of a helium atom;
the sodium ion, that of a neon atom, etc.). The readiness of parting
with their outer electrons characterizes the elements being considered
as the most typical representatives of the metals: the alkali metals
exhibit especially sharply expressed metallic properties.
The identical structure not only of the outer electron layer, but
also of the preceding one in the atoms of all the alkali metals except
for lithium explains the greatly similar properties of these elements.
At the same time, the increase in the charge of the nucleus and in
the total number of electrons in an atom when going down the sub-
group underlies certain differences in the properties of the elements.
As in the other groups, these distinctions display themselves chiefly
in an increase in the readiness of giving up valence electrons and
in stronger metallic properties with a growth in the atomic number.
Owing to their property of being very readily oxidized, the alkali

metals are found in nature exclusively in the form of compounds.
Sodium and potassium belong to the widespread elements: the con
tent of each of them in the Earth’s crust is about 2% (mass). Both
metals are encountered in various minerals and rocks of the silicate
type. Sodium chloride is contained in sea water, aifd also forms
large deposits of rock salt in many parts of the world. The upper
layers of these deposits sometimes contain quite considerable amounts
of potassium, chiefly in the form of the chloride or of double salts
with sodium and magnesium. But large accumulations of potassium
3 alts having a commercial significance are encountered rarely. The
most important of them are the Solikamsk deposits in the USSR,
the Strassfurt deposits in the GDR, and the Alsace deposits in
France. Sodium nitrate occurs in Chile. The water of many lakes
contains soda. Finally, enormous amounts of sodium sulphate occur
in the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay of the Caspian Sea, where this salt in
winter is deposited in a thick layer on the bottom.
Lithium, rubidium, and cesium occur much less frequently than
sodium and potassium. Lithium is encountered more often than the
other two, but the minerals containing it rarely form large accu-
232 First Group of the Periodic Table
mulations. Rubidium and cesium are contained in small amounts

in some lithium minerals.
All the known francium isotopes are radioactive and rapidly deca^.
The first to be discovered was the isotope 223Fr; its existence was
established by the French research worker Marguerite Perey in 1939.
It is formed in the decay of actinium and is encountered in a negli
gible amount in nature. At present, small amounts of francium are
produced artificially.
Sodium and lithium are prepared by electrolysis of melts of
their compounds, potassium—by reduction from melts of KOH
or KC1 with sodium, and rubidium and cesium by reduction from
their chlorides with calcium.
All the alkali metals crystallize into a cubic body-centred lattice.
They have a metallic lustre that can be observed on freshly cut
metal. In air, the shiny surface of the metal immediately becomes
dull owing to its oxidation.
The alkali metals are characterized by an insignificant hardness,
a low density, and low melting and boiling points. Lithium has
the lowest density, and francium—the lowest melting point (see
Table 8 ).
The data in Table 8 show that in the majority of cases, the prop
erties of the alkali metals change regularly from lithium to cesium.
The regularities observed are caused by the growth in the mass and
radius of an atom going down the subgroup. The growth in the mass
leads to a greater density. The increase in the radius underlies the
weakening of the forces of attraction between the atoms, which
explains the lowering of the melting and boiling points and the
diminishing of the energy of atomization of the metals, and also the
decrease in the ionization energy of the atoms when passing from
lithium to cesium. The standard electrode potentials of the alkali
metals do not change so regularly in the series Li-Cs, however. The
reason, considered in ^detail in Vol. 1, Sec. 100, is that the values
of the electrode potentials are associated with several factors that
change differently when passing from one element of the subgroup
to another.
The alkali metals belong to the most chemically active elements.
This is due first of all to the low values of the ionization energy of
their atoms—the readiness with which they part with their valence
electrons. The ionization energy diminishes when going down from
lithium to cesium (Table 8 ). It is obvious that the chemical activity
grows accordingly.
All the alkali metals combine vigorously with oxygen. Rubidium
and cesium self-ignite in the air; lithium, sodium, and potassium
ignite when slightly heated. It is characteristic that only lithium
forms the normal oxide Li20 in burning. The other alkali metals
transform into peroxide compounds: Na2 0 2, K 0 2, R b02, and Cs02.
Alkali Metals 233
The alkali metals react no less vigorously than with oxygen with
the halogens, especially with chlorine and fluorine.
The alkali metals are far ahead of hydrogen in the electromotive
series and displace it from water, forming strong bases, for example:
2K + 2HOH = 2KOH + H2 t
Since they readily give up their valence electrons in chemical
reactions, the alkali metals are the most vigorous reducing agents.
Their reducing power is so great that they can reduce even hydrogen
atoms, transforming them into negatively charged ions H". Foi
instance, when alkali metals are heated in a stream of hydrogen,
their hydrides are obtained, for instance:
2 Na + H 2 = 2NaH
The alkali metal hydrides have an ionic structure: the metal is
the cation, and hydrogen is the anion.
Most salts of the alkali metals dissolve well in water. The salts
LiF, Li2C03, Li3 P 0 4, Na[Sb(OH)0], KC104, K 2 [PtCl6], Rb 2 [PtCl6],
RbC104, and CsC104 have a low solubility.
If we introduce a salt of an alkali metal into the flame of a gas burn
er, the salt decomposes, and the vapour of the liberated metal im
parts a colour characteristic of the given metal to the flame. Lithium
colours the flame carmine, sodium—yellow, and potassium—vio
let. This is how these elements can be detected in the relevant sam
ple.
The alkali metals and their compounds are widely used in engi
neering. Lithium is employed in nuclear power engineering. Partic
ularly, the isotope °Li is an industrial source for the production of
tritium, while the isotope 7Li is used as a heat-carrying agent in
uranium reactors. Owing to the ability of lithium to readily combine
with hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, it is used in metal
lurgy for removing traces of these elements from metals and alloys.
The halides LiF and LiCl are included in the fluxes used in smelting
metals and welding magnesium and aluminium. Lithium and its
compounds are also used as a rocket fuel. Lubricants containing lith
ium compounds retain their properties at temperatures from —60
to +150 °C. Lithium hydroxide is included in the composition of
the electrolyte of alkaline accumulators (see Sec. 130), owing to
which their service life grows from two to three times. Lithium is al
so employed in the ceramic, glass, and other branches of the chemi
cal industry. In general, as regards its significance in modern engi
neering, this metal is one of the most important of the rare elements.
Cesium and rubidium are used in the production of photoelectric
cells. These devices, which transform radiant energy into the energy
of an electric current and are based on the photoelectric effect (see
Vol. 1 , Sec. 23), use the ability of the cesium and rubidium atoms to
detach valence electrons when radiant energy acts on one of these

metals.
Sodium, potassium, and their compounds, however, find tie
greatest practical use.
84. Sodium (N a t r i u m )
Metallic sodium is produced by the electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride to which calcium chloride has been added to lower the
melting point.
In the molten state, sodium and calcium chlorides mix unlimited
ly, while in the solid state they are insoluble in each other. Accord
ingly, a simple phase diagram having a eutectic similar to that
shown in Fig. 43 (p. 214) corresponds to the system NaCl-CaCl2.
The eutectic mixture of sodium and calcium chlorides melts at
505 °C, which is almost 300 °C lower than the melting point of NaCl.
Sodium is a silvery metal. It is so soft that it can easily be cut
with a knife. Since it is readily oxidized in the air, sodium is kept
under a layer of kerosene.
The most important fields of application of sodium are atomic pow
er engineering, metallurgy, and organic synthesis. In atomic power
engineering, sodium and its alloy with potassium are used as liquid
metal heat-carrying agents. An alloy of sodium with potassium con
taining 77.2% (mass) of the latter is in the liquid state within a
broad range of temperatures (its melting point is —12.8 °C), has
a high heat-transfer coefficient, and does not react with most struc
tural materials at ordinary or elevated temperatures. In metallur
gy, the sodium-thermal method is used to produce a number of re
fractory metals, and potassium is recovered by reducing KOH
with sodium. Sodium is also used as an addition imparting a great
er strength to lead alloys. In the industry of organic synthesis, so
dium is used in the preparation of many substances. It is also em
ployed as a catalyst in the production of certain organic polymers.
Sodium forms a solid alloy with mercury—sodium amalgam.
The latter is sometimes used as a milder reducing agent instead of
pure sodium.
The most important compounds of sodium with oxygen are the
oxide NaaO and the peroxide Na 20 2.
Sodium oxide Na20 can be prepared by passing a moderate amount
of oxygen heated to not over 180 °C over sodium or by heating sodium
peroxide with metallic sodium:
Na20 2 + 2Na = 2NazO
Sodium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form sodium hy
droxide, with the liberation of a large amount of heat:
NaaO + H20 = 2NaOH
Alkali Metals 235
Sodium peroxide Na 2 0 2 forms when sodium is burned in air or in

oxygen. In industrial conditions, sodium peroxide is produced by
heating molten sodium in a stream of air devoid of C02. The product
has a slightly yellow colour due to an admixture of the compound
Na0 2 known as sodium superoxide.
Sodium peroxide is a very strong oxidizing agent. Many organic
substances ignite upon contact with it.
When sodium peroxide is carefully dissolved in cold water, a so
lution is obtained that contains sodium hydroxide and hydrogen per
oxide. The reaction of sodium peroxide with water is the hydroly
sis of a salt formed by a weak acid—hydrogen peroxide—and a strong
base—NaOH:
N a20 2 + 2 H 20 ** M aos + 2N aOH
or
02 - + 2 H 20 ** H 20 2 + 2 0 H -
If the solution obtained is heated, oxygen evolves from it because

of the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide.
When sodium peroxide is reacted w ith dilute acids, hydrogen
peroxide is also obtained, for instance:
N a 20 2 + H 2S 0 4 = H 20 2 4* N a 2S 0 4
or
02- + 2H+ = H20 2
Sodium peroxide is used to bleach fabrics, wool, silk, etc. Of great
significance is the reaction between sodium peroxide and carbon
dioxide:
2Na20 2 + 2C02 = 2Na2C03 + 0 2
This reaction underlies the use of sodium peroxide for the re
generation of the air in isolated premises.
Sodium hydroxide NaOH forms solid white crystals melting at
320 °C, which are very hygroscopic. Owing to its strong corroding
action on fabrics, leather, paper, and other organic substances, it
is also called caustic soda.
Sodium hydroxide dissolves in water with the evolution of a large
amount of heat because of the formation of various hydrates.
Sodium hydroxide must be kept in well-closed vessels because it
readily absorbs carbon dioxide from the air and gradually transforms
into sodium carbonate.
The main way of producing sodium hydroxide is the electrolysis
of an aqueous sodium chloride solution, during which the hydrogen
ions are discharged at the cathode. Simultaneously, sodium ions and
hydroxide ions accumulate near the cathode, i.e. sodium hydroxide
is obtained. Chlorine is liberated at the anode. It is very important
to prevent mixing of the electrolysis products because sodium hy
droxide readily reacts with chlorine, the result being' sodium chloride
and hypochlorite:
2 NaOH + Cla = NaCl + NaOCl + HaO
To prevent the penetration of the chlorine into the sodium hydrox-

ide solution, the diaphragm method is used most frequently: the
anode and cathode spaces are separated from each other by a parti
tion (diaphragm) made from asbestos or another porous material.
In the electrolyzers used to produce sodium hydroxide according to
this method (Fig. 50), vertically installed diaphragm 1 tightly ad
hering to steel perforated cathode 2 separates anode space 3 from
cathode space 4 and prevents mixing of the electrolysis products.
Graphite rods 5 are the anodes. In electrolysis, a sodium chloride
solution is fed continuously into the anode space, while* a solution
containing a mixture of sodium chloride and hydroxide flows out of
the cathode space. When it is evaporated, sodium chloride crystal-
lizes out, and an almost pure solution of the hydroxide remains. The
latter is separated from the sodium chloride and is evaporated to
remove all the water. The produced NaOH is melted and cast into
moulds. The by-products in the production of sodium hydroxide by
this method are chlorine and hydrogen.
Electrolysis of a sodium chlo
NaCl solution
ride solution proceeds somewhat Hydrogen Chlorine
differently if metallic mercury is
the cathode. The overvoltage of
hydrogen liberation on mercury
is very high. Consequently, sodi
um ions become discharged at the
cathode instead of hydrogen ions.
The liberated sodium dissolves
in the mercury and forms sodium
amalgam. The latter is decom
posed with hot water, the products
being sodium hydroxide, hydro
gen, and mercury. Hence, by 5
using mercury as the cathode, one
can obtain pure sodium hydroxide
containing no admixtures of so
dium chloride.
Sometimes an older method is
TS| t=
also used to produce sodium hy
droxide-boiling of a soda solu
tion with slaked lime:
s._
Fig. SO. Electrolyzer with a vertical
diaphragm:
NaaC08 + Ca(OH)a = 1 —diaphragm; cathode:
anode space; 4 —cathode
s=CaC08 | + 2NaOH space; 5—anodes
Alkali Metals 237
Upon completion of the reaction, the solution is poured off the

calcium carbonate precipitate, and after evaporation of the water,
the sodium hydroxide obtained is melted.
Sodium hydroxide is one of the most important products of the
fundamental chemical industry. It is used in large amounts for puri
fying the products of petroleum reforming. Sodium hydroxide is
widely employed in the soap, paper, textile, and other branches of
industry, and also in the production of artificial fibre.
Only in the USSR, the amount of NaOH produced in 1977 was
2 . 7 million tonnes.
Sodium forms salts with all known acids. The most important of
them were described in considering the properties of the relevant
acids. Many sodium salts form crystal hydrates with quite a large
content of water of crystallization (for instance, Na 2 S2 0 3 «5H2 0,
Na2CO3 10H2O, and Na 2S0 4 -lOHaO).
In the human organism, sodium in the form of its soluble salts,
chiefly the chloride, phosphate, and hydrogen carbonate, is contain
ed mainly in the extracellular liquids—blood plasma, lymph, and
digestive juices. The osmotic pressure of the blood plasma is kept
at the required level first of all by means of sodium chloride.
85. Potassium (K a liu m )

Potassium is very similar to sodium in its appearance and in its
physical and chemical properties, but is even more active. Like
sodium, it is silvery in colour, oxidizes rapidly in the air, and
vigorously reacts with water to evolve hydrogen.
Potassium hydroxide, or caustic potash, KOH, is produced similar
ly to sodium hydroxide—by the electrolysis of a potassium chloride
solution. Although its action is the same as that of sodium chloride,
it is used much less frequently because of its higher cost.
Potassium salts are very similar to those of sodium, but usually
separate from solutions without any water of crystallization.
Potassium belongs to the elements needed in a considerable amount
for plant growth. Although the soil contains quite a lot of potassium
salts, a lot of them are also removed from it by certain cultured
plants. Flax, hemp, and tobacco carry off an especially great amount
of potassium from the soil.
Potassium is deposited chiefly in the stalks of plants, therefore,
fertilization of the soil with manure containing straw partly makes up
for the loss of potassium. But since the stalks of the plants listed above
are used for industrial purposes, in the long run the major part of
the potassium is removed from the soil, and potassium fertilizers
have to be introduced into it to compensate for these losses.
The sources of potassium fertilizers are natural deposits of potas
sium salts. In the USSR, such deposits have been found near Soli-
kamsk. Salt layers consisting chiefly of the minerals carnallite

KCl*MgCl2 -6H20 and sylvinite KCl*NaCl occur over a large area
between the upper reaches of the Kama River and the foothills of the
Ural mountains. In the USSR, potassium deposits also occur in the
Saratov Region and in the Western Ukraine. With respect to its re
serves of potassium salts, the USSR occupies the first place in the
world.
Both natural substances and the products of their processing are
used as potassium fertilizers. Of the natural substances, sylvinite is
chiefly used. Potassium chloride and sulphate are the products of
processing in the greatest favour. Sometimes plant ash containing
potassium chiefly in the form of the carbonate is also used.
Like sodium, potassium forms salts with all the acids. The most
important of them were treated in describing the properties of the
relevant acids.
Like sodium, potassium is contained in all the tissues of the hu
man organism. But unlike sodium, the overwhelming amount of the
potassium is within the cells. The potassium ion plays an important
role in certain physiological and biochemical processes, for instance,
it participates in the conducting of nerve pulses. A definite concen
tration of potassium in the blood is needed for normal functioning
of the heart. Potassium is introduced into an organism mainly with
fruits and vegetables. The daily requirement of an adult in potas
sium is two or three grams.
COPPER SUBGROUP
The copper subgroup includes three elements—copper, silver, and
gold. Like the alkali metal atoms, the atoms of all these elements
have one electron in their outer layer; but unlike the alkali metal
atoms, the preceding electron layer contains eighteen electrons. The
configuration of the two outer electron layers of the atoms of these
elements can be depicted by the formula (n — 1 ) s2 {[n — 1 ) p 2 (in —
— 1 ) d1Qnsx (where n is the number of the period containing the given
element). All the elements of the copper subgroup are the next-to-
last members of decades of d elements. As can be seen from the above
formula, however, their atoms contain 10 electrons instead of 9 in
the (n — 1) d sublevel. The explanation is that the configuration
(n — l j d 10^1 is more stable than (n — 1)d?s2 (see Vol. 1, p. 1 0 2 ).
Table 9 gives selected physical constants characterizing the ele
ments of the copper subgroup.
Comparing the data of Table 9 with the relevant quantities for
the alkali metals (Table 8 ), we can see that the atomic radii of cop
per, silver, and gold are smaller than those of the main subgroup met
als. This underlies the considerably greater density, higher melting
points, and greater values of the enthalpy of atomization of the metals
C opper Subgroup 239
Table 9
Selected Properties of Copper and Its Analogues
Cu Ag Au
Configuration of outer and

preceding electron layers
of atom 3s*3pa3d104s1 AsHpHd^bs1 5525p65di«6^
Atomic radius, nm 0.128 0.144 0.144
ionization energy E -* E +, eV 7.73 7.57 9.23
Radius of ion E +, nm 0.098 0.113 0.137
Standard enthalpy of atom
ization of metal at 25 °C,
kJ per mole of atoms 339 286 354
Density, g/cm3 8.96 10.5 19.3
Melting point, °C 1083 960.5 1063
Boiling point, °C 2543 2167 2880
Standard electrode poten
tial of process
E+-f<?~ = E , V 0.520 0.799 1.692
being considered. Atoms with a smaller size are arranged more com
pactly in the lattice, owing to which the forces of attraction be
tween them are large.
The small atomic radii also explain the higher values of the
ionization energy of the metals of this subgroup than of the
alkali metals. This leads to great differences in the chemical
properties of the metals of both subgroups. The elements of the
copper subgroup are metals with a low activity. They are oxidized
with difficulty, and, conversely, their ions are readily reduced.
They do not decompose water, and their hydroxides are comparative
ly weak bases. They are below hydrogen in the electromotive series.
At the same time, the eighteen-electron layer, which is stable in
other elements, is not yet completely stabilized here and is capable
of parting with some of the electrons. For instance, copper in addi
tion to singly-charged cations forms doubly-charged ones, which
are even more characteristic of it. In exactly the same way, the oxi
dation number + 3 is more characteristic of gold than + 1 . The oxi
dation number of silver in its ordinary compounds is + 1 , but com
pounds with an oxidation number of + 2 and + 3 are known.
86. Copper ( C u p r u m )
The total content of copper in the Earth’s crust is comparatively
small [0 .0 1 % (mass)] but it occurs more frequently than other metals
in the native state, the copper nuggets reaching a considerable size.
This, and also the comparative easiness of working copper, explains
its use by man before other metals.
240 First Croup of the Periodic Table
At present, copper is produced from its ores. The latter, depending

on the nature of the compounds in them, are grouped into oxide and
sulphide ores. Sulphide ores are of the greatest importance because
they yield 80% of all the copper produced.
The most important minerals contained in copper ores are chal-
cocite or copper glance, Cu2S; chalcopyrite or copper pyrite, CuFeS2;
and malachite (CuOH)2C03.
In the USSR, rich deposits of copper ores occur in the Urals,
Kazakhstan, and the Transcaucasus.
Copper ores, as a rule, contain a large amount of barren rock, so
that the direct extraction of copper from them is not economical.
This is why an especially important role is played in the metallurgy
of copper by concentration (usually by flotation), which makes it
profitable to use ores having a low copper content.
The smelting of copper from its sulphide ores or concentrates is a
complicated process. It usually includes the operations of roasting,
melting, converting, and fire and electrolytic refining. In the course
of roasting, the major part of the sulphides of impurity elements is
converted to oxides. For instance, the main impurity of most copper
ores—pyrite FeS2—is converted to Fe2 0 3. The flue gases in roasting
contain S0 2 and are used to produce sulphuric acid.
The oxides of iron, zinc, and other impurities obtained in roas
ting separate in the form of a slag in melting. The main product of
melting—molten matte (Cu2S with an admixture of FeS) is fed into
a convertor where air is blown through it. In the course of conver
sion, sulphur dioxide evolves, and raw or blister copper is obtained.
To extract the valuable satellites (Au, Ag, Te, etc.) and to remove
the harmful impurities, the blister copper is subjected to fire, and
then electrolytic, refining. In fire refining, the molten copper is sat
urated with oxygen. The admixtures of iron, zinc, and cobalt are
oxidized, transferred into slag, and withdrawn. The copper is poured
into moulds. The castings obtained are used as the anodes in
electrolytic refining (see Vol. 1, Sec. 103).
Pure copper is a ductile tenacious metal of a light pink colour that
is easily rolled into thin sheets. It is. an excellent conductor of heat
and electricity, being inferior in this respect only to silver. Copper
does not virtually change in dry air because a fine film of oxides (im
parting a darker colour to the metal) forms on its surface and affords
good protection against further oxidation. But in the presence of
moisture and carbon dioxide, the surface of copper becomes coated
with a greenish deposit of copper carbonate hydroxide (Cu0H)2C03.
When heated in the air within the temperature range from 200 to
375 °C, copper oxidizes to black copper(II) oxide CuO. At higher
temperatures, a double-layer scale appears on its surface: the top
layer is copper(II) oxide, and the internal layer is red copper(I)
oxide Cu2 0.
Copper Subgroup 241
Its high thermal and electrical conductivity, ductility, excellent

casting properties, high tensile strength, and chemical stability have
brought copper into great demand in industry.
Large amounts of pure electrolytic copper (about 40% of all the
copper produced) go to make electrical wires and cables. A variety
of industrial equipment such as boilers, evaporation tanks, and stills
Is made from copper.
Various alloys of copper with other metals have found broad ap
plication in the machine-building industry, as well as in electrical
engineering and other branches of industry. The most important cop
per alloys are brasses (alloys of copper with zinc), copper-nickel
alloys, and bronzes.
Brass contains up to 45% zinc. Simple and special brasses are dis
tinguished. The latter, in addition to copper and zinc, include other
elements, for instance iron, aluminium, tin, and silicon. Brass finds
diverse applications. It is used to make tubes for condensers and ra
diators, components of mechanisms, particularly of clocks and
watches. Some special brasses have a high resistance to corrosion in
sea water and are used in ship-building. Brass with a high copper
content—tombac—owing to its appearance being similar to that of
gold is used to make decorative articles and cheap jewelry.
Copper-nickel alloys are grouped into structural and electrotech-
uical ones. The structural alloys include cupronickels and nickel sil
vers. Cupronickels contain 20-30% nickel and small amounts of
iron and manganese, while nickel silvers (formerly called German
silvers) contain 5-35% nickel and 13-45% zinc. Owing to their re
sistance to corrosion in water, including sea water, the structural
copper-nickel alloys have come into great favour in ship-building
and power engineering. They are used to make radiators, pipes,
and distillation equipment for preparing potable water from
sea water. The electrotechnical copper-nickel alloys include con-
stantan (40% Ni and 1.5% Mn) and manganin (3% Ni, 12% Mn)
having a low temperature coefficient of electrical resistance and
used to manufacture resistance boxes, and also the alloy Copel
(43% Ni and 0.5% Mn) which thermocouples are made from.
Bronzes are grouped according to their main component (in ad
dition to copper) into tin, aluminium, silicon, and other bronzes.
Tin bronzes are the most ancient. For many centuries, they occupied
a leading place in many branches of production. At present, their
use in machine-building is falling off. Greater favour is being given
to aluminium bronzes (5-10% A1 and additions of Fe, Mn, and Ni).
Beryllium bronzes are very strong and go to make springs and other
vital components.
All copper alloys have a high resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Chemically, copper is a metal with a low activity. With the halo
gens, however, it reacts even at room temperature, for instance with
lb-2412
242 First Croup of the Periodic Table
moist chlorine it forms the chloride CuCl2. The reaction of copper

with the oxygen of the air was mentioned above. When heated, cop
per also reacts with sulphur to form the sulphide Cu2S.
Being in the electromotive series below hydrogen, copper does not
displace it from acids. Consequently, hydrochloric and dilute sul
phuric acids do not react with copper. But in the presence of the oxy
gen of the air, copper dissolves in these acids to form the relevant
salts:
2Cu + 4HC1 + 0 2 = 2CuC12 + 2H20
Volatile copper compounds colour the non-luminous flame of &
gas burner bluish green.
Compounds are known in which copper has the oxidation numbers
one, two, and three. They can be considered as derivatives of the
relevant oxides: Cu20, CuO, and Cu2 0 3.
The compounds of copper(I) are in general less stable than those
of copper(II). The oxide Cu2 0 3 and its derivatives are very unstable.
Copper(I) Compounds. Copper(I) oxide Cu20 occurs in nature in
the form of the mineral cuprite. It can be prepared artificially by
heating a solution of a copper(II) salt with an alkali and a strong
reducing agent such as formalin or glucose. A precipitate of red cop
per^) oxide is formed.
Paired with metallic copper, Cu20 is used in alternating-current
copper-oxide rectifiers.
When Cu20 is reacted with hydrogen chloride, a colourless solu
tion of copper(I) chloride CuCl in obtained. If the solution is dilut
ed with water, the copper(I) chloride precipitates as white curds in
soluble in water. It can also be prepared by boiling a solution of cop
per^ I) chloride CuCl2 with metallic copper in a hydrochloric acid
solution:
CuCl 2 + Cu = 2CuCl
Copper(II) Compounds. Copper (I I) oxide CuO is a black substance

encountered in nature (for instance, in the form of the mineral
tenorite). It can easily be prepared by roasting copper (I I) carbonate
hydroxide (Cu0H)2C0 3 or copper(II) nitrate Cu(N03)2. Copper(II)
oxide exhibits oxidizing properties. When heated with various or
ganic substances, CuO oxidizes them, converting the carbon to car
bon dioxide and the hydrogen to water, becoming reduced itself to
metallic copper. This reaction is used in the elementary analysis of
organic substances to determine their carbon and hydrogen contents.
Copper (I I) hydroxide Cu(OH) 2 precipitates from solutions of cop-
per(II) salts as a light blue jelly under the action of alkalies. When
slightly heated even under water, it decomposes, transforming into
black copper(II) oxide.
Copper Subgroup 243
Copper(II) hydroxide is a very weak base. Therefore, solutions

of copper(II) salts usually have an acid reaction, while with weak
acids copper forms basic salts.
The following are the most important of the copper (I I) salts.
Co pp e r( I I) sulphate CuS0 4 in the anhydrous state is a white powder
that turns blue when it absorbs water. It is therefore used to detect
traces of moisture in organic liquids. An aqueous solution of cop
per (I I) sulphate has a characteristic light blue colour. This colour is
a property of the hydrated ions [Cu(H2 0 )4]2+, consequently all dilute
solutions of copper(II) salts have the same colour if they contain no
coloured anions. Copper sulphate crystallizes from aqueous solutions
with five molecules of water to form transparent blue crystals (blue
vitriol, see p. 58).
Copper(II) chloride CuC12 «2H20 forms dark green crystals readily
soluble in water. Highly concentrated solutions of copper(II) chlo
ride have a green colour, and dilute solutions—a bluish green one.
Copper(II) nitrate Cu(N03) 2 *3H20 is produced when copper is
dissolved in nitric acid. When heated, the blue crystals of cop
per (II) nitrate first lose their water, and then readily decompose with
the evolution of oxygen and brown nitrogen dioxide, transforming
into copper(II) oxide.
Copper(II) carbonate hydroxide (Cu0H)2C0 3 occurs in nature as
the mineral malachite having a beautiful emerald-green colour. It
is prepared artificially by reacting Na 2 C0 3 with solutions of cop-
per(II) salts:
2CuS04 + 2Na2C 03 + H aO = (CuOH)2C 03 \ + 2Na2S 04 + C 0 2 f
It is used for preparing copper(II) chloride, for producing blue

and green mineral paints, and also in pyrotechnics.
Copper(II) acetate Cu(CH3C 00) 2 -H20 is prepared by reacting
metallic copper or copper(II) oxide with acetic acid. It is usually
a mixture of basic salts of various composition and colour (green
and blue-green). It is used under the name of verdigris for the prepa
ration of oil paints.
Double copper(II) acetate-arsenite Cu(CH3 C 00) 2 *Cu3 (As03) 2 is
used under the name Paris green for destroying plant pests.
Copper salts are employed to produce a large amount of mineral
paints differing in colour: green, blue, brown, violet, and black.
All copper salts are poisonous. This is why copper utensils are
tinned, i.e. coated inside with tin to prevent the formation of copper
salts.
Complex Compounds of Copper. A characteristic property of dou
bly-charged copper ions is their ability to combine with ammonia
molecules to form complex ions.
If we pour an ammonia solution into a solution of copper sulphate,
a blue precipitate of the basic salt is formed that readily dissolves in
16*
an excess amount of ammonia and colours the liquid an intense blue.

The addition of an alkali to the solution obtained does not cause a
precipitate of copper hydroxide Cu(OH) 2 to appear. Hence, this so
lution contains so few Cu2+ ions that even with a large amount of
OH" ions the solubility product of Cu(OH) 2 is not reached. We can
thus conclude that the copper ions react with the ammonia to form
new ions that do not produce an insoluble compound with the OH"
ions. At the same time, the S04~ ions remain unchanged because the
addition of barium chloride to the ammonia solution immediately
results in the formation of a barium sulphate precipitate (the char
acteristic reaction for the S04“ ion).
Investigations have shown that the dark blue colour of the ammonia
solution is due to the presence in it of the complex ions [Cu(NH3)4]2+
formed by the attachment of four ammonia molecules to a copper
ion. When the water is evaporated, the ions [Cu(NH3)4]2+ combine
with the S04' ions, and dark blue crystals separate from the solution
whose composition is expressed by the formula [Cu(NH3 )4 ]S0 4 •
H 2 0.
Hence, the reaction of copper(II) sulphate with ammonia is as
follows:
CuS04 + 4NH3 = [Cu(NH3 )4 ]S0 4
or in the net ionic form:
Cu2+ + 4NH3 = [Cu(NH3)4]2+
Ions that like [Cu(NH3)4]2+ are formed by the attachment of
neutral molecules or ions of the opposite sign to a given ion are
called complex ions. Salts containing such ions have been named
complex salts. Complex acids, complex bases, and complex non
electrolytes are also known*.
When writing formulas, a complex ion is generally confined in
brackets. This indicates that upon dissolution of a given compound
in water, the complex ion does not virtually dissociate.
Like copper(II) sulphate, other salts of divalent copper also react
with ammonia. In all these cases, dark blue solutions containing the
complex ions [Cu(NH3)4]2+ are obtained.
Copper(II) hydroxide also dissolves in ammonia with the forma
tion of a dark blue solution containing the ions [Cu(NH3)4]2+
Cu(OH) 2 + 4NHS = [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 20H-
The solution obtained can dissolve cellulose (cotton wool, filter
paper, and the like) and is employed in the production of one of the
kinds of artificial fibre (see p. 166).
* This definition of complex compounds is not exhaustive. These compound*

will be treated in greater detail in Chapter 8 „
Copper Subgroup 245
Copper (I I) hydroxide also dissolves in very concentrated solutions

of alkalies to form bluish violet solutions of cuprites—salts con
taining the complex ion [Cu(OH)4]2":
Cu(OH) 2 + 2NaOH ** Na2 [Cu(OH)4]
Cu(OH)2 + 20H - [Cu(OH)4]2"
Unlike the ammonia complexes of copper, in this case the copper
ion attaches OH" ions instead of neutral molecules, and as a result
complex anions are formed, and not cations. Cuprites are very unsta
ble, and when alkaline solutions are diluted with water they decom
pose with copper (I I) hydroxide precipitating.
Among other complex copper(II) anions, we must mention the
|CuC14]2“ ions formed in concentrated copper (I I) chloride solutions
and colouring them green:
CuCl2 + 2C1- [CuClJ2-
When the solutions are diluted with water, the [CuCl4]2’ ions
transform into ordinary hydrated copper ions [Cu(H2 0 )4]2+ and the
green solutions turn light blue:
[CuClJ2- + 4H20 [Cu(H2 0)4]2+ + 4Cl“
Copper is one of the microelements. This name was given to Fe,
Cu, Mn, Mo, B, Zn, and Co because small amounts of them are needed
for the normal vital activity of plants. Microelements increase the
activity of enzymes, facilitate the synthesis of sugar, starch, proteins,
nucleic acids, vitamins, and enzymes. Microelements are introduced
into the soil with microfertilizers. Fertilizers containing copper pro
mote the growth of plants on certain poor soils, an$ improve their
resistance to droughts, cold, and some diseases.
87. Silver ( A r g e n t u m )
Silver is much less abundant in nature than copper. Its content in
the Earth’s crust is only 10"B% (mass). Native silver is found in
some places (for example, in Canada), but the major part of silver is
obtained from its compounds. The most important silver ore is
silver glance, or argentite, Ag2S.
Silver is present as an admixture in almost all copper and especial
ly lead ores. These ores yield about 80% of all the silver produced.
In the USSR, silver is extracted chiefly from silver lead ores whose
deposits have been found in the Urals, the Altai, the Northern Cau
casus, and Kazakhstan.
Pure silver is a very soft ductile metal. It is the best conductor of
heat and electricity among all the metals.
Silver finds virtually no use in practice owing to its softness. It is
usually alloyed-with a certain amount of copper. Silver alloys are
employed in the production of jewelry and domestic articles, coins,

and laboratory utensils*. Silver is used to coat other metals, and
also radio components for increasing their electrical conductance and
resistance to corrosion. Part of the silver produced goes to make
silver-zinc accumulators.
In silver-zinc accumulators distinguished by their good electrical
characteristics and having a low mass and volume, the electrodes are
silver oxides Ag20 and AgO (the cathode), and spongy zinc (the an
ode). A KOH solution is the electrolyte.
In operation of the accumulator, the zinc oxidizes and transforms
into ZnO and Zn(OH)2, while the silver oxide is reduced to the metal.
The net reaction proceeding in the discharge of an accumulator can
be expressed approximately by the equation:
AgO + Zn = Ag + ZnO
The e.m.f. of a charged silver-zinc accumulator is about 1.85 V.
When the voltage drops to 1.25 V, the accumulator is charged, the
reverse processes occurring at the electrodes: the zinc is reduced, and
the silver is oxidized—the substances needed for operation of the ac
cumulator are again obtained.
Silver is a metal with a low activity. It does not oxidize in atmos
pheric air at room temperature or when heated. The frequently ob
served blackening of silver objects is the result of the formation of
black silver sulphide Ag2S on their surface. This occurs under the
influence of the hydrogen sulphide contained in the air (see p. 52),
and also when silver objects come into contact with food products
containing sulphur compounds.
Silver is considerably below hydrogen in the electromotive series.
Therefore, hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acids do not react with
it. Silver is usually dissolved in nitric acid, the reaction following the
equation:
Ag + 2HNOs = AgNOs + N 0 2 | + HaO
Silver forms one series of salts whose solutions contain the colour
less cations Ag+.
Silver(I) Oxide Ag2 0. When alkalies react with solutions of sil
ver salts, the expected product is AgOH, but instead of it a brown
precipitate of silver(I) oxide is formed:
2AgN03 + 2NaOH = Ag20 -f 2NaNOa + H20
♦ The silver or gold content in an alloy is indicated by a standard fineness
number branded on the articles made from it (hallmarks). In the Soviet Union,
a metric system of standard fineness numbers is used. The numbers show how
many units of mass of the precious metal are contained in 1 0 0 0 units of the
alloy. In Great Britain, the USA, and some other countries, the carat system is
used, the standard for pure metal being 24 carats.
The most widespread are silver articles of the standard fineness numbers
800 and 875 (19.2 and 21 carats) and gold ones of the numbers 583 and 750
(14 and 18 carats).
Copper Subgroup 247
Silver(I) oxide dissolves insignificantly in water (0.017 g/1). The

obtained solution has an alkaline reaction and, like alkalies, precip
itates the hydroxides of some metals from solutions of their salts.
The solution evidently contains silver hydroxide AgOH, which is a
quite strong base. The latter is confirmed by the fact that silver salts
do not become hydrolyzed.
bn addition to silver(I) oxide, the oxides AgO and Ag2 0 3 are
known.
The following silver salts are the most important ones.
Silver nitrate AgN03, also known as lunar caustic. It forms
colourless crystals that dissolve well in water. It is used in the
production of photographic materials, in the manufacture of mir
rors, in electroplating, and in medicine.
Silver chloride AgCl forms as white curds insoluble in water and
in acids when silver ions react with chloride ions. Silver chloride
gradually darkens in the light, decomposing with: the liberation of
metallic silver. Silver bromide and iodide have similar properties,
but unlike silver chloride they have a yellow colour. In contrast to
the other silver halides, silver fluoride AgF is soluble in water.
Complex Compounds of Silver. Like copper, silver is disposed to
•form complex compounds.
Many silver compounds that are insoluble in water, for instance
5 ilver(I) oxide and silver chloride, readily dissolve in an aqueous
solution of ammonia. The explanation is the formation of the com
plex ions [Ag(NH3)2]+. For example, the equilibria setting in when
silver chloride reacts with an aqueous solution of ammonia can be
represented as follows:
AgCl Ag+ + Cl
in a saturated solution of silver chloride, dynamic equilibrium

sets in between the Ag+ and Cl“ ions and the AgCl precipitate. The
ammonia molecules introduced into the solution combine with the
silver ions to form the complex ions [Ag(NH3)2] +, and the precipi
tate dissolves. Hence, silver is in an ammonia solution in the form
oE the complex cations [Ag(NH3)2]*. But in addition to them, there
always remains in the solution a certain, although insignificant,
amount of silver ions owing to dissociation of the complex ion ac
cording to the equation:
[Ag(NH8)2]+ ** Ag++2NH3
Complex cyanic compounds of silver are used for galvanic silver
plating because upon the electrolysis of solutions of these salts a dense
layer of finely crystalline silver is deposited on the surface of ar-
tides. When a current is passed through a solution of K[Ag(CN)2],

silver is deposited at the cathode at the expense of an insignificant
amount of silver ions obtained owing to dissociation of the complex
anion:
[Ag(CN)2]" Ag++ 2 CN~
All silver compounds are readily reduced with the liberation of
metallic silver. When a small amount of glucose or formalin is added
as a reducing agent to an ammonia solution of silver(I) oxide in a
glass vessel, metallic silver is deposited as a dense shiny mirror
layer on the surface of the glass. This is how mirrors are manufac
tured, and the internal surface of the glass in Dewar flasks and ther
mos bottles is coated with silver to diminish the heat losses by radia-
tion.
Silver salts, especially the chloride and bromide, owing to their
ability of decomposing under the influence of light with the libera-
tion of metallic silver, are widely used in the production of photo-
graphic materials—films, paper, and plates. These materials generally
consist of a light-sensitive suspension of AgBr in gelatin, a layer of
which is applied to Celluloid, paper, or glass.
Upon an exposure, at the portions of a light-sensitive layer acted
upon by light, very minute seeds of metallic silver crystals are for
med. This is a latent image of the object being photographed. In
developing, the silver bromide decomposes, the rate of decomposition
being higher with increasing concentration of the seeds at a given
spot of the layer. A visible image is obtained that is an inverted or
negative image because the degree of blackening at each spot of the
light-sensitive layer is greater when it was illuminated more during
the exposure. Next, fixing is performed to remove the undecomposed
silver bromide from the light-sensitive layer. This occurs as a result
of a reaction between the AgBr and the sodium thiosulphate con
tained in the fixing salt. The products include a soluble complex salt
and sodium bromide:
AgBr -f- 2Na2 S2 0 3 = Na3 [Ag(S2 0 3)2] ~f~ NaBr
The negative is then projected or placed onto photographic paper
(in red light, which does not act on silver bromide), and the latter is
exposed by passing light through the negative (“printing”). More
light passes through the negative where it is lighter. Hence, in the
course of printing, the relation between light and shadows is re-
versed and now corresponds to the photographed object. This is a
positive image.
Silver ions suppress the development of bacteria and sterilize po
table water even at a very low concentration (about 1 0 ~ 10 mol/1).
In medicine, colloidal solutions of silver (protargolum, collargolum,
etc.) stabilized with special additions are used for disinfection of the
mucous membranes.
Copper Subgroup 249
88. Gold (A u r u m )
Gold occurs in nature almost exclusively in the native state, chiefly
as fine grains embedded in quartz or contained in quartz sand.
Small amounts of gold are encountered in the sulphide ores of iron,
lead, and copper. Traces of it have been discovered in sea water.
The total gold content in the Earth’s crust is only 5 x 10~7% (mass).
In the USSR, gold deposits are found in Siberia and the Urals.
There are major gold deposits in South Africa, Alaska, Canada, and
Australia.
Gold is separated from sand and crushed quartz rock by washing
with water that carries off the lighter sand particles, or by treatment
with liquids that dissolve the gold. Most often, a solution of sodium
cyanide NaCN is used in which gold dissolves in the presence of oxy
gen with the formation of the complex anions [Au(CN)2]~:
4Au + 8 CN- + 0 , + 2Ha0 = 4[Au(CN)2]~ + 40H-
Gold is recovered from the solution obtained with zinc:
2[Au(CN) J - + Zn = [Zn(CN)4]2- + 2Au
The precipitated gold is treated with dilute sulphuric acid to sep
arate the zinc from it, is washed and dried. The gold is further puri
fied of impurities (mainly of silver) by treating it with hot concen
trated sulphuric acid or by electrolysis.
The method of winning gold from its ores by means of potassium
or sodium cyanide solutions was developed in 1843 by the Russian
engineer P. Bagration. This method, which is a hydrometallurgical
method of extracting metals, at present has found its greatest appli
cation in the metallurgy of gold.
Gold is a bright yellow lustrous metal. It is very malleable and
ductile and can be rolled into sheets less than 0 . 0 0 0 2 mm thick.
A wire 3.5 kilometres long can be drawn from one gram of gold.
Gold is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity and is inferior
in this respect only to silver and copper.
Owing to its softness, gold is generally alloyed with silver or cop
per. These alloys are used for electrical contacts, for artificial teeth,
and in jewelry (see the footnote on p. 246).
Chemically, gold has a low activity. It does not change in the air
even when strongly heated. Acids when taken separately do not react
with gold, but it readily dissolves in a mixture of hydrochloric and
nitric acids (aqua regia). It also dissolves readily in chlorine water
and in aerated solutions of alkali metal cyanides. Mercury also dis
solves gold and forms an amalgam which becomes solid when it
contains over 15% gold.
Two series of gold compounds are known corresponding to the oxi
dation numbers +1 and +3. For instance, gold forms two oxides—
gold(I) oxide Au20 and gold(III) oxide Au20 3. The compounds in
which gold has an oxidation number of + 3 are more stable.
When gold dissolves in aqua regia, a complex is formed called

chloroauric acid H[AuC14]. It crystallizes as light yellow needles
having the composition H[AuC14 ]*4H20 (the usual commercial gold
preparation). Well crystallizing salts of this acid are known, for
example Na[AuCl4], in whose solutions gold is in the form of the
complex anion [AuC14]~.
If chloroauric acid is carefully heated, it decomposes with the
liberation of HC1 and reddish brown crystals of gold(III) chloride
AuC13.
Alkalies precipitate from solutions of chloroauric acid brown
gold(III) hydroxide Au(OH)3, also known as auric acid because
this substance has weakly acidic properties and forms salts. At
100 °C. auric acid loses water and transforms into the red gold(III)
oxide Au20 3.
When gold(III) chloride is heated in a stream of carbon dioxide
to 180 °C, gold(I) chloride AuCl is obtained as a white substance in
soluble in water. Alkalies precipitate the violet gold(I) oxide Au20
from solutions of gold(I) chloride.
All gold compounds readily decompose when heated with the
separation of metallic gold.
8
COMPLEX COMPOUNDS
When discussing the elements of the copper subgroup, we saw that

the ions of these elements can attach other ions or neutral molecules
(for instance, NH3) and form more elaborate complex ions. When
the latter combine with ions of the opposite sign, various complex
compounds are obtained.
Complex compounds are the most widespread and diverse class of
inorganic substances. They also include many ogranometallic com
pounds (p. 136) that combine the previously isolated inorganic chem
istry and organic chemistry into a single entity. Many complex
compounds—vitamin B12, hemoglobin, chlorophyll, and others—
play a great role in physiological and biochemical processes. The
investigation of the properties and spatial structure of complex com
pounds was exceedingly fruitful for crystal chemistry, which studies
the dependence of the physicochemical properties of substances on
the structure of the crystals they form, and gave birth to new ideas
on the nature of the chemical bond. The employment of complex com
pounds in analytical chemistry also led to valuable results. We
shall not exaggerate if we say that the achievements of theoretical
and applied chemistry in recent
years are in many respects associ
ated with the study of complex
compounds.
The properties and structure of
complex compounds are explained
most successfully by the coor
dination theory proposed by A.
Werner in 1893.
Alfred Werner, a Swiss chemist,

Nobel Prize winner, was one of
the founders of the concept of
complex compounds. Werner’s
scientific activities were conducted
at the Zurich University, where
he was a professor from 1893. He
Alfred Werner (1866-1919) synthesized a great number of novel
252 Complex Compounds
complex compounds, systematized the previously known and

newly prepared complex compounds, and worked out experimental
methods of proving their structure. To explain the structure and
properties of complex compounds, Werner advanced the idea of
coordination, i.e. of a metal ion being surrounded in space
by anions or neutral molecules. The coordination theory was the
cornerstone of the modern notions of complex compounds.
89. Fundamentals of the Coordination Theory

According to the coordination theory, one of the ions in a molecule
of any complex compound, generally a positively charged one, oc
cupies a central position and is called a complexing agent or central
ion. Around it in direct proximity are arranged, or, as we say,
coordinated, a certain number of oppositely charged ions or electri
cally neutral molecules called ligands (or addends) and forming the
inner coordination sphere of the compound. The remaining ions not
accommodated in the inner sphere are farther from the central ion
and form the outer coordination sphere. The number of ligands sur
rounding the central ion is called the coordination number.
The inner sphere of a complex retains its stability to a conside
rable extent when dissolved. Its boundaries are shown in formulas by
brackets. The ions in the outer sphere are readily detached in solu
tions. For this reason, the ions in the inner sphere are said to have a
non-ionogenous bond, and those in the outer sphere, an ionogenous
one. For example, the coordination formula of the complex salt hav
ing the composition PtCl4-2KCl is K 2[PtCl6]. Here the inner sphere
consists of a central platinum atom in the + 4 oxidation state and
chloride ions, while the potassium ions are in the outer sphere.
One must not think that complex compounds are always built up
of ions; actually, the effective charges of the atoms and molecules in
a complex are generally not great. It is therefore more proper to use
the term “central atom”. The ionic notions on the nature of the bond
in complex compounds are to a certain extent formal, but they are
convenient for the classification and determining of the charges of
complexes, and allow some of their properties to be predicted qualita
tively.
Werner’s coordination theory still remains the guiding one in the
chemistry of complex compounds. Only the notions of the forces act
ing between the central atom and the ligands change and are deter
mined more precisely with time (see Sec. 92). The broad dissemina
tion of this theory explains why complex compounds are often refer
red to as “coordination compounds”.
There are a number of ways of establishing the coordination for
mulas of complex compounds.
Complex Compounds 253
With the aid of double exchange reactions. The structure of the fol
lowing complex compounds of platinum was proved in this way:
PtCl4-6NH3, PtCl4-4NH3, PtCl4-2NH3, and PtCl4.2KCl.
If a solution of the first compound is reacted with a solution of
AgN03, the entire chlorine contained in it precipitates in the form of
silver chloride. It is thus evident that all four chloride ions are in the
outer sphere, and, consequently, the inner sphere consists only of am-
xnonia molecules. The coordination formula of the compound will
thus be [Pt(NH3)e]Cl4. In the compound PtCI4-4NH3, silver nitrate
precipitates only half of the chlorine, i.e. the outer sphere contains
only two chloride ions, while the other two together with the four
ammonia molecules are in the inner sphere; hence, the coordination
formula is [Pt(NH3)4Cl2]Cl2. A solution of the compound PtCl4--
2NH3 gives no precipitate with AgN03; the formula of this com
pound is [Pt(NH3)2Cl4l. Finally, silver nitrate also precipitates no
AgCl from a solution of PtCl4*2KGl, but it can be established by
conducting exchange reactions that the solution contains potassium
ions. On these grounds, its structure is depicted by the formula
K2[PtCl6l.
With the aid of the molar conductivity of dilute solutions*. Upon
great dilution, the value of the molar conductivity p, of a complex
compound is determined by the charge and number of the ions
formed. The following approximate relationship holds for compounds
containing a complex ion and singly charged cations or anions:
Number of ions into
which a molecule of
the electrolyte
decomposes 2 3 45
p, Q - W mol'1 100 250 400 500
Measurement of the electrical
conductivity confirms the coor
dination formulas of the plati
num complexes given above. Their
conductivity changes as shown in
Fig. 51. For the first compound,
p «500, which points to the for
mation of five ions when it disso
ciates and corresponds to the coor
dination formula [Pt(NH3)0]Cl4.
* The molar conductivity of a solu

tion p equals the conductivity of a vol Fig. 51. Change in molar conductivity
ume of the solution containing one p in series of complex
mole of the substance and confined platinum(IV) compounds:
between electrodes spaced 1 cm apart. i — [Pt(N H .)«lcn;
The values of p are expressed in S—[PtCN H .^ClJCl,;
& '1 cm2mol-1. S— [Pt(N H 1),C lJ; 4 —TCt|[ P tC lJ
As the NHSmolecules are replaced in the inner sphere with Cl “ ions, the
conductivity drops and becomes the minimum for the non-electrolyte
[Pt(NH 8 ) 2Cl4]. When going over to the compound K 2 [PtCle], the
conductivity again grows, and its magnitude corresponds to the for
mation of three ions in dissociation.
With the aid of the X-ray structural method. The coordination for
mula of a complex compound in the crystalline state can be estab
lished directly by determining the mutual position of the atoms and
molecules in a crystal by the X-ray structural method. To do this,
however, it is necessary to grow a sufficiently large and undistorted
crystal of the complex compound, which is not always possible.
A number of other physicochemical methods can be used to es
tablish the coordination formulas of complex compounds.
Upon analysing the coordination numbers of many complex com
pounds, Werner arrived at the conclusion that the charge of the cen
tral ion (or, more exactly, the oxidation number of the central atom)
is the main factor affecting the coordination number. A comparison
of the most characteristic coordination numbers in solutions and the
charge of the central ion is given below:
Charge of central ion +1 +2 +5 +4
Coordination number 2 4,6 6,4 8
The coordination numbers encountered more often when two differ

ent kinds of coordination are possible are set here in bold-face type.
The coordination number 6 is encountered in the complex compounds
of Pt4+, Cr3+, Co3+, and Fe3+, the coordination number 4—in the
complexes of Cu2+, Zn2+, Pd2+, and Pt2+, the coordination number
2—in the complexes of Ag+ and Cu+. The above coordination num
bers correspond to the maximum saturation of the coordination
sphere and relate to coordinationally saturated compounds. The con
ditions essential for this are not always observed in solutions, and
the result is the formation of coordinationally unsaturated com
plexes with smaller coordination numbers.
The coordination number is not a constant quantity for a given
complexing agent, but also depends on the nature of the ligand and
its electron properties. Even for the same complexing agents and
ligands, the coordination number depends on the state of aggrega
tion, the concentration of the components, and the temperature of
the solution.
Ligands occupying one site in the inner coordination sphere are
called monodentates. Ligands exist that occupy two or several
sites in the inner sphere. They are called bi- and polydentates.
Examples of bidentate ligands are the oxalate ion C20 4 ” (or
0 0
- O - U —0 —) and also the ethylenediamine molecule

(NH2CH2CH2 NH2). The doubly charged anion of ethylenediamine-

tetraacetic acid is a tetradentate ligand:
c h 2coo -
CHj - n' /
c h 2c o o h
CHoCOOH
C H ,- k Y
x CH2C00-
The charge of a complex ion\equals the algebraic sum of the

charges of its constituent simple ions. For example,
A g+ + 2CN~ ^ [Ag(CN)2] - ( + 1 — 2 = — 1)
Pt4+ + 6C1~ [PtCl6]2- (+ 4 — 6 = —2)

The electrically neutral molecules such as NH3, H aO, and C2 H 4
in a complex do not affect the magnitude of its charge. Therefore,
they may be left out of consideration in determining the charge of
complex ions. The charge of the complexing agent, in turn, is readily
found from the charge of the complex ion and the charges of the li
gands in the complex.
Neutral molecules or anions in the inner sphere of a complex com*
pound can be consecutively replaced with other molecules or anions.
For example, replacement of the ammonia molecules in the complex
salt [Co(NH3 )6 ]C13 with NO" ions yields the following compounds:
[Co(NH3 )5 (N0 2 )]C12, [Co(NH3 )3 (N02)3], K 2 [Co(NH3 )(N02)6], and
K 3 [Co(N02)6]. It is clear that such replacement is attended by a
gradual change in the charge of the complex ion, which lowers from
+3 in the ion [Co(NH3)6]3+ to —3 in the ion [Co(N02)6]3“.
90. Basic Types and Nomenclature of

Complex Compounds
The basic types of complex compounds include the following.
Ammines—complexes in which ammonia molecules are the ligands,
for instance [Cu(NH3 )4 ]S04, [Co(NH3)6 ]C13, and [Pt(NH 3 )6 ]Cl4.
Complexes similar to the ammines are known in which the role of
the ligand is played by amine molecules: CH3 NH 2 (methylamine),
C2H 5NH 2 (ethylamine), NH 2 CH2CH2 NH 2 (ethylenediamine, con
ventionally designated En or en), etc. Such complexes are known as
aminates.
Aquacomplexes contain water as the ligand: [Co(H20 ) 6 ]C12,
[A1(H2 0 ) 6 ]C13, [Cr(H20 ) 6 ]Cl3, etc. Hydrated cations in an aqueous
solution contain an aquacomplex as the central unit. In the crystal-
line state, some of the aquacomplexes also retain the water of crystal
lization, for example lCu(H20 )4 ]S0 4 ‘H 20 , and [Fe(H2 0 ) 6 ]S0 4 .H 20.
The water of crystallization is not contained in the inner sphere.
It is bonded less strongly than the coordinated water and is parted
with more readily in heating.
Acidocomplexes. In these complexes, anions are the ligands. They
include complexes of the double salt type, for example, K JPtC lJ,
K 4 [Fe(CN)6] (they can be represented as the product of the coupling
of two salts—PtCl4 -2KCl, Fe(CN)2 *4KGN, etc.), complex acids—
H 2 [SiF6], H 2 [CoC14], hydroxocomplexes—Na2 [Sn(0H)4l
Na2 [Sn(OH)6], etc.
Transition series exist between these classes, which include com
plexes with different ligands. We have already mentioned such com
plexes in the preceding section. Below is given the transition series
between the ammines and acidocomplexes of platinum(II):
lPt(NH 3 )4 ]Cl2, [Pt(NH 3 )3Cl]Cl, [Pt(NH 3 ) 2Cl2], K[Pt(NH 3 )Cl3], and
K 2 [PtCl4].
Cyclic, or chelate (from the Greek word “chele”—claw) complex
compounds contain a bi- or polydentate ligand that grips the central
atom, as it were, like the claws of a crab:
y O—C = 0 y NH2—CH2
< i < i
x o -c = o x NH2-C H a
In these complexes, the symbol M stands for a metal atom, and the
arrow depicts a donor-acceptor bond. Examples of such complexes
are the oxalate complex of iron(III) [Fe(C2 0 4)3]3“ and the ethylene-
diamine complex of platinum(IV) [PtEn3]4+. The group of chelates
also includes\ intracomplex compounds in which the central atom is
part of a ring, forming covalent bonds with ligands in various ways—
donor-acceptor bonds and bonds at the expense of unpaired atomic
electrons. Complexes of this kind are very characteristic of the ami-
nocarboxylic acids. Their simplest representative is aminoacetic
acid (glycine) NH 2CH2COOH—it form chelates with Cu2+, Pt2+,
and Rh3+ ions, for example:
H2C - H 2Nx .NHj -C H j
(
No — c=o I
Complexes are also known with more complicated aminocarboxyl-
ic acids and their analogues. Such ligands are known as complexons.
The doubly charged anion of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (see
the preceding section) in the form of its bisodium salt is called com-
plexon III, or trilon B; it produces a complex of the following type
^ th a bivalent metal:
H,C- CH
HOOCH3C 2 c h 2c o o h
HjC ch*
/ Mv
\/ \/
c c
II
o
Chelate compounds are extremely stable because their central
atom is “blocked”, as it were, by the cyclic ligand. Chelates with
five- and six-membered rings have the highest stability. Complexons
bond metal cations so strongly that such poorly soluble substances as
calcium and barium sulphates, calcium oxalates and carbonates dis
solve when they are added. This explains their use for softening wa
ter, and for camouflaging “surplus” metal ions in the dyeing and
manufacture of coloured films. They also find great application in
analytical chemistry.
Many organic ligands of the chelate type are very sensitive and
specific reagents for cations of the transition metals. They include,
for example, dimethylglyoxime proposed by L. Chugaev as a reagent
for the Ni2+ and Pd2+ ions.
Lev Aleksandrovich Chugaev is one
of the most outstanding Soviet
chemists. He was bom in Moscow;
in 1895 he graduated from the
Moscow University. In 1904-1908*
he was a professor at the Moscow
Higher Technical College, and in
1908-1922, a professor in inorganic
chemistry at the Petrograd
University, and simultaneously (from
1909) a professor in organic chemistry
at the Petrograd Teclmological
Institute. His main interests included
the chemistry of complex compounds
of the transition metals, especially of
the platinum group metals. He
discovered many new complex
Lev Aleksandrovich Chugaev compounds important both
(1873-1922) theoretically and practically. He was
the first to draw attention to the great
stability of five- and six-membered rings in the inner sphere of complex
compounds and to characterize the acid-basic properties of platinum(IV)
arnicines. He was one of the initiators of the use of organic reagents in
17-2412
analytical chemistry. Chugaev devoted much attention to the

organization and development of the platinum and platinum metal
mining and processing industry in the USSR. He founded a (large
Soviet school of inorganic chemists working in the field of studying
complex compound chemistry.
Chelate compounds also play a great role in nature. For instance,
hemoglobin consists of a complex—heme—bonded to a protein—
globin. The central ion in heme is the Fe2* ion around which four
nitrogen atoms are coordinated that belong to a complex ligand with
cyclic groups. Hemoglobin reversibly attaches oxygen and carries it
from the lungs via the blood vessels to all'the tissues. Chlorophyll,
which participates in photosynthesis processes in plants, has a simi
lar structure, but its central ion is Mg2+.
All the classes of complex compounds listed above contain one
central atom, i.e. they are mononuclear. Complexes are also encoun
tered with a more complicated structure that contain two or more
central atoms of the same or different elements. These complexes are
known as polynuclear ones.
There are different kinds of polynuclear complexes.
Complexes with Bridge Atoms or Groups of Atoms. Examples are
• *
complexes with bridge atoms of chlorine —Cl:-*-(chloro-) and oxy-
■* H
.. .•
gen —0 — (oxo-), and with the bridge group —N* -►(amino-) and
.. •.
X H
H
—0: — (hydroxo-). For instance, the complex [Cr(NH3 )6 —0H->
-*-(NH 3 ) 5Cr]Cl5 is a binuclear complex with one bridge hydroxo-
group. The dimer A12C16 (see p. 305) also belongs to such compounds.
Cluster Complexes. Here the metal atoms are directly bonded to
each other. This can be seeD, for example, in the dimers (CO)6Mn—
—Mn(CO) 3 and [Re8H aCl8]a~. In the latter compound, there is
a triple bond between the rhenium atoms:
Cl Cl Cl Cl - 2-
\ / \ /
H-— Re ■■ - Re-H
_ Cl ^1 Cl XC1
Polynuclear compounds also include isopoly and heteropoly acids.

Isopolyacids areformed when two or more acid residues of the
same oxyacid combine at the expense of oxygen bridges. They
include dichromic H 2Cr2 0 7, diphosphoric H 4 P 2 0 7, tetraboric H 2B4 0 7

acids, and also polysilicic acids forming the basis of silicates.
Heteropoly acids contain at least two different acids or oxides
(derivatives of a non-metal and a metal) and a large amount of
water (up to 30 molecules). The following heteropoly acids are the
most important in analytical chemistry:
H 3 P0 4 -12Mo03 -wH20 — phosphomolybdic
H 2 P0 4 -12W£)3 *«H20 — phosphotungstic
H4 Si0 4 -12Mo03 *nH20 — silicomolybdic
H4 Si0 4 -12W03 «nH20 — silicotungstic
A few complexes are known in which the coordination centre

is an anion. These are the polyhalides containing the anions [I *:rl2]~
(where x varies from 1 to 4) or [Br-a;Br2]“ (where # is 1 or 2). Mixed
polyhalide anions also exist, namely, [I -Br2]“ and [I *C12]“. A major
role in their formation is played by polarization: the greater the
intensity of the polarization interaction between the anion E ”
and the molecule E2, the more stable is the complex. This is exactly
why polyiodides are the most stable of these compounds (the mole
cules I 2 readily polarize), while polyiluorides have not been obtained.
Owing to the equilibrium
la * * I-+ I.
in solution, a polyiodide solution exhibits properties of free iodine.
There are many ways of naming complex compounds, including
the tradition of giving them the names of the investigators who
discovered them. This way, although it pays a tribute of respect
to scientists, makes memorizing of the names difficult. We give
below the nomenclature of the principal kinds of complex compounds
based on the recommendations of the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry.
The name of a complex anion begins with an indication of the
composition of the inner sphere.
In the latter, first the anions are named, and their Latin names
take an -o ending. Examples are Cl~—chloro, CN~—cyano, SOJ“—
sulphito, and OH"—hydroxo. Next the neutral ligands are named.
The more common ones have common names such as ammine for
coordinated ammonia, and aqua for water. The number of identical
ligands is indicated by the Greek prefixes mono- for 1 (often omitted),
dl~ (2 ), tri- (3), tetra- (4), penta- (5), and hexa~ (6 ). After this, the
central atom is named, with a Roman numeral in parentheses to
indicate the oxidation state. The central atom takes an -ate ending,
17*
and the Latin names are used for Fe, Cu, Sn, Pb, and Ag. The com
plex part is written all as a single word with the oxidation state as
part of the word. Outer-sphere cations are named before the name
of the complex, and outer-sphere anions after it. The oxidation
state of the central atom is not indicated for non-electrolytes because
it is determined uniquely from the electroneutrality of the complex.
If the central atom is part of a cation, the trivial name of the ele
ment is used with its oxidation state in parentheses. Examples of
naming complex compounds are given below:
K8[Fe(CN)5NH3] — potassium pentacyanoammineferrate(III)
(NH4)a[Pt(OH)2Cl4J — ammonium dihydroxotetrachloroplatinate(IV)
[Cr(HaO)8F3] — trifluorotriaquachromium
[Co(NOa)2Cl(NH3)3] — dinitrochlorotriamminecobalt
[Pt(NH8)4Cl2]Cl2 ~ dichlorotetrammineplatinum(IV) chloride
[Ag(NH8)a]Cl — diamminesilver(f) chloride
91. Spatial Structure and Isomerism

Identical ligands are symmetrically arranged in the space around
the central atom. The even coordination numbers 2, 4, and 6 are
encountered more often. The following geometrical configurations
correspond to them:
Coordination Geometrical configuration
number
2 » . ■-« —linear
-square-planar
4
—tetrahedral
6 —octahedral, depicted
schematically in the
form:
The first correct notions on the spatial structure of complex com

pounds were formulated by A. Werner. He proceeded from the
experimentally found number of isomers when there are two or more
different ligands in a complex and compared it with the possible
number for an assumed configuration. For instance, for the coordina
tion number 4 and a tetrahedral configuration, all the positions of the
ligands relative to the central atom are equivalent. Consequently,
tetrahedral complexes of the [MA2 B2] type (where M is the central
atom and A and B are ligands) have no isomers. Matters are different
in complexes of platinum(II). For example, [Pt(NH 3) 2Cl2] is encoun
tered in two isomeric forms differing in colour, solubility, dipole
moment, reactivity, and the ways of preparation. This led to the
conclusion that the ligands are arranged in a square about the
central atom because it is exactly for this configuration that com
pounds of the [MA2 B2] type should have two isomers. In one of the
isomers of the complex [Pt(NH 3) 2Cl2], the chlorine atoms are diago
nally opposite (2nm$-isomer), and in the other one they are adjacent
to each other (cis-isomer) (Fig. 52).
A growth in the number of different substituents is attended by
an increase in the number of isomers, and for compounds of the
[MABCD] type with a square-planar configuration, already three
isomers are possible.
In studying the isomerism of complex compounds with the coor
dination number 6 , Werner arrived at the conclusion that in this
case the ligands must be arranged symmetrically about the central
ion, forming a regular octahedron (Fig. 53). If all the coordinated
groups are identical, as shown in the figure, the interchanging of
the groups will, naturally, fail to change the structure of the complex.
But if the groups are different, they may be arranged differently,
owing to which isomers can form. Indeed, experiments show that,
for example, the compound [Pt(NH3)2ClJ (where the coordination
□umber of the platinum is 6 ) exists in two isomeric forms differing
from each other in their colour and in other properties. The struc-
nh3
pt 2+
h 3n NHj
(a) (b)
Fig. 52. Spatial structure of [Pt(NH8)2Cl2) isomers:

a—frarw-isomer; b —cte-isomer
ture of these isomers according to Werner is shown schematically

in Fig. 54. In one case, the NH 3 molecules are at diagonally opposite
corners of the octahedron (trans-isomer), and in the other at adjacent
corners (ds-isomer). Such spatial isomerism (known as stereoisom
erism) is also observed in a number of other complexes with six
ligands in the inner sphere.
Werner’s assumptions on the octahedral structure of a complex
having the coordination number 6 were brilliantly confirmed by
the X-ray investigation of crystals of the relevant compounds.
Figure 55 depicts the crystal lattice of the complex salt K 2 [PtCl6].
The complex ions [PtCle]2~ in it are at the corners and centres of the
faces of a cube, the chloride ions in the complex being arranged
at the corners of a regular octahedron. Thus, the [PtCl6]2~ ion not
only remains intact in solutions, but is also an independent structural
unit in a crystal lattice.
Mirror (optical) isomerism considered on an earlier page (p. 132?
using organic compounds as an example can also be related to geo
metrical isomerism. For instance, the complexes [CoEn3 ]Gl3 (Eu
stands for ethylenediamine) and ds-[CoEn2Cl2]Cl exist in the form
of two mirror antipodes:
In addition to geometrical isomerism, other kinds of isomerism

of complex compounds are known due to the different position and
bonding of the ligands in the inner sphere. For instance, hydrate
isomerism occurs when water passes from the inner sphere to the
outer one, for example [Cr(H20 ) 6 ]Cl3, [Cr(H2 0 ) 5 Cl]Cl2 -H2 0, and
[Cr(H2 0 ) 4 Gl2 ]Cl-2 H 20 . The colour of the complex changes from
blue-violet in [Gr(H2 0 ) 6 ]Cl3 to light green in [Gr(H2 0 ) 4 Cl2 ]Cl*2H;,0
(see also p. 326).
Ionization isomerism is determined by the different distribution
of the ions between the inner and outer spheres, for instance
[Co(NH3 ) 6 Br]S04, [Co(NH3 ) 5 S0 4 ]Br, [Pt(NH 3)4 ClB]Br2, and
[Pt(NH 3 )4 Br2 ]Cl2.
Coordination isomerism is associated with the transition of li

gands from one complexing agent to another: [Co(NH3 ) 6 ][Cr(CN)6]
and [Cr(NH3 ) 6 ][Co(CN)6].
There are also polymers among the complex compounds. For in
stance, the isomeric cis- and trans-monomers [Pt(NH 3) 2 Cl2], the
dimers [Pt(NH 3 )4 ][PtCl4], [Pt(NH 3 )3Cl][Pt(NH 3 )Cl3], and the trimer
(Pt(NH3 ) 3 Cl]2 *[PtCl4] correspond to the composition PtCl2 *2NH3.
92. Nature of the Chemical Bond

in Complex Compounds
The formation of many complex compounds can be explained
in a first approximation by electrostatic attraction between the
central metal cation and the anions or polar molecules of the ligands.
Forces of electrostatic repulsion between identically charged (or, for
polar molecules, identically oriented) ligands act in addition to the
forces of attraction. As a result, the most stable grouping of the
atoms (ions) is formed that has a minimum potential energy.
Quantitative calculations based on such an electrostatic model
were first performed by W. Kossel and A. Magnus. They assumed
ions to be undeformed spheres and took into account their interac
tion according to Coulomb’s law. The results of these calculations
r>how satisfactorily how the coordination number depends on the
charge of the central ion. The simple electrostatic theory, however,
is not capable of explaining the selectivity (specificity) of complexing
because it takes no account of the nature of the central atoms and
ligands, and of the features of the structure of their electron shells.
To take these factors into consideration, the electrostatic theory
was supplemented with polarization notions (see Vol. 1, Sec. 46),
according to which complexing is facilitated by the participation,
as the central atoms, of small multiply charged cations of d ele
ments having a strong polarizing
action, and as the ligands, of cr
large readily polarizing ions or
molecules. In this case, deforma
tion of the electron shells of the
central atom and ligands occurs
that leads to their mutual pen
etration. This is exactly what
causes strengthening of the bonds.
The polarization ideas were
useful for explaining the stabil
ity, acid-base, and oxidation-
reduction properties of complex
compounds, but many other of Spatial structure of the
their properties remained unex- complex ion [PtCleP*-
plained. For instance, from the angles of view of the electrostatio

theory, all complexes with the coordination number 4 must have a tet
rahedral structure because the smallest mutual repulsion of the ligands
corresponds to this configuration. Actually, as we already know,
some of such complexes, for example those formed by platinum(Il),
have a square-planar structure. The electrostatic theory cannot
explain the features of the reactivity of complex compounds, their
magnetic properties, and colour. A more accurate and complete
description of the properties and structure of complex compounds
can be obtained only on the basis of quantum-mechanical notions
of the structure of atoms and molecules.
At present, there are several approaches to a quantum-mechanicsl
description of the structure of complex compounds.
The crystal field theory (or ligand field theory) is based on ths
notion of the electrostatic nature of the interaction between a central
ion and ligands. Unlike the simple ionic theory, however, hert
account is taken of the different spatial arrangement of the dorbitall
(see Fig. 20 in Vol 1 , p. 8 8 ) and the associated different changl
in the energy of the central atom’s d electrons due to their repulslo#
from the electron clouds of the ligands.
Let us consider the state of central ion d orbitals. In a free ioQf
the electrons in each of the five d orbitals have the same energy
(Fig. 56a). We shall assume that the ligands set up a uniform sphorl
cal electrostatic field with the central ion at its centre. In Mil*
hypothetic case, the energy of the d orbitals, at the expense of tin*
repulsive action of the ligands, grows by the same value, i.e. nil
the d orbitals remain equivalent as regards their energy (Fig. 56/))
Actually, however, the ligands act differently on different d orbll
als: if an orbital is close to a ligand, the energy of the eleotnm
occupying it grows more considerably than when the orbital l*
farther from the ligand. For example, with an octahedral arrange
ment of the ligands about the central ion, the electrons in the orhll
Fig. 54. Spatial structure of the isomers of [Pt(NH8)aCl4J:

a—frarw-lsomer; 6—efe-lsomer
nls dza and dxa_ya directed towards the ligands experience the
greatest repulsion (Fig. 57a and 6 ); therefore their energy will be
higher than in a hypothetic spherical field. Conversely, the dxy,
dxl1 and dyt orbitals are directed between the ligands (Fig. 57c)
ho that the energy of the electrons here will be lower than in a spher
ical field. Hence, the d level of the central ion splits into two ener
gy levels in an octahedral field of ligands (Fig. 56c)—a higher level
corresponding to the orbitals dza and dx2 _y* (they are customarily
designated dy or zg) and a lower level corresponding to the orbitals
dxz, and dvz (these orbitals are designated dz or t2g).
The difference between the energies of the levels d y and dt known
as the crystal-field splitting energy is designated by the symbol A
It can be determined experimentally according to the absorption
spectra of the complex compounds. The value of A depends both
on the nature of the central atom and on that of the ligands: ligands
producing a strong field cause greater splitting of the energy levels,
l.e. result in a higher value of A.
With respect to their splitting energy, ligands are arranged in the
following sequence (the sp ectrochem ical series*):
<10, CN~>ethylenediamine (En)>NHs>SCN“> H tO>OH“>F~>Cl->Br">I"
•trong I moderate field I weak field
field | |
The ligands setting up the strongest field are at the beginning of

the series, and those setting up a weak field are at its end.
The electrons of the central ion are distributed among the d orbit
als so as to form a syatem with the minimum energy. This can be
achieved in two ways: by location of the electrons on the de orbitals
corresponding to a lower energy, or by their uniform distribution
over all the d orbitals in accordance with Hund’s rule (see Vol. 1,
p. 95). If there are not more than three electrons in the d orbitals
of the central ion, according to
Ilund's rule they are in the orbit
als of the lower energy level de.
Kor instance, in the Cr^+ion hav
ing a 3d8 electron configuration
of its outer layer, each of the
three d electrons occupies one of
the three do orbitals.
• The mutual arrangement of
ligands with close splitting energies
may change somewhat when going over
lu another central atom or even when 0 [ P t c i 6]
tha oxidation state of the central atom
i«ltanges. Fig. 55. Crystal lattice of KtlPtClJ
Matters are different when there is a greater number of electrons

on the d orbitals of the central ion. Their location in accordance
with Hund’s rule requires the expenditure of energy for transferring
some electrons to d y orbitals. On the other hand, when the maximum
number of electrons are located in dz orbitals, Hund’s rule is violat
ed and, consequently, energy must be spent for transferring some of
the electrons to orbitals already having one electron each. Conse
quently, when the field is weak, i.e. the value of the splitting energy
is low, it is more energetically advantageous for the d electrons to
be uniformly distributed between all the d orbitals (in accordance
with Hund’s rule); the central ion retains a high value of its spin,
so that a high-spin paramagnetic complex is formed. When the field
is strong (a high value of the splitting energy), it is more energetical
ly advantageous to accommodate the maximum number of electrons
in dz orbitals; here a low-spin diamagnetic complex is created.
From this standpoint, it is clear why, for example, the complex
[CoF6]3~ is paramagnetic, and the complex [Co(CN)e]3“ is diamagnet
ic. The position of the ligands F~ and CN“ in the spectrochemical
series (see above) shows that a considerably higher splitting energy A
corresponds to the CN“ ions than to the F~ ions. Therefore, in the
complexes being considered, the electrons of the central Co8+ ion are
distributed between the d orbitals as shown in Fig. 58: the complex
[CoF6]3“ is a high-spin one, and the complex [Co(CN)e]3“ is a low-
spin one.
We have considered the crystal-field theory as applied to complexes
with an octahedral arrangement (octahedral coordination) of the
ligands. We could consider the properties of complexes with a dif
ferent, for example tetrahedral, coordination from similar angles of
view. *
/
dxz dyZ d z2 dx-^y2
/
/ \dxy dxzf d
/ dg
/
/ w (c)
f
I
dxy dxz dyz d z2d x ~ y 2
(a)
Fig. 56. Energy levels of central ion d orbitals:
a—free ion; b—ion In hypothetic spherical held; a—ion in ootahedral field of
ligands
The crystal field theory allows us to explain not only the magnetic
properties of complex compounds, but also their specific colour.
For instance, in the [Ti(H2 0 )6]3+ complex, the Ti3+ ion has oned
electron (its electron configuration is $ ). In the ground (unexcited)
state, this electron is in one of the d&orbitals, but upon the expendi
ture of a certain energy (A = 238 kJ/mol) it can become excited
and pass over to the dY orbital. The wavelength of the light absorbed
in this transition and corresponding to this energy is 500 nm. This
is exactly what explains the violet colour of the [Ti(H2 0 )6]3+ com
plex. When considered in this way, it becomes clear why complexes
formed by Cu+, Ag+, Zn2+, and Cd2+, as a rule, are colourless; these
ions have the electron configuration d10 so that all the d orbitals
are filled and the transition of electrons from the de to the d v or
bitals is impossible. The Cu2+ ion, however, forms coloured com
plexes: it has the electron configuration d9 so that one of the de elec
trons when excited can pass over to the d v orbital.
Although the crystal field theory was fruitful in interpreting the
magnetic, optical, and some other properties of complex compounds,
it was not able to explain the positions of ligands in the spectrochem-
ical series, and also the very fact of formation of certain complexes,
for instance the “sandwich” compounds—dibenzene-chromium
Cr(G6H 6)2, ferrocene Fe(CBH5)2, and their analogues. The matter
is that the crystal field theory, while taking into consideration the
influence of ligands on the central ion, does not take into account
the participation of the ligand electrons in the formation of chemi
cal bonds with the central ion. This is why the application of the
crystal field theory is restricted chiefly to complex compounds with
a mainly ionic nature of the bond between the central atom and the
ligands.
The valence bond method as applied to complex compounds is
based on the same notions as in simple compounds (see Vol. 1,
Secs. 39-44). It is taken into account that the chemical bonds appear
ing in eomplexing have a donor-acceptor origin, i.e. are formed at
Fig. 5 7 . Orbitals dz 2 (a), dx 2 _ y 2 (6 ), and dxz (c) in an octahedral field of ligands

(the ligands are conditionally (depicted as spheres)
the expense o! an unshared electron pair of one of the interacting

atoms and the free orbital of the other atom. Let us consider the
structure of certain complex compounds from these standpoints.
In an ammonia molecule, the nitrogen atom is in a state of spz
hybridization, and there is an unshared electron pair on one of its
hybrid orbitals. Therefore, upon the donor-acceptor interaction of
an NH8 molecule with an H + ion, the NH£ ion is formed that has
a tetrahedral configuration. The complex [BF4]~ ion has a similar
structure: here the donor of the electron pair is the anion F“, while
the acceptor is the boron atom in the BFS molecule having an unfilled
orbital in its outer electron layer and passing over to the state of
sp9 hybridization in complexing.
Certain complexes of elements of the zinc subgroup have the same
geometrical configuration (a tetrahedron). Examples are [Zn(NH8)4]2+,
?Cd(NH3)4]2+, and [Hgl4]2~. For instance, in [Zn(NH8)4]2+, the zinc
ion accommodates the electron pairs of the ligands (conditionally
depicted by dots in the diagram) on one 4s and three 4p orbitals.
2+
[Z n(N H 3)4]
f* t H H H t
H M M
H
Here sp® hybridization occurs that corresponds to the location of

the ligands at the corners of a tetrahedron (tetrahedral coordina
tion).
The ions of d elements with four occupied d orbitals (Pta+, Pd*+,
and Au®+) with the coordination number 4 accommodate the electron
pairs of the ligands on one (n — 1 ) d, one ns and two np orbitals.
For example, in lPt(NH 3) 4 la+, we have:
P
s m • 4*.
•• d
[ P t( N H 3) 4] 1+ s
f t t* t t tt ti H i n l - I
U
Here dsp2 hybridization occurs that corresponds to location of
the ligands at the corners of a square (square coordination). For
this reason, complexes such as [Pt(NH8)4]2+ and [PtClJ2“ have
a square-planar structure.
The hybridization d?sp9 and an octahedral arrangement of the
ligands correspond to the coordination number 6 . Such coordina-
tion occurs, for example, in platinum(IV) complexes:

p
s
••
[pt(NH,)«]4+ p •• ••
s A1 AJ,
Ai H *♦ H
TT W 1 f
n
Similar octahedral coordination occurs in such complexes as

ICo(NH3)6]s+, [Fe(CN),l4-, and [RhCls]8-.
Hybridization of the sp type and linear coordination of the ligands
correspond to the coordination number 2 . For example, in [Ag(NHs)a]+,
we have:
s • •
[A g(N H 3) 2] + P
M M h Ih
H H H
♦♦
The above examples show that the valence bond method success
fully explains definite values of the coordination numbers and the
geometrical shapes of the complex particles, as well as the differ
ences in magnetic properties (diamagnetism or paramagnetism) of
complex compounds. Some of their properties, however (for instance,
the absorption spectra) are not explained satisfactorily by this
method. In addition, the interaction between the central atom and
the ligands in complex compounds does not only consist in the
— I dr
4
* A
■fy4 4- 4 4*
4 4de
w
<b) 4" "H"
<o)
Rg. 58. Distribution of electrons of Co3* ion between d orbitals:
a—in hypothetic spherical field; b—in weak octahedral held of ligands (complex
[CoF,]*-): e—in strong octahedral field of ligands (complex [Co(CN)«l*“)
transfer of electrons from the ligand. There are ligands that can
receive metal electrons in vacant orbitals, for instance in free d
orbitals (in the PFS molecule or the SnClS ion), or in unfilled anti-
bonding orbitals (in C2H4, CO, and NO molecules). Such ligands
are called pi acceptors, and their bond with the central atom a pi-
dative one. The structure of many of the complex compounds dis
covered lately, for instance of the “sandwiches” (see above), cannot
be explained from the angle of view of the valence bond method.
The Molecular Orbital Method. Molecular orbitals are formed in
complex compounds according to the same principle and have the
same properties as the molecular orbitals in diatomic molecules
(see Vol. 1, Sec. 45). A distinction is that in complex compounds
the molecular orbitals are multiple-centre delocalized ones, as is
the case, for instance, in the benzene molecule (see Sec. 53).
The MO method has at present become the leading, most fruitful
one in the theory of complex compound structure. Particularly,
it successfully explains the structure and properties of the above-
mentioned “sandwich” compounds such as Cr(C6H 6) 2 and Fe(C5H 6) 2
in which the central atom is between cyclic organic molecules and
is bonded to them by means of delocalized multiple-centre bonds.
The application of the MO method to the explanation of the struc
ture of complex compounds is treated in special books on the sub
ject.
93. Stability of Complex Compounds

in Solutions
We have already mentioned that the inner and outer spheres
of complex compounds differ greatly in their stability. The particles
in the outer sphere are bonded to the complex ion mainly by electro
static forces and are readily detached in an aqueous solution.
This dissociation is called primary. It proceeds almost to the end
like the dissociation of strong electrolytes. The ligands in the inner
sphere are much more strongly bonded to the central atom and are
detached only to a small degree. The reversible decomposition of
the inner sphere of a complex compound is known as secondary
dissociation. For example, the dissociation of the complex
[Ag(NH3)a]Cl can be written as follows:
[AgCNHjJJCl [Ag(NH8)2]+ -f Cl- — primary dissociation
[Ag(NH8 )al+ ** Ag+ + 2 NH8 — secondary dissociation
Secondary dissociation is characterized by the existence of equi
librium between the complex particle, the central ion, and the
ligands. The correctness of this statement can be seen from the
following reactions. If a solution containing the complex ion
'[Ag(NH*)a]+ is reacted with a solution of a chloride, no precipitate
is formed, although a silver chloride precipitate separates from

solutions of ordinary silver salts when chlorides are added to them.
The concentration of the silver ions in the ammonia solution is
evidently too small to ensure the value of the solubility product of
silver chloride [Ksp (AgCl) = 1.8 X 10"10] to be reached even when
an excess amount of chloride ions is introduced into it. But after
the addition of potassium iodide to the solution of the complex*
a silver iodide precipitate separates. This proves that there neverthe
less are silver ions in the solution. No matter how small their con
centration is, it is sufficient for the formation of a precipitate be
cause the solubility product of silver iodide Agl is only 1 X 10“16r
i.e. is much smaller than that of silver chloride. In exactly the
same way, a reaction with hydrogen sulphide yields a precipitate
of silver sulphide Ag2S whose solubility product is 10‘51.
The equation of the proceeding reactions can be written as fol
lows:
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + I ~ Agl I + 2NH3
2[Ag(NH3)2]+ + H2S AgaS I + 2NH3 + 2NHJ
The dissociation of the [Ag(NH3)2]+ ions in accordance with the
above equation, like the dissociation of any weak electrolyte, obeys
the law of mass action and can be characterized by the relevant
equilibrium constant, known as the constant of instability of the
complex ion:
[Ag+] [NH3]*
Ainst [[Ag(NH3)2]+] = 6 .8 X 10“ 8
The instability constants for various complex ions are quite

diverse and can be a measure of the stability of a complex. The
instability constants whose expression includes the concentrations
of ions and molecules are called ‘‘concentration” ones. The instabil
ity constants containing the activities of ions and molecules instead
of their concentrations are more accurate and do not depend on the
concentrations and ionic strength of a solution. These two different
expressions for the instability constants coincide with each other
for dilute solutions.
A glance at the above formula shows that the smaller the con
centration of the decomposition products, i.e. the more stable is
a complex, the smaller is its instability constant. The complex
particles that are the most stable in solutions have the lowest insta
bility constants. For instance, among the following compounds
of the same kind:
[Ag(N02)2]~ [Ag(NH3)2]+ [Ag(S2 0 3 ) 2 F- [Ag(CN)J-
K\nst lr3 X 1 0 - 8 6 . 8 x 1 0 ^* 1 X *0 ^ l x 1 0 ~ 21
the stability of the complex grows in going from [Ag(N02)2]“ to
lAg(CN)2]“. The ion [Ag(CN)2]" is so stable that even the addition
of potassium iodide to a solution of the complex salt does not lead

to the formation of# a silver iodide precipitate. But when reacted
with hydrogen sulphide, owing to the negligibly small value of the
solubility product of silver sulphide, a precipitate of silver sulphide
is nevertheless formed.
Lately, it is preferable practice to use the reciprocal of the insta
bility constant, called the stability constant, to characterize the
stability of complex compounds. For the [Ag(NH3)a]+ ion, the
stability constant is:
kt _ 1 _ [[Ag (NH8)2+]]
8tab * inst ~ [Ag+] [NHs]*
Up to now, we dealt with the overall constants of instability and
stability relating to the decomposition of a complex into its final
products. What actually occurs in solutions is stepped dissociation
of a complex similar to the stepped dissociation of weak electro
lytes, for instance of polybasic acids.
For example, an aqueous solution of K 2 [PtCl4] contains in dif
ferent proportions all the complexes participating in the following
equilibria:
ka
[PtCl4 ]*-+H20 — Z t [PtCl3 HaO]-+Cl-
Ka
[PtCl3 HaO]~-|-HaO 7 —^ [PtCla(HaO)*]+Cl-
Kt
[PtCla(HaO)a]+H aO — fPt(HaO)3 C lf+ G l-
' Kx
[Pt(HaO)3 Clj++H aO — Z l [Pt(HaO)4 ]**+Cl-
Each of these equilibria is characterized by its own step constant
of instability A4, etc. As the chloride ions detach, the charge
of the complex becomes more and more positive, while the number
of C l' ions in the complex diminishes. As a result, the consecutive
detachment of the chloride ions becomes more and more difficult.
For this reason, the relationship K A > K 3 > K 2 > K 1 holds be
tween the step instability constants of the [PtClJ8" ion.
Such a change in the values of the consecutive instability constants
bears a general nature. * The magnitude of the overall instability
constant equals the product of all the step constants.
The values of the instability and stability constants are given
in chemical reference books. These quantities can be used to predict
the course of reactions between complex compounds: with a great
difference in the stability constants, a reaction will proceed in the
* There is a small number of deviations caused by disproportionation or by
the action of additional factors leading to the preferable stabilization of.oi>e
of the equilibrium forms.
Complex Com pounds 273
direction of the formation of a complex with a greater stability

constant or, which is the same, with a smaller instability constant.
For example, for the [Ag(NHs)a]+ ion, = 6 . 8 X 10-8, and
for the NHJ ion, AInst — 5.4 X 10-1. Consequently, reaction with
acids decomposes amminesilver with the formation of Ag+ and
NHt ions:
[Ag(NH,)j]+ + 2H+ ^ Ag+ + 2NHJ
The complex [Pt(NH8)4]a+ ( K ^ = 5 X 10"®4) does not decom
pose at room temperature even in concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Complexing is widely used in analytical chemistry. The condi
tions for the most effective separation of ions are chosen with a view
to the ratio of the stability constants for the* complex compounds
they form.
For instance, the cations Nia+, Coa+, and Zna+ produce stable
soluble ammines, whereas Al8+, Fe*+, and Cr3+ are less inclined to
form complexes with ammonia and precipitate in the form of hydrox
ides when reacted with ammonia. This allows these two groups
of cations to be separated by the action of ammonia. Similar consid
erations can be used for separating anions: for instance, a mixture
of chlorides and iodides can be precipitated as AgCl and Agl and
then treated with ammonia—only AgCl will pass into the solution.
To dissolve the Agl, a ligand must be used that binds the Ag+ ion
considerably more strongly, for instance, CN~, because for the
(Ag(CN)a]~ complex we have Kmat = 1 X 10-ai. Silver iodide
dissolves in a solution of KCN to form K[Ag(CN)s]:
Agl + 2 KCN K[Ag(CN) J + KI
The stability constants of complexes of the same kind depend

on a number of factors and first of all on the nature of the central
atom and the ligands. In complexes with central ions having a weak
polarizing power, for example with ions of the alkali and alkaline-
earth metals, the stability grows with an increase in the intensity
of the electrostatic interaction between the central ion and the
ligands: the stability of complexes grows with an increase in the
charges of the central ion and ligands and with a decrease in their
radii. These cations form more stable complexes with ligands con
taining elements of small periods (oxygen, nitrogen) and with
F“ ions.
For another large group of complexing agents—cations of the
platinum metals and the ions Hga+, Ag+, and Aua+ having a strong
polarizing power and for which the nature of bonding between the
central atom and the ligands approaches a covalent one—complexes
with readily polarizing ligands are the most stable. The latter
include I" ions and ligands containing P and S atoms.
IS—2412
94. Influence of Coordination on

the Properties of Ligands and the Central Atom.
Mutual Influence of Ligands
Coordination is associated with a change in the electron configura
tion of ligands and as a result leads to a change in their properties.
This can be seen quite well on the example of the acid and basic
properties of complex compounds. Whereas free ammonia has basic
properties in an aqueous solution, the [Pt(NH8)6]4+ complex exhib
its the properties of an acid and enters into a reversible reaction
with an alkali:
[Pt(NH8)e]4+ + OH- [Pt(NH3 )BNH2 l3+ + HaO
The reason for the change in the properties of ammonia is that

its coordination is attended by shifting of the electron density
towards the positively charged central atom. As a result, the effective
negative charge of the nitrogen atom in the NH 3 molecule sharply
diminishes, and this facilitates detachment of a proton.
Other polar or readily polarizing molecules capable of displaying
proton-donor properties such as H 2 0 , NH 2 OH, and organic amines
behave similarly in a field of cations of some of the transition metals.
Playing the role of ligands, these molecules are capable of detaching
a proton in aqueous solutions and from the point of view of the
proton theory of acids and bases (Vol. 1, p. 258) behave like acids.
For example, the reaction of a hydrated copper ion with water
should be written as follows:
[Cu(H2 0)4]2+ + H20 [Cu(H2 0) 8 0H]+ + H„0+
This equation expresses the process of hydrolysis of a copper ion.

Hence, the hydrolysis of cations in aqueous solutions can be con
sidered as the acid dissociation of the water in aquacomplexes.
If a complex compound simultaneously contains a proton-donor
molecule of a ligand (for instance, H 20 or NH3) and a molecule of
the same ligand that has detached a proton and is therefore capable
of attaching it (for example, OH“ or NH 2 ), it is amphoteric. For
instance, [Pt(NH 8) 6NH2]s+ in a reaction with an alkali behaves
like an acid, and in a reaction with an acid like a base:
[Pt(NH8 ) 5 NH2]8+ + OH- [Pt(NH8 )4 (NH2)2]a+ + H20
field base
[Pt(NH,)6 NHJ*+ + H ,0 + [Pt(NH3)6]4+ + H ,0
base acid
A compound containing only deprotonized ions (OH', NHj,

NH jjO", etc.) always behaves like a base.
The fundamentals of the theory of acid and basic properties of

complex compounds were developed by A. Grinberg8*.
A central ion also changes its properties as a result of complex
l y which can be seen, for example, by the change in the relevant
electrode potential. The standard electrode potential <p° of the
system Fe8 +/Fe2+ in an aqueous solution, for instance, is +0.771 V.
If we take cyanide complexes containing iron in the oxidation
state + 2 and + 3 , for the system [Fe(CN)e]8 ~/[Fe(CN)6]4~ we have
<p° = + 0.36 V, whence it follows that this system has weaker oxidiz
ing properties than the system Fe2 +/Fe8+. In the given most typical
case, the transition from hydrated ions to the more stable complexes
is attended by the stabilization mainly of the complex ion contain
ing the central atom in the higher oxidation state, as a result of
which the oxidizing power of this ion decreases.
In addition to the influence of complexing on the properties of the
ligands and central atom, there is also mutual Influence of the ligands
in the complexes. Its most striking manifestation is frans-influence
discovered by I. Chernyaev**. The essence of this phenomenon con
sists in that in complexes in which cis- and trans-isomers are possi
ble, the mutual influence of the ligands is observedfthe most strongly
when they are in the transposition relative to each other.
Some ligands (they are called toms-active) weaken the action of
the central atom on the properties of a ligand in the frms-position
with respect to the ligand being considered and cause them to ap
proach the properties of a free ligand. An example of the manifesta
tion of fr-ons-influence is the preparation of isomers of diammine-
platinum(II). When a tetrammineplatinum(II) complex is heated
with concentrated HC1, a frarcs-isomer is generally obtained, while
when ammonia is reacted with K 2 [PtCl4], a m-isomer is obtained:
{Pt(NH3 )4 lCla + 2HC1 [Pt(NH8 )aCla] + 2NH4 C1
tran*-isomer
KJPtClJ + 2 NH8 [Pt(NH8)aClJ + 2KC1
cis-isomer
* Aleksandr Abramovich Grinberg (1898-1966) was an eminent Soviet inor

ganic chemist, an academician, and State Prize winner. The main works by
A. Grinberg are devoted to a study of the spatial structure, acid and basic, and
oxidation-reduction properties of complex compounds. He made a number of
valuable generalizations on how coordination affects the properties of the cen
tral atom and ligands, and on the reactivity of complex compounds.
** Ilya Ilyich Chernyaev (1893-1966), a prominent Soviet inorganic chemist,
an academician, and State Prize winner, was a pupil of L. Chugaev. His main
interests were in the held of the chemistry of complex compounds, chiefly plati
num and the platinum metals. In 1926, he discovered the phenomenon of trans-
influence, which made it possible to carry out the directed synthesis of a con
siderable number of complex compounds. I. Chernyaev was one of the organ
izers of the industry of platinum and the platinum metals in the USSR.
<8 *
276 Complex Compound*
The explanation is the greater trans-influence of the Cl-ionin

com parisonwith the NH, m olecule, andthis is what determines
the m ost labile ligand (enclosedinadottedsquare) inthe inter
m ediately form edcom plexes:
NH, NH, C1 NH,
+ c i- Pt +NH,
Pt
NH, Cl _ NH, Cl
Cl Cl Cl NH,
+ N H ,+ Pt + c i-
Pt
■J Cl N H ,_
The kinetic characteristics of replacem ent reactions canalsobe

usedto assess the trans-influence of ligands. W ithrespect totheir
ability of accelerating a replacem ent process of a trons-arranged
ligand, thefollowingligandseriescanbeform ed:C N~, C,H „C O>
>N O j, I", SCN-> Br-> Cl-> OH-> NH,> H,0.
T rans-influence has been established chiefly w henstudying the
com plexes of Pt(II), but it alsom anifests itself incom plexes w ith
thecentral ions Pt(IV), C o(III), Au(III), Pd(II), andR h(I). Trans-
influenceisanelectroneffect andisassociatedwithachangeinthe
electron density. O ne of the first and m ost illustrative attem pts
toexplainit w asm adeonthebasisofpolarizationnotions: ligands
with a greater Z rans-influence have a readily deform ed electron
shell andaregoodreducingagents (A .G rinbergandB. N ekrasov).
It w as laterfoundthat account m ust alsobetakenof the ability
of aligandtotakepart inpi-acceptorinteractionwiththecentral
atom .
G rinberg and his school discovered that in addition to trans-
influence, thereisalsocis-influenceofligands(althoughinaw eaker
form ). Thechangeinthepropertiesofthecentral atomandligands
incom plexing, andalsotheexistence of trans- andcis-influence0 -
ligands areincom pleteaccordancewithButlerov’s theoryof chem f
ical structure that takes intoconsiderationall thekindsofm utual
influence of atom s andgroups of atom s inm olecules (see Vol. 1,
Sec. 38andVol. 2, Sec. 48).
9
SECOND GROUP OF
THE PERIODIC TABLE
MAIN SUBGROUP
T hem ainsubgroupof G roupII includestheelem entsberyllium ,

m agnesium , calcium , strontium , barium, andradium . All theseele
m ents except for berylliumhave pronounced m etallic properties.
Inthe free state, they are grayish-w hite substances harder than
thealkali m etals andwithratherhighm eltingpoints. A s regards
theirdensity, all of themexcept radiumrelatetothelight-weight
m etals. Their m ost im portant properties are given in Table 10.
Table 10
Selected Properties of Beryllium , Magnesium, Radium
and the A lkaline Earth Metals
Be Mg Ga Sr Ba Ra
Configuration of
outer electron
layer of atom 2 s* 3s* 4s* 5s* 6 s* 7sa
Atomic radius, nm 0.113 0.160 0.197 0.215 0 .2 2 1 0.235
Ionization energy
of atom
E -*E +, eV 9.32 7.65 6 .1 1 5.69 5.21 5.28
E+-Ê*+, eV 18.21 15.03 11.87 11.03 1 0 .0 0 10.15
Radius of ion
El+, nm 0.034 0.074 0*104 0 * 1 2 0 0.138 0*144
Standard enthalpy
of atomization
of metal at
25 °C, kJ per
mole of atoms 320.5 150.2 192.5 164.0 175.7 130
Density, g/cm8 1.85 1.74 1.54 2.63 3.76 About 6
Melting point, °C 1285 651 850 770 710 960

Boiling point, °C 2970 1107 1480 1380 About 1140
Standard electrode 1640
potential of
process E*++
+ 2e“ = E, V —1.847 —2.363 —2 .8 6 6 t —2 . 8 8 8 —2.905 About
—2.92
278 Second Group of Hie Periodic Table
The first two members of the subgroup being considered occupy

a somewhat special position in it, differing in many respects from
the other four elements. Beryllium in some of its properties ap
proaches aluminium (“diagonal similarity”—see p. 280).
All the isotopes of the last element of the subgroup—radium—are
radioactive. The long-lived isotope a2*Ra was previously used in
radiotherapy; at present it has been replaced with cheaper isotopes
of other elements formed in nuclear reactors.
The outer electron layer of the atoms of elements of this subgroup
have two electrons, while in the preceding layer beryllium has two
electrons, and the other elements eight. The atoms comparatively
readily part with the two electrons of their outer layer and transform
into positive doubly charged ions. Consequently, as regards their
chemical activity, these elements are only slightly inferior to the
alkali metals. Like the latter, they oxidize in the air quite rapidly
and can displace hydrogen from water at room temperature. Beryl
lium and magnesium react with water very slowly, however, because
the hydroxides formed are poorly soluble in water: they coat the
surface of the metal and hinder the further course of the reaction.
The other four metals, owing to the better solubility of their hy
droxides, react with water much more vigorously.
The elements calcium, strontium, and barium in the main sub
group were named alkaline earth metals a long time ago. The origin
of this name is associated with the fact that calcium, strontium,
and barium hydroxides, like sodium and potassium hydroxides,
have alkaline properties, while the oxides of these metals with re
spect to their refractoriness are similar to the oxides of aluminium
and the heavy metals, which previouslyhad the common name of earths.
Oxides are always obtained when alkaline earth metals are burned.
The peroxides, if they in general form, are much less stable than
their alkali metal counterparts.
The oxides of calcium, strontium, and barium combine directly
with water to form hydroxides. The solubility of the latter greatly
increases when going from calcium to the following alkaline earth
metals. The basic properties of the hydroxides grow in the same
sequence.
The alkaline earth metals can combine with hydrogen to form
hydrides similar to the hydrides of the alkali metals (for instance,
CaHa).
The alkaline earth metals have the remarkable inclination of
combining with nitrogen that grows with an increase in their atomic
mass. Even at room temperature, the alkaline earth metals slowly
combine with nitrogen to form nitrides.
Unlike the salts of the alkali metals, many salts of the alkaline
earth metals are only sparingly soluble in water. These salts include
the carbonates, sulphates, and phosphates.
Main Subgroup 279
T he alkaline earthmetals have anoxidationstateof +2 inall

their com pounds.
95. Beryllium
The am ount of berylliumin the Earth’s crust is quite m eager
[0.0004% (m ass)]. Itiscontainedinsom em inerals, them ostfrequent
ly occurringone of w hichis beryl Be3Al2(Si03)#. Som e varieties
ofberyl colouredbyim puritiesindifferentcoloursrelatetoprecious
stones. A m ongthemaregreenem eralds andbluish-greenaquam a
rines.
M etallic berylliumis prepared by electrolysis of m elts of its
com pounds, chiefly berylliumchloride. The electrolyte is a m elt
containing50% (m ass)ofBeC l2and50% (mass)ofN aCl. Suchacom
positionallows the tem perature at whichelectrolysis is conducted
tobelow eredto300°C(pureberylliumchloridem elts at 440°C ).
Berylliumis a very hard, brittle, white, light-weight m etal.
It resists corrosionow ingtotheform ationof anoxidefilmhaving
protective properties onits surface. W aterdoesnot virtuallyreact
w ithberyllium , while inacids it dissolves quite readilywiththe
liberationof hydrogen.
Afeature of berylliumis that it alsodissolves inaqueous solu
tions of alkalies toformhydroxoberyllates:
Be + 2NaOH - f 2HaO = N aJBe(O H )J + H a f
sodium tetra-
hydroxoberyllate
M etallicberylliumhas m anyrem arkableproperties. Thinsheets
of berylliumaregoodtransm itters of X -rays andare anindispen
sable m aterial for m aking the w indow s of X -ray tubes through
w hichthe rays em erge. But berylliumfinds its m ain application
inalloys, into w hich this m etal is introduced to im prove their
properties. Besides berylliumbronzes (seep. 241), alloys of nickel
w ithtw otofourpercent of berylliumareusedw hoseresistanceto
corrosion, strength, andelasticityarecom parablewithhigh-quality
stainless steels, andinsom e respects are superior to them . They
are usedto m anufacture springs andsurgical instrum ents. Sm all
additionsofberylliumtom agnesiumalloysim provetheirresistance
tocorrosion. Suchalloys, andalsoalloysof aluminium withberyl
lium , areusedinaircraft engineering. Berylliumis oneof thebest
m oderators andreflectors of neutrons inhigh-tem perature nuclear
reactors. Inviewof the valuable properties of beryllium , its pro
duction is rapidly grow ing.
W e have already indicated that the next-to-last electron layer
inthe berylliumatomhas a different configuration t.hpn in the
other elem ents of the subgroup: it contains only tw o electrons
insteadof eight. C onsequently, incom parisonwiththe other ele-
280 Second Group of fhe Periodic Table
ments of the subgroup (see Table 10), the radius of the beryllium
atom, and especially of its ion, is small out of proportion, its ioni
zation energy is high, and its crystal lattice is very stable (a high
melting point and a great enthalpy of atomization).
The difference between the configuration of the beryllium atom
and that of the atoms of magnesium and the alkaline earth elements
also tells on the properties of its compounds. For instance, Be(OH)a
is the only base in the subgroup having amphoteric properties (see
below). Besides, the formation of ionic compounds is characteristic
of the alkaline earth metals and magnesium, whereas beryllium
atoms are usually. bonded to atoms of other elements rather by
a covalent bond than an ionic one.
The chemical properties of beryllium are to a considerable extent
similar to those of aluminium, which is in the third period and
Group III of the periodic table, i.e. to the right of and lower than
beryllium. This phenomenon, called diagonal similarity, is observed
not only in beryllium, but also in some other elements. For example,
many chemical properties of boron are similar to those of silicon.
In the formation of compounds of the BeXa type, for instance
BeCl2, the beryllium atoms become excited:
2s /s
— Be* t
Be tl t
As a result of unpairing of the electrons, two covalent bonds are

formed, and sp hybridization occurs: the valence electrons form
two equivalent sp hybrid clouds extended in opposite directions.
Hence, the BeX 2 molecules have a linear structure. The sp hybri
dization of the orbitals in a beryllium atom is treated in greater
detail in Vol. 1, Sec. 43; see also Fig. 39 in Vol. 1.
The total number of valence electrons in molecules like BeCla
is not sufficient to completely fill the outer electron layer of the
beryllium atom. This is why such molecule^ are called electron*
deficient. For instance, in the BeCl8 molecule
:ci: Be :ci;
•• ••
the outer layer of the beryllium atom contains only four electrons.
This is why the beryllium atom can be an acceptor of electron pairs
and form two more donor-acceptor covalent bonds. At the same
time, each chlorine atom in the BeCl* molecule has unshared elec
tron pairs and can play the role of their donor. Hence, when gaseous
beryllium chloride is cooled, new covalent bonds appear between
Main Subgroup 281
individual BeCla molecules as shown below:
The result is that when the beryllium chloride condenses, linear

polymer chains are formed in which the chlorine atoms play the
role of bridges bonding the beryllium atoms. Atoms performing
such a function are known as bridge atoms. The structure of the
linear polymer BeCl2 is shown schematically in Fig. 59. Examina
tion of the figure shows that the covalence and the coordination
number of beryllium in solid BeCla equal four.
This value of the covalence and the coordination number is typical
of many stable beryllium compounds. For instance, when BeF2
reacts with alkali metal fluorides, complex fluoroberyllates are
formed containing the B eF|” ion, for example:
BeFa + 2KF = KJBeFJ
potassium tetra-
fluoroberyllate
Here the beryllium atom is in the state of sp8 hybridization owing
to which the BeF|~ ion has a tetrahedral structure. A tetrahedral
arrangement of the beryllium and oxygen atoms is also character
istic of crystalline beryllium oxide. In aqueous solutions, the
beryllium ion is apparently also in the form of tetrahedral aquacom-
plexes [Be(H20 )4]2+.
Beryllium oxide BeO is a white, very refractory substance. It is
used as a chemically stable refractory material (in jet engines, for
manufacturing crucibles, in electrical engineering) and as a struc
tural material in nuclear reactors.
Beryllium hydroxide Be(OH) 2 has a pronounced amphoteric
nature, which distinguishes it sharply from the hydroxides of the
alkaline earth metals. It is practically insoluble in water, but dis
solves readily both in acids and alkalies, in the latter case with
the formation of hydroxoberyllates:
Be(OH)a + 2NaOH = Na2 [Be(OH)J
59. Structure of the linear polymer (BeClj)n:

the black circles depict beryllium atoms, the white ones—chlorine atoms
282 Second Group of the Periodic Table
The acidproperties of berylliumhydroxide are veryw eak, and

forthis reasonberyllatesbecom egreatlyhydrolyzedinanaqueous
solution.
M ost berylliumsalts, including the sulphate, dissolve well in
w ater, w hereasthesulphatesofthealkalineearthm etalsarevirtual
ly insoluble inw ater. Inaqueous solutions, the B e*+ions becom e
hydrolyzed, w hichisw hysolutionsof berylliumsaltshaveanacid
reaction.
A l l b e r y lliu m c o m p o u n d s a re to x ic . Particularly, it is verydan
gerous tobeinanatm osphere containingdust of berylliumorits
com pounds.
96. Magnesium
M agnesiumis quite w idespread in nature. It occurs in large

am ounts as m agnesiumcarbonate form ingthe m inerals m agnesite
M gC 03 and dolom ite M gC Os*G aG 03. M agnesiumsulphate and
chloride are contained in the potassium m inerals kalnite
K C l*M gS04*3H a0 and cam allite K C l*M gC l2*6H 40. The M g*+
ionis containedinseaw ater, im partingabitter taste to it. T he
total am ountof m agnesiumintheEarth’scrust isabout2% (m ass).
M agnesiumis produced chiefly by the electrolysis of m olten
m agnesium ' chloride or dehydrated carnallite.
M agnesiumis asilvery, verylight-weight m etal. It changeslittle
in air because it rapidly becom es coatedwith a thin oxide film
protecting it fromfurther oxidation.
A lthoughm agnesiumisfaraheadofhydrogenintheelectrom otive
series, it decom posesw aterveryslowly, asw ehave alreadynoted,
becauseoftheform ationofthesparinglysolublem agnesiumhydrox
ide. M agnesiumreadily dissolves inacids withthe liberationof
hydrogen. Alkalies donot react withm agnesium .W henheatedin
air, m agnesiumburns toformm agnesiumoxide M gOandasm all
am ount of m agnesiumnitride M g3Ns.
Them ainfieldof applicationof m etallic m agnesiumis thepro
ductionofavarietyoflight-weight alloysbasedonit. Theaddition
of sm all am ounts of other m etals to m agnesiumsharply changes
its m echanical properties, im parting a considerable hardness,
strength, andresistancetocorrosiontothealloy. Alloys know nas
Elektronshaveespeciallyvaluableproperties. Theybelongtothree
system s: M g-Al-Zn,M g-M n,andM g-Zn-Z r. Alloysofthefirstsystem
containingfrom3to10% A 1andfrom0.2to3% Znhavefoundthe
greatest use. Am erit of m agnesiumalloys is their low density
(about 1.8g/cm s). Theyareusedfirst of all inrocket andaircraft
engineering, andalsointhem otorvehicle industryandininstru
m ent m aking. Ashortcom ing of m agnesiumalloys is their low
Main Subgroup 283
resistance to corrosion in a humid atmosphere and in water, espe

cially sea water.
Pure magnesium is used in metallurgy. Some metals, particularly
titanium, are produced by the magnesium-thermal method. In the
production of certain steels and non-ferrous metal alloys, magne
sium is used to remove oxygen and sulphur from them. Magnesium
finds great application in organic synthesis. It is used to prepare
a multitude of substances belonging to various classes of organic
compounds, and also organo-element compounds. Mixtures of
a magnesium powder with oxidizing agents are employed in the
manufacture of flares and incendiary rockets.
Magnesium oxide MgO is usually prepared by roasting natural
magnesite MgC03. It is a white fluffy powder known more commonly
as magnesia usta. Its high melting point (about 3000 °C) allows its
application in manufacturing refractory crucibles, pipes, and bricks.
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH) 2 is obtained as a sparingly soluble
white precipitate when alkalies are reacted with soluble magnesium
salts. Unlike beryllium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide has only
basic properties, being a base of moderate strength.
Magnesium sulphate MgS04 -7Ha0, or Epsom salt, is contained
in sea water. Unlike the sulphates of the alkaline earth metals,
it dissolves well in water.
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 *6H20 forms colourless well soluble
crystals deliquescent in air. The hygroscopicity of unpurified table
salt is due to its containing small amounts of magnesium chloride*
Magnesium carbonate MgC03 is encountered in nature as the
mineral magnesite.
When soda reacts with soluble magnesium salts, a mixture of
basic carbonates is obtained instead of the neutral salt. This mix
ture is used in medicine under the name of magnesia alba.
Magnesium chloride hydroxide MgOHGl is of great industrial
significance. The technical product is prepared by mixing magne
sium oxide with a concentrated aqueous solution of magnesium
chloride and is called magnesia cement. Such a mixture hardens
after a certain time elapses and transforms into a compact white,
readily polishable body. The hardening can be explained by the
fact that the basic salt initially formed according to the equation
MgO + MgCla + HsO 2MgOHCl
then polymerizes into chains of the kind —Mg—0 —Mg—0 —Mg—
whose ends accommodate chlorine atoms or hydroxyl groups.
Magnesia cement is used as a binder in the manufacture of mill
stones, whetstones, and various slabs. A mixture of it with sawdust
named Xylolite is used as flooring.
The natural magnesium silicates—talcum 3MgO ^SiO^HaO and
especially asbestos GaO *3MgO *4Si02 find great application. Asbes-
tos, owing to its refractoriness, low thermal conductivity, and

fibrous structure, is an excellent thermal-insulating material.
Magnesium salts are encountered in a small amount in all soils
and are needed for plant nutrition because magnesium is contained
in chlorophyll.
97. Calcium
Calcium is one of the most widespread elements in nature. Its
content in the Earth’s crust is about 3% (mass). It occurs in numer
ous deposits of limestones and chalk, and also of marble, which
are all natural varieties of calcium carbonate CaCOs. Also encoun
tered in large amounts are gypsum CaS04 *2H2 0 , phosphorite
Ca3 (P0 4 ) 2 and, finally, various calcium-containing silicates.
Metallic calcium is produced chiefly by the electrolysis of molten
calcium chloride. The metal obtained contains an admixture of
CaCl2. It is therefore remelted, and then distilled to produce highly
pure calcium. Both processes are conducted in a vacuum.
A certain amount of calcium is produced by the aluminothermic
method of reduction. A method of producing calcium by the ther
mal dissociation of calcium carbide CaC2 has also been developed.
Calcium is a ductile, quite hard white metal. It becomes coated
with an oxide layer quite rapidly in air, and when heated bums
with a bright reddish flame. Calcium reacts comparatively slowly
with cold water, but rapidly displaces hydrogen from hot water to
form the hydroxide. Calcium is a very active metal that readily
combines with the halogens, sulphur, nitrogen, and reduces the
oxides of many metals when heated with them.
The use of metallic calcium is associated with its high chemical
activity. It is employed for reducing metals such as uranium, chro
mium, zirconium, cesium, and rubidium from their compounds,
for removing oxygen and sulphur from steel and other alloys, for
dehydrating organic liquids, and for absorbing the gases remaining
in vacuum devices. Calcium is also used as a component of some
lead alloys.
When heated in a stream of hydrogen, metallic calcium combines
with the hydrogen to form a hydride.
Calcium hydride CaH2 is a white salt-like substance vigorously
reacting with water with the liberation of hydrogen:
CaH* + 2HaO = Ca(OH)a + 2Ha f
Owing to its ability to liberate a large amount of hydrogen, cal
cium hydride is sometimes used to prepare this gas (about 1 0 0 0
litres of hydrogen are produced when one kilogram of calcium hy
dride reacts with water). It also finds use as an effective desiccant
capable of removing water even from crystal hydrates.
Main Subgroup 285
Calcium oxide CaO is a white, very refractory substance melting

only at a temperature of 2600 °C. In engineering, calcium oxide is
known as unslaked or burnt lime. The latter name indicates how
it is prepared—by calcining or roasting calcium carbonate (in the
form of limestone or chalk).
The roasting is performed in high shaft kilns. A kiln is charged
with alternating layers of fuel and limestone and is fired from below.
The roasting decomposes the calcium carbonate:
CaC08 ** CO, + CaO —178 kJ
Since the concentrations of the substances in the solid phases
are constant, we get the following expression for the equilibrium
constant of this process:
K « [CO,]
The concentration of a gas can be expressed by its partial pres
sure. Consequently, the latter equation signifies that equilibrium
in the system being considered sets in at a definite partial pressure
of the carbon dioxide. T h e e q u ilib riu m p a r tia l p re ssu re o f a g a s
ob tain ed in th e d isso c ia tio n of a su b sta n ce is c a lle d th e d is so c ia tio n
pressu re o f th e su bstan ce . The dissociation pressure of calcium
carbonate at various temperatures has the following values:
Temperature, °C 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Dissociation pressure:
kPa 0.015 0.313 3.37 22.4 103.1 361.3
mmHg 0.11 2.35 25.3 168 773 2710
To violate equilibrium and cause the formation of a new amount
of calcium oxide, it is necessary either to raise the temperature or
remove part of the carbon dioxide formed, thus diminishing its
partial pressure. If at a certain temperature the partial pressure
of the carbon dioxide is kept at a lower value than the dissociation
pressure, the calcium carbonate decomposes continuously. For this
reason, an important role in roasting limestone is played by good
ventilation of the kiln facilitating removal of the COa and making
it possible to conduct decomposition at a lower temperature.
If water is poured over burnt lime, it will be absorbed by the
porous lumps of the lime and react with it with the liberation of
a considerable amount of heat. Part of the water evaporates, while,
the lumps of lime break up into a fluffy mass of calcium hydroxide:
CaO + H ,0 = Ca(OH), + 65 kJ
This operation is called slaking, and the product formed is called
slaked lime in engineering.
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)a is a strong base sparingly soluble
iin water. One litre of water dissolves only 1.56 g of Ca(OH), at
20 °C. A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is known as lime
water and has an alkaline reaction. Lime water rapidly becomes
turbid in air because it absorbs carbon dioxide and forms insoluble

calcium carbonate.
Slaked lime is widely used in building. Its mixture with sand
and water is called mortar and is used for joining bricks in walls.
Slaked lime is also used as a plaster. The lime hardens first because
of the evaporation of water, and then as a result of the lime absorb
ing carbon dioxide from the air and forming calcium carbonate:
Ca(OH)a + CO, = CaCO* + H ,0
Owing to the small content of CO, in the air, the hardening pro
cess goes on very slowly, and since this is attended by the liberation
of water, buildings erected with the use of such mortar remain
damp inside for a long time.
The most important calcium salts were treated when describing
the relevant acids,
98. Hardness of Natural W ater

and Its Elimination
Because of the widespread occurrence of calcium, its salts are
almost always present in natural water. Of the natural calcium
salts, only gypsum is sparingly soluble in water, but if water con
tains carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate can also pass into solution
as hydrogen carbonate Ca(HC03)2.
Natural water containing a large amount of dissolved salts of
calcium or magnesium is called hard water in contrast to soft water
containing only a small amount or none of these salts.
The overall content of these salts in water is known as its totaF
hardness. It is divided into carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.
The former is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium hydro
gen carbonates, and the second to the presence of salts of strong
acids—calcium and magnesium sulphates or chlorides. When water
with carbonate hardness is boiled for a long time, a precipitate
appears in it that consists chiefly of CaC03, and simultaneously CO,
is evolved. Both these substances appear owing to the decomposition
of calcium hydrogen carbdnate:
Ca(HC03), == CaC03 | -|- CO, f -1- H ,0
This is why carbonate hardness is also referred to as temporary
hardness. The latter is characterized quantitatively by the content
of hydrogen carbonates removed from water when it is boiled for
one hour. The hardness remaining after such boiling is called per
manent.
The hardness of water in the USSR is expressed by the sum of the
milliequivalents of calcium and magnesium ions contained in one
litre of water. One milliequivalent of hardness corresponds to a con
tent of 20.04 mg/1 of Caa+ or 12.1Q, mg/1 of Mgi+.
Main Subgroup 287
The hardness of natural water varies within broad limits. It is

different in different basins, and changes during the year in the
same river (it is minimum during high water). Table 11 gives the
values of the water hardness in selected rivers of the USSR in sum
mer.
Table 11.
Water Hardness in Selected Rivers of the USSR
Water hardness, m -equiv / 1

Place where hardness
River was measured
total carbonate non-carbonate
Volga Volsk 5.9 3.5 2.4

Dnieper Razumovka 3.7 3.2 0.5
Don Aksakai skaya 5.6 4.3 1.3
Yenisei Krasnoyarsk 1.3 1 . 2 0 . 1
Moskva Tatarovo 4.2 4.1 0 . 1
Neva Ivanovskoe 0.5 0.5 0
The hardness of sea and ocean water is considerably higher than

that of rivers and lakes. For instance, the water of the Black See
has a total hardness of 65.5 m-equiv/1 . The average hardness of the
water in the world’s oceans is 130.5 m-equiv/ 1 (including 22.5 m-
equiv/1 falling to Ca2+ and 108 m-equiv/1 falling to Mga+).
The presence of considerable amounts of calcium or magnesium
salts in water makes it unsuitable for many technical purposes.
For instance, when steam boilers are fed for a long time with hard
water, their walls gradually become coated with a dense crust of
scale. Such a crust even when one millimetre thick greatly lowers
the transfer of heat to the water from the boiler walls and, conse
quently, leads to greater fuel consumption. In addition, it may
cause the formation of blisters and cracks both in the boiler tubes
and in the walls of the boiler itself.
Hard water does not produce a foam with soap because the soluble
sodium salts of the fatty acids—palmitic and stearic—contained
in soap transform into insoluble calcium salts of the same acids:
2C17H86COONa + CaS04 = (C^H^COOjCa * + Na*S04
sodium calcium
stearate stearate
Hard water cannot be employed in some technological processes,

for example in dyeing.
The above examples show the need of removing calcium and
•magnesium salts from water used for technical purposes. The remov
al of these salts, known as water softening, is part of a system of
water preparation—the treatment of natural water used for steam

boiler feeding and for various technological processes.
In the course of preparation, water is freed of coarsely dispersed
and colloidal impurities and of dissolved substances. Suspended
and colloidal particles are removed by coagulation by salts added
to the water [generally Al2 (S0 4 )s] followed by filtration.
Precipitation and ion exchange methods are employed for water
softening. In the former method, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ cations are
transferred to sparingly soluble compounds that precipitate. This
is achieved either by boiling the water or chemically—by introduc
ing the relevant reagents into the water. In boiling, the calcium and
magnesium hydrogen carbonates transform into CaC03 and Mg(OH),:
Ca(HCO,)* = CaCO, t + CO, f + H ,0
Mg(HCO,), = Mg(OH), I + 2CO, t
as a result of which only the carbonate hardness is eliminated.
In the chemical method of precipitation, lime or soda is most
often used as the precipitant. All the calcium and magnesium salts
are precipitated here [also in the form of CaC0 8 and Mg(OH),J.
To eliminate hardness by the ion exchange method (see Vol. 1 ,
Sec. 110), or cation exchange, water is passed through a bed of
a cation exchanger. The Ca2+ and Mga+ cations in the water are
exchanged for the Na+ cations in the exchanger used. It is sometimes
necessary to remove not only Caa+ and Mg2* cations from water,
but also other cations and anions. In these cases, the water is passed
consecutively through a cation exchanger containing hydrogen
ions in an exchange form (an H-cation exchanger) and an anion
exchanger containing hydroxide ions (an OH-anion exchanger).
As a result, the water is freed both of cations and of anions of salts.
Such water treatment is called desalination (desalting).
When an ion exchange process reaches equilibrium, the ion ex
changer stops functioning—it loses its ability to soften water. But
any ion exchanger is easily regenerated. For this purpose, a concen
trated solution of NaCl (Na2 S0 4) or HG1 (H 2 S04) is passed through
a cation exchanger. The Ca2+ and Mga+ ions emerge into the solu
tion, while the cation exchanger is again saturated with Na+ or H*
ions. To regenerate an anion exchanger, it is treated with a solution
of an alkali or soda (the latter owing to the hydrolysis of the carbon
ate ion also has an alkaline reaction). As a result, the absorbed
anions are again displaced into the solution, and the anion ex
changer is saturated with OH" ions.
99. Strontium. Barium
Strontium and barium occur in nature chiefly as sulphates and

carbonates, forming the minerals celestite SrS04, strontianite SrCOj, 1
barite BaS04, and witherite BaCOs. The content of strontium and
barium in the Earth’s crust is respectively 0.04 and 0.05% (mass),

i.e. considerably smaller than that of calcium.
Metallic strontium and barium are very active, rapidly oxidize
in air, react quite vigorously with water (especially barium), and
combine directly with many elements.
Strontium and barium oxides SrO and BaO are similar to calcium
oxide. Both metals also form peroxides. Barium peroxide B a0 2
is obtained when barium oxide is heated in air to about 500 °C.
At a high temperature, it again decomposes into the oxide and
oxygen. Barium peroxide, like sodium peroxide, is used for bleach
ing.
Strontium and barium hydroxides Sr(OH) 2 and Ba(OH) 2 are
strong bases that dissolve in water better than calcium hydroxide:
one litre of water at 20 °C dissolves 8 g of strontium hydroxide and
38 g of barium hydroxide. A saturated solution of barium hydroxide
is known as baryta water and is often used as a reagent.
Strontium and barium salts resemble those of calcium. The car
bonates and sulphates SrC03, BaC03, SrS04, and BaS0 4 are very
sparingly soluble in water and precipitate from a solution in which
strontium or barium ions encounter C0 2 3 or S0 2 4 ions. This is
taken advantage of in analysis for separating strontium and barium
from other metals.
The three metals can be distinguished from one another by the
colour which their volatile salts impart to a non-luminous flame.
Calcium salts colour a flame brick red, strontium salts—carmine,
and barium salts—yellowish green.
SECONDARY SUBGROUP
The elements of this subgroup—zinc, cadmium, and mercury—

have two electrons in the outer layer of an atom and eighteen in the
next-to-last one. The configuration of the two outer electron shells
of their atoms can be expressed by the formula (n — 1 ) s2 (n —
— 1 ) pQ(n — 1 ) d10ns2.
Table 12 gives selected properties of these metals.
The reducing properties of the zinc subgroup elements are consid
erably weaker than those of the main subgroup elements. This is
explained by the smaller size of the atoms and, accordingly, by the
higher ionization energies of these elements in comparison with
the relevant elements of the main subgroup (compare the data of
Tables 11 and 12).
In the atoms of zinc, cadmium, and mercury, as in the atoms of
the copper subgroup elements, the d sublevel of the next-to-last
electron layer is completely filled. But in the zinc subgroup ele
ments, this sublevel is already quite stable, and the removal of
electrons from it requires a lot of energy. Therefore, the elements
19-2412
Table 12
Selected Properties of Elements of the Secondary
Subgroup of Group II
Zn Cd Hg
Configuration of outer and

preceding electron layers
of atom 3s2 3p6 3d1 0 4s2 4s24p64d105s2 5*2 5p8 5d1 0 6s2
Ionization energy
E -* E +, eV 9.39 8.99 10.44
E -►E2+, eV 17.96 16.91 18.75
Radius of ion E2+, nm 0.083 0.099 0 . 1 1 2
Standard enthalpy of ato
mization of metal «t
25 °C, kJ per mole of
atoms 130.5 111.7 61.5
Density, g/cms 7.13 8.65 13.546*
Melting point, °C 419.5 321.0 -38.89
Boiling point, °C 906 /67 356.66
Standard electrode poten
tial of process
E*++ 2tf"=E, V -0.763 — 0 .403 0.850
* At 20 °C
being considered exhibit an oxidation state of -f 2 in their compounds.

Mercury, in addition, forms compounds in which its oxidation state
is + 1 . But as will be shown on a later page (see Sec. 102), in these
compounds too mercury should be considered divalent.
A feature of the zinc subgroup elements bringing them closer
to those of the copper subgroup is their inclination to complexing.
100. Zinc (Zincum)

The chief natural compounds of zinc from which it is extracted
are the minerals smithsonite or dry-bone ore ZnC03 and zinc blende
or sphalerite ZnS. The total zinc content in the Earth’s crust is
about 0 . 0 1 % (mass).
Most zinc ores contain small amounts of zinc, therefore they are
first concentrated to produce zinc concentrate. The latter is roasted
to convert zinc sulphide to the oxide:
2ZnS + 3 0 a = 2ZnO + 2 S 0 2 |
Roasting is performed in multihearth ovens or shaft kilns. Lately

the roasting of zinc ores in a “fluidized bed” has come into great
favour.
The method of processing finely comminuted solids in a fluidized

bed has found widespread application in various branches of indus
try. It consists in the following. Air (or a gas) is blown from below
through a layer of a powdered material on a grate with a velocity
such that its jets penetrate into the material and intensively mix
it, bringing it into a “fluidized” state, as it were.
Owing to the close contact of the solid material with the gas,
chemical reactions proceed at a high rate in a fluidized bed. The
use of roasting in a fluidized bed increases the output of roasting
kilns three or four times with a more complete extraction of the
zinc from the concentrate.
The method is very effective in roasting sulphide ores and com
centrates, ip the sublimation of comparatively volatile metals,
and in the roasting, cooling, and drying of various substances.
The zinc is extracted from the roasted concentrate by reducing it
with, coke and distilling the zinc vapour formed.
Another method of reducing zinc is its electrolytic separation
from its sulphate. The latter is produced by treating roasted con
centrates with sulphuric acid.
Zinc is a white metal with a bluish gray lustre. It is quite brittle
at room temperature, but at 100-150 °C it bends well and can be
rolled into sheets. When heated to above 200 °C, zinc becomes very
brittle. In air, it becomes coated with a thin layer of the oxide or
basic carbonate that prevents its further oxidation. Water does
not virtually act on zinc although it is far ahead of hydrogen in the
electromotive series. The explanation is that the hydroxide formed
on the surface of zinc when it reacts with water is virtually insol
uble and prevents the further course of the reaction. In dilute
acids, however, zinc readily dissolves to form the corresponding
salts. In addition, zinc, like beryllium and other metals forming
amphoteric hydroxides, dissolves in alkalies. If zinc is heated
greatly in air, its vapour ignites and burns with a greenish white
flame, forming ZnO.
Zinc has a very great variety of applications. A considerable
part of it goes to apply coatings to iron and steel articles intended
for service in atmospheric conditions or in water. Zinc coatings
provide a good protection of the basic metal against corrosion for
many years. But they are not effective in highly humid air with
considerable temperature fluctuations, and also in sea water. Alloys
of zinc with aluminium, copper, and magnesium have found a broad
industrial application. Zinc forms an important group of alloys—
brasses—with copper (see p. 241). A considerable amount of zinc is
used for the manufacture of galvanic cells.
Manganese-Zinc Cell. Of all the galvanic cells used at present,
manganese-zinc ones are in the greatest favour. There are several
varieties of these cells, but they are all based on an oxidation-reduc-
19*
tion reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide. In elements

of this system, one electrode is of zinc and the other, of Mn0 2.
Both electrodes are in an ammonium chloride solution.
During operation of the cell, the zinc becomes oxidized:
2Zn = 2Zn2+ + 4<r
Part of the zinc ions formed combine with ammonia molecules
into a complex ion:
Zn2+ + 4NH3 = [Zn(NH3)4]2+
Ammonia molecules form in the solution owing to hydrolysis
of the ammonium ion (see Vol. 1, p. 276):
4NHJ + 4H20 =** 4NH3 + 4H3 0 +
The electrons produced in the oxidation of the zinc pass via the
external circuit to the manganese dioxide, which is reduced to
yield several products. The compound MnOOH, in which the oxi
dation number of the manganese is + 3, is produced in the greatest
amount:
4MnOa + 4H+ + 4*r = 4MnOOH
Hence, the zinc electrode of the cell is the anode and is charged
negatively, while the Mn0 2 electrode is the cathode and is charged
positively.
The NH4 and Cl" ions during operation of the cell travel in direc
tions due to the processes occurring at the electrodes. Since at the
zinc electrode, the zinc cations emerge into the solution, while at
the cathode the solution continuously loses H + cations, in the pro-
ducedj electric field the NHJ ions migrate towards the cathode, and
the Cl" ions towards the anode. Consequently, the solution in all
its parts remains electrically neutral.
If we summate the last four equations corresponding to the indi
vidual processes occurring in the operation of a cell, we get the net
equation of the oxidation-reduction reaction proceeding in it:
2Zn + 4Mn02 + 4NHJ = Zn2+ + [Zn(NH3)4]2+ + 4MnOOH
Manganese-zinc cells do not contain a solution in the ordinary
meaning of this word. The NH 4 C1 solution needed for their function
ing in some designs has the consistency of a paste, and in others
impregnates porous cardboard placed between the electrodes. This
is the reason why these galvanic cells are called dry cells.
Dry cells are widely used as sources of current for communication
installations, various instruments, and flashlights.
Air-Zinc Cell. Here zinc is the negative electrode, and the oxygen
of the air (the pores of an electrode made from a mixture of activated
carbon and graphite are filled with air) is the positive one. The
oxygen diffuses to the electrode-solution interface. Solutions of
NaOH or NH 4 C1 are used as the electrolyte.
During the operation of such a cell, an oxidation-reduction reac

tion proceeds in it, which for an alkaline electrolyte is expressed
by the equation:
Zn -+- —- 0 2+ 2NaOH = Na2Zn02+ H20
The mechanical and corrosion properties of zinc depend on the
presence in it of small amounts of other metals. For example, an
addition of iron increases the brittleness of zinc and its alloys and
makes their working more difficult. It also sharply increases the
rate of corrosion of zinc in acids. This is why high-quality zinc
alloys contain very small amounts of additions of other metals.
For instance, the amount of lead in them must never exceed 0.01% 4
and of iron, 0 . 1 %.
Zinc oxide ZnO is a fluffy white powder that turns yellow when
heated, but again becomes white when cooled. Zinc oxide is used
in the manufacture of white oil paint (zinc white), in medicine and
cosmetics (for preparing various ointments). A considerable portion
of the zinc oxide produced is used as a filler of rubber.
Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH) 2 appears as a white precipitate when
solutions of zinc salts are reacted with an alkali:
Zn2+ + 20H - = Zn(OH) 2 |
The precipitate readily dissolves in acids to form zinc salts and
in an excess of alkalies to form zincates. Zinc hydroxide is thus an
amphoteric compound. For instance, the following reaction proceeds
with NaOH:
Zn(OH) 2 + 2NaOH = Na2 Zn02 + 2HaO

Like the formation of beryllates from beryllium hydroxide
(p. 281), the formation of zincates is attended not only by the replace
ment of the hydrogen in Zn(OH) 2 by a metal, but also by the
attachment of hydroxide ions. Particularly, hydroxozincates cor
responding to the formulas Na2 [Zn(OH)4] and Ba 2 [Zn(OH)6] have
been separated in the solid state.
The dissolving of metallic zinc in alkalies is also attended by
the formation of hydroxozincates, for example:
Zn + 2NaOH -f 2H20 = Na2 [Zn(OH)4] + H 2 t
Zinc hydroxide also dissolves in an aqueous solution of ammonis
and forms the complex ions [Zn(NH3)4]2''':
Zn(OH) 2 + 4NHS = [Zn(NH3)4]2+ + 20H-
Zinc hydroxide is a weak electrolyte. Therefore all zinc salts,
including zincates, become hydrolyzed in water.
Zinc Sulphate ZnS04. This salt separates from an aqueous solu
tion as a crystal hydrate of the composition ZnS0 4 *7H2 0, and in
this form is called white vitriol. It is used in dyeing and cotton
printing, in galvanic zinc-plating (as the main component of the

electrolyte), in medicine, and is also the starting material for pre
paring other zinc compounds.
Zinc chloride ZnCl2 is difficult to obtain in the anhydrous state.
It usually contains about 5% of water and the basic chloride. A ZnCl2
solution is used to pickle metals; in soldering, it facilitates the
removal of oxides from the surface of a metal at the moment of
soldering. Ammonium tetrachlorozincate (NH4 ) 2 [ZnCl4] (or
ZnCl2 -2NH4 Cl) is used for the same purpose in soldering and weld-
ing.
Zinc sulphide ZnS is one of the few sulphides having a white
colour. It is prepared When alkali metal sulphides or ammonium
sulphide react with zinc salts:
Zn2+ + S2- = ZnS I
Zinc sulphide, and also zinc oxide are among the substances that
luminesce—emit cold light under the action of radiant energy or
electrons on them. Luminescence is widely used in science and
engineering. For instance, of great importance is luminescence
analysis, luminescent lamps are employed for lighting, and lumines
cent screens are the most important part of cathode-ray tubes.
Luminescence analysis is based on the different nature of glowing
of difierent substances. It allows us to establish the presence of
very small amounts of substances in mixtures, and also detect
differences between objects which seem to be identical in visible
light. It helps to sort glass and seeds, and detect microflaws in
metal articles. It is employed in prospecting for bitumen and petro
leum deposits and for uranium ores. Luminescence analysis plays
an important role in forensic medicine and criminology, making
it possible to establish the nature of various spots, and detect the
falsification of documents and cryptography. The sensitivity of
this kind of analysis is very high. In addition, there is no need of
destroying the object being analysed, which is sometimes very
important.
In luminescent daylight lamps, the mercury vapour in them,
when a current is passed through it, emits ultraviolet radiation,
which causes glowing of the substances applied in a thin coat to
the inner surface of the lamp. These substances—luminophors—
can be selected so that their radiation as regards its spectral compo
sition approaches daylight.
Of tremendous importance is the application of luminophors in
various cathode-ray tubes: in cathode oscillographs, television
sets, etc. The screens of television sets are usually made of zinc
sulphide.
101. Cadmium
Cadmium resembles zinc in its properties and is usually contained
in zinc ores as an admixture. It is much inferior to zinc in its occur
rence; the cadmium content in the Earth’s crust is only about
1 0 “5% (mass).
Cadmium is prepared from zinc production residues by treating
the latter with sulphuric acid with the following recovery of the
metallic cadmium by zinc:
CdS04 -f~ Zn = ZnS04 -(- Cd
The product is refined by dissolving it in dilute sulphuric acid
and subjecting it to electrolysis.
Cadmium is a silvery soft, malleable, ductile metal. It is below
zinc in the electromotive series, but above hydrogen and displaces
the latter from acids. Since Cd(OH) 2 is a weak electrolyte, cadmium
salts become hydrolyzed, and their solutions have an acid reaction.
Cadmium greatly absorbs slow neutrons. This is why cadmium
rods are used in nuclear reactors for controlling the rate of the chain
reaction. Cadmium is used in alkaline accumulators (see Sec. 130)
and is a component of some alloys. For example, copper alloys
containing about 1% Cd (cadmium bronze) are used for making
telegraph, telephone, and trolleybus wires because these alloys
have a greater strength and wear resistance than copper. A number
of fusible alloys, for example those used in automatic fire extin
guishers, contain cadmium. Notwithstanding its comparatively high
cost, cadmium is used for cadmium-plating steel articles because
its surface has an oxide film with a protective action. Cadmium
plating is more effective than zinc-plating in sea water and in some
other conditions.
When strongly heated, cadmium burns, transforming into brown
cadmium oxide CdO.
Cadmium hydroxide Cd(OH)2, unlike zinc hydroxide, does not
have appreciably expressed acid properties and does not virtually
dissolve in alkalies.
Among the salts of cadmium, we shall note cadmium sulphide
CdS that is deposited in the form of a yellow precipitate from solu
tions of cadmium salts when reacted with hydrogen sulphide. Cad
mium sulphide goes to manufacture yellow paint and coloured glass.
All cadmium compounds soluble in water and in dilute acids are
poisonous. It is also very dangerous to inhale air containing a cad
mium oxide “smoke”.
102. Mercury \ H y d r a r g y r u m J
Mercury is scarce in nature. The Earth’s crust contains only
about 10“*% (mass) of it. Inclusions of native mercury are sometimes
encountered in rocks, but it occurs in nature chiefly in the form
of the bright red mercury sulphide HgS, called cin nabar. This
mineral is used to make red paint.
Mercury is produced from cinnabar by roasting the ore. The
mercury separates as a vapour and condenses in a cooled receiver:
HgS + 0 2 = H g + S 0 2t
Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.

It is widely used in the chemical industry: as a cathode in the electro
lytic production of sodium hydroxide and chlorine, and as a cata
lyst in the preparation of many organic compounds and in dissolv
ing uranium slugs (in atomic power engineering). It is employed
in the manufacture of daylight lamps (see Sec. 100), quartz lamps,
manometers, and thermometers. In mining, mercury is used to
separate gold from non-metallic impurities.
Mercury can dissolve many metals to form liquid or solid alloys
called am algam s. A chemical compound of mercury with the rele
vant metal is sometimes obtained.
Sodium amalgam has found great favour as a reducing agent.
Tin and silver amalgams are used for filling teeth.
Gold amalgam is formed especially readily, and for this reasoD
gold articles must not be allowed to come into contact with mercury
Iron does not form an amalgam, hence mercury can be transported
in steel vessels.
Mercury usually contains other metals as impurities. The major
part of the impurities can be removed by agitating mercury with
a solution of mercury (I I) nitrate. The metals ahead of mercury
in the electromotive series (which include most metals) pass into
the solution and displace an equivalent amount of mercury from it.
Complete refining of mercury is achieved by its repeated distilla
tion, best of all under a diminished pressure.
Mercury vapour is very toxic and may cause serious poisoning.
Even the negligible amount of its vapour forming at room temper
ature is enough for this to happen. This is why great care must be
taken in any work with mercury. Do not keep vessels with mercury
open, and perform all work with it on enamelled or iron trays.
Mercury spilled onto the floor is extremely dangerous. In falling,
it breaks up into a multitude of small droplets that get into cracks
and can poison the air for a long time. Therefore, if mercury has
been spilled onto a floor, it must be immediately gathered with
the aid of a vacuum cleaner or of a pipette with a rubber bulb.
Special reagents can also be used for removing mercury, known as
demercurizers. Examples of the latter are sulphur powder, a 20%
solution of FeCls, an emulsion of mineral oil and water containing
powdered sulphur and iodine, and a 10% solution of KMn04 acidified
with hydrochloric acid.
Among the zinc subgroup metals, mercury is the least active

owing to the high ionization energy of its atoms (see Table 12).
Hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acids, and also alkalies do not
react with mercury. It dissolves readily in nitric acid. Concentrated
sulphuric acid dissolves mercury when heated.
Mercury is not oxidized in air at room temperature. Upon pro
longed heating to a temperature close to its boiling point, mercury
combines with the oxygen of the air to form red mercury(II) oxide
HgO, which when heated to a higher temperature again decomposes
into mercury and oxygen. In this compound, the oxidation number
of mercury is + 2 . Mercury also has another oxide—mercury(I)
oxide Hg 2 0, in which its oxidation state is +1-
In all mercury(I) compounds, the mercury atoms are bonded
to one another, forming divalent groups —Hg2— or —Hg—Hg—.
Consequently, mercury is also divalent in these compounds,
but one valence unit of each mercury atom is used here for a bond
with another mercury atom. This bond is also retained in solutions
of mercury(I) salts containing mercury ions. Thus, the composition
of mercury(I) salts containing a monovalent acid residue R should
be depicted not by the empirical formula HgR, but by the formula
Hg2R 2 (for instance, Hg 2Cl2).
One of mercury’s features is that no hydroxides are known for
it. When their formation could be expected, anhydrous oxides
are obtained. For instance, when alkalies react with solutions of
mercury(I) salts, a brownish black precipitate of mercury(I) oxide
is obtained:
Hg2+ + 20H- = HgaO | + H20
In exactly the same way, alkalies precipitate mercury (I I) oxide
from solutions of mercury (I I) salts:
Hg2+ + 20H“ = HgO I + H20
The precipitate formed is yellow, but when heated transforms
into the red modification of mercury (I I) oxide.
Mercury(I) nitrate Hg 2 (N0 3) 2 is one of the few soluble salts of
mercury (I). It is obtained when dilute cold nitric acid is reacted
with excess mercury:
6 Hg + 8HN0 3 = 3Hg2 (NOs ) 2 + 2NO f + 4H20
Mercury(I) chloride Hg 2Cl2 or calomel is a white powder insoluble
in water. It is prepared by heating a mixture of HgCl2 and mer
cury:
HgCl2 + Hg = Hg2 Cl2
Calomel can also be prepared by reacting hydrogen chloride or
sodium chloride with soluble mercury(I) salts:
Hg|+ + 2C1- = Hg2 Cl2 1
Mercury(II) nitrate Hg(N0 3) 2 is prepared when excess hot nitric

acid reacts with mercury. It dissolves well in water. In dilute solu
tions in the absence of free acid, it hydrolyzes to form a white pre
cipitate of the basic salt HgO -Hg(N03)2. When heated with a
large amount of water, the basic salt also decomposes, mercury (I I)
oxide being a product.
Mercury(II) chloride, or corrosive sublimate HgCl2 can be pre
pared by the direct reaction of mercury with chlorine. It is a colour
less substance comparatively poorly soluble in cold water (6 . 6 g
in 100 g of water at 20 °C). With elevation of the temperature, how
ever, the solubility of mercury(II) chloride grows greatly, reaching
58 g in 100 g of water at 100 °C. It crystallizes from a solution as
long lustrous prisms. This salt is customarily prepared by heating
mercury (I I) sulphate with sodium chloride:
HgS04 + 2NaCl = Na2 S0 4 + HgCl2
The mercury (I I) chloride sublimes. This is why it has also been
named corrosive sublimate.
An aqueous solution of mercury (I I) chloride does not virtually
conduct electricity. It is thus one of the few salts that almost does
not ionize in an aqueous solution. As indicated in Vol. 1, p. 161,
the explanation is the high polarizing power of the Hg2+ ion.
Mercury(II) chloride, like all soluble mercury salts, is a strong
poison. It is used for treating seeds, tanning leather, preparing
other mercury compounds, for dyeing fabrics, as a catalyst in or
ganic synthesis, and as a disinfectant (p. 31).
Mercury(II) iodide H gl 2 precipitates as a beautiful orange-red
solid when a potassium iodide solution is reacted with amercury(II)
salt:
Hg2+ + 2I~ = Hgl 2 j
The salt readily dissolves in excess potassium iodide, forming
a colourless solution of the complex salt K 2 [HgI4]:
Hgl2 + 2KI = K 2 [HgI4]
Mercury(II) sulphide HgS occurs in nature (see above). It can be
obtained artificially as a black substance by the direct combina
tion of sulphur with mercury or by reacting hydrogen sulphide
with solutions of mercury (I I) salts.
When heated without the access of air, black mercury(II) sul
phide transforms into the red crystalline modification-cinnabar.
10
THIRD GROUP OF
THE PERIODIC TABLE
The third group of the periodic table consists of a very large
number of chemical elements because in addition to the elements
of the main and secondary subgroups it includes the elements with
the atomic numbers 58-71 (lanthanides) and with the atomic num
bers 90-103 (actinides). We shall consider the lanthanides and acti
nides together with the secondary subgroup elements.
MAIN SUBGROUP
The elements of the main subgroup of Group three—boron, alu
minium, gallium, indium, and 1 thallium—are characterized by the
presence of three electrons in the outer electron layer of the atom.
The next-to-last electron layer of the boron atom contains two elec
trons, of the aluminium atom—eight, and of gallium, indium
and thallium—eighteen electrons. Selected properties of these ele
ments are given in Table 13.
Table 13
Selected Properties of Boron, Aluminium, and Their Analogues
B Al Ga In T1
Configuration of outer
electron layer of atom 2s*2p1 3s2 3px 4s2 4px 5s2 5px fotQp1
Atomic radius, nm 0.091 0.143 0.139 0.166 0.171
Ionization energy
E-*E+, eV 8.30 5.99 6 . 0 0 5.79 6 . 1 1
E+ -*■ E2+, eV 25.15 18.8 20.5 18.9 20.4

E2+_*e *+, eV 37.9 28.4 30.7 28.0 29.8
Radius of ion E3+, nm 0 . 0 2 0 0.057 0.062 0.092 0.105
Standard enthalpy of ato
mization, kJ per mole
of atoms 561.6 329.1 272.9 238.1 181.0
Density, g/cm3 2.34 2.70 5.90 7.31 11.85
Melting point, °C 2075 660 29.8 156.4 304
Boiling point, °C 3700 2500 2205 2 0 0 0 1475
The metallic properties of the elements being considered are

weaker than those of the relevant elements of the main subgroups
of group two and especially of group one, while in boron non-metallic
properties predominate. In compounds, they exhibit the oxidation
state + 3 . With a growth in the atomic mass, however, lower oxi
dation states also appear. The most stable compounds of the last
300 Third Group of fhe Periodic Table
element of the subgroup—thallium—are those in which its oxidation

state is + 1 .
W ith an increase in the atomic number, the metallic properties
of the elements being considered, as in the other main subgroups,
appreciably grow. For instance, boron oxide is acid in nature, alu
minium, gallium, and indium oxides are amphoteric, while thalli-
um(III) oxide is basic.
From a practical viewpoint, the most important of the Group III
elements are boron and aluminium.
103. Boron [ B o r u m ]
Boron is comparatively scarce in nature. Its total content in
the Earth’s crust is about 10~3% (mass).
The principal natural compounds of boron are boric acid H 3B0 3
and salts of boric acids, the most well known of which is borax
Na 2B 4 O7 -10H2 O.
Although boron is in the third group of the periodic table, as
regards its properties it has the greatest resemblance not to the
other elements of this group, but to an element of Group IV—silicon.
This is a manifestation of the diagonal similarity already mentioned
when treating beryllium. For example, boron, like silicon, forms
weak acids exhibiting no amphoteric properties, whereas A1 (OH) 3
is an amphoteric base. Compounds of boron and silicon with hydro
gen, unlike solid aluminium hydride, are volatile substances ignit
ing spontaneously in the air. Like silicon, boron forms compounds
with metals, many of which are distinguished by their great hard
ness and high melting point.
Free boron is prepared by reducing boric anhydride B 2 0 3 with
magnesium. The boron separates as an amorphous powder con
taminated with impurities. Pure crystalline boron is prepared by
the thermal decomposition or reduction of its halides, and also
by the decomposition of the hydrogen compounds of boron. It is
black, and among the elementary substances it is inferior in its
hardness only to diamond.
Natural boron consists of two stable isotopes: 10B and n B. The
former greatly absorbs slow neutrons. This is why boron and its
compounds are employed in nuclear engineering. They are used
to make the control rods of reactors, and also as materials affording
protection against neutron radiation.
In metallurgy, boron is used as an addition to steel and to some
non-ferrous metal alloys. The addition of very small amounts oi
boron diminishes the grain size, which improves the mechanical
properties of alloys. Also used is the surface saturation of steel
articles with boron—bonding, which increases the hardness and
resistance to corrosion.
Main Subgroup 301
Water does not react with boron. Concentrated sulphuric and

nitric acids, however, oxidize it to boric acid. For example:
B + 3HNOs = H 3BO3 + 3N0 2 f
At room temperature, boron combines only with fluorine; it
■does not oxidize in air. If amorphous boron is heated to 700 °C,
it ignites and burns with a reddish flame, transforming into the
oxide with the evolution of a large amount of heat:
4B + 30 2 = 2B20 3 +2508 kJ
At a high temperature, boron combines with many metals to
form borides, for instance, magnesium boride Mg3 B2. Many borides
are very hard and chemically stable, retaining these properties
at elevated temperatures. They are also characterized by refractori
ness. For example, zirconium boride ZrB 2 melts at 3040 °C. Owing
to these properties, the borides of some metals are used to manu
facture components of jet engines and gas turbine blades.
When a mixture of boron and coal is heated, boron carbide B4G
is formed. It is a refractory substance (melting point about 2350 °C),
very hard, and chemically stable. Boron carbide is used for process
ing hard alloys; it retains its mechanical properties at high tem
peratures.
Boron also reacts with halogens when heated and forms substances
having the general formula BX 3 (where X stands for a halogen).
As already indicated when considering the example of BF 3 (see
Vol. 1, p. 143), in these compounds boron is in the state of sp*hy
bridization and forms with halogens plane molecules with angles
of 120 degrees between the X —B—X bonds.
Boron halides, like other boron compounds having a non-poly-
meric structure, are electron-deficient (see p. 280). For example,
the outer electron layer of the boron atom in a boron fluoride mole
cule contains only six electrons:
• •
F
•• ••
The boron atom in this state, consequently, can be an acceptor

of an electron pair. Indeed, BF3 forms a donor-acceptor bond with
water, ammonia, and other substances; the complex anion BF~
is also known. In all such compounds, the covalence and the coordi
nation number of boron equal four, while the boron atom is in the
state of $ps hybridization and forms tetrahedral structures.
Hydrogen Borides (Boranes). When hydrochloric acid is reacted
with magnesium boride Mg3 B2, a complex mixture of various hydro
gen borides similar to hydrocarbons and silanes is obtained. The
following hydrogen borides have been separated in the pure form
302 Third Group of the Periodic Table
from this mixture:

B2 H6; B4 H10; BgHgj BsH^; BeH10; B^H^;
gaseous liquid solid
The main product obtained in the reaction of magnesium boride
with hydrochloric acid is tetraborane B4 H i0—a volatile liquid
(boiling point 18 °C) with a very unpleasant odour whose vapour
ignites in air. When stored, tetraborane gradually decomposes
to form the simplest of the hydrogen borides that have been obtained
—diborane B 2H fl. The latter is a gas condensing into a liquid
at —92.5 °C. It does not ignite in the air, but like the other boranes,
when reacted with water immediately decomposes with the de
tachment of hydrogen and the formation of boric acid H 3 B0 3:
B 2 H 6 + 6H20 = 2H3 B 0 3 + 6 H2
The boron atoms in borane molecules are bonded to one another
by hydrogen “bridges”, for instance:
H /EL H
W
/ B< H >B(
XH
The dotted lines in this formula show three-centre bonds: here
the shared pair of electrons occupies a molecular orbital encom
passing three atoms—a bridge hydrogen atom and both boron atoms.
Such an orbital is formed owing to the overlapping of the Is orbital
of a hydrogen atom and the sp3 hybrid orbitals of the two boron
atoms (see Fig. 60). The four “terminal” hydrogen atoms are bonded
to the boron atoms by conventional two-centre two-electron bonds.
Thus, of the twelve valence electrons in the atoms forming a diborane
Fig. 60. Overlapping of the atomic orbitals in a diborane molecule
molecule, eight participate in the formation of two-centre B—H

bonds, and four form two three-centre bonds B—H —B.
The oxygen compounds of boron are of the greatest practical
significance.
Main Subgroup 303
Diboron trioxide, or boric anhydride B 2 0 3 can be prepared either

by the direct combination of boron with oxygen or by the calcination
of boric acid. It is a colourless brittle vitreous body melting at
about 300 °C. Diboron trioxide is very refractory and is not reduced
by coal even when white-hot. It dissolves in water to form boric
acid with the evolution of heat:
B 2Os + 3 H 20 = 2H 3B 0 3 + 7 6 .5 kJ
Boric, or orthoboric acid H 3 B 0 3 forms white crystals whose lustrous

scales dissolve in hot water. Boric acid can be prepared by reacting
sulphuric acid with a hot solution of sodium tetraborate Na 2 B4 0 7:
N a2B40 7 + H 2S04 + 5 H 20 = Na2S 04 + 4 H 3B 0 3
When the solution is cooled, the boric acid crystallizes because

it is only sparingly soluble in cold water.
When a boric acid solution is boiled, the boric acid evaporates
partly together with the water. This explains its presence in the
water vapour escaping from fissures in the earth in volcanic localities.
Boric acid is a very weak acid (at 20 °C, K x = 6 X 10~10, K 2 =
= 2 X 10-13, and K s = 2 x 10~14).
Boric acid loses water when heated, transforming first into meta-
boric acid H B 02, and then into diboron trioxide B 2 0 3. Boric acid
is used to prepare enamels and glazes, in the production of special
grades of glass, in the paper and leather industries, and as a disin
fectant.
The salts of boric acids—borates— are in their majority derivatives
not of orthoboric acid H 3 B 03, but of tetraboric acid H 2 B 4 0 7 and
of other boric acids containing less water.
Sodium tetraborate, or borax, forms large colourless transparent
crystals of the composition Na 2 B4 0 7 -10H2 O, which readily efflo
resce in dry air. Borax is produced when boric acid reacts with
sodium hydroxide:
4 H 3B 0 3 + 2NaOH = Na2B40 7 + 7H 20
Aqueous solutions of borax, owing to hydrolysis, have a strongly

alkaline reaction.
When heated, borax loses its water of crystallization and melts.
In the molten state, it dissolves oxides of various metals with the
formation of double salts of metaboric acid, many of which have
colours characteristic of each metal. This property of borax under
lies its use in the welding, cutting, and soldering of metals. Borax
finds great favour in the production of a fusible glaze for faience
(pottery) and porcelain ware and especially for iron utensils (enamel).
It is also used in the production of special grades of glass and as
a fertilizer because small amounts of boron are needed by plants.
104. Aluminium
Aluminium is the most widespread metal in the Earth’s crust.
It is contained in clays, feldspars, micas, and many other minerals.
The total content of aluminium in the Earth’s crust is 8 % (mass).
The basic raw material for the production of aluminium is bauxite
containing from 32 to 60% of alumina A12 0 3. Important aluminium
ores also include alunite K 2 S0 4 • A12 (S0 4) 3 • 2A12 0 3 • 6H20 and
nephelite Na20 • A120 3 • 2Si02.
The USSR has great reserves of aluminium ores. In addition to
bauxites occurring in the Urals, in the Bashkirian SSR, and in
Kazakhstan, an extremely rich source of aluminium is nephelite
occurring together with apatite in the Khibiny Mountains. There
are considerable reserves of aluminium ores in Siberia.
Aluminium was prepared for the first time by F. Wohler in 1827,
by reacting metallic potassium with aluminium chloride. Not
withstanding its widespread occurrence in nature', however, alu
minium was one of the rare metals up to the end of the 19th century.
At present, aluminium is produced in enormous amounts from
aluminium oxide A120 3 (alumina) electrolytically. The alumina
used for this purpose must be sufficiently pure because impurities
are removed with great difficulty from the product. Purified A120 3
is prepared by processing natural bauxite.
The production of aluminium is an intricate process involving
great difficulties. The chief reactant—aluminium oxide—does not
conduct electricity and has a very high melting point (about 2050 °C).
For this reason, electrolysis is conducted with a molten mixture
of cryolite* Na 3 [AlFfl] and aluminium oxide. The mixture, contain
ing about 10% (mass) of A12 0 3, melts at 960 °C and has the optimal
electrical conductance, density, and viscosity. To additionally
improve these characteristics, A1F3, CaF2, and MgF2 are added
to the mixture. As a result, it becomes possible to conduct elec
trolysis at 950 °C.
An electrolyzer for melting aluminium is an iron housing lined
inside with refractory brick. Its bottom (hearth) assembled of blocks
of pressed coal is the cathode. The anodes (one or several) are in
stalled on top. These are aluminium frames filled with coal briquettes.
At modern works, the electrolyzers are installed in series, each
series consisting of 150 or more units.
In electrolysis, aluminium is liberated at the cathode, and oxy
gen at the anode. The aluminium, which has a higher density than
the initial melt, gathers at the bottom of the electrolyzer, whence
* Deposits of cryolite, a very important mineral for the aluminium indu

stry, are extremely rare. This is why cryolite is generally produced artificially—
by reacting aluminium hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid and then neutralizing
the acid solution with soda.
Main Subgroup 305
it is periodically tapped. As the metal is separated, new portions

of alumina are added to the melt. The oxygen formed in electrolysis
reacts with the carbon of the anode, which burns out forming CO
and COg.
No aluminium was produced in prerevolutionary Russia. The
first aluminium plant in the USSR (the Volkhov plant) was placed
into service in 1932, while already in 1935, the country occupied
the third place in the world in the production of aluminium.
The identical structure of the outer electron layer in boron and
aluminium atoms is the reason why the properties of these elements
are similar. For instance, both aluminium and boron are characterized
by an oxidation state of only + 3 . When going from boron to
aluminium, however, the atomic radius grows very significantly
(from 0.091 to 0.143 nm), and, in addition, another intermediate
eight-electron layer appears that screens the nucleus. All this leads
to weakening of the bond of the outer electrons to the nucleus and
to a reduction in the ionization energy of an atom (see Table 13).
Consequently, the metallic properties of aluminium are much
stronger than of boron. Nevertheless, the chemical bonds formed
by aluminium with other elements are mainly of a covalent nature.
Another feature of aluminium (and of its analogues—gallium,
indium, and. thallium) in comparison with boron is the existence
of free d sublevels in the outer electron layer of its atom. Consequent
ly, the coordination number of aluminium in its compounds may
not only be four, as in boron, but also six.
Aluminium compounds of the type A1E3, like similar boron com
pounds, are electron-deficient: the outer electron layer of the alu
minium atom has only six electrons in molecules of such compounds.
For this reason, here the aluminium atom can be an acceptor of
electron pairs. Particularly, aluminium halides form dimers having
donor-acceptor bonds (in the formula, X is a halogen atom):
A glance at the formula shows that such dimer molecules contain

two bridge halogen atoms each. The spatial structure of AlaCl6
is shown schematically in Fig. 61. Aluminium halides exist as dimer
molecules A12X 6 in melts and in vapours. According to tradition,
however, their composition is usually expressed as A1XS. Below
we shall also adhere to this way of writing the formulas of aluminium
halides.
Aluminium hydride A1HS is also an electron-deficient compound.
But a hydrogen atom, unlike the halogen atoms in the A1X3 mole-
20—2412
cules, has no unshared electron pair and cannot play the role of
a donor of electrons. Therefore, the individual A1H8 molecules
here are bonded with one another via bridge hydrogen atoms by
means of three-centre bonds similar to those in the borane molecules
(see the preceding section). The result is the formation of a solid
polymer whose composition can be expressed by the formula (AlHs)n>
Aluminium is a silvery light-weight metal. It is readily extruded
into a wire and rolled into thin sheets.
Aluminium does not change in air at room temperature, but only
because its surface becomes covered with a thin oxide film having
a very strong protective action. If this film is destroyed, for example
by amalgamation of the aluminium, rapid oxidation of the metal
occurs attended by appreciable heating.
The standard electrode potential of aluminium is —1.663 V.
Notwithstanding this great negative potential, aluminium, owing
to the formation of a protective oxide film on its surface, does not
displace hydrogen from water. But amalgamated aluminium, on
which no dense oxide layer is formed, vigorously reacts with water,
with the liberation of hydrogen.
Dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids readily dissolve alumin
ium, especially when heated. Greatly diluted and cold concentrat
ed nitric acid does not dissolve it.
When aqueous solutions of alkalies react with aluminium, the
oxide layer dissolves and aluminates are formed—salts containing
aluminium in the anion:
AlaOs + 2 NaOH + 3H*0 = 2Na[Al(OH)4]
8odium
tetrahydroxoalum inate
Aluminium deprived of its protective film, like amalgamated
aluminium, reacts with water, displacing hydrogen from it:
2A1 + 6H*0 = 2A1(0H) 3 + 3Ha f
The aluminium hydroxide rea with excess alkali to form a
hydroxoaluminate:
Al(OH) 8 + NaOH = Na[Al(OH)J
Doubling the last equation and
adding it to the preceding one,
we get the net equation of dissolv
ing of aluminium in an aqueous
solution of an alkali:
2A1 + 2NaOH + 6H20 =
= 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3Ha f
Aluminium dissolves appreciab the black circles depict
aluminium atoms, the white
ly in solutions of salts having ones—chlorine atoms
Main Subgroup 307
an acid or alkaline reaction owing to their hydrolysis, for example

in a solution of NaaCOs.
If an aluminium powder (or thin aluminium foil) is heated strong
ly, it ignites and burns with a blinding white flame, forming alu
minium oxide.
The main application of aluminium is the production of alloys
based on it. Alloying additions (for instance, copper, silicon, man
ganese, zinc, and magnesium) are introduced into aluminium chiefly
to improve its strength. Widespread use has been found by dural
umins, containing copper and magnesium, silumins, in which the
main addition is silicon, and magnaliums (alloys of aluminium with
from 9.5 to 11.5% of magnesium). The principal merits of all alu
minium alloys are their low density (2.5 to 2.8 g/cm8), high strength
(calculated per unit mass), satisfactory resistance to atmospheric
corrosion, comparative cheapness, and the simplicity of production
and processing. Aluminium alloys are employed in rocket engineer
ing, in the aircraft, motor vehicle, ship-building, and instrument
making industries, in the manufacture of utensils, and in many
other branches of industry. Aluminium alloys occupy the second
place after steel and iron in the diversity of their applications.
Aluminium is one of the most favoured additions to alloys based
on copper, magnesium, titanium, nickel, zinc, and iron.
Pure aluminium goes to manufacture chemical apparatus, elec
trical wires, and capacitors. Although the electrical conductivity
of aluminium is lower than that of copper (about 60% of the latter),
this is compensated by the light weight of aluminium allowing thicker
wires to be made: an aluminium wire having the same electrical
conductance as a copper one weighs only half of the latter.
Of substantial importance is the use of aluminium for caloriz-
ing (or aluminizing), which consists in the saturation of the surface
of steel or iron articles with aluminium to protect the parent metal
from oxidation when strongly heated. In metallurgy, aluminium
is used in the production of calcium, barium, lithium, and some
other metals by aluminothermics (see Sec. 78).
Aluminium oxide Ala0 3 or alumina, occurs in nature in the crystal
line form as the mineral corundum. The latter is very hard. Its
transparent crystals coloured red or blue by impurities are precious
stones called ruby and sapphire. At present rubies are produced
artificially by melting alumina in an electric furnace. They are
used not so much as adornments as for technical purposes, for in
stance to manufacture components of high-precision instruments,
jewels in watches and clocks, etc. Ruby crystals containing a small
admixture of Cr2Os are used as quantum generators—lasers, which
create a directed beam of monochromatic radiation.
Corundum and its fine-grained variety containing a large amount
of impurities—emery, are employed as abrasive materials.
20*
Aluminium hydroxide A1(0H) 3 forms a jelly-like precipitate

when alkalies are reacted with solutions of aluminium salts; it
readily forms colloidal solutions.
Aluminium hydroxide is a typical amphoteric hydroxide. With
acids, it forms salts containing an aluminium cation, with alkalies
It forms aluminates. When aluminium hydroxide reacts with aqueous
solutions of alkalies or when metallic aluminium is dissolved ia
alkali solutions, the products, as mentioned abovet are hydroxo-
aluminates, for example Na[Al(OH)4], When aluminium oxide is
melted with the relevant oxides or hydroxides, however, the products
are metaaluminates—derivatives of metaaluminic acid HA102,
for example:
AlaOs + 2KOH = 2KAlOa + HaO
Both aluminium salts and aluminates become greatly hydrolyzed
in solutions. Consequently, salts of aluminium and weak acids trans
form in solution into basic salts or are completely hydrolyzed.
For example, the reaction of an aluminium salt with Na2 C03 in solu
tion produces not aluminium carbonate, but aluminium hy
droxide, and carbon dioxide is liberated:
2A13+ + 3COj- + 3Ha0 = 2Al(OH)s | + 3COa f
Aluminium Chloride A1C13. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is
prepared by the direct reaction of chlorine with aluminium. It
finds great favour as a catalyst in various organic syntheses. It
dissolves in water with the evolution of a large amount of heat.
Evaporation of the solution is attended by hydrolysis, the liberation
of hydrogen chloride, and the production of aluminium hydroxide.
If evaporation is conducted in the presence of excess hydrochloric
acid, crystals of the composition A1C13 *6H20 can be obtained.
As we have indicated on an earlier page, the chemical bonds
formed by an aluminium atom are chiefly covalent. This affects
the properties of the compounds it forms. For instance, at standard
atmospheric pressure, anhydrous aluminium chloride sublimes al
ready at 180 °G, while at high pressures it melts at 193 °G; it does
not conduct electricity in the molten state. Hence, molten A1C13
cannot be used for the electrolytic preparation of aluminium.
Aluminium sulphate Ala(S04)3*18H20 is obtained when hot
sulphuric acid reacts with aluminium oxide or with kaolin. It is
used in water purification (see p. 288), and also in the manufacture
of certain grades of paper.
Alum KAl(S0 4)a*12H20 is employed in large amounts for
tanning hides, and as a mordant in dyeing cotton fabrics. In the
latter case, its action is based on the fact that the aluminium hydrox
ide formed owing to hydrolysis of the alum is deposited in the
fabric fibres in a finely dispersed state, adsorbs the dye, and firmly
retains it on the fibre.
Main Subgroup 309
105. Gallium. Indium. Thallium
These elements are rare and do not occur in nature in considerable

concentrations. They are chiefly produced from zinc concentrates
after the zinc has been melted from them.
In the free state, these elements are silvery white soft metals
with a low melting point. They are quite stable in air, do not de
compose water, but readily dissolve in acids, and gallium and
indium—also in alkalies. In addition to the maximum oxidation
state of + 3 , they can also exhibit a lower one. Particularly, thal
lium is characterized by compounds where its oxidation state is
-}-l*
The oxides and hydroxides of gallium(III) and indium(III) are
amphoteric, while thallium hydroxide T1(0H) 3 has only basic
properties.
Thallium(I) compounds are similar, on the one hand, to com
pounds of the alkali metals, and on the other, to silver compounds.
For instance, thallium(I) oxide TlaO vigorously combines with
water to form a hydroxide corresponding to the formula TlOH—
a strong base well soluble in water.
Most thallium(I) salts readily dissolve in water, but the halides,
like those of silver, are virtually insoluble and are distinguished
by their light sensitivity. An exception is T1F, which like AgF
is well soluble in water.
Metallic gallium is used to fill quartz thermometers employed
for measuring high temperatures. Gallium melts at 29.8 °C and
boils only at 2205 °C, so that such thermometers allow temperatures
up to 1000 °C and above to be measured. This is impossible when
ordinary thermometers are used. The addition of gallium to alu
minium yields alloys well lending themselves to hot working.
Alloys of gallium with gold are used in jeweller’s art and dentures.
Indium is used instead of silver for coating reflectors. Indium-
coated reflectors do not tarnish with time, and therefore their coef
ficient of reflection remains constant. Indium is also used for coat
ing bearing inserts and as a component of alloys used to make fuse
links.
Gallium and indium are used in semiconductor electronics as
additions to germanium and as intermetallic compounds with
arsenic and antimony.
The applications of thallium and its compounds are small in
magnitude, but quite diverse. Thallium halides are good transmit
ters of infrared rays. This explains their use in optical instruments
operating in the infrared region of the spectrum. Thallium carbonate
goes to make glasses having a high refractive power. Thallium is
an ingredient of the substance forming a selenium rectifier electrode,
and is the activator of many luminophors. Thallium sulphide is
employed in photoelectric cells. Metallic thallium is a component

of many bearing, acid-resistant, and fusible alloys of lead.
Thallium and its compounds are very toxic.
SECONDARY SUBGROUP. LANTHANIDES.

ACTINIDES
The elements of the secondary subgroup of group III and the

family consisting of fourteen / elements with atomic numbers from
58 to 71 are very close to one another in their chemical and physico
chemical properties. These elements follow lanthanum in the periodic
table and are therefore known as lanthanides. Sometimes, together
with the elements of the secondary subgroup of group III, they
are called the rare-earth metals.
The rare-earth metals generally occur together in nature. They
form minerals that are solid solutions of related compounds of
various metals. For example, one of the main sources of the rare-
earth metals is the mineral monazite consisting chiefly of phosphates
of cerium, lanthanum, yttrium, and other rare-earth metals. Hence,
the same minerals are the natural starting material from which
both the elements of the secondary subgroup of group III and the
lanthanides are produced.
The actinides are a family of fourteen / elements with atomic
numbers from 90 to 103 following actinium in the periodic table.
106. Scandium Subgroup
The secondary subgroup of group III includes the elements scan

dium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium. An atom of any of these
elements contains two electrons in its outer electron layer and nine
electrons in the preceding layer. The structure of these two electron
layers can be expressed by the formula(ra—1 ) sa(n —l)p 8 (n — 1 )d1ns>.
Each of these elements begins the relevant decade of d elements.
Some of their properties are given in Table 14. The oxidation
state of the scandium subgroup elements is + 3 in most of their
compounds.
Scandium, yttrium and lanthanum are contained in the Earth’s
crust in amounts of the order of 10-3% (mass). The amount of actin
ium is much smaller [of the order of 1 0 “*% (mass)] because both
of its natural isotopes—a27Ac and aa8Ac—are radioactive.
In the free state, the elements of the scandium subgroup are
silvery metals with a high melting point. Their metallic properties
are more pronounced than in the main subgroup elements. They
dissolve in dilute hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids, and when
heated react with most of the non-metals.
Secondary Subgroup. Lanthanides. Actinides 311
Table 14
Selected Properties of Elements of Secondary Subgroup
of Group III
Sc Y La Ac
Configuration of outer
and preceding electron
layers of atom 3s*3p6 3d1 4s* 4$2 4p6 4dl5sa 5s2 5p65di6s2 6s*6p8 6<i1 7s*
Atomic radius, nm 0.164 0.181 0.187 0.203
Ionization energy
E -* E +, eV 6.56 6 . 2 2 . 5.58 5.1
E+-*E2+, eV 1 2 . 8 12.24 11.06 1 2 . 1
E2 +_*Es+ ev 24.75 20.5 19.17 ...
Radius of ion E3+, nm 0.083 0.097 0.104 0 . 1 1 1
Density, g'cm3 3.02 4.48 6.16 1 0 . 1
Melting point, °C 1539 1528 920 1040±50

Boiling point, °C About 2850 About 3300 3450 About 3300
The oxides of the elements of this subgroup are refractory white

substances. The hydroxides exhibit basic properties that become
more pronounced when going down the series Sc-Y-La. For instance,
scandium salts are hydrolyzed to a considerable extent, whereas
lanthanum salts are virtually not hydrolyzed: La(OH)s is a strong base.
The fields of application of scandium are limited. But at present,
ways of using scandium compounds in electronics are being out
lined. Particularly, certain ferrites (see p. 366) containing small
amounts of scandium oxide are used in high-speed computers.
Metallic scandium is employed in electro vacuum engineering as
a good getter (a non-disintegrating absorber of gases).
Yttrium oxide is also used in the production of ferrites. Ferrites
containing yttrium are used in hearing aids, and in the memory
cells of computers. The yttrium isotope 90Y is employed in medicine.
Lanthanum is chiefly used in a mixture with lanthanides (see
the following section).
107. Lanthanides
The lanthanide family includes 14 / elements following lanthanum
in the periodic table:
58 59 60 61
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium
Ce Pr Nd Pm
...4/25*25p«0*2 ...4/35s25p«6s2 ...4/*5s25p«6s2 . . . 4/&5$25p66«2
62 63 64 65
Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium
Sm Eu Gd Tb
...4/65t*5pe6s2 .. .4/*5j25p66s2 ...4/*5«25p65dl882 ...4/»5a*6p«6s2
66 67 68
D y s jg o s iu m H o lm iu m E r b iu m
HO Er
. . . 4/ 105J26P66S2 ...4 /H 5 s2 5 p 6 6 $ 2 . . .4 /i2 5 s2 5 p 0 6 s*
69 70 71
T h u liu m Y tte r b iu m L u t e t iu m
Tm Yb Lu
. . .4/135*25p66s2 . . .4/145s25p66s2 . ..4/-U5s25p65(tt6s2
An increase in the atomic number of the elements of this family

is attended by. filling of the sublevel of the third electron layer
from the outer one (the 4/ sublevel) with electrons. The configuration
of the outer layer, and in most elements also of the preceding one,
remains unchanged. This is why all the lanthanides are very close
to one another in their chemical properties.
The electrons fill the 4f instead of the 5d sublevel because in this
case they have less energy. The difference between the energies of
the 4f and 5d states, however, is very small. For this reason, one
of the 4/ electrons (and in some cases, for instance in cerium, two
4/ electrons) is easily excited, passes over to the 5d sublevel, and
thus becomes a valence electron. Consequently, the lanthanides
in most of their compounds have an oxidation state of + 3 , and
not + 2 . This circumstance explains the closeness of the properties
of the lanthanides to those of the scandium subgroup elements.
It was indicated in Vol. 1, Sec. 34, that within the limits of one
period a growth in the atomic number of elements is attended by
decreasing of their dimensions. This law is observed not only in
the elements, of the main subgroups, but also, with a few exceptions,
in the elements of the secondary subgroups. A similar decrease
in the atomic radii occurs in the lanthanides (lanthanide contrac
tion).
This phenomenon has a very important consequence. As a result
of lanthanide contraction, the dimensions of the atoms and ions
of the elements of the sixth period immediately following the lan
thanides (Hf, Ta, W, etc.) are very close to the dimensions of the
atoms and ions of the relevant fifth-period elements (Zr, Nb, Mo,
etc.). At the same time, for the elements of the fourth and fifth
periods, these characteristics appreciably differ (Table 15).
Since the atoms and ions of similar elements of the secondary
subgroups of the fifth and sixth periods have not only a similar
electron configuration, but also virtually coinciding dimensions,
there is much closer similarity in their chemical properties than
is observed for the elements of the fourth and fifth periods. For
instance, zirconium is considerably closer in its properties to haf
nium than to titanium, niobium is similar to tantalum to a greater
extent than to vanadium, and so on.
Table 15
Atomic Radii (in nm) of Selected Elements of Secondary
Subgroups
Periods
IV v VI VII VIII I
IV Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu
0.146 0.134 0.127 0.130 0.126 0.125 0.124 0.128
V Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag
0.160 0.145 0.139 0.136 0.134 0.134 0.137 0.144
VI Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au
0.159 0.146 0.140 0.137 0.135 0.135 0.138 0.144
In the free state, the lanthanides are typical metals similar to

lanthanum or yttrium. Their oxides are insoluble in water, but
readily attach water to form hydroxides. The latter are only sparing
ly soluble in water and have a basic nature. The salts of the lanthan
ides as regards their solubility are similar to the relevant salts of
lanthanum or yttrium.
Promethium has no stable isotopes and has not been discovered
in nature.
Owing to the very great similarity in the chemical properties
of lanthanide compounds, it is very difficult to separate these ele
ments in the pure state from their natural compounds. Only in
the last 20 or 30 years have effective methods of separating the lan
thanides been developed. At present, they have all been obtained
in the form of the pure metals.
Many lanthanides and their compounds have found application
in various branches of science and engineering. They are used in
the production of steel, iron, and non-ferrous metal alloys. Here
misch metal—an alloy of lanthanides with a predominating con
tent of cerium and lanthanum—is the greatest favourite. The addi
tion of small amounts of rare-earth metals improves the quality
of stainless, high-speed, and heat-resistant steels and iron. When
0.35% of misch metal is introduced into nichrome, its service life
at 1000 °C grows ten times. The addition of lanthanides to alloys
of aluminium and magnesium improves their strength at elevated
temperatures.
One of the .main consumers of the rare-earth metals is the glass
industry. Glass containing cerium does not tarnish under the action
of radioactive radiation and is employed in atomic engineering.
Many optical glasses contain lanthanum and neodymium oxides.

Small additions of lanthanide oxides are used for decolourizing
glasses and for colouring them. For instance, Nd20 3 colours glass
bright red, and Pr20 3—green. Lanthanide oxides are also used to
colour porcelain, glazes, and enamels.
The radioactive isotope of thulium M#Tm is employed to manu
facture portable X-ray generators for medical use.
108. Actinides
The actinide family includes 14 / elements following actinium
in the periodic table:
90 91 92 93
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium
Th Pa U Np
.. . 5/iO6a20p6ed27s2 . . . 5 /2 6 « 2 0 p 0 0 d l 7 8 2 ...5/36s26p «6d i7s2 . . .5/«6s20p66dl73i
94 95 96 97
Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium
Pu Am Cm Bk
...5 /«6a26p 87«2 . . .5 /7 8 « 2 6 p 0 7 s2 . . . 5 /7 6 a 2 0 p 8 0 d l 7 s 2 .. .5/86«26p86di7$2
98 99 100 101
Californium Einsteinium Fermi um Mendel evium
Cf Es Fm Md
. . . 5 / l O 6 s 2 0 p 6 7 s2 ...5 /U 0 s2 6 p 6 7 s2 . . . 5 / l 2 0 s2 6p 0 7 s2 . . . 5 / 1 3 6 s 2 6 p 6 7 48
102 103
(Nobelium) (Lawrencium)
(Lr)
. . . 5/il6j26p«7»* ...5/l46s26p 66d l7sl
As in the lanthanides, in the elements of the actinide family,

filling of the third electron layer (the sublevel 5f) from the outer
one occurs. The configuration of the outer and, as a rule, of the pre
ceding electron layers remains unchanged. This explains the close
ness of the chemical properties of the actinides. The diSerence
between the energy states of the electrons occupying the 5/ and
6d sublevels in actinide atoms, however, is even smaller than the
relevant energy difference in lanthanide atoms. Therefore, in the
first members of the actinide family, the 5/ electrons readily pass
over to the 6d sublevel and can participate in the formation of
chemical bonds. As a result, from thorium to uranium, the most
characteristic oxidation state of the elements grows from + 4 to
+ 6 . Further along the actinide series, energy stabilization of the
5/ state takes place, while excitation of electrons to the 6d sublevel
requires a greater expenditure of energy. As a result, when going
from uranium to curium, the most characteristic oxidation state
of the elements lowers from + 6 to + 3 (although compounds with
an oxidation state of + 6 and + 7 have been obtained for neptunium

and plutonium). Berkelium and the elements following it are in
the + 3 oxidation state in all their compounds.
All the actinides are radioactive. Thorium, protactinium, and
uranium are encountered in nature because they have isotopes
with great half-lives. Neptunium and plutonium are encountered
in nature in negligible amounts. The remaining actinides have been
prepared artificially during the last 30 years (see Vol. 1, Sec. 37).
Notwithstanding the instability of actinide atoms, the first seven
elements of this family are produced in considerable amounts in
the free state and as various compounds such as oxides and halides.
Actinide hydroxides E(OH)3 are basic. The salts corresponding
to them resemble the relevant lanthanide salts in their solubility.
The thorium content in the Earth's crust is about 10“*% (mass).
Its minerals always accompany the rare-earth elements, uranium,
or some other metals. The most important industrial source of tho
rium is the mineral monazite.
In the free state,, thorium is a silvery white refractory plastic
metal. The oxidation state of thorium in its compounds is usually
+4, its most important oxide is T h02.
Thorium is used in nuclear engineering. The action of neutrons
causes natural thorium, which consists almost entirely of the iso
tope 2S2Th, to transform into the uranium isotope “ U used as nu
clear fuel (see Vol. 1, p. 118). Thorium is also used as a component
in a number of alloys. Particularly, magnesium-based alloys con
taining thorium, zinc, zirconium, and manganese, are distinguished
by their low density, high strength, and chemical stability at ele
vated temperatures.
Uranium was discovered in 1789, but it was separated in the free
state (a metal of a gray-steel colour) only in 1841. Its content in
the Earth’s crust is assessed at 3 X 10~4% (mass), which corresponds
to a total amount of the metal equal to 1.3 X 10u tonnes. A variety
of uranium compounds are found in nature. The most important
minerals are uraninite (uranium dioxide U 02), pitch blende (a phase
of varying composition U 02.o-2.e), and carnotite (potassium uranyl
vanadate .] K2(U0a)2*(V04)2 -«HaO]. Uranium ores generally con
tain not over 0.5% of the useful mineral.
Natural uranium consists of three radioactive isotopes: ” *11
(about 99.3%), 2S8U (about 0.7%), and "*U (about 0.005%). Their
half-lives are 4.5 X 10* years, 7 X 10* years, and 2.5 X 10* years,
respectively.
A very important property of uranium is that the nuclei of some
of its isotopes are capable of fission when they capture neutrons;
this is attended by the liberation of an enormous amount of energy.
This property of uranium is employed in nuclear reactors used as
sources of energy, and also underlies the functioning of an atomic
bomb (see Vol. 1, Sec. 37). The isotopes MBU and 233U are used direct-
ly for producing nuclear energy. The former is used as natural ura
nium enriched with this isotope. The most important method of
enrichment (or separation of the isotope) is based on the difference
in the rate of diffusion of gaseous compounds of the isotopes through
porous partitions. Uranium hexafluoride UF6 (with a sublimation
point of 56.5 °C) is used as the gaseous compound. The plutonium
isotope 2S9Pu, which can also be used in nuclear reactors and in
an atomic bomb, is obtained from the isotope 238U.
Uranium forms quite a large number of compounds. The most
typical of them are the compounds of uranium(VI).
Uranium trioxide, or uranic anhydride, U 03 (an orange powder)
is an amphoteric oxide. When it is dissolved in acids, salts are formed
(for instance U 02C12) in which the ion U 0 2+ called uranyl is
the cation.
Uranyl salts are usually coloured yellowish green and dissolve
well in water. The reaction of alkalies with solutions of uranyl
salts yields salts of uranic acid H 2U 04 called uranates, and of diuran-
ic acid H 2U20 7 called diuranates, for example, sodium uranate
Na2U 04 and sodium diuranate Na2U20 7. The latter salt is used in
the production of uranium glass fluorescing with yellowish green
light.
SECONDARY SUBGROUPS
OF GROUPS IV r V r V I,
AND V II
We have already acquainted ourselves with the properties of

the elements belonging to the secondary subgroups of the first three
groups of the periodic table, and now, before dealing with the re
maining secondary subgroups, we can give a general characteristic
of the elements forming the secondary subgroups and known as
the transition elements.
109. General Characteristic of

the Transition Elements
The features of the transition elements are determined first of
all by the electron configuration of their atoms whose outer electron
layer contains, as a rule, two s electrons (sometimes one s electron*).
The low ionization energies of these atoms are an indication of the
comparatively weak bonding of the outer electrons to the nucleus;
for instance, for vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, and co
balt, the ionization energy is 6.74, 6.76, 7.43, 7.90, and 7.86 eV,
respectively. It is exactly for this reason that the transition ele
ments have a positive oxidation state in their compounds and play
the role of characteristic metals, thus displaying similarity with
the metals of the main subgroups.
But there are also substantial distinctions between the metals
of the main and secondary subgroups. They are also associated
with the features of the electron configuration of the transition
elements, namely, with the next-to-last electron layer of their
atoms having a d sublevel not completely filled by electrons. Atoms
of the transition elements can use not only the outer electron layer
to form chemical bonds (as in elements of the main subgroups),
but also the d electrons and the free d orbitals of the preceding
layer. Consequently, the transition elements are characterized by
a variable valence to a much greater extent than the main sub-
* An exception is palladium: its unexcited atom has no 6$ electrons.
318 Secondary Subgroups of Groups IV, V, VI, and VII
group metals. The possibility of creating chemical bonds with the

participation of the d electrons and free d orbitals also underlies
the strongly expressed ability of the transition elements to form
stable complex compounds. As indicated on page 267, the charac
teristic colour of many transition element compounds is also as
sociated with this circumstance, while the compounds of the main
subgroup metals are colourless in the majority of cases.
Almost all the elements of the main subgroups of Groups IV-VII
are non-metals, whereas the elements of the secondary subgroups
are metals. Therefore, in the right-hand part of the periodic table,
the differences in the properties of the elements of the main and
secondary subgroups manifest themselves especially strongly. When
elements of the main and secondary subgroups are in the higher
oxidation state, however, their analogous compounds exhibit an
appreciable similarity. For instance, chromium, which is in the
secondary subgroup of Group VI, forms the acid oxide Cr08, which
is close in its properties to sulphur trioxide S 03. Both these sub
stances are solid in ordinary conditions and form an acid of the com
position H 2E 0 4 when they react with water. In exactly the same
way, the oxides of manganese and chlorine corresponding to the
highest oxidation state of these elements—Mn20 7 and C120 7—have
similar properties and are anhydrides of strong acids corresponding
to the general formula H E 04.
The explanation of this closeness in properties is that in the
highest oxidation state, atoms of elements of the main and secondary
subgroups acquire a similar electron configuration. For instance,
the chromium atom has the configuration 1s22s22p83s23p63d64s1.
When chromium is in the + 6 oxidation state (for example, in the
oxide Cr03), six electrons of its atom (five 3d and one 4s electrons)
together with the valence electrons of adjacent atoms (for Cr03—
oxygen atoms) form shared electron pairs producing chemical bonds.
The remaining electrons not participating directly in the formation
of bonds have the configuration ls22$22p63s23p6 corresponding to
that of a noble gas. Similarly, in a sulphuratom in the + 6 oxidation
state (for example, in sulphur trioxide S03), six electrons participate
in the formation of covalent bonds, and the configuration of the
other ones (ls22$22p6) also corresponds to that of a noble gas.
We know that within one period the number of electrons in the
outer electron layer of atoms of the main subgroup elements, i.e.
s and p elements, grows with their increasing atomic number, the
result being a quite rapid transition from typical metals to typical
non-metals. In the transition elements, the increase in the atomic
number is not attended by an appreciable change in the configpra-
tion of the outer electron layer. Consequently, the chemical prop
erties of these elements change in the period, although regularly,
but much less sharply than in main subgroup elements.
Titanium Subgroup 319
Within one decade of the transition elements (for example, from

scandium to zinc), the maximum stable oxidation state of the ele
ments first grows (owing to the increase in the number of d electrons
capable of participating in the formation of chemical bonds), and
then diminishes (owing to the growth in the interaction of the d
electrons with the nucleus as its charge becomes greater). For in
stance, the maximum oxidation state of scandium, titanium, va
nadium, chromium, and manganese coincides with the group num
ber, whereas for iron it is six, for cobalt, nickel, and copper—three,
and for zinc—two. The stability of compounds corresponding to
a definite oxidation state of an element changes accordingly. For
example, the oxides TiO and VO containing titanium and vanadium
in the oxidation state + 2 are strong reducing agents, while the
similar oxides of copper and zinc (CuO and ZnO) exhibit no reducing
properties.
In the main subgroups, the stability of the compounds in which
an element exhibits its maximum oxidation state diminishes, as
a rule, with an increasing atomic number of the element. For in
stance, compounds in which the oxidation state of carbon or silicon
is + 4 are quite stable, whereas similar compounds of lead (for ex
ample, P b 0 2) have a low stability and are readily reduced. The
reverse regularity is observed in the secondary subgroups: a growth
in the atomic number of an element is attended by an increase in
the stability of its compounds in the maximum oxidation states.
For instance, the compounds of chromium(VI) are strong oxidizing
agents, whereas molybdenum(VI) and tungsten(VI) compounds
are not.
Within each secondary subgroup, a substantial similarity is
noted in the properties of the elements of the fifth and sixth periods.
As indicated in Sec. 107, this is associated with the phenomenon
of lanthanide contraction.
TITANIUM SUBGROUP
The titanium subgroup includes the elements of the secondary

subgroup of Group IV—titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and the
artificially obtained (see Vol. 1, p. 117) kurchatovium. These ele
ments display stronger metallic properties than the metals of the
main subgroup of Group IV—tin and lead. An atom of a titanium
subgroup element has two electrons in its outer layer, and 10 elec
trons in the preceding layer, of which two are in the d sublevel.
For this reason, the most characteristic oxidation state of the tita
nium subgroup metals is + 4 .
In the free state, titanium and its analogues are typical metals
similar to steel in appearance. They are all refractory and stable
with respect to air and water.
110. Titanium
Titanium is very abundant in nature. Its content in the Earth’s
crust is 0.6% (mass), i.e. higher than the content of metals widely
used in engineering such as copper, lead, and zinc.
Minerals containing titanium occur everywhere in nature. The
most important of them are titanomagnetites FeTiOs • nFe30 4,
ilmenite FeTiOs, sphene or titanite CaTiSiOj, and rutile Ti03,
In the USSR, titanium ore deposits occur in the Urals.
In the industrial production of titanium, the ore or concentrate
is converted into titanium dioxide T i0 2, which is then chlorinated.
But even at 800 to 1000 °C, chlorination proceeds slowly. Its rate
is sufficient for practical purposes in the presence of carbon, which
chiefly combines with the oxygen to form GO:
TiO* + 2Cla + 2G = TiCl4 + 2CO
The titanium(IV) chloride obtained is reduced with magnesium:
TiCl* + 2Mg = Ti + 2MgCl»
and the mixture formed is heated in a vacuum. The magnesium
and its chloride evaporate and are deposited in a condenser. The
residue—spongy titanium—is remelted to produce a compact
ductile metal.
Admixtures of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon greatly detract
from the mechanical properties of titanium, and in a large amount
convert it into a brittle material unsuitable for practical use. Since
titanium reacts with these non-metals at elevated temperatures,
its reduction is conducted in a sealed apparatus in an atmosphere
of argon, and its purification and remelting—in a high vacuum.
The iodide method (see Sec. 79) is used to produce small amounts
of highly pure titanium.
Metallic titanium melts at 1665 °C; its density is 4.505 g/cm3.
Titanium is a moderately active metal. The standard electrode
potential of the system Ti/Tia+ is —1.63 V. But owing to the forma
tion of a dense protective film on the surface of the metal, titanium
has an exceedingly high resistance to corrosion superior to that
of stainless steel. It does not oxidize in air, in sea water, and does
not change in a number of aggressive chemical media, particularly
in dilute and concentrated nitric acid and even in aqua regia.
Its very high resistance to corrosion makes titanium an excellent
material for manufacturing chemical equipment. But the main
property of titanium that facilitates its constantly growing use
in modern engineering is the high heat resistance of both titanium
itself and its alloys with aluminium and Other metals. These alloys
also retain their strength and other high mechanical properties
at elevated temperatures. All this makes titanium alloys very
valuable materials for aircraft and rocket engineering.
Titanium Subqroup 321
Titanium is only slightly heavier than aluminium, but is three

times stronger. This opens up broad prospects for the use of titanium
in various fields of mechanical engineering. It is sufficient to note
that the use of components made from titanium and its alloys in
internal-combustion engines allows the mass of these engines to be
lowered by about 30%.
The extensive possibilities of using titanium in engineering have
resulted in the tremendous growth of its production. In 1948, the
first 2.5 tonnes of commercial titanium were produced, in 1954
the world production of this metal was 7000 tonnes, and in 1957
it reached 30 000 tonnes. Such rates of growth were never observed
in the production of any other metal.
At an elevated temperature, titanium combines with the halo
gens, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, and other elements. This underlies
the use of alloys of titanium with iron (ferrotitanium) as an addition
to steel. The titanium combines with the nitrogen and oxygen in
the molten steel and thus prevents liberation of the latter when
the steel solidifies—homogeneous castings containing no voids are
obtained.
Titanium combines with carbon to form a carbide. Alloys whose
hardness approaches that of diamond are produced from titanium
and tungsten carbides with the addition of cobalt.
Titanium dioxide TiOa is a white refractory substance insoluble
in water and dilute acids. It is an amphoteric oxide, but both its
basic and acid properties are weak.
Titanium dioxide is used in the manufacture of refractory glass
es, glazes, enamels, heat-resistant laboratory utensils, and also
in the preparation of white oil paint having a high covering power
(titanium white).
The fusion of T i0 2 with BaC03 yields barium titanate BaTi03.
This salt has a very high permittivity and, in addition, can deform
under the action of an electric field. Barium titanate crystals are
used in high-capacity electrical capacitors of a small size, in ultra-
sonic apparatus, sound pickups, and hydroacoustical equipment.
111. Zirconium. Hafnium

Zirconium is a quite abundant element: its content in the Earth’s
crust is 0.025% (mass). Zirconium is very dispersed, however, and
more or less considerable accumulations of it are rare.
In the free state, zirconium is a lustrous metal with a density
of 6.45 g/cm3 and a melting point of 1855 °C. Zirconium containing
no impurities is very plastic and readily lends itself to cold and
hot working. Like titanium, the mechanical properties of zirconium
sharply deteriorate when it contains admixtures of non-metals,
especially oxygen.
21—2412
One of the most valuable properties of metallic zirconium is

its high resistance to corrosion in various media. For instance,
it does not dissolve in hydrochloric and nitric acids, and in alkalies.
Zirconium does not virtually capture slow (thermal) neutrons.
This property combined with its high resistance to corrosion and
high mechanical strength at elevated temperatures places zirconium
and its alloys among the principal structural materials for power
atomic reactors. The most important zirconium alloys include
zircalloys—alloys containing small amounts of tin, iron, chromium,
and nickel.
In the production of steel, additions of zirconium remove oxygen,
nitrogen, and sulphur from it. Zirconium is also used as an alloying
component in some armour, stainless, and heat-resistant steels.
The addition of zirconium to copper considerably improves its
strength without virtually affecting its high electrical conductance.
A magnesium-based alloy with the addition of 4 to 5% of zinc
and 0.6 to 0.7% of zirconium is twice as hard as pure magnesium
and does not lose its strength at 200 °C. The quality of aluminium
alloys also considerably improves when zirconium is added to them.
Zirconium dioxide Zr02 has a high melting point (about 2700 °C),
an extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion, and stability
to chemical action. It is used to manufacture a variety of refractory
articles, for example, crucibles. In the glass industry, Z r02 is em
ployed to produce refractory glasses, and in the ceramic industry
to produce enamels and glazes.
Zirconium carbide ZrC owing to its great hardness is used as
a grinding material and as a substitute for diamonds in cutting
glass.
Hafnium has no minerals of its own and usually accompanies
zirconium in nature. It is quite similar to zirconium in its chemical
properties, but differs from it in its ability to intensively capture
electrons, which explains the use of this element in the controlling
and protective devices of atomic reactors. Both metallic hafnium
and some of its compounds such as hafnium dioxide HfOa are used
for this purpose; the dioxide is also employed in the production
of optical glasses with a high refractive index.
VANADIUM SUBGROUP
The vanadium subgroup includes the elements of the secondary

subgroup of Group V: vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Having
in the outer electron layer of an atom two or one electron, these
elements differ from those of the main subgroup (nitrogen, phospho
rus, etc.) in the predomination of metallic properties and the ab
sence of hydrogen compounds. But the derivatives of the elements
Vanadium Subgroup 323
of both subgroups have substantial resemblance in their maximum

oxidation state.
The most typical compounds of vanadium and its analogues
are those in which their oxidation state is + 5 . Their higher oxides
display the properties of acid oxides and form vanadic, niobic,
and tantalic acids, respectively. A number of salts correspond to
these acids. The lower oxides have basic properties.
In the free state, vanadium, niobium, and tantalum are quite
stable to chemical action and have high melting points. These
metals as well as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and rhenium
(see Secs. 114-118), and also ruthenium, rhodium, osmium, and
iridium (see Table 18, p. 372) belong to the refractory metals. It is
customary practice to call metals refractory when their melting
point exceeds that of chromium (1890 °C).
The refractory metals in the pure state and as alloys have acquired
an exclusive significance lately in a number of branches of industry
involving new techniques and equipment.
112. Vanadium
Vanadium compounds are distributed widely in nature, but
they are very dispersed and form no more or less considerable ac
cumulations. The total vanadium content in the E arth’s crust is
assessed at 0.0015% (mass).
The main sources of vanadium in the USSR are iron and complex
ores containing small amounts of vanadium. Generally, what is
produced from the ores is either an alloy of vanadium with iron
known as ferrovanadium, or vanadium anhydride V2Ob. The pure
metal is produced from its compounds: by the calcium-thermic
reduction of V20 5, the magnesium-thermic reduction of VC13, or
the thermal dissociation of VI2.
Pure vanadium is a silvery ductile metal with a density of 5.96 g/cm3
that melts at about 1900 °C. Like titanium, the mechanical
properties of vanadium sharply deteriorate when it contains ad
mixtures of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
Vanadium is distinguished by its high chemical stability in
water, sea water, and in alkali solutions. It dissolves in hydro
fluoric acid, in concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids, and in aqua
regia.
Vanadium finds its main application as an addition to steels.
Steel containing only from 0.1 to 0.3% of vanadium is very strong,
elastic, and is not sensitive to jolts and impacts, which is especially
important, for example, for motor vehicle axles, constantly experienc
ing shocks. As a rule, vanadium is introduced into steel in combina
tion with other alloying elements: chromium, nickel, tungsten,
and molybdenum. Vanadium, is used to the greatest extent in the
21 *
324 Secondary Subgroups of Groups'IV, V, VI, and VII
production of tool and structural steels (see Sec. 127). It is also

employed for alloying iron.
Vanadium forms four oxides: VO, V20 3, V 02, and V20 5. The
higher oxide Va0 6 has a clearly expressed acid nature, the dioxide
V 0 2 is amphoteric, while both lower oxides exhibit only basic
properties. Of the greatest significance is V20 6 and its derivatives.
Vanadium(V) oxide, or vanadic anhydride V20 6 is an orange sub
stance readily dissolving in alkalies to form salts of metavanadic
acid HVO$ called vanadates.
Vanadium(V) oxide and vanadates are used in the chemical
industry as catalysts in the contact process of producing sulphuric
acid and in some organic syntheses. Vanadium compounds are also
employed in the glass industry, in medicine, and in photography.
113. Niobium. Tantalum

The content of niobium in the Earth’s crust is 0.002, and of tan-
talum 0.0002% (mass). The two elements have much in common
with vanadium. In the free state they are refractory metals, hard,
but not brittle, and well lending themselves to mechanical working.
The density of niobium is 8.57 g/cm3, and of tantalum is 16.6 g/cm8.
Their melting points are 2500 and 3000 °C, respectively.
Both metals, especially tantalum, are stable in many aggressive
media. They do not react with hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric,
and chloric acids, and with aqua regia because a thin, but very
strong and chemically stable oxide film forms on the surface of these
metals. On tantalum, for instance, the film is tantalum(V) oxide
Ta20 5. This is why tantalum reacts only with substances like fluo
rine, hydrogen fluoride, hydrofluoric acid, and melts of alkalies
that can react with the oxide film or penetrate through it.
Niobium is one of the chief components of many heat-resistant
and corrosion-resistant alloys. Of especially great importance
are the heat-resistant alloys of niobium that are employed in the
production of gas turbines, jet engines, and rockets. Niobium is
also introduced into stainless steels. It sharply improves their
mechanical properties and resistance to corrosion. Steels contain
ing from 1 to 4% of niobium are highly heat-resistant and are used
to manufacture high-presSure boilers. Steel with an addition of
niobium is a superb material for the electrical welding of steel
structural members: its use ensures an unusually high strength
of the welds.
The most important spheres of application of tantalum are elec
tronics and mechanical engineering. In electronics, it is used for
making electrolytic capacitors, the anodes of powerful tubes, and
grids. In chemical engineering, it is used to make the components
of equipment employed in the production of acids. Metals such as
rare-earth ones are melted in tantalum crucibles. It goes to make

the heaters of high-temperature furnaces. Tantalum does not react
with the living tissues of the human organism and does not h a m
them. This is why it is employed in surgery for joining broken
bones.
In many spheres of application of tantalum, its alloys with nio
bium compete with it. This produces a great economical effect
because niobium is cheaper than tantalum.
Niobium and tantalum carbides are extremely hard and are
used in the metal-working industry for manufacturing cutting
tools.
CHROMIUM SUBGROUP
This subgroup is formed by the metals of the secondary subgroup
of Group VI—chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten.
The outer electron layer of an atom of the chromium subgroup
elements contains one or two electrons, which explains the metallic
nature of these elements and their difference from the elements
of the main subgroup. At the same time, their maximum oxidation
state is + 6 because, apart from the outer electrons, the correspond-
ing number of electrons from the incompletely built up next-to-last
layer can participate in bond formation.
The most typical derivatives of chromium and its analogues
are those of the maximum oxidation state. They are similar in many
respects to the relevant sulphur compounds.
114. Chromium
The amount of chromium in the Earth’s crust is 0.02% (mass).
It occurs in nature chiefly as chromite FeO*Cr20 3, rich deposits
of which are in Kazakhstan and the Urals.
When chromite is reduced with coal, the product is an alloy of
chromium with iron—ferrochrome, which is used directly in the
iron and steel industry in the production of chromium steels. To
produce pure chromium, first chromium(III) oxide is prepared,
and it is then reduced by the aluminothermic method.
Chromium is a hard lustrous metal melting at 1890 °C; its density
is 7.19 g/cm8. At room temperature, chromium is indifferent to water
and air. Dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids dissolve chromium
with the liberation of hydrogen. Chromium does not dissolve in
cold concentrated nitric acid and becomes passive after being treated
with it.
Metallic chromium is used for chromium plating, and also as
one of the most important components of alloyed steels. The in
troduction of chromium into steel improves its resistance to corrosion
both in aqueous media at ordinary temperatures, and in gases at

elevated temperatures. Chromium steels also have an increased
hardness. Chromium is a component of stainless, acid-resistant,
and heat-resistant steels (see also p. 224, and Sec. 127).
Chromium forms three oxides: chromium(II) oxide CrO having
a basic nature, chromium(III) oxide Cra0 8 exhibiting amphoteric
properties, and chromium(VI) oxide or chromic anhydride Cr03
an acid oxide. Three series of chromium compounds are known
corresponding to these three oxides.
Chromium(II) Compounds. When chromium is dissolved in hydro
chloric acid, a blue solution is obtained containing chromium(II)
chloride CrCL. If an alkali is added to this solution, a yellow pre
cipitate of chromium(II) hydroxide Cr(OH)2 is formed. The com
pounds of chromium(II) are not stable and are rapidly oxidized
by the oxygen of the air to chromium(III) compounds.
Chromium(III) Compounds. Chromium(III) oxide Cr20 3 is a green
refractory substance used under the name of chrome green to pre
pare distemper and oil paints. When fused with silicates, chromi-
um(III) oxide colours them green and is therefore used for colouring
glass and porcelain. This oxide is also a component of polishing
compounds. . .... . .. x
Chromium(III) hydroxide Cr(OH)8 forms a bluish gray precipitate
when alkalies react with a chromium(III) salt:
Cr3* + 30H" = Cr(OH)s 1
Like aluminium and zinc hydroxides, it is amphoteric and dis
solves in acids to form chromium(III) salts, and in alkalies to form
emerald green solutions of chromites, for instance.
Cr(OH)s + 3NaOH = Nas[Cr(OH),l
or
Cr(OH)8 + 30H" = [Cr(OH)s]s-
Chromites prepared by fusing Cra0 8 with oxides of other metals
and known chiefly for divalent metals have a composition corre
sponding to the formula M(Cr02)2 and are salts of metachromous
acid HCrO,. They include the natural chromite *e(L,rUa)a.
The most widespread of the chromium(III) salts is the double
salt of chromium and potassium—chrome alum K U (b04)2-lz n 2u
that forms bluish violet crystals. Chrome alum is used m the leathe
industry for tanning hides and in the textile industry as a mordant
m Chromfum(111) salts resemble aluminium salts in many features.
They become greatly hydrolyzed in aqueous solutions and readily
transform into the basic salts. Chromium(III), like aluminium.
forms no salts with weak acids. . ,
Solutions of chromium(III) salts generally have a bluish violet
colour, but turn green when heated. In a certain time after being
cooled, they again acquire their previous colour. This colour change
is explained by the formation of isomeric salt hydrates that are
complex compounds in which all or part of the water molecules
are coordinationally bonded in the inner sphere of the complex.
In some cases, such hydrates were successfully separated in the
solid state. For instance, the crystal hydrate of chromium(III)
chloride CrCl3*6H20 is known in three isomeric forms—bluish
violet, dark green, and light green crystals having an identical
composition. The structure of these isomers can be established
on the basis of the different reaction of the freshly prepared solutions
with silver nitrate. When the latter reacts with a solution of the
bluish violet hydrate, all the chlorine precipitates; two-thirds of
the chlorine precipitate from a solution of the dark green hydrate,
and only one-third from a solution of the light green hydrate. Tak
ing into account these data, and also the coordination number of
chromium equal to six, the structure of the crystal hydrates being
considered can be expressed by the following formulas:
[Cr(HaO)6]Cl3 [Cr(HaO)8Cl]Cl2-HaO [Cr(HaO)4Cla]C1.2HaO
bluish violet dark green light green
Hence, the isomerism of the chromium(III) chloride hydrates
is due to the different distribution of the same groups (HaO and
Cl") between the inner and outer coordination spheres and can
be an example of hydrate isomerism (p. 262).
Ghromium(VI) Compounds. The most important chromium(VI)
compounds are chromium trioxide, or chromic anhydride Cr03 and
the salts of the relevant acids—chromic H aCr04 and dichromic
H2Cr20 7. Both acids exist only in an aqueous solution and upon
attemps to separate them from the solution they decompose into
chromium trioxide and water. Their salts, however, are quite stable.
The salts of chromic acid are called chromates, and of dichromic
acid—dichromates or bichromates.
Almost all chromates are yellow. Some of them are used as pig
ments. For instance, lead chromate PbCr04, which is insoluble
in water, is used under the name of chrome yellow for preparing
yellow oil paint.
If a solution of a chromate, for example potassium chromate
KaCr04, is acidified, the purely yellow colour of the solution changes
to an orange one owing to the transformation of the CrOJ" ions into
CraO*~ ones. A salt of dichromic acid—potassium dichromate
K2Cr20 7—can be separated from the solution as orange-red crystals.
The reaction of transformation of a chromate into a dichromate
is as follows:
2CrOJ" + 2H+ ** CraOJ- + H aO
The reaction is reversible. This signifies that when a dichromate
i9 dissolved in water, there is always formed a certain, though
insignificant, amount of H + and CrOf“ ions. This is why a dichromate

solution has an acid reaction. If an alkali is added to a dichromate
solution, the hydroxide ions will bind the hydrogen ions in" the
solution, equilibrium will shift to the left, and as a result the di
chromate will transform into a chromate. Hence, in the presence
of excess hydroxide ions, a solution virtually contains only CrO*~
ions, i.e. a chromate, and in the presence of excess hydrogen ions—
only Cr2OJ~ ions, i.e. a dichromate.
Alkali metal chromates are prepared by acidifying chromium(111)
compounds in the presence of an alkali. For instance, when bromine
reacts with a potassium chromite solution, potassium chromate
is formed:
2K8 [Cr(OH)e]+ 3Br2 + 4KOH = 2K2 Cr04 + 6 KBr + 8H20
That oxidation occurs can be seen from the fact that the emerald
green colour of the chromite solution turns into a bright yellow
one.
Chromates can also be prepared by fusing Cra0 3 with an alkali
in the presence of an oxidizing agent, for instance potassium chlo
rate:
Cr2 0 8 + 4KOH + KC108 = 2K2 Cr04 + KC1 + 2H20
Chromates and dichromates are strong oxidizing agents and are
widely used for oxidizing various substances. Oxidation is conducted
in an acid solution and is usually attended by a sharp change in
colour [dichromates are orange, while chromium(III) salts are green
or greenish violet].
We have seen that chromium(III) and chromium(VI) compounds
exist in different forms in acid and in alkaline solutions: as the
Cr8+ or CraQ£“ ions in an acid solution, and as the [Cr(OH)e]3“
or CrOJ" ions in an alkaline solution. Consequently, the mutual
transformation of chromium(III) and chromium(VI) compounds
proceeds differently depending on the reaction of a solution. The
equilibrium that sets in in an acid solution is
CraO|- + 14H+ + 6 e- ** 2Cr»+ + 7H20
and in an alkaline one
[Cr(OH)6]3~ + 20H - ** CrOJ- + 4HaO + 3e~
Both in an acid and an alkaline solution, however, oxidation
of chromium(III) results in diminishing of the pH of the solution.
The reverse process—reduction of chromium(VI)—is attended by
an increase in the pH. Hence, in accordance with Le Chatelier’s
principle, when the acidity of a solution grows, equilibrium shifts
in the direction of the reduction of chromium(VI), and when the
acidity diminishes, in the direction of oxidation of chromium(III).
In other words, the oxidizing properties of chromium(VI) compounds
are expressed the greatest in an acid solution, and the reducing

properties of chromium(III) compounds—in an alkaline one. It
is exactly for this reason, as indicated above, that chromites and
chromates are oxidized in the presence of an alkali, while chromi-
um(VI) compounds are used as oxidizing agents in acid solutions.
A few examples of oxidation-reduction reactions proceeding
with the participation of dichromates are given below.
1. When hydrogen sulphide is passed through a dichromate
solution acidified with sulphuric acid, the orange colour of the
solution turns green, and the liquid simultaneously becomes turbid
owing to the liberation of sulphur:
K2Cr20 7 + 3H2S + 4H2S04 = Cr2(S04)8 + 3S * + KaS04 + 7H20
2. When concentrated hydrochloric acid reacts with potassium
dichromate, chlorine is liberated and a green solution is obtained
that contains chromium(III) chloride:
K2Cr20 7 + 14HC1 = 2CrCl8 + 3C12 f + 2KC1 + 7H20
3. If sulphur dioxide is passed through a concentrated solution
of potassium dichromate containing a sufficient amount of sulphuric
acid, equimolecular amounts of potassium and chromium(III)
sulphates are formed;
K2Cra0 7 + 3S02 + H 2S04 = Cr2(S04)8 + K2S 04 + H20
When the solution is evaporated, chrome alum KCr(S04)2*12H20
separates from it. This reaction is employed for producing chrome
alum commercially.
The most important dichromates are potassium dichromate
K2Cra0 7 and sodium dichromate Na2Cr20 7 • 2HaO that form orange-
red crystals. Both salts are widely used as oxidizing agents in the
production of many organic compounds, in the leather industry
in tanning hides, and in the match and textile industries. A mixture
of concentrated sulphuric acid with an aqueous solution of potas
sium or sodium dichromate known as chromic acid mixture is often
used for vigorous oxidation and for cleaning chemical utensils.
A ll s a lts of chrom ic a cid s are p oison ou s .
Chromium trioxide, or chromic anhydride CrOs precipitates as
dark red needle-like crystals when concentrated sulphuric acid
is reacted with a saturated solution of potassium or sodium dichro-
mate:
K8Cr20 7+ HaS 04 = 2Cr03 i + K aS04+ H £0
Chromium trioxide is one of the strongest oxidizing agents. For
example, ethyl alcohol ignites when it comes into contact with
it. Upon oxidizing a substance, chromium trioxide transforms
into chromium(III) oxide Cr2Os.
Chromium trioxide readily dissolves in water to form chromic
and dichromic acids.
115. Molybdenum (M o lib d e n iu m )

The main natural compound of molybdenum is molybdenite,
or molybdenum glance MoS2—a mineral greatly resembling graphite
and considered as such for a long time. In 1778, Karl Scheele showed
that when molybdenite is reacted with nitric acid, a white residue
is obtained having the properties of an acid. He called it molybdic
acid and concluded that the mineral itself is the sulphide of a new
element. Five years later, the element was obtained in the free state
by roasting molybdic acid with charcoal.
The total content of molybdenum in the Earth’s crust is 0.001%
(mass). Deposits of molybdenum ores occur in the USSR, Chile,
Mexico, Norway, and Morocco. Large amounts of molybdenum
are contained in sulphide copper ores.
To produce metallic molybdenum from molybdenite, the latter
is converted by roasting into MoOs, from which the metal is reduced
with hydrogen. The molybdenum is obtained as a powder.
Compact molybdenum is mainly produced by powder metallurgy
techniques. This process consists in pressing the powder into a
blank and sintering the latter.
The blanks pressed from the powder are bodies of a definite shape,
usually bars. Molybdenum bars are produced in steel press moulds
at a pressure up to 300 MPa. The bars are sintered in a hydrogen
atmosphere in two steps. The first—preliminary sintering—is conduct
ed at 1100-1200 °C and is aimed at increasing the strength and
electrical conductance of the bars. The second step—high-tempera-
ture sintering—is conducted by passing an electric current through
the bars, which gradually heats them to 2200-2400 °C. The product
is a compact metal. The sintered bars are delivered for mechanical
processing such as forging or drawing.
Large molybdenum blanks—ingots with a mass up to 2000 kg—
are produced by arc melting. Melting in arc furnaces is conducted
in a vacuum. An arc is struck between the cathode (a bundle of
sintered molybdenum bars) and the anode (a cooled copper crucible).
The metal of the cathode melts and is gathered in the crucible.
Owing to the high thermal conductivity of the copper and the rapid
removal of heat, the molybdenum solidifies.
To produce highly pure molybdenum and other refractory metals,
electron-beam melting is used. It is based on the conversion into
heat of the major part of the kinetic energy of electrons when they
collide with the surface of the metal. An installation for electron-
beam melting consists of an electron gun generating a controllable
stream of electrons, and a melting chamber. Melting is conducted
in a high vacuum, which ensures the removal of the impurities
evaporating at the melting point (O, N, P, As, Fe, Cu, Ni, etc.).
In addition, a high rarefaction is needed to prevent collisions of
the electrons with molecules of the air, which would result in the
electrons losing energy. After electron-beam melting the purity
of the molybdenum rises to 99.9%.
Besides compact refractory metals, the powder metallurgy tech
niques are used to produce a number of other materials. The most
important of them are carbide hard alloys, ferrites, porous materials,
and cermets.
Carbide hard alloys are treated in the following section, and
ferrites in Sec. 128. Articles made from porous materials include
porous bearings and metallic filters. The former are manufactured
by sintering bronze and graphite powders. The pores of such bearings
are impregnated with a lubricant, which allows them to be used
in conditions of lubrication and when there is a danger of contami
nating products (for example, in the food or textile industries).
Metallic filters are made by sintering powders of copper, nickel,
and stainless steel. They are used to purify a variety of liquids,
oils, liquid fuel, have a prolonged service life, are stable at elevated
temperatures, and can be manufactured with a broad range of porosity.
Cermets, or metalloceramic materials, are produced by sintering
mixtures of metal powders and non-metallic components—refrac
tory oxides, carbides, borides, etc. Metals of the chromium and
iron subgroups are mainly used as the metallic component. These
materials combine the refractoriness, hardness, and heat resistance
of ceramics with the conductance, plasticity, and other properties
of metals.
Molybdenum is a silvery white metal with a density of 10.2 g/cm3
melting at 2620 °C. At room temperature, it does not change in
air, but when heated it oxidizes into the white trioxide Mo03.
Hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acids do not react with molyb
denum at room temperature; it dissolves in nitric acid or in hot
concentrated sulphuric acid.
About 80% of all the molybdenum produced goes to make special
grades of steel. It is a component of many stainless steels; in ad
dition, its introduction increases their heat resistance.
An alloy of molybdenum with tantalum is used to make laboratory
utensils employed in chemical laboratories instead of platinum
ones. Pure molybdenum goes to make components of electronic
valves and incandescent lamps—anodes, grids, cathodes, current
inlets, and filament holders.
Molybdenum exhibits positive oxidation states in its compounds,
namely, six, five, four, three, and two. Molybdenum(VI) compounds
are most stable. Of the greatest importance among them are salts
of molybdic acid H 2Mo04 (molybdates), which often have a com
plex composition.
Ammonium molybdate (NH4)eMo70 24'4H20 is used for detecting
and quantitatively determining phosphoric acid, with which it
332 Secondary Subgroups of Groups IVr V, VI, and VII
forms a characteristic yellow precipitate of the composition

(NH4)3P 0 4*12Mo08*6H20. The latter is the ammonium salt
of the complex phosphomolybdic acid belonging to the class of
heteropoly acids (see p. 259)*
116. Tungsten ( W o l f r a m )
As regards its occurrence in the Earth’s crust [0.007% (mass)],
tungsten is inferior to chromium, but is ahead of molybdenum.
The natural compounds of tungsten in the majority of cases are
tungstates—salts of tungstic acid H 2W 04. For instance, the most
important tungsten ore—wolframite—consists of iron and manga-
nese tungstates. The mineral scheelite CaW04 is also encountered
quite frequently.
To extract tungsten from wolframite, the latter is fused with
soda in the air. The tungsten transforms into sodium tungstate
Na2W 04 that is recovered from the melt with water, while the iron
and manganese are transformed into the compounds Fe2Os and
Mn30 4 that are insoluble in water.
The aqueous solution is reacted with hydrochloric acid to separate
the free tungstic acid as an amorphous yellow precipitate:
Na8W 04 + 2HC1 = H 2W 04 ! + 2NaCl
Roasting of tungstic acid transforms it into tungsten trioxide
WOs. By reducing it with hydrogen or carbon (for which purpose
the purest grades of carbon black are used), a powder of metallic
tungsten is obtained that is further processed in the same way as
molybdenum powder to produce the compact metal.
Tungsten is a heavy white metal with a density of 19.3 g/cm8.
Its melting point (about 3400 °C) is higher than that of all the other
metals. Tungsten can be welded and drawn out into thin filaments.
Tungsten oxidizes in air only when red hot. It is very stable
with respect to acids, even to aqua regia, but does dissolve in a
mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen fluoride.
The major part of the tungsten produced is used in metallurgy
for preparing special steels and alloys. High-speed tool steel con
tains up to 20% of tungsten and has the property of self-harden
ing. Such steel does not lose its hardness even when red hot. This
is why the use of cutters produced from tungsten steel considerably
increases metal cutting speeds.
In addition to high-speed steels, other tungsten and chromium-
tungsten steels have found broad application. For example, a steel
containing from 1 to 6% of tungsten and up to 2% of chromium goes
to make saws, milling cutters, punches, and dies.
Being the most refractory metal, tungsten is included in a num
ber of heat-resistant alloys. Particularly, its alloys with cobalt
and chromium—stellites—have a great hardness, wear resistance,

and heat resistance. Alloys of tungsten with copper and with silver
combine high electrical and thermal conductivity with wear resist
ance. They are used to make the working parts of knife-blade
switches, circuit breakers, and electrodes for spot welding.
Pure tungsten in the form of wire, band, and a variety of com
ponents is used in the production of electric lamps, in radio electron
ics, and X-ray equipment. Tungsten is the best material for the
filaments of incandescent lamps: its elevated working temperature
(2200-2500 °C) ensures a high luminous efficiency, and its very
slight evaporation—a prolonged service life of filaments made from
it. Tungsten wire and bars are also used as the heating elements
in high-temperature furnaces (up to 3000 °C).
Tungsten carbide WC has a very great hardness (close to that
of diamond), wear resistance, and refractoriness. The most produc
tive hard tool alloys have been developed on its basis. They include
85-95 % of WC and 5-15 % of cobalt imparting the required strength
to the alloy. Some grades of such alloys contain titanium, tantalum,
and niobium carbides in addition to tungsten carbide. All these
alloys are produced by powder metallurgy techniques and are em
ployed chiefly for making the working parts of cutting and boring
tools.
Tungsten compounds are very similar to those of molybdenum.
The most important of them is tungstic acid H aW 04 and its salts.
MANGANESE SUBGROUP
This subgroup includes the elements of the secondary subgroup
of Group VII: manganese, technetium, and rhenium. The relation
between them and the elements of the main subgroup of Group V II—
the halogens—is about the same as between the elements of the main
and secondary subgroups of Group VI. Having in their outer electron
layer only two electrons, manganese and its analogues cannot gain
electrons and, unlike the halogens, form no compounds with hydro
gen. But the higher oxygen compounds of these elements are to
a certain degree similar to the relevant halogen compounds because
here also seven electrons can participate in the formation of bonds
with oxygen. Therefore, their maximum oxidation state is + 7 .
Manganese itself is of the greatest practical importance among
the elements of the subgroup bearing its name. Rhenium, discovered
in 1925, is a rare element, but owing to a number of valuable proper
ties, it has found applications in engineering. Technetium is not
encountered in the Earth’s crtist. It was obtained in 1937 artifi
cially by bombarding nuclei of molybdenum atoms with nuclei
of the heavy hydrogen (deuterium) isotope—deuterons (see Vol. 1,
p. 116). Technetium was the first element to be obtained artificially,
by “technical” means, whence its name.
117. Manganese ( M a n g a n u m )
Manganese is one of the quite abundant elements, forming 0.1%
(mass) of the Earth’s crust. The most widespread manganese-con
taining mineral is pyrolusite, which is manganese dioxide Mn02.
The minerals hausmannite Mn30 4 and brownite Mn20 3 are also quite
important.
The USSR has large deposits of manganese. As regards its reserves
of high-grade manganese ores, the USSR occupies the first place
in the world.
Manganese is produced either by the electrolysis of an MnS04
solution, or by reduction from its oxides with silicon in electric
furnaces. The second (silicothermic) method is cheaper, but yields
a less pure product. In the electrolytic method, the ore is reduced
to manganese compounds with the oxidation state + 2 . These com
pounds are next dissolved in a mixture of sulphuric acid and am
monium sulphate. The solution obtained is electrolyzed. The de
posited metal is removed from the cathodes and remelted into in
gots.
Manganese is a silvery hard brittle metal. Its density is 7.44g/cm3,
and its melting point is 1245 °C. Four crystalline modifications of
manganese are known, each of which is thermodynamically stable
within a definite temperature range. Below 707 °C, alpha-manganese
is stable, and has an intricate structure (its elementary cell includes
58 atoms), which explains its brittleness.
Manganese is between aluminium and zinc in the electromotive
series: the standard electrode potential of the system Mn2+/Mn
i s —1.179 V. In the air, manganese is covered with a thin oxide
film preventing its further oxidation even when heated. But in
a finely divided state, manganese is oxidized quite readily. "\lVater
at room temperature reacts with manganese very slowly, and more
rapidly when heated. It dissolves in dilute hydrochloric and nitric
acids, and also in hot concentrated sulphuric acid (it is virtually
insoluble in cold sulphuric acid), forming Mn2+ cations.
Manganese has found its chief use in the production of alloyed
steels. Manganese steel containing up to 15% of Mn is very hard
and strong. It is used to make the working parts of crushing machines,
ball mills, and railway rails. Manganese is also added to a number
of magnesium-based alloys, improving their resistance to corrosion.
An alloy of copper with manganese and nickel—manganin (see
Sec. 86) has a low temperature resistance coefficient. Manganese is
introduced in small amounts into many aluminium alloys.
Manganese forms four simple oxides (MnO, Mn20 3, Mn02, and
Mn20 7) and the mixed oxide Mn80 4 (or MnO-Mn20 3). The first
two oxides have basic properties, manganese dioxide Mn02 is am
photeric, while the higher oxide Mn20 7 is the anhydride of perman-
ganic acid HMn04. Derivatives of manganese(VI) are also known

but the corresponding oxide Mn03 has never been obtained.
Compounds of manganese (I I)-—manganese dioxide, and the
salts of permanganic acid (permanganates), in which manganese
is in the + 7 oxidation state—are the most important compounds
from a practical viewpoint.
Manganese(II) Compounds. The salts of manganese(II) are obtained
when manganese is dissolved in dilute acids or when acids react
with various natural compounds of manganese. For instance, man
ganese (II) chloride MnCl2 crystallizes as pale pink crystals from the
solution remaining after chlorine is prepared by reacting hydrochlo
ric acid with manganese dioxide. Solid manganese(II) salts are usual
ly pink, while their solutions are almost colourless.
When alkalies are reacted with solutions of manganese(II) salts,
a white precipitate of manganese(II) hydroxide Mn(OH)2 is formed.
The precipitate dissolves readily in acids. It rapidly darkens in
air, oxidizing into the brown manganese(IV) hydroxide Mn(OH)4.
Manganese {II) oxide MnO is obtained as a green powder when
higher manganese oxides are reduced with hydrogen.
Manganese(IV) Compounds. The most stable compound of manga
nese is dark brown manganese dioxide Mn02; it readily forms both
in oxidation of the lower and in reduction of the higher compounds
of manganese. We have already mentioned that Mn02 is an ampho
teric oxide; both its acid and basic properties, however, are very
weak.
In an acid medium, manganese dioxide is a quite vigorous oxidiz
ing agent. It is used as such in the preparation of chlorine from hydro
gen chloride and in dry galvanic cells. Manganese(IV) salts, for
example MnCl4 and Mn(S04)2, are very unstable.
Manganese (VI) and (VII) Compounds. When manganese dioxide
is fused with potassium carbonate and nitrate, a green melt is ob
tained dissolving in water with the formation of a beautiful green
solutiQn. Dark green crystals of potassium manganate K2Mn04—
a salt of manganic acid H 2Mn04—can be separated from this solu
tion. Potassium manganate is very unstable even in solution.
The reaction of potassium manganate formation is as follows:
+ IV +V +VI+ I II
MnO2 + K2C08 + KNOa = K2Mn04 + K N 02 + C02 f
If a manganate solution is left standing in the air, its colour grad
ually changes from green to crimson, and a dark brown precipitate
forms. The explanation is that in an aqueous solution, manganates
spontaneously transform into salts of permanganic acid HMn04
(permanganates) with the simultaneous formation of manganese
dioxide. The equation of the reaction is:
3K2Mn04 + 2H20 2KMn04 + Mn02 4 + 4KOH
potassium potassium
manganate permanganate

3MnO|- + 2H20 ^ 2Mn04 + Mn02 + 40H -
In this reaction, one MnOf* ion oxidizes the other two ions into
MnO~ ions, being reduced into Mn02.
The process of transformation of a manganate into a permanganate
is reversible. Consequently, in the presence of an excess of hydroxide
ions, a green manganate solution can remain unchanged for a long
time. If an acid is added, however, that binds the hydroxide ions,
the green colour almost instantaneously changes to crimson.
When strong oxidizing agents (for instance chlorine) react with
a manganate solution, the latter completely transforms into a per
manganate:
2RaMn04 + Cl2 = 2KMn04 + 2KC1
Potassium permanganate KMn04 is the most broadly used salt
of permanganic acid. It crystallizes as beautiful dark violet, almost
black prisms moderately soluble in water. Solutions of KMn04 have
a dark crimson, and in greater concentrations—a violet colour that
is a feature of MnO" ions. Like all manganese(VII) compounds, potas
sium permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent. It readily oxidizes
many organic substances, transforms iron(II) salts into iron(III)
ones, oxidizes sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, liberates chlo
rine from hydrogen chloride, etc.
Upon entering into oxidation-reduction reactions, KMn04 (the
MnO; ion) can be reduced to different degrees. Depending on the
pH of the solution, the product of reduction may be the Mn2+ ion
(in an acid solution), Mn02 (in a neutral or weakly alkaline solu
tion) or the Mn04" ion (in a strongly alkaline solution).
We shall illustrate these three cases by reactions between KMn04
and soluble sulphites. If potassium sulphite is added to a violet
solution of KMn04 acidified with sulphuric acid, the liquid becomes
almost colourless because the manganese(II) salt formed is coloured
pale pink. The reaction equation is:
2KMn04 + 5K2SOs + 3HaS04 = 2MnS04 + 6KaS04 + 3HaO
2M nO ; + 5SO§- + 6 H + = 2Mna+ + 5SO J- + 3 H aO
When potassium sulphite reacts with a neutral solution of potas
sium permanganate, the solution also loses its colour, but, in addi
tion, a brown precipitate of manganese dioxide appears, and the
solution acquires an alkaline reaction:
2KMn04 + 3K2S 0 3 + H aO = 2MnOa \ + 3K2S04 + 2KOH
2Mn04 + 3SOJ- + H aO = 2MnOa * + 3SOi~ + 20H~
With a great alkali concentration and a small amount of the reduc

ing agent, manganate ions form according to the equation:
2MnO* + SO§- + 20H - = 2MnO|* + SOJ“ + H „ 0
Being] a vigorous oxidizing agent, potassium permanganate is
widely used in chemical laboratories and production processes;
it is also an excellent disinfectant.
When dry potassium permanganate is heated, it decomposes already
at a temperature of about 200 °C as follows:
2KMnO« = K,Mn04 + MnO, + 0 , t
This reaction is sometimes used in the laboratory to produce
oxygem
Free permanganic acid HMnOf corresponding to the permanga
nates has never been obtained in the anhydrous state and is known
only in solution. The concentration of its solution can be brought
up to 20%. It is a very strong acid that completely ionizes in an
aqueous solution: its apparent degree of ionization in a 0.1 N solu
tion is 93%.
Manganese(VII) oxide or permanganic anhydride M n,07 can
be prepared by reacting concentrated sulphuric acid with potassium
permanganate:]
2KMn04 + n tS 04 = M n,0, + K»S04 + H ,0
Manganese(VII) oxide is a greenish brown oily liquid. It is very
unstable: when heated or upon contact with combustible substances
it decomposes with an explosion into manganese dioxide and oxygen.
118. Rhenium
Rhenium does not form any independent minerals. It is contained
in negligible amounts in molybdenum ores and in some rare miner
als. The total content of rhenium in the Earth’s crust is 1 x 10~7%
(mass).
Rhenium was discovered only in 1925, but its existence was pre
dicted back in 1871 by Mendeleev, who called it dvimanganese.
Rhenium in the free state is a pale gray metal. Its density is
21.0 g/cms, and its melting point is about 3190 °C. It does net dis
solve in hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, while nitric and hot
concentrated sulphuric acids do dissolve it with the formation of
perrhenic acid HRe04.
Rhenium and its alloys with tungsten and molybdenum are used
in the production of electric lamps and electrical vacuum devices;
they have a long service life and are stronger than tungsten. Alloys
of tungsten with rhenium go to make thermocouples that can be
used within a temperature range from 0 to 2500 °C. Heat-resistant
22—2412
and refractory alloys of rhenium with tungsten, molybdenum, and

tantalum are used to make some vital components. Rhenium and
its compounds are catalysts in the oxidation of ammonia, the oxida
tion of methane, and the hydrogenation of ethylene.
Rhenium forms several oxides of which the most stable and typical
of rhenium is rhenium(VII) oxide or perrhenic anhydride Re20 7
(yellowish brown plates). Its reaction with water yields a colourless
solution of perrhenic acid HRe04‘ whose salts are known as perrhe-
nates. Unlike permanganic acid and its salts, oxidizing properties are
not characteristic of perrhenic acid and perrhenates*
12
EIGHTH GROUP OF
THE PERIODIC TABLE
NOBLE GASES
119. General
The main subgroup of Group VIII is formed by the noble gases—

helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. These elements are
characterized by their very low chemical activity, which is why they
were named noble, or inert gases. They form compounds with other
elements or substances with difficulty; no chemical compounds of
helium, neon, and argon have been obtained. The atoms of the noble
gases do not combine into molecules; in other words, their molecules
are monatomic.
Each period in the periodic table terminates in a noble gas, Apart
from helium, they all have eight electrons in their outer electron
layer forming a very stable system. The electron shell of helium
consisting of two electrons is also stable. Consequently, the atoms
of the noble gases are characterized by high values of their ioniza
tion energy and, as a rule, by negative values of their energy of
affinity to an electron.
Table 16 gives selected properties of the noble gases, and also
their content in the air. Inspection of the table shows that the lique
faction and freezing points of the noble gases drop with their decreas
ing atomic masses or atomic numbers: helium has the lowest lique
faction point, and radon, the highest.
Up to the end of the 19th century, the air was assumed to consist
only of oxygen and nitrogen. But in 1894, the British physicist
Lord Rayleigh found that the density of nitrogen obtained from the
air (1.2572 g/1) is somewhat greater than that of nitrogen prepared
from its compounds (1.2505 g/1). William Ramsay, a professor of
chemistry, assumed that the difference in densities is due to the
presence of a heavier gas in the atmospheric nitrogen. By binding
the nitrogen with red-hot magnesium (Ramsay), or making it com
bine with oxygen by means of an electric discharge (Rayleigh), both
scientists separated a small amount of a chemically inert gas from
atmospheric nitrogen. This is how the element named argon, unknown
before that time, was discovered. After argon, helium, neon, kryp
ton, and xenon, contained in the air in negligible amounts, were
22*
340 Eighth Group of the Periodic Table
Table 16
Selected Properties of the Noble Gases and Their Content
in the Air
He Ne A: Kr Xe Bn
Atomic radius, nm 0 .1 2 2 0.160 0.192 0.198 0.218 ...

Ionization energy
E-+E+, eV 24.59 21.56 15.76 14.00 12.13 10.75
Density in stan
dard conditions.
g/ 1 0.18 0.90 1.78 3.71 5.85 9.73
Liquefaction po
int at standard
atmospheric
pressure, °C —268.9 -246.0 —185.9 —153.2 -108.1 -61.9
Freezing point, °C —271.4* —248.6 —189.3 -157.4 -111.85 -7 1
Content in air,
% (volume) 0.0005 0.0016 0.93 About About About
10-4 1 0 “* 10-u
1
* At pressure of 3.0 MPa.
separated from it. The last element of the subgroup—radon—was

discovered when studying radioactive transformations.
The existence of the noble gases was predicted back in 1883, i.e.
11 years before the discovery of argon, by the Russian scientist
Nikolai Morozov (1854-1946), who for his participation in the revo
lutionary movement was in 1882 confined by the tsarist government
in the Shlisselburg fortress. Morozov determined correctly the place
of the noble gases in the periodic table, advanced notions on the
intricate structure of an atom, and on the possibility of the synthesis
of elements and the use of intratomic energy. Morozov was released
from confinement in 1905, and his remarkable foresight became known
only in 1907 after publication of his book “Periodic Systems of the
Structure of Matter”, which he had written in solitary confinement.
In 1926, Morozov was elected an honorary member of the USSR
Academy of Sciences.
For a long time the atoms of the noble gases were considered inca
pable of forming chemical bonds with atoms of other elements.
Only comparatively unstable molecular compounds of the noble
gases were known such as the hydrates Ar*6HaO, Kr*6H20, and
Xe*6H20 formed when compressed noble gases react with freezing
supercooled water. These hydrates belong to inclusion or clathrate
compounds (see Vol. 1, Sec. 72); no valence bonds appear in the
formation of such compounds. The formation of clathrate compounds
Noble Gases 341
with water is facilitated by the presence of numerous voids in the

crystalline structure of ice (see Vol. 1, Sec. 70).
In the last decades, however, it was found that krypton, xenon,
and radon can combine with other elements, first of all with fluo
rine. For instance, the direct reaction of the noble gases with fluorine
(with heating or in an electrical discharge) yields the fluorides KrF*,
XeFa, KrF4, XeF4, and RnF4. All of them are crystals which are
stable in ordinary conditions. Xenon derivatives in the oxidation
state + 6 have also been obtained—the hexafluoride XeF4, trioxide
XeOs, and the hydroxide Xe(OH)6. The latter two compounds
exhibit acid properties; for example, reacting with alkalies, they
form salts of xenonic acid, exemplified by the reaction
Xe0 8 + Ba(OH) 2 = BaXe04 + HaO
Xenon(VI) derivatives are strong oxidizing agents. When they
are reacted with still stronger oxidizing agents, however, compounds
can be obtained in which xenon has the oxidation state + 8 . Known
compounds of this kind include the octafluoride XeF8, the tetroxide
Xe04, and the oxohexafluoride XeOFe.
The higher chemical activity of krypton, xenon, and radon in
comparison with the first members of the group of noble gases is
explained by the relatively low ionization potentials of their atoms
(see Table 16). For krypton, xenon, and radon, these values are
close to the ionization potentials of some other elements (for exam
ple, the ionization potential of the nitrogen atom is 14.53 V, and
of the chlorine atom 12.97 V).
Argon, neon, and helium have found the greatest practical appli
cation.
120. Helium
The history of the discovery of iielium is a brilliant example of
the might of science. It was discovered in 1868 by two astronomers—
Pierre Janssen (France) and Joseph Lockyer (Great Britain)—in
studying the spectra of the Sun. A bright yellow line was detected
in these spectra that was never encountered in the spectra of the
elements known at that time. This line was ascribed to a new element
existing on the Sun that was not known on the Earth. It was named
helium from the Greek “helios”—the Sun. Almost thirty years later,
Ramsay in heating the mineral cleveite obtained a gas whose spec
trum was identical to that of helium. Hence, helium was discovered
on the Sun before it was found on the Earth.
After hydrogen, helium is the lightest of all gases. Its mass is
less than one-seventh that of air.
For a long time, helium remained the only gas that did not lend
itself to liquefaction. Finally, in 1908, it was transformed into a
liquid boiling at —268.9 °C. Upon the evaporation of liquid helium,
a temperature was obtained only a few tenths of a kelvin higher than

absolute zero. In 1926, helium was solidified for the first time. Solid
helium is a transparent substance melting at —271.4 °C under a pres
sure of 3.0 MPa.
Helium is encountered on the Earth not only in the atmosphere.
Considerable amounts of it evolve at some places from the depths
of the Earth together with natural gases. The waters of many mineral
springs also emit helium.
Although the content of helium in the air is not great, in the Uni
verse it occupies the second place in its abundance (after hydrogen).
Spectral analysis shows the presence of this element in all stars.
Its accumulation in the Universe is a result of the thermonuclear
reaction of transformation of hydrogen into helium (see Sec. 1).
Helium is produced from certain natural gases in which it is con
tained as the product of decay of radioactive elements. It is used
to create an inert medium in the gas welding of metals, and also
in atomic engineering, where its chemical inertness and low ability
of capturing neutrons are taken advantage of. Helium is widely used
in physical laboratories as a coolant and in work in low-temperature
physics. It is also employed as a thermometric substance in thermo
meters used in the temperature range from 1 to 80 K. The helium
isotope 8He is the only substance suitable for measuring tempera
tures below 1 K.
121. Neon. Argon

These gases, and also krypton and xenon, are obtained from air
by separating it upon deep cooling. Argon, because of its compara
tively high content in the air, is obtained in considerable amounts,
the other gases—in smaller amounts. Neon and argon have found
numerous applications. Both of them are used to .fill incandescent
lamps and gas discharge lamps; neon lamps have a red glow, and
argon ones—a light blue glow. Argon, being the most available of
the noble gases, is also used in metallurgical and chemical processes
requiring an inert medium, particularly in the argon-arc welding
of aluminium and aluminium-magnesium alloys.
SECONDARY SUBGROUP
The secondary subgroup of Group VIII includes three triads of
d elements. The first of them is formed by the elements iron, cobalt,
and nickel, the second by ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium, and
the third by osmium, iridium, and platinum.
Most of the elements of this subgroup have two electrons in the
outer electron layer of the atom, they are all metals. In addition
to the outer electrons, electrons from the preceding incompletely
Secondary Subgroup. Iron Family 343
filled layer participate in the formation of chemical bonds. These

elements have oxidation states of 2, 3, and 4. Higher oxidation
states are rarely exhibited.
A comparison of the physical and chemical properties of the
Group VIII elements shows that iron, cobalt, and nickel which
are in the first large period, are very similar to one another, and at
the same time greatly differ from the elements of the other two triads.
This is why they are usually treated separately as the iron family.
The remaining six elements of Group VIII are combined under the
general name of the platinum metals.
IRON FAMILY
Table 17 gives selected properties of the iron family elements.
Table 17
Selected Properties of Iron, Cobalt, and N ickel
Fe Co Ni

Ionization energy
E -Ê +, eV 7.89 7.87 7.63
E+-*E*+, eV 16.2 17.1 18.15
Ea* -*• E3+, eV 30.6 33.5 35.16
Radius of ion El+, nm 0.080 0.078 0.074
Radius of ion E3+, nm 0.067 0.064 •••
Standard enthalpy of atomization of
metal at 25 °C, kJ per mole of
atoms 417.0 428.4 428.8
Density, g/cms 7.87 8.84 8.91
Melting point, °G 1539 1492 1455
Boiling point, °C 2870 3100 2900
Standard electrode potential of pro
cess E2 ++ 2 e“ = E, V -0.440 -0.277 -0.250
122. Iron (F erru m ). Occurrence

Iron is the most abundant metal on the globe after aluminium,
forming 4 % (mass) of the Earth’s crust. It is found in the form of
a variety of compounds: oxides, sulphides, and silicates. It occurs
in the free state only in meteorites.
The most important iron ores include magnetite Fes0 4, red iron
ore or hematite FeaOa, brown iron ore or limonite 2FeaOs *3HaO,
and spathic iron ore or siderite FeCOs. Iron pyrites, or simply pyrite
FeSa encountered in large amounts is rarely used in metallurgy be
cause iron of a very low quality due to the high sulphur content is
produced from it. But pyrite nevertheless has an important appli-
344 Eighth G roup of the Periodic Table
cation—it is the starting material in the production of sulphuric

acid (see Sec. 17).
In the USSR, deposits of iron ores are found in the Urals, where
whole mountains (for example Magnitnaya, Kachkanar, and Vyso-
kaya) are formed of magnetite of an excellent quality. Deposits just
as rich are in the Krivoi Rog Region and on the Kerch Peninsula,
the former being red iron ore, and the latter brown ore. Great depos
its of iron ores have been found near Kursk, on the Kola Peninsula,
in Western and Eastern Siberia, and in the Far East. The total
amount of iron ores in the USSR is more than half of all the world’s
reserves.
123. Iron and Its Alloys in Engineering. The Development

of M etallurgy in the USSR
Iron is the most important of all the metals produced. All modern
engineering is associated with the use of iron and its alloys. The
tremendously important role played by iron can be seen from the
fact that the amount of iron extracted is about 15 times greater than
that of all the other metals taken together.
Up to the 19th century, the known iron alloys were only those
with carbon—various irons and steels. Later, however, new iron-
based alloys were developed containing chromium, nickel, and other
elements. At present, iron alloys are divided into carbon steels,
irons, alloyed steels, and steels with special properties (see Sec. 127).
In engineering, iron alloys (including steels) are customarily
known as ferrous metals, and their production as ferrous metallurgy.
The production of iron grew especially rapidly in the last century.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the world’s production of
iron was only 0.8 million tonnes a year, while at the end of the cen
tury it was already 66 million tonnes a year. In 1962, the capitalist
countries produced 176 million tonnes of iron and ferroalloys, and
245 million tonnes of steel.
Tsarist Russia lagged greatly behind the industrially developed
countries in the production of ferrous metals. The Russian iron and
steel industry produced only 4.2 million tonnes of iron and the same
amount of steel in 1913. After the first world war, the production
of iron dropped sharply, and in 1920 it was only 2.7% of the 1913
figure. The restoration of the iron and steel industry conducted in
exclusively difficult conditions required enormous efforts and a long
time: only in 1929 did the production of steel reach the 1913 level.
Rapid development of Soviet metallurgy began during the years
of the first five-year plans. The metallurgical industry in the south
of the European part of the USSR was completely reconstructed,
and a new coal and metallurgical base was set up in the eastern
regions of the country. Major iron and steel works such as the Magni-
togorsk and Kuznetsk ones were erected. Already by the end of the
first five-year period, the production of iron reached 147% in com
parison with the 1913 level. After reaching the prerevolutionary level
of iron production in 1929, Soviet iron and steel workers increased
the production of iron almost 3.5 times during the next eight years.
For such a growth, the iron and steel industry of the USA had re
quired 20 years, and of Germany—23 years.
The growth of Soviet metallurgy in recent years is characterized
by the following data:
Year 1949 1959 1969 1977
Production, million tonnes:
iron 16.4 43.0 81.6 107
steel 23.3 60.0 1 1 0 147
Such rates of growth were due both to the erection of new works
and to the intensification of production as a result of the constantly
growing use of natural gas and oxygen in ferrous metallurgy.
The ore base of metallurgy has also grown in recent years—new
iron ore deposits were developed in Kazakhstan, Siberia, and in
the region of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly. The iron ore extracted
in 1977 reached 240 million tonnes.
124. Physical Properties of Iron.

Phase Diagram of Iron-Carbon System
In the thirties of the 19th century, the Russian engineer P. Anosov
for the first time used a microscope to study the structure of steel
and its changes after forging and heat treatment. In the sixties of
the 19th century, similar investigations were undertaken in other
countries.
In 1868, D. Chernov first pointed out the existence of definite
temperatures (“critical points”) depending on the carbon content
of steel and characterizing the transformations of one microstruc
ture of steel into another. This laid the cornerstone of studying
the Fe-C phase diagram, while 1868 became the year in which phys
ical metallurgy—the science dealing with the structure and proper
ties of metals and alloys, was born. The French investigator F. Os
mond used the pyrometer that had just been invented by Le Chate-
lier to determine the values of the critical points more accurately.
He described the nature of the microstructural changes observed
in the transition through these points, and named the most impor
tant structures of iron-carbon alloys; these names are still in use.
Since that time, scientists of various countries performed an enor
mous amount of investigations devoted to iron-carbon alloys and
to the phase diagram of the Fe-C system. Such investigations are
still being conducted. Their aim is to determine more exactly the
positions of the lines in the phase diagram in connection with the

use of purer substances and more accurate and up-to-date methods.
The melting point of iron is 1539±5 °C. Iron forms two crystal
line modifications: a-iron and y-iron. The former has a cubic body-
centred lattice, the latter—a cubic face-centred lattice. Alpha-iron
is thermodynamically stable within two temperature intervals:
below 912 °C and from 1394 °C to the melting point. Between 912
and 1394 °C, y-iron is stable. The temperature intervals of the sta
bility of a- and y-iron are due to the nature of the change in the
Gibbs energy of the two modifications when the temperature'changes
(see Fig. 62). At temperatures below 912 and above 1394 °C, the
Gibbs energy of a-iron is less than that of y-iron, while in the inter
val from 912 to 1394 °C it is greater.
The temperatures of the phase transitions of iron can Ije seen quite
clearly on the cooling curve in the form of steps—horizontal por
tions (see Fig. 63). A glance at the figure shows that in addition to
the steps corresponding to the points listed above, the cooling curve
has another step—at 768 °G. This temperature is associated not
with transformation of the lattice, but with a change in the magnetic
properties of a-iron. Above 768 °C, iron is not magnetic, while below
this temperature it is magnetic. Non-magnetic a-iron is sometimes
called p-iron, and the modification of a-iron that is stable at a tem
perature from 1392 °C to the melting point—6-iron.
Iron is a silvery plastic metal. It lends itself well to forging, roll
ing, and other kinds of mechanical processing. The mechanical
Fig. 62. Temperature dependence of Fig. 63. Cooling curve of iron

Gibbs energy of a-iron (Ga)
and y-iron (Gy)
properties of iron depend greatly on its purity—on the presence of

even small amounts of other elements in it.
Solid iron is capable of dissolving many elements. Particularly,
carbon dissolves in iron. Its solubility depends greatly on the crys
talline modification of iron and on the temperature. Carbon dis
solves very insignificantly in a-iron, and much better in y-iron.
The carbon solution in y-iron is thermodynamically stable within
a broader temperature interval than pure y-iron. A solid solution
of carbon in a-iron is called ferrite, and in y-iron, austenite.
The chemical compound iron carbide, or cementite Fe8C corres
ponds to a carbon content of 6.67% (mass) in iron. This substance
has a complex crystalline structure and is characterized by a high
hardness (close to that of diamond) and brittleness. Cementite
melts at a temperature of about 1600 °C*.
The mechanical properties of ferrite and austenite depend on
their carbon content. At all carbon concentrations, however, fer
rite and austenite are not as hard as cementite and are more plastic
than it.
A phase diagram of the iron-carbon system giving a notion of the
structure of iron-carbon alloys is very important. It helps to explain
how the properties of steels and irons depend on their carbon con-
Of
E
Fig. 64. Phase diagram of iron-carbon system

* Cementite is not thermodynamically stable in all the conditions corres
ponding to the phase diagram of the system Fe-C. But the decomposition of
cementite attended by the separation of graphite proceeds so slowly in the majo
rity of cases that it practically does not occur. Graphite separates only when
iron is formed in definite conditions (see p. 362).
tent and heat treatment. It is the basis for choosing iron-carbon

alloys having definite preset properties. Figure 64 gives a part of
the phase diagram of the system Fe-C corresponding to a carbon
concentration from 0 to 6.67% or, which is the same, from pure iron
to the carbide Fe8C. This is the most important part of the diagram
because iron alloys containing not over 5% of carbon have a practical
significance.
The phase diagram of the system Fe-C is more complicated than
the main kinds of phase diagrams for metal systems dealt with in
Chapter 6. But all its points, curves, and regions are similar to those
described in Sec. 81. Its features are due to the circumstances men
tioned above: the existence of two modifications of crystalline
iron, the ability of both these modifications to form solid solutions
with carbon, and the ability of iron to enter into a chemical com
pound with carbon to form cementite.
The left-hand vertical axis of the diagram corresponds to pure
iron, the right-hand one to the carbide Fe8C (cementite). Points A
and D show the melting points of iron and the carbide, points G
and N —the temperatures of transition of a-iron into y-iron and
vice versa.
Line ABCD is a curve showing the temperatures of the beginning
of crystallization of the liquid alloys, and line AHIECF is a curve
showing the temperatures of the beginning of melting of the solid
alloys. All lines below the latter curve correspond to equilibria
between the solid phases.
The region above line ABCD corresponds to a liquid alloy. The
regions adjoining the left-hand vertical axis correspond to solid
solutions of carbon in iron: line A H N confines the region of a solid
solution of carbon in a-iron at high temperatures (the region of high-
temperature ferrite), line NIESG confines the region of a solid solu
tion of carbon in y-iron (the austenite region), line GPO confines
the region of a solid solution of carbon in a-iron at low temperatures
(the region of low-temperature ferrite). Homogeneous systems cor
respond to these regions: the structure of both the liquid and the
solid solutions is homogeneous in each of these phases.
Heterogeneous systems—-mixtures of crystals of two phases or of
crystals and a liquid—correspond to the remaining regions in the
diagram.
Let us consider the most important transformations occurring
upon the slow cooling of liquids of various concentrations. This
will help us see what alloys correspond to the regions of heterogeneity
of the diagram.
Assume that we have a liquid containing 0.8% of carbon. Its
crystallization begins at point 1 (Fig. 65). When the liquid is cooled
to a temperature corresponding to this point, crystals of austenite
will separate; their composition corresponds to point 2. The melt
becomes rich in carbon, and its composition changes along line BC.
The composition of the crystals in the course of crystallization changes
along curve IE . When the composition of the crystals reaches
point 3, crystallization terminates. As always in the formation of
a solid solution, a diffusion process occurs simultaneously in the
solid phase, as a result of which upon slow cooling the composition
of all the crystals is the same.
Further, the austenite formed cools without any transformations
to point S (see Fig. 64). This point (a temperature of 727 °C) shows
the minimum temperature of the stable existence of austenite. At
727 °G, its eutectoid decomposition occurs*. The forming eutectoid
consists of alternating small plates of ferrite and cementite. When
a fracture of it is observed under a microscope, it reminds one of
mother-of-pearl. This is why such a structure—a eutectoid mixture
of ferrite and cementite—has been called pearlite.
If the initial liquid contains not 0.8% carbon, but somewhat less,
for example 0.7 %, the austenite formed upon crystallization begins
to decompose not at 727 °C, but at a higher temperature (point 1
in Fig. 66). The transformation begins with the separation of ferrite
crystals (point 2 in Fig. 66) whose carbon content is very low. Conse
quently, the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon, and upon
further cooling its composition changes along curve GS. When
point S is reached, eutectoid transformation at constant temperature
begins, and upon its completion the steel will consist of ferrite and
Fig. 65. Part of phase diagram of Fig. 66. Part of phase diagram of
iron-carbon system iron-carbon system
* Eutectoid decomposition leading to the formation of a eutectoid is a pro
cess similar to the crystallization of a eutectic. The difference is that a eutectic
is formed from a liquid alloy, i.e. a liquid solution, whereas a eutectoid is
formed from a solid solution.
350 Eighth Croup of the Periodic Table
pearlite. It follow sfromtheabovethat am ixtureof aliquidalloy

withaustenitecrystals corresponds toregion3 inthediagram(see
Fig. 64), am ixtureof ferrite andaustenitecrystals correspondsto
region5 , andam ixtureofpearlitew ithferritecrystalstoregion1 0 .
If the initial liquid contains over 0.8%carbon (but less than
2.14% ), forinstance1.5% , thedecom positionoftheaustenitebegins
w iththeseparationofcem entite(point 3 inFig. 66). O w ingtothe
separationof FesC — aphase richincarbon— the rem ainingauste
nitebecom esrichinironsothatuponfurthercoolingitscom position
changesalongcurveE S . A tpointS , theseparationofpearlitebegins.
The resultissteel w ithastructureconsistingofcem entiteandpear
lite. H ence, am ixtureofcem entiteandaustenitecrystalscorresponds
toregion6 inthediagram(Fig. 64), andam ixtureofpearlitew ith
cem entite crystals corresponds to region1 1 .
Letusnowturntoalloyscontainingover2.14%carbon. Prim ary
crystallizationinthis caseterm inates inaeutectic transform ation
at 1147°Cw henaeutecticm ixtureof austeniteandcem entitesepa
rates fromtheliquidcontaining4.3%carbon(point CinFig. 64).
Ifw eproceedfromaliquidhavingtheeutecticcom position(4.3% C ),
crystallization begins andterm inates at the sam e tem perature of
1147°C . Foralloys containingless than4.3%carbon(but greater
than2.14% ), theseparationof austenitewill precedetheform ation
of theeutectic. W ithacarboncontent above4.3% , crystallization
begins w ith the separation of cem entite, but w hen point C is
reachedinthediagram , theform ationoftheeutecticisalsoobserved.
C onsequently, asaresult ofthecrystallizationof liquidalloyscon
tainingover2.14%carbon, astructureis initiallyobtainedconsist
ingeither onlyof theeutectic, orof the eutectic w ithcrystals of
austeniteorcem entite.
A t thesam etim e, asw ehaveseenearlier, inthecrystallization
ofliquidalloys containingless than2.14%carbon, austeniteisini
tially obtained. This difference instructure at hightem peratures
creates the difference inthe technological andm echanical proper
ties of alloys. T heeutecticm akesalloyslosetheirm alleability, but
its lowm elting point facilitates the use of high-carbonalloys as
foundrym aterials. Iron a n d carbon a llo y s co n ta in in g le ss th a n 2.14%
carbon a re c a lle d s te e ls , a n d those co n ta in in g m ore th a n 2 .1 4 % car
bon — iro n s, or co m m ercia l iro n s.
This boundary (2.14% carbon) relates to ironandcarbonalloys
containingnoother elem ents. Inthe presenceof athirdelem ent,
theformof thephasediagramchanges, inparticulartheboundaries
of stability of austenite insom ecasesshift tow ardslowtem pera
tures.
Let us com plete our treatm ent of the transform ations occurring
inironsw hentheycool tobelow1147°C .A t thistem perature, the
solubilityof carboniny-ironis thegreatest. C onsequently, bythe
m om ent of com pletionof theprim arycrystallization, theaustenite

containedintheironistherichest incarbon(2.14% ). Uponcooling
belowthis tem perature, the solubility of carboninthe austenite
drops (curveE S inFig. 64), andcarbonseparates fromit, usually
transform ing into cem entite. W hen a tem perature of 727°Cis
reached, all therem ainingaustenite, includingthatin theeutectic,
transform s into pearlite. It follow s fromw hat has beensaidthat
am ixture of the eutectic w ith austenite andcem entitecrystals
form edinthedecom positionoftheaustenitecorrespondstoregion7,
andam ixture of the eutectic w ithcem entite crystals corresponds
to region8 . Since at tem peratures below727°C , the austenite of
theeutectic transform s intopearlite, am ixtureof pearlite and^ce-
m entitecorrespondstoregions1 2 and1 3 , thesam eastoregional.
But the alloys belongingto these tw o regions differ som ew hat in
theirstructure. T he differenceis explainedbythefact thatthece
m entiteofthealloysofregion1 3 isform edininitial crystallization,
andof region 1 2 in the decom positionof the austenite. Thus, at
tem peratures below727°C , ironconsists of cem entite andpearlite.
A sw eshall seeinSec. 127, ironcanalsohaveadifferent structure.
In considering the transform ations occurring in the cooling of
liquidalloys of various com positions, w ew ereabletoreveal w hat
alloys correspondtodifferent regions of the diagram . But w ehave
notconsideredalltheregionsofthediagram .U singthesam em ethod,
it is not difficult toshoww hichalloys correspondtotheotherre
gions: am ixtureoftheliquidalloyandcrystalsofhigh-tem perature
ferritecorrespondstoregion2, am ixtureof crystalsofhigh-tem per
ature ferrite andaustenite corresponds to region2, am ixture of
aliquidalloyandcem entitecrystals toregion4 , andam ixtureof
ferrite andcem entite crystals to region9.
125. Production of Iron and Steel
Ironfoundindustrial applicationevenbeforeourera. Inancient
tim es, it w as producedinthesoft plasticstate incrucibles orfur
naces usingcharcoal as thefuel. T heslagw as separatedbyforcing
it out ofthespongyironw ithblow sofaham m er.
W iththe developm ent of ironproductiontechniques, thetem per
ature of the process w as gradually increased. T he m etal andthe
slag begantom elt; itbecam epossibletoseparatethemm uchm ore
com pletely. But sim ultaneously, the content of carbonandother
adm ixtures inthe m etal increased— -the metal becam e brittle and
unm alleable. This ishowcom m ercial ironwas produced.
L ater, peopleleerned^howtoconvert iron; atw o-stageprocess of
producingironfromits"oresappeared. Inprinciple, it hasbeenre
taineduptoourtim e: them odernschem eof steel productioncon
sistsofablast-furnaceprocess, inthecourseofw hichw hat isknow n
asblast-furnaceironorpigironis producedfromore, andof asteel

m elting conversionthat low ers the am ount of carbon and other
im purities inthem etal.
T he m odernhighlevel of the m etallurgical productionprocess
isbasedontheoretical investigationsanddiscoveriesm adeindiffer
ent countries, andonrichpractical experience. Q uiteasignificant
roleinthis progress belongs toR ussianandSoviet scientists. F or
instance, P. A nosovfoundedthe theoryof the productionof cast
steel. A cadem iciansA . Baikov, M . Pavlov, andI. B ardinarethe
authors of veryim portant theoretical w orks onblast-furnace and
steel productionprocesses.
N ewtechnological processes for producing ironandsteel have
beendevelopedduringrecent years inthe U SSR . Soviet ironand
steel w orkersw erethefirsttow idelyintroducenaturalgasforblast
furnaceoperation. M odernblast furnacesw ithavolum eof 1300m 3
w ereplacedintoserviceintheU SSRearlierthanintheU SA ,w hile
atpresentfurnacesw ithavolum eof5000m *areinoperation.
D uringashort historical tim einterval, theU SSRhas advanced
tothesecondplaceinthew orldintheproductionofferrousm etals.
Pigironisproducedinenorm ousblastfurnaceslaidusingrefrac
torybrickandreaching30m etres inheight w ithaninternal dia
m eterof about 12m etres.
Acrosssectionofablastfurnaceisshow nschem aticallyinFig.67.
Itsupperhalfiscalledashaftandterm inatesat thetopinanopen
ing— thethroat, w hich is closed
w iththeaidof a m ovable hop
per— thetopseal.T hew idestpart
of thefurnaceis calledthebosh,
anditsbottompart— the hearth
orcrucible. Ablast of hot airor
oxygenis blow nintothefurnace
throughspecial openings inthe
hearth(tuyeres).
Ablastfurnaceis firstcharged
w ithcoke,andthenw ithalternat
inglayersofagglom erateandcoke.
A gglom erate is asinter of ore
andflux(seebelow )preparedina
definitew ay. Com bustionandthe
tem peraturerequiredform elting
theironarem aintainedbyblow
ingheatedairoroxygenintothe
hearth. T heblast isfed intoan
annularpipesurroundingthebot
tompartofthefurnace,andthence
throughbent pipes andthe tu- Fig. 67. Blast furnace cross section
yeres intothe hearth. Inthe latter, the coke burns to formC02,

w hichrises andpasses throughthe layers of heated coke, react
ing w ith the latter to formC O. This carbonm onoxide reduces
the m ajor part of the ore, transformingagain into C02.
T heorereductionprocess occurs chieflyintheupperpart of the
shaft. It canbeexpressedbythenet equation:
Fe20 8 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3COa
T heindividual stepsoftheprocessareshow nintheformofreac

tionequations inFig. 68.
T he barrenrockinthe ore is m ainlyform edbysilicondioxide
Si02,w hichisarefractorysubstance. Afluxis addedtothe oreto
transformthe refractoryadm ixtures into m ore fusible com pounds.
G enerally, C aCO sisusedastheflux. W henit reactsw iththeSi02,
theproductform edisC aSi03thatreadilyseparatesasaslag.
Inthereductionoftheore, theironisobtainedinthesolidstate.
It graduallysinks intothe hotterpart of the furnace— the bosh—
anddissolvescarbon; pigironisform ed. T helatterm elts andflow s
into the bottompart of thehearth, w hile the m oltenslags gather
onthesurfaceof the iron, preventing its oxidation. T he ironand
slags aretapped,astheyaccum u Ore
late, throughspecialholesor not | Coke
b l . Limestone
ches, pluggedw ithclayw hennot
needed. Blast-furnace gas
The gases leaving the furnace 3Fe 0 +C(jf---------- °C
outlet containupto25%ofC O . 2 3 4 5 0
2Fe30 4+C(|2---------- 500cC

Theyareburnedinspecial appa Fe30 4+C0=--------goo o£
ratusesknow n as C owper stoves
intendedforprelim inarilyheating 3Fe0+C02j------------- 70o6c
theairblow nintothefurnace. FeO+CO=F^COi _800oC
Ablast furnace operates con CaC03=Ca0^+C02
tinuously. A s the top layers of CaO+S i O 2=CaSiOj 1000
oreandcoke sink, new portions
are addedtothefurnace.Am ix C oke and
solid iron
tureoforeandcokeis delivered
byskipcarstothetop platform Coke, m o lten — 1300 ° C
of thefurnaceandischargedinto iron, slag
acast ironbellandC hopperclosed H ot blast
wast yy-'
^ O ^ C O ,
at thebottomby the top seal.
3
I c+o2=co2
W henthe latter is low ered, the -------- 1500 °C
m ixture dropsjinto the furnace. Slag
T he operationof a furnace con Iron
tinues several years until it re
quires general overhauling. Rfl*M . Diagram of chem ical
The production of ironcn b. KTi?'. hU
acceleratedby using oxygen in furnace
23—2412
blast furnaces. W henairenrichedw ithoxygenisblow nintoablast

furnace, its prelim inary heating is superfluous, ow ing to w hich
thereis noneedtoerecttheintricateandcum bersom eC owperstoves,
and the entire m etallurgical process is considerably sim plified.
Thisisattendedbyasharpgrow thinfurnaceoutput andadecrease
infuel consum ption. Ablast furnaceusinganoxygenblast pro
duces 1.5 tim es m ore m etal andusesonlythree-fourthsofthecoke
neededw ithanairblast.
Am odernblastfurnaceisapow erful andhighlyproductiveaggre
gate. It processes enorm ous am ounts of m aterials. Afurnacew ith
avolum eof2000m 3usesabout7000tonnesofagglom erateand2000
tonnes of coke aday. Theproduct is 4000tonnes of iron. Inother
w ords, alarge blast furnaceproduces about 2.5tonnes of pigiron
am inute.
T hereareseveral w aysofconvertingpigironintosteel. Theyare
basedonoxidizingthecarbonandim purities containedintheiron
andseparatingtheoxidesintothegaseousphaseortheslag. Inthe
U SSR , them ainpart of thepigironis convertedintosteel bythe
openhearthprocess.
T heopenhearthprocess, inventedbythe Frenchengineer Pierre
M artin, is conducted in a flam e-contact reverberating furnace.
T helatterischargedw ithpigiron, andalsowithsteel scraprequir
ing rem elting, and som e ore. Preheatedairandfuel(intheform
of agasorsprayedliquid) arefedinto thefurnace. C om bustionof
the fuel produces aflam ew ithatem perature of 1800to 1900°C .
The m etal andore m elt, andadditions neededto obtainsteel of
therequiredcom positionareintroducedintothem elt. T heim purities
burnout m ainlyat the expense of the oxygenof the air.
Asm all am ount of steel is m eltedinconverters. T he essence of
theconverteror, afterthenam eofits inventor, theB essem erprocess
consists inblow ingastreamof air throughm olten pig iron. T he
carbonandim puritiesburnout andarerem ovedintheformofgases
or pass into the slag. Aconverter is apear-shapedvessel turning
onahorizontal axis. T he m olten ironis pouredinandthe steel
obtainedis pouredout inthehorizontal positionof the converter,
w hile airis blow nthroughit inits vertical position.
The converter process has a num ber of shortcom ings in com
parison w iththe openhearthone. T he quality of B essem er steel
islow erthanthatofopenhearthsteel becauseanappreciableam ount
ofnitrogendissolvesinthem etal inthecourseofblow ingairthrough
it. This underlies the inclination of B essem ersteel toage— ‘lose
its plasticity w ithtim e andgain brittleness. B essem er steel of a
m uchhigher quality is producedw hen anoxygen blast is used.
The m ost refined industrial process for producing steel is by
m eltinginelectrical furnaces. M ost grades of special steels arepro
ducedbythisprocessat present. It iseasytoprovidearapideleva-
tion of the tem perature and its accurate control in an electrical

furnace; anoxidizing, reducing, orneutral atm ospherecanbecreated
in it. This allow sm etallurgists to produce steel w ith the low est
content of harm ful im purities; at the sam e tim e, the preset com
positionof thesteel is ensuredw ithahighaccuracy.
Inall theprocessesusedtoproducesteel, them oltenm etal con
tains asm all am ount of dissolvedoxygen(upto0.1% ). W henthe
steel crystallizes, the oxygenreacts w iththe dissolved carbonto
formcarbonm onoxide. Thisgas(andalsosom eothergasesdissolved
inm oltensteel) separates fromthe steel inthe formof bubbles.
Inaddition, oxides of ironandtheim puritym etals separatealong
theboundaries of thegrains. A ll this detracts fromthem echanical
properties of the steel.
This is w hy a steel m elting process usually term inates in its
deoxidation— dim inishing of the am ount of oxygen dissolved in
them oltensteel. T here arevarious w ays of deoxidizingsteel. T he
oneingreatestfavouristheadditiontothe steel ofsm all am ounts
ofelem entsactivelycom biningw ithoxygen. T hedeoxidizingagents
generally used are m anganese, silicon, alum inium , andtitanium .
T heoxides of theseelem ents form edpass intotheslag.
W ell deoxidized steel solidifies quietly, w ithout the evolution
of gases, andis calledkilled. W henundeoxidizedor incom pletely
deoxidizedsteel cools, gases evolve fromit, andthe m etal seem s
toboil; suchsteel is calledrim m ingoropen. K illedsteel is better
thanrim m ingsteel. But rim mingsteels arecheaper andalsofind
a variety of applications.
Meltedsteel is tapped into a pouring or teem ing ladle and is
pouredinto m etal m oulds, or is deliveredfor continuous casting.
T he steel solidifies inthe formof ingots w hose shape depends on
w hat they are to be used for.
W hen steel crystallizes, it dim inishes in volum e, and a void
know nasashrinkagecavityform sinthetoppart of aningot that
solidifies last of all. T he portion of the ingot belowashrinkage
cavity has aloose structure. N o shrinkage cavities areform edin
rim m ingingots, but theyarepenetratedbyalargenum berofbub
bles. Ingots alsohave other defects, particularlynon-hom ogeneity
oftheirchem ical com position. It isduetothefact that thecrystals
form edfirst containam inim umam ount of im purities, w hile the
last portionsofthecrystallizingsteel containthem axim umam ount
of them ; diffusionof the im purityatom s that couldlevel out their
concentrations does not have tim e tooccurbecause aningot cools
rapidly.
T oelim inate ingot defects, the m ajor part of all the steel pro
duced (about 90% ) is processedunder pressure. T he structure of
thesteel becom essubstantiallym orehom ogeneous, theresult being
anim provem ent in its m echanical properties.
23*
T here is avarietyof processes for pressure treatm ent. Theyin

clude rolling, draw ing, andpressing. The m ost im portant kindof
pressuretreatm ent isrolling. Ingots deliveredtotherollingdepart
m ent of anironandsteel w orks areheatedto 1000-1300°C .T he
steel transform s into the austenite state, andits plasticity grow s
greatly. Theheatedingots arefedtotherollingm ill. It is agroup
of m achines w hose m ainpurpose is todeformthe m etal bym eans
of rotatingrolls. A ningot grippedby the rolls is squeezed. T he
thicknessoftheblankdim inishes, w hileitslengthgrow s;theopera
tion is repeated m any tim es. D ifferent rolling m ills producea
varietyof products: plates, sheets, tubes, rails, beam s, andarticles
having a m ore intricate shape, such as railw ay vehicle w heels.
Part of the steel is rollednot toa finishedproduct, but onlyto
asem ifinishedone (plates, bars, etc.). Suchasem ifinishedproduct
is later processedby other m ethods. H ot-rolledsteel is the m ost
widelyusedm aterial fortheproductionofm achines, m achinetools,
structural m em bers, andconsum ers9goods.
126. Heat Treatment of Steel
Bytheheat treatm ent of steel is m eant thechange inits struc
ture, and, consequently, in its properties achievedbyheating to
a definite tem perature, holding at this tem perature, and cooling
at adefinite rate. The heat treatm ent of steel is anexceedingly
im portant operationinthe technology of steel; it canchange its
properties very greatly. Both finished articles, m ainly tools and
m achine com ponents, andsem ifinishedones, for instance, castings
and rolled blanks, are subjected to heat treatm ent.
Different kinds of heat treatm ent areusedw hichim partvarious
propertiestosteel. T hem ost im portant of themarehardeningand
tem pering.
H ardeningis perform edbyheatingsteel toatem peraturesom e
w hat higherthanthat of transform ationof pearlite intoaustenite,
holding it at this tem perature, andrapidlycoolingit. H ardening
m akessteel hardandstrong, but at thesam etim em akes itbrittle.
Thisisw hyhardenedsteelisusuallysubjectedtoanotheroperation-
tem pering. It consistsinheatingthesteel toatem peratureatw hich
it doesnot yet transformintoaustenite, holdingit at thistem pera
ture, andcom parativelyslowlycooling it. Tem peringis the final
operationof heat treatm ent. A s aresult of hardeningandtem per
ing conducted according to preset conditions, steel acquires the
essential m echanical properties.
W hatprocessesoccurinsteel w henit ishardenedandtem pered?
T oansw erthis question, let us revert tothe phase diagramof the
Fe-Csystem . Figure69gives apart of this diagramcorresponding
to acarboncontent upto2.14%andatem peratureupto1147°G .
W hen steel of a eutectoid com position (0.8%carbon) is heated,

pearlite at 727°Ctransform s into austenite. W hensteel contain
ingasm aller am ount of carbon, forinstance0.4% , is heated(the
structure of suchsteel consists of pearlite andferrite), at 727°C
the pearlite transform s into austenite w ith0.8%carbon(point 1
inFig. 69), w hile uponfurtherheating, the ferrite graduallydis
solvesintheaustenite; thecarboncontent intheaustenitedim in
ishes alonglineS G . W henpoint 2 is reached, theferritevanishes,
andtheconcentrationof thecarbonintheaustenitebecom esequal
to its total content in the steel.
T he transform ations occur sim ilarly for steel containing larger
am ountsofcarbon, forexam ple1.4% . Suchsteel consistsofpearlite
andcem entite. A t 727 °G , the pearlite transform s into austenite
containing 0.8%carbon (point 5), w hile upon further heating,
the cem entitedissolves inthe austenite. W henpoint 4 is reached,
the cem entite vanishes, and the carboncontent in the austenite
becom es equal to 1.4% .
Thus, the first stage of hardening— heating— is attendedbythe
transform ationof the steel tothestate of austenite. T he diffusion
of atom sevenat hightem peratures occurs inasolidfarfromin
stantaneously. For com pleteness of the transform ation, the stee
is heldfor acertaintim e at atem perature som ew hat higherthan
the corresponding point online G S or S E .
The processes occurringintheslowcoolingof austenite arethe
reverseofthosew ehavejustconsidered. Butw henthesteel iscooled
rapidly, theseprocesses associatedw iththediffusionof thecarbon
andironatom s donothavetim e tooccur. A s aresult, thesteel is
in a non-equilibriumstate.
U pon cooling, the austenite
becom esatherm odynam icallyun
stable phase; attem peraturesbe
low727 °C , pearlite orpearlite
w ithanexcess of ferrite orce
m entite is therm odynam ically
stable. A nincreaseinsupercool
ing increases the difference be
tw een the G ibbs energies of the
austeniteandpearlitestim ulating
the transform ation. But at the
sam etim e, greater supercooling
(i.e. alow ertem perature) retards
the diffusionof the atom s. A sa
result of the sim ultaneousaction c,%(mas$)
of theseoppositetrends,therate Ffg. 69 Part of phase diagram of
of transform ationofaustenitein- iron-carbon sy stem
topearliteis m axim umat slight c-am m tite;p— pSim *
supercoolings,i.e. w henthetem peratureislow eredslow ly. A tgreat

supercoolings,how ever,w henthetem perature israpidlylow ered,the
rateofthediffusionprocessesapproacheszero,andthetransform ation
becom esim possible. T hecrystal lattice of iron,how ever, changesits
structureatanyrateofcooling,sothatasaresultoflow eringofthetem
perature, y-iron transform s into a-iron. H ence, the hardeningof
steel isbasedonthetransform ationofausteniteintoasupersaturated
solidsolutionof carbonina-iron. This phaseis calledm artensite;
beingtherm odynam icallyunstable, it is not reflectedinthe phase
diagram .
If inthe equilibriumstate, thesolubilityof carbonina-ironat
20°Cdoes not exceed0.0025% , inm artensite it is thesam eas in
theinitial austenite. T hem artensitetransform ationisnot attended
bythediffusionredistributionofthecarbon, i.e. thedisplacem ents
ofthecarbonandironatom sdonotexceedtheinteratom icdistances
in the course of this transform ation. W hat does occur is onlya
rearrangem ent of the cubic face-centredlattice of the y-ironinto
the cubic body-centred lattice of a-iron. But the retainingof car
bonatom sinthenewlatticeleadstoitsdistortion, andm oreexact
ly, to transform ationintoatetragonal systemw itharatioof the
axe3that onlyinsignificantly differs fromunity. W henthecarbon
content inthesteel exceeds0.5% , apart of theaustenite doesnot
undergo transform ations and is retained in the hardened
steel.
M artensite has ahighhardness that grow sw ith anincrease in
the carboncontent. Its hardness is duetotheveryfinenon-hom o
geneity of the structure preventing the shifting of dislocations.
But at thesam etim e, ow ingtothelargeinternal stressesappearing
w henit isform ed, m artensiteis brittle. This isw hyhardenedsteel
is hard, but brittle.
Intem pering, m artensite andthe residual austenite partly de
com pose. T he degree of transform ationof the m artensite andthe
structureoftheproductsform eddependontheheatingtem perature
in tem pering.
In low -tem perature tem pering, the articles are heated to 150-
250°G .T hecarbonseparatesonlypartlyfromthem artensite, form
ing inclusions of ironcarbide plates (cem entite). L ow -tem perature
tem pering dim inishes the internal stresses in steel and im proves
itsstrength,w hileitshardnessandw ear-resistancerem ainunchanged.
C uttingtools andm easuringinstrum ents aresubjectedtothis kind
of tem pering.
M oderate-tem perature tem pering is conducted at 350 to 500°G .
A t these tem peratures, the diffusionof the carbonandironatom s
proceeds sufficiently rapidly; the carbon separates com pletely
fromthe m artensite, andthe steel acquires thestructure of ferrite
andthin-lam inar particles of cem entite. It becom es elastic, w hich
is w hyhelical andleaf springs aresubjectedtom oderate-tem pera

ture tem pering.
Tem peringconductedat 500to680°Cis calledhigh-tem perature
or high. A t these tem peratures, the crystallites of iron carbide
grow — its thinplates consolidate andacquirearoundshape. H igh
tem pering increases the toughness of steel; its strengthandhard
ness dim inishsom ewhat, but nevertheless rem ain quite high. In
high tem pering, the best relationship betw een the m echanical
propertiesof steel iscreated. This isw hyhardeningw ithhightem
peringis calledtougheningof steel. Tougheningis the m ainkind
of heat treatm ent of structural steels (seenextpage).
Som etim es, the surface of an article or com ponent m ust have
m echanical propertiesdifferingfromthoseinits bulk. Forexam ple,
am otorvehicle axlem ust haveahardsurfacew ell resistingw ear,
andat the sam e time it m ust not be brittle, i.e. it m ust have a
certainelasticitytopreventfracturesinjolts. Insuchcases, chem ical
heat treatm ent of steel is em ployed, i.e. the surface of anarticle
is saturatedw ithcarbon, nitrogen, orsom e otherelem ents, w hich
isachievedbydiffusionoftheelem entfromthesurroundingm edium
at elevatedtem peratures. Saturationw ithcarbon, orcase-hardening,
is conducted by heatinganarticle inanatm osphereof C O,C H 4,
or inactivatedcarbon. T he surface layer of the steel from0.5 to
2m mdeep acquires a great hardness and strength, w hereas the
regm ainingpart of the steel rem ains toughandelastic. Innitriding
of steel, i.e. insaturating its surface w ithnitrogen,*anarticle is
subjectedto prolongedheating inanam m onia atm osphere at 500
to 600°C .N itrided steel has astill greater hardness than case-
hardenedsteel ow ingtotheform ationof ironnitridesinthesurface
layer. Itw ithstandsheatingupto500°Cw ithoutlosingits hardness.
127. Iron Alloys
W ehave alreadym entionedthat alloys of ironw ithcarbonare
groupedintosteelsandcom m ercial irons. Steels, inturn, aregrouped
in accordance w ith their chem ical com position and application,
andcom mercial irons— accordingtothestateofthecarboninthem .
As regards their chem ical com position, carbonandalloy steels
are distinguished.
Carbonsteels are alloys of ironw ithcarbon, the content of the
latter not exceeding 2.14% .C om m ercial carbon steel, how ever,
alw ays contains adm ixtures of m any elem ents. T he presence of
som eadm ixtures is duetothefeatures of steel production: forex
am ple, in deoxidation (see p. 355), sm all am ounts of m anganese
orsiliconareintroducedintothe steel. Theypartlypass into the
slag as oxides, andpartlyrem aininthe steel. O ther adm ixtures
pass intothepigironinsm all am ounts fromthe initial ore, and
then into the steel. It is difficult to elim inate themcom pletely,

andcarbonsteels, forexam ple, usuallycontainfrom0.05to0.1%
phosphorus and sulphur.
The m echanical properties of slowly cooledcarbonsteel depend
greatly,onitscarboncontent. Slowlycooledsteel consists offerrite
and cem entite, the am ount of the cem entite being proportional
to the carboncontent. The hardness of cem entite is m uchgreater
than that of ferrite. C onsequently, w ith a grow th in the carbon
content insteel, its hardness increases. Inaddition, the cem entite
particleshinderthem otionofthedislocations inthem ainphase-
inthe ferrite. For this reason, anincrease inthe carboncontent
low ers the plasticity of steel.
C arbonsteel has averybroadapplication. D ependingonits use,
steel w ithaloworahighercarboncontent is em ployed, w ithout
heat treatm ent (inthe “raw ”form — afterrolling), orw ithharden
ing andtem pering.
AlloySteels. Elem ents speciallyintroducedintosteel indefinite
concentrations tochangeits propertiesarecalledalloyingelem ents,
andthe steel containing suchelem ents is called alloysteel. T he
m ost im portant alloyingelem ents include chrom ium , nickel, m an
ganese, silicon, vanadium , andm olybdenum .
D ifferent alloying elem ents change the structure andproperties
of steel indifferent w ays. For instance, som e elem ents formsolid
solutionsiny-ironthat arestableinabroadrangeoftem peratures.
Forexam ple, solidsolutions of m anganeseornickel iny-ironw ith
aconsiderablecontent of theseelem ents arestablefromroomtem
peraturetothem eltingpoint ofthealloy. A lloysof ironw ithsuch
m etals are therefore called austenite steels or austenite alloys.
The influence of alloying elem ents onthe properties of steel is
alsoduetothe fact that som e of themformcarbides w ithcarbon
that m ay be sim ple, for instance, M nsCand C r7C8, or com plex
(double), forinstance(Fe, C r)3C.T hepresenceofcarbides, especially
in the formof dispersed inclusions in the structure of thesteel,
often appreciably affects its m echanical and physicochem ical
properties.
A ccordingtotheirapplication, steels aredividedintostructural,
tool, andsteels w ithspecial properties. Structural steels are used
for m aking m achine com ponents and structural m em bers. B oth
carbonandalloysteelsareusedasstructural ones. Structural steels
have ahighstrengthandplasticity. A t thesam etim e, theym ust
lend them selves w ell to pressure treatm ent, cutting, andw elding.
Them ainalloyingelem entsofstructural steelsarechrom ium(about
1% ), nickel (1-4% ), and m anganese (1-1.5% ).
T ool steels are carbonandalloy steels having ahighhardness,
strength, andw earresistance. Theyareem ployedform akingcutting
tools, m easuringinstrum ents, punches, anddies. T herequiredhard-
ness is ensuredby the carboncontainedinthese steels (from0.8

to 1.3% ). T he m ainalloyingelem ent of tool steels is chrom ium ;
som etim es tungsten andvanadiumare also introducedinto them .
Aspecial groupof tool steels isform edbyhigh-speedsteelsretain
ingtheircuttingproperties at highcuttingspeeds w henthe tem
peratureof thew orkingpart of thecuttingtool increases from600
to700°C .T he chief alloyingelem ents of this steel arechrom ium
and tungsten.
Steels w ith Special Properties. This group includes stainless,
heat-resistant, high-tem perature, m agnetic, andsom e other steels.
Stainless steels are stable against corrosion in the atm osphere,
m oisture, and in acid solutions, heat-resistant steels are stable
incorrosion-active m edia at elevatedtem peratures. H igh-tem pera-
ture steels retain their high m echanical properties w hen heated
to considerable tem peratures, w hich is im portant in m aking the
bladesofgasturbines, andthecom ponentsofjetenginesandrocket
installations. T he m ost im portant alloying elem ents of high-tem
peraturesteels arechrom ium(15-20%), nickel (8-15%), and tung
sten. H igh-tem perature steels belong to austenite alloys.
M agnetic steels are used to m ake perm anent m agnets and the
coresofm agneticdevicesoperatinginalternatingfields. Perm anent
m agnets arem adefromhigh-carbonsteels alloyedw ithchrom ium
ortungsten. Theyarew ell m agnetizedandretainaresidual induc
tionforalongtim e. Thecores of m agneticdevices arem adefrom
low -carbon(less than0.005%C ) alloys of ironw ithsilicon. These
steels are readily rem agnetized and are characterized by a low
value of their electrical losses.
D ifferent system s are used in different countries to designate
thevariousgrades of alloysteels. Thefollow ingletter andnum ber
systemis usedinthe U SSR . Eachalloyingelem ent is designated
by aR ussianletter: H stands for nickel, X for chrom ium , T for
m anganese, etc. T hefirst num bersinthealloydesignationindicate
the carboncontent inthe steel (inhundredths of apercent). T he
num berfollow ingalettersym bol indicatesthecontent ofthegiven
elem ent (nonum beris usedif its content is about 1%orless). For
exam ple, asteel containingfrom0.10 to 0.15% carbonandfrom
1.3 to 1.7% m anganese is designated12r2. T hegrade designation
X18H9 stan ds forsteel containing18% chrom iumand9% nickel.
A part fromthis system , non-standard sym bols are som etim es
used.
C om m ercial irondiffers fromsteel inits properties. It is capable
ofplasticdeform ationtoaverysm all extent (inordinaryconditions
it doesnot lenditself toforging) but has goodcastingproperties.
C om m ercial iron is cheaper than steel.
W e have alreadym entioned (p. 350) that inthe crystallization
of liquidiron, andalsointhe decom positionof the austenitecon-
tained insuchphases, the carbonusuallyseparates as cem entite.

In the conditions considered, how ever, the cem entite is therm o
dynam ically unstable. Its form ation is due only to the fact that
theseedsof its crystallizationformm uchm orereadilyandrequire
less diffusion changes than the seeds of graphite. C onsequently,
inconditions of veryslowcoolingof liquidiron, the carbonm ay
crystallize not as cem entite, but as graphite. The form ation of
graphite is alsogreatlyfacilitatedinthe presenceof fineparticles
of adm ixtures (especially adm ixtures of graphite) in the m olten
iron.
H ence, dependingonthe conditions of crystallization, ironm ay
containcarbonas cem entite, graphite, ortheirm ixture. T heshape
of the graphite form ed m ay also vary.
W hite ironcontains all its carbonas cem entite. It is veryhard
andbrittle, w hichexplains its lim iteduse. It is m ainlyproduced
for conversion to steel.
G rayironcontainsitscarbonchieflyintheformofgraphiteplates.
It has highcastingproperties (alowcrystallizationpoint, fluidity
inthe liquidstate, sm all shrinkage) andis the m ainm aterial for
castings. It is widelyem ployedinm echanical engineeringforcast
ing m achine tool beds and m echanism s, pistons, and cylinders.
G ray ironalw ays contains other elem ents in addition to carbon.
The m ost im portant of themare siliconandm anganese. Inm ost
grades of grayiron, the carboncontent ranges from2.4 to 3.8% ,
the siliconcontent from1to4% , andthat of m anganeseis upto
1.4% .
H igh-strength iron is produced by adding certain elem ents to
m olten iron, particularly m agnesium , under w hose influence the
graphite acquires a spherical shape in crystallization. Spherical
graphiteim proves them echanical properties of iron. H igh-strength
irongoes tom akecrankshafts, cylinderlids, com ponents of rolling
m ills, rolling m ill rolls, pum ps, and valves.
M alleable ironis producedby prolongedheating of w hite iron
castings. It is usedto m ake com ponents operating under im pact
and vibration loads (for exam ple, crankcases and m otor vehicle
rear axles). T he plasticity andstrengthof m alleable ironare due
to thefact that thecarbonis init as flakygraphite.
128. Chemical Properties of Iron.
Compounds of Iron
Pure ironis producedinvarious w ays. The m ost important of
themare the therm al decom position of iron pentacarbonyl (see
Sec. 79) andthe electrolysis of aqueous solutions of its salts.
Ironrapidly rusts in hum id air, i.e. becom es covered w ith a
brow ncoatofhydratedironoxide, w hichow ingtoitsporositydoes
notprotecttheironfromfurtheroxidation. Ironcorrodesintensively
inwater;w ithanabundantsupplyofoxygen, iron(III)oxidehydrates
are formed:
2Fe “2 “^ 2 = FOjOj •itHaO
W ithinsufficient oxygenorwhenits access to the ironis ham

pered, the m ixed oxide Fe304(FeO-Fe203) is form ed:
3Fe -f- 20a -f- /iHaO = FejO^nHjO
Iron dissolves in hydrochloric acid of any concentration:
Fe + 2HC1 = FeCla + Ha f
It dissolves similarly in dilute sulphuric acid:
Fe + H2 S0 4 = FeS04 + H2
Inconcentrated sulphuric acid solutions, iron is oxidized to
iron(III):
2Fe + 6H2 S0 4 = Fe2 (S04)s + 3SOa f + 6H20
But in sulphuric acid w hose concentration is close to 100% ,
iron becom es passive and virtually no reaction occurs.
Iron dissolves in dilute and m oderately concentrated solution*
of nitric acid:
Fe + 4HNO* = Fe(N08 ) 8 + NO f + 2HaO
A t high concentrations of the HN03l dissolving retards, and
the iron becom es passive.
Iron is characterized by tw o series of com pounds: of iron(II)
andof iron(III). T heform ercorrespondtoiron(II)oxideFeO , and
thelattertoiron(III) oxideFe203. Inaddition, salts of ferricacid
H jFeO *areknow ninw hichtheoxidationstate of ironis+6.
Iron(II) Com pounds, Iron(II) salts are formedw heniron is dis
solvedindilute acids except fornitric acid. T he m ost important
of themis iron(II) sulphateorgreenvitriol FeS04*7H 20 form ing
light greencrystalswell solubleinw ater. Iron(II) sulphategradual
lyefflorescesinairandissim ultaneouslyoxidizedfromitssurface,
transform ing into the yellow-brow n basic salt of iron(III).
Iron(II) sulphate is produced by dissolving steel trim mings in
20-30%sulphuric acid:
Fe + H2 S0 4 = FeS04 + Ha f
Iron(II) sulphateisusedtocom bat plant pests, intheproduction
of inkandm ineral pigments, andinthe dyeingof fabrics.
W hengreenvitriol is heated, w ater is liberated andaw hite
m ass of the anhydrous salt FeS04is obtained. A t temperatures
above 480°C , the anhydrous salt decom poses w iththe liberation
of sulphur dioxide andtrioxide; the latter form s aheavy w hite
vapour of sulphuric acid inhum id air:
2FeS04 = Fea0 3 -f* SOa f -J- SOa f
364 Eighth G roup of th e Periodic Table
When a solution of an iron (I I) salt reacts with an alkali, a white

precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 is formed, which in air
owing to oxidation rapidly acquires a greenish, and then a brown
colour, transforming into iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3:
4Fe(O H )a + 0 2 + 2 H aO = 4Fe(O H )s
Anhydrous iron(II) oxide FeO can be prepared as a black readily
oxidizable powder by reducing iron(III) oxide with carbon mono
xide at 500 °C:
F e20 8 + CO = 2FeO + COat
Alkali metal carbonates precipitate white iron(II) carbonate

FeCOs from solutions of iron(II) salts. In water containing CO*,
iron(II) carbonate, like calcium carbonate, partly transforms into
the more soluble acid salt Fe(HCOs)a. Iron is contained in natural
ferruginous mineral waters in the form of this salt.
Iron(II) salts can readily be transformed into iron(III) salts
by reacting them with various oxidizing agents—nitric acid, potas
sium permanganate, or chlorine, for instance:
6 F eS 0 4 + 2H N O s + 3 H 2S 0 4 = 3F e2(S 0 4)8 + 2NO f + 4 H 20
10FeSO4 + 2KM d 0 4 + 8 H 2S 0 4 =
= 5Fe2(S 0 4)8 + K 2S 0 4 + 2M nS 04 + 8 H aO
Owing to their ability of being readily oxidized, iron(II) salts

are often used as reducing agents.
Iron(III) Compounds. Iron(III) chloride FeCl8 forms dark brown
crystals with a greenish change of colours. It is highly hygroscopic;
absorbing moisture from the air, it transforms into crystal hydrates
containing a varying amount of water and deliquescing in air. In
this state, iron(III) chloride is brown-orange. In a dilute solution,
FeCls hydrolyzes to basic salts. In the vapour state, iron(III) chloride
has a structure similar to that of aluminium chloride (p. 305) and
corresponding to the formula Fe2Cl6; appreciable dissociation of
FesCle into FeCls molecules begins at a temperature of about 500 °C.
Iron(III) chloride is used as a coagulant in water purification,
and as a catalyst in organic syntheses and in the textile industry.
Iron(III) sulphate Fe2(S04)3 forms very hygroscopic white crys
tals that are deliquescent in air. It forms the crystal hydrate
Fea(S04)3 • 9H20 (yellow crystals). Iron(III) sulphate is greatly
hydrolyzed in aqueous solutions. It forms double salts—alums—
with alkali metal and ammonium sulphates. An example is am m oni
umiron alum (NH4)Fe(S04)a • 12HaO—light violet crystals well
soluble in water. When roasted to above 500 °C, iron(III) sulphate
decomposes as follows:
Fe2(S 0 4)8 — Fe20 3 4* 3 S 0 8 f .
Iron(III) sulphate is employed, like FeCl3, as a coagulant in water

purification, and also for pickling metals. A solution of Fe2(S04)3
can dissolve Cu2S and CuS to form copper(II) sulphate; this prop
erty is used in the hydrometallurgical preparation of copper.
When alkalies react with solutions of iron(III) salts, red-brown
iron(III) hydroxide Fe(0H)3 precipitates. It is insoluble in an ex
cess of the alkali.
Iron(III) hydroxide is a weaker base than iron(II) hydroxide.
This manifests itself in that iron(III) salts are greatly hydrolyzed,
while Fe(OH)3 forms no salts with weak acids (for instance with
carbonic or hydrosulphuric acid). Hydrolysis also explains the
colour of solutions of iron(III) salts: notwithstanding the fact that
the Fes+ ion is almost colourless, solutions containing it are yellow-
brown. The explanation is the presence of hydroxo ions of iron or
of Fe(OH)3 molecules, which form owing to hydrolysis:
Fe3# + H aO =** FeOH*+ + H +
FeOHa+ + H*0 Fe(OH)J + H+
Fe(OH)} + H 20 q* Fe(OH), + H +
The colour darkens when the solution is heated, while when acids
are added it becomes lighter owing to the suppression of hydrolysis.
Iron(III) hydroxide loses water when roasted and transforms
into iron(III) oxide Fe20 3. The latter is encountered in nature as
hematite (red iron ore) and is used as a brown pigment—Indian
red or colcothar.
A characteristic reaction distinguishing iron(III) salts from those
of iron(II) is the reaction of potassium thiocyanide KSCN or am
monium thiocyanide NH4SCN with iron salts. A potassium thio
cyanide solution contains colourless SCN~ ions that combine with
Fe(III) ions to form garnet-red, weakly dissociated iron (111) thio
cyanide Fe(SCN)3. When the thiocyanides react with iron(II) ions,
the solution remains colourless.
Cyanide Compounds of Iron. The reaction of solutions of iron(II)
salts with soluble cyanides, for instance potassium cyanide, yields
a white precipitate of iron(II) cyanide:
Fe2+ + 2CN- = Fe(CN)a *
The precipitate dissolves in excess potassium cyanide owing
to the formation of the complex salt K4[Fe(CN)6]—potassium hexa-
cyanoferrate(II)
Fe(CN)a + 4KCN = K4[Fe(CN) J
or
Fe(CN)* + 4CN- = [Fe(CN)J<-
jPotassium hexacyanoferrate(II) K4lFe(CN)6] *3HaO crystallizes as

large light yellow prisms. This salt is also known as yellow prussiate
366 Eighth C roup of the Periodic Table
of potash. When dissolved in water, the salt dissociates into potas

sium ions and the exceedingly stable complex ions [Fe(CN)6]4~.
Such a solution contains virtually no Fe2+ ions and gives no reactions
characteristic of iron (I I).
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) is a sensitive reagent foriron(III)
ions because the [Fe(CN)e]4~ ions react with Fe3+ ions to form the
insoluble (in water) salt iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II)'Fe4[Fe(CN)6],
having a characteristic blue colour; this salt is called Prussian
blue:
4Fe3+ + 3[Fe(CN)6]4- - Fe4[Fe(CN)6]8
Prussian blue is used as a pigment.
Chlorine or bromine oxidizes the anion of potassium hexacyano-
ferrate(II) into the ion [Fe(CN)e]3~:
2[Fe(CN)flJ4- + Cl2 = 2[Fe(CN)fl]3- + 2C1-
The salt K3[Fe(CN)0] corresponding to this anion is called potas
sium hexacyanoferrate(III), or red prussiate of potash. It forms red
anhydrous crystals.
If potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) is reacted with a solution of
an iron(II) salt, a precipitate of iron(II) hexacyanoferrate(III)
(Turnbull’s blue) is obtained that greatly resembles Prussian blue,
but has a different composition*:
3Fe2+ + 2[Fe(CN)6]3~ = Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2
With iron(III) salts, K3[Fe(CN)6] forms a greenish brown solution*
In most of their other complex compounds, as in the cyanoferrates
considered above, the coordination number of iron(II) and iron(III)
is six.
Ferrites. When iron(III) oxide is fused with sodium or potassium
carbonates, ferrites are formed—salts of ferrous acid HFe02 that
has not been obtained in the free state, for instance sodium ferrite
NaFe02:
Fe20 3 + Na2COs = 2NaFeO*+ C02 f
In engineering, the name ferrites or ferrite materials is applied
to the products obtained in sintering powders of iron(III) oxide
and oxides of some divalent metals, for instance, nickel, zinc,
and manganese. Sintering is conducted at 1000 to 1400 °C. Ferrites
have valuable magnetic properties and a high electrical resistance,
which underlies the small value of the electrical losses in them.
Ferrites find broad application in communication equipment, com
puters, and in automatic and remote control equipment.
Iron(VI) Compounds. If steel filings or iron(III) oxide are heated
with potassium nitrate and hydroxide, an alloy is formed contain-
* Data have been obtained lately indicating that Prussian blue and Turn-
bull's blue are identical.
ing potassium ferrate K 2Fe04—a salt of ferric acid H 2Fe04:

Fea0 8 + 4K0H + 3KNOs = 2KaFe04 + 3K N0a + 2Ha0
+III +vi
2Fe = 2Fe + 6<?- 1
+v +III
N +2*- = N 3
When the alloy is dissolved in water, a red-violet solution is
obtained from which the water-insoluble barium ferrate BaFe04
can be precipitated by reaction with barium chloride.
All ferrates are very strong oxidizing agents (stronger than per
manganates). Ferric acid H 2Fe04 and its anhydride Fe08 corre
sponding to the ferrates have not been obtained in the free state*
Iron Carbonyls. Iron forms volatile compounds with carbon mono
xide called iron carbonyls. Iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO)6 is a pale
yellow liquid boiling at 105 °C, insoluble in water, but soluble
in many organic solvents. Iron pentacarbonyl is prepared by passing
CO over an iron powder at 150 to 200 °C and a pressure of 10 MPa.
The impurities contained in the iron do not enter into a reaction
with the CO, and therefore a very pure product is obtained. When
heated in a vacuum, iron pentacarbonyl decomposes into iron and
CO. This is taken advantage of to produce highly pure powdered
iron-carbonyl iron (see Sec. 79).
The nature of the chemical bonds in the Fe(CO)6 molecule is
treated on pp. 114 and 115.
129. Cobalt (CobaHum)

Cobalt is rare in nature: its content in the Earth’s crust is about
0.004% (mass). It is most often combined with arsenic as the miner
als smaltite CoAs2 and cobaltite or cobalt glance CoAs.
Cobalt is a hard, ductile, lustrous metal resembling iron. Like
the latter, it has magnetic properties. Water and air do not react
with it. Cobalt dissolves in dilute acids with much greater
difficulty than iron.
Cobalt finds its main application in alloys used as heat-resistant
and high-temperature materials, and for making permanent mag
nets and cutting tools. The high-temperature and heat-resistant
alloy Vitallium contains 65% Co, 28% Cr, 3% W, and 4% Mo.
This alloy retains its high strength and does not lend itself to corro
sion at temperatures up to 800-850 °C. The hard alloys named stel
lites containing 40 to 60% Co, 20 to 35% Cr, 5 to 20% W, and
1 to 2% C are used to make cutting tools. Cobalt is also included
in the composition of metalloceramic hard alloys—cermets (see
p. 331). Cobalt compounds impart a dark blue colour to glass (owing
to the formation of cobalt silicate). Such glass ground into a powder
is used under the name of “smalt” or “cobalt” as a blue pigment.
The radioactive isotope ^Co is used in medicine as a source of gamma

radiation (a "cobalt gun”).
Cobalt forms cobalt(II) oxide CoO and cobalt(III) oxide Co20 3,
and the relevant hydroxides Co(OH)2 and Co(OH)3. Two series of
salts correspond to these compounds, but those of cobalt(III) are
unstable and readily transform into cobalt(II) salts. The mixed
oxide Co30 4 (or CoO • Co20 3) is also known.
Anhydrous cobalt(II) salts are usually blue, while their aqueous
solutions and crystal hydrates are pink. For instance, cobalt(Il)
chloride forms pink crystals of the composition CoCl2 • 6H20.
Filter paper impregnated with a solution of this salt and then dried
can be used as aj rough hygroscope (humidity indicator) because
depending on the humidity (moisture coptent) of the air, it acquires
various tints from blue to pink.
Cobalt(ll) hydroxide Co(OH)2 is obtained when an alkali is reacted
with solutions of cobalt (I I) salts. First a precipitate of the blue
basic salt appears, which upon boiling of the liquid transforms
into the pink hydroxide Co(OH)2; the latter when roasted produces
cobalt(II) oxide CoO of a gray-green colour.
Cobalt(II) compounds are oxidized with greater difficulty than
those of iron(II). For instance, cobalt(II) hydroxide is oxidized
in air into the dark brown cobalt(III) hydroxide Co(OH)3 at a much
slower rate than that of the similar transformation of iron hydroxides.
In the presence of strong oxidizing agents, for example sodium hy
pochlorite, however, Co(OH)2 is oxidized to Co(OH)3 rapidly:
2Co(OH)a + NaOCl + H aO = 2Co(OH), + NaCl
When cobalt(III) hydroxide is reacted with oxygen-containing
acids, no cobalt(III) salts are formed, but oxygen is liberated and
cobalt(II) salts are produced, for example:
4Co(OH)8 + 4H2S 04 = 4CoS0 4 + 10HaO + 0 2 f
Cobalt (111) hydroxide liberates chlorine from hydrogen chloride:
2Co(OH)8 + 6HC1 = 2GoCla + Cla f + 6HaO
Hence, Co(III) compounds are less stable than their Fe(III) coun
terparts and exhibit a more strongly expressed oxidizing power.
Cobalt(III) is very prone to form complexes. Complex compounds
of cobalt(II) are known, but they are very unstable. Cobalt may be
either in the cation or in the anion in complex salts. Examples
are [Co(NH3)a]Cl3 and K3ICo(N02)e]. The coordination number
of cobalt is six.
130. Nickel (Niccolum)
Like cobalt, nickel occurs in nature chiefly as compounds with
arsenic or sulphur. These include the minerals niccolite or arsenical
nickel NiAs and gersdorfite NiAsS. Nickel is more abundant than
cobalt [about 0.01% (mass) of the Earth’s crust].
Tsarist Russia had no nickel industry and imported this metal.

The nickel industry was set up only under Soviet power. The first
nickel works was run in in the Urals in 1934.
Metallic nickel is silvery with a yellowish shade; it is very hard,
polishes well, and is attracted by a magnet. It is featured by a high
resistance to corrosion—it is stable in the atmosphere, in water,
in alkalies, and in a number of acids. Nickel dissolves vigorously
in nitric acid. The chemical stability of nickel is due to its disposal
to passivation—the forming on its surface of oxide films having
a strong protective action.
The bulk of nickel goes to produce a variety of alloys with iron,
copper, zinc, and other metals. An addition of nickel in steel in
creases its toughness and resistance to corrosion. Nickel-based al
loys can be grouped into high-temperature, magnetic alloys, and
alloys with special properties. High-temperature nickel alloys are
employed in modern turbines and jet engines where the temperature
reaches 850 to 900 °C. Iron-based alloys do not withstand such
temperatures. The most important high-temperature nickel alloys
include nimonic, Inconel, and Hastelloy. They contain over 60%
nickel, 15 to 20% chromium, and other metals. Metalloceramic
high-temperature alloys are also manufactured that contain nickel
as the binding metal. These alloys withstand heating to 1100 °C.
Alloys of the nichrome type, the simplest of which contains 80%
nickel and 20% chromium, are in great favour for manufacturing
the elements of electrical heating appliances.
Special mention among nickel’s magnetic alloys must be made
of permalloy, containing 78.5% nickel and 21.5% iron. It has a
very high initial permeability, which underlies its intensive mag
netization even in weak fields. Nickel alloys with special properties
include Monel metal, nickeline, konstantan, Invar, and platynite.
Monel metal (an alloy of nickel with 30% copper) is widely used
in chemical engineering because its mechanical properties are superi
or to those of nickel, while its resistance to corrosion is virtually
not inferior to that of nickel. Nickeline and constantan are also
alloys of nickel with copper. They have a high electrical resistance
that does not virtually change with the temperature and are used
in electrical heating appliances. Invar (an alloy containing 36%
nickel and] 64% iron) does not practically expand when heated
to 100 °C and is used in electrical, radio, and chemical engineering.
Platynite—an alloy of nickel and iron—has the same coefficient
of thermal expansion as glass and is used to solder inlets of metal
contacts into glass.
Nickel goes in comparatively small amounts to coat other metals.
Finely comminuted nickel is a catalyst in many chemical processes.
Pure nickel is employed to make laboratory utensils.
Nickel compounds greatly resemble those of cobalt. Like cobalt,
370 Eighth G roup of fhe Periodic Table
nickel forms nickel(II) oxide NiO and nickel(III) oxide Ni2Os, and
the relevant bases. Only one series of nickel salts is known, however,
in which it is in the + 2 oxidation state.
Nickel(II) hydroxide Ni(OH)2 forms a light green precipitate
when alkalies react with solutions of nickel salts. It loses water
when heated and transforms into the gray-green nickel(II) oxide
NiO.
Unlike iron(II) and cobalt(II) hydroxides, nickel(II) hydroxide
is not oxidized by the oxygen of the air. This displays the higher
stability against oxidation of nickel(II) compounds in comparison
with their iron and cobalt analogues.
Nickel salts are chiefly green. The greatest use among them is
found by nickel sulphate NiS04-7H20 that forms beautiful emerald
green crystals.
Nickel(III) hydroxide Ni(OH)3 is black-brown and is formed
when alkalies react with nickel salts in the presence of strong oxidiz
ing agents. It resembles cobalt(III) hydroxide in its properties,
but has still more pronounced oxidizing properties.
Nickel(II) forms many complex salts.
With carbon monoxide, nickel forms the volatile nickel tetra-
carbonyl Ni(CO)4 that decomposes when heated with the separation
of nickel. The formation and thermal decomposition of nickel car
bonyl underly one of the methods of extracting nickel from its ores,
and also a process for the production of highly pure nickel.
The most important nickel compound from a practical viewpoint
is nickel(III) oxide employed in the manufacture of alkaline cad
mium-nickel or iron-nickel accumulators (storage batteries).
Alkaline Cadmium-Nickel and Iron-Nickel Accumulators. These
two kinds of accumulators are very similar. Their main distinction
is in the material of the negative electrode plates, which are made
from cadmium or iron, respectively. Cadmium-nickel accumulators
have found the broadest application.
Alkaline accumulators are mainly produced with lamellar elec
trodes. The active bodies in them are confined in lainellas—flat small
boxes with openings. The active body of the positive plates in a
charged accumulator consists chiefly of hydrated nickel(III) oxide
Ni20 3*H20 or NiOOH. It also contains graphite added to increase
the electrical conductance. The active body of the negative plates
in cadmium-niekel accumulators consists of a mixture of spongy
cadmium and iron powder, and in iron-nickel accumulators of
reduced iron powder. A solution of potassium hydroxide contain
ing a small amount of LiOH is the electrolyte.
Let us Consider the processes occurring in the operation of ia cad
mium-nickel accumulator. In the discharge of the accumulator,
the cadmium becomes oxidized:
Cd + 2 0 H - = C d(O H )2 + 2e~
Secondary Subgroup. Platinum Metals 371
and the NiOOH is reduced:

2NiOOH + 2HaO + 2<r = 2Ni(OH)a + 20H~
The electrons are carried through the external circuit from the
cadmium electrode to the nickel one. The cadmium electrode is
the anode and is charged negatively, while the nickel electrode
is the cathode and is charged positively.
The net reaction proceeding in a cadmium-nickel accumulator
during its operation can be shown by the equation obtained upon
summation of the last two electrochemical equations:
2NiOOH + 2HaO + Cd = 2Ni(OH)a + Cd(OH)a
The e.m.f. of a charged cadmium-nickel accumulator is about
1.4 V. In operation of the accumulator (discharge), the voltage
across its terminals drops. When it falls to below one volt, the
accumulator is charged.
In charging, the electrochemical processes on the accumulator
electrodes are “reversed”. On the cadmium electrode, the metal
is reduced:
C d(O H )2 + 2e~ = Cd + 20H -
and on the nickel electrode, the nickel(II) hydroxide is oxidized:
2N i(O H )a + 2 0 H - = 2N iO O H + 2 H aO + 2<r
The net reaction in charging is the opposite of the reaction in
discharging:
2Ni(OH)a + Cd(OH)a = 2NiOOH + 2HaO + Cd
PLATINUM METALS
131. General
The name platinum metals unites the elements of the second
and third triads of Group VIII of the periodic table: ruthenium,
rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. These ele
ments form a group of quite rare metals resembling one another
in their properties so that their separation involves substantial
difficulties.
The platinum metals occur in nature almost exclusively in the
native state, generally all together, but they are never encountered
in iron ores.
Being greatly dissipated among various rocks, the platinum
metals became known to mankind comparatively recently. The
existence of platinum was established first, in 1750, before the
others. Next, at the beginning of the 19th century, palladium,
rhodium, osmium, and iridium were discovered. The last platinum
metal—ruthenium—was discovered only' in 1844 by K. Klaus,
a professor at the Kazan University, who named it ruthenium in
honour of Russia (Ruthenia means Russia).
24*
Selected properties of the platinum metals are given in Table 18.
Table 18
Selected Properties of the Platinum Metals
Ru Rh Pd Os Ir Pt
Atomic radius, nm 0.134 0.134 0.137 0.135 0.135 0.138

Ionization energy
E -+• E+, eV 7.37 7.46 8.34 8.5 9.1 8.9
E+ -*■ E2+, eV 16.8 18.1 19.4 17 17 18.6
Radius of ion E2+,
nm 0.085 0.088 0.090
Standard enthalpy
of atomization
of metal at
25 °C, kJ per
mole of atoms 657 556 372 790 669 566
Density, g/r*m3 12.4 12.4 12.0 22.5 22.4 21.5
Melting point, °G 2250 1960 1554 3030 2450 1769
Boiling point, °C 4200 3700 2940 5000 4400 3800
The platinum metals have a low activity and are very stable
to chemical action. Some of them do not dissolve not only in acids,
but also in aqua regia.
Ruthenium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium are refractory. Not
withstanding their low availability and high cost, these metals
together with platinum are finding a variety of technical applica
tions increasing with every passing year.
Although the platinum metals can exhibit different oxidation
states in their compounds, especially typical of them are compounds
in which their oxidation state is + 4 . Osmium and ruthenium also
form compounds with an oxidation state of these elements of + 8.
Osmium(VIII) oxide or osmium tetroxide 0 s0 4 is the most stable
of this element’s oxides. It forms slowly even when osmium is kept
in air and consists of fusible (melting point 41 °C) pale yellow crys
tals. The vapour of 0 s 0 4 has a pungent odour and is highly toxic.
Osmium tetroxide dissolves quite well in water, and its solution
does not give an acid reaction with litmus. But, as was first established
by L. Chugaev (1JM8), 0 s 0 4 forms unstable complex compounds
with strong alkalies.
Having sharply expressed oxidizing properties, 0 s 0 4 vigorously
reacts with organic substances, being reduced to the black osmium
dioxide 0 s 0 2. This underlies the use of 0 s 0 4 for colouring micro
scopic preparations.
Secondary Subgroup. Platinum Metals 373
Ruthenium(VIII) oxide, or ruthenium tetroxide R u04 forms hard

golden yellow crystals melting at 25.4 °C and soluble in water.
Ruthenium tetroxide is considerably less stable than 0 s 0 4 and at
a temperature of about 108 °C (below its boiling point) it decomposes
with an explosion into R u02 and oxygen.
Qsmium(VIII) fluoride, or osmium octafluoride OsF8 is prepared
by directly combining osmium and fluorine at 250 °C as a colourless
vapour condensing when cooled into lemon-yellow crystals with
a melting point of —34.4 °C.
Osmium octafluoride has sharply expressed oxidizing properties.
Water gradually decomposes it into osmium tetroxide and hydro
gen fluoride:
OsF8 + 4HaO = 0 s 0 4 + 8HF
All the platinum metals display a clearly expressed inclination
to form complexes.
132. Platinum
Platinum occurs in nature, like gold, in placer deposits as grains
always containing admixtures of other platinum metals. The plat
inum content in the Earth’s crust is estimated to be only 5 x 10~8%
(mass).
Platinum is a white lustrous malleable metal that does not change
in air even when strongly heated. Individual acids do not react
with it. It does dissolve in aqua regia, but much more difficultly
than gold.
Owing to the refractoriness and high chemical stability of platinum,
it goes to make laboratory utensils: crucibles, bowls, etc.
In the chemical industry, platinum is employed to manufacture
corrosion-resistant components of apparatus. Platinum anodes are
used in a number of electrochemical production processes (the
production of persulphuris acid, perchlorates, and perborates).
Platinum has found great favour as a catalyst, especially in conduct
ing oxidation-reduction reactions. It is the first heterogeneous
catalyst, known already from the beginning of the 19th century.
At present, platinum catalysts are used in the production of sul
phuric and nitric acids, in purifying hydrogen from oxygen admix
tures, and in a number of other processes. Platinum goes to make
the heating elements of electrical furnaces and instruments for
measuring temperature (resistance thermometers and thermocouples).
In the highly dispersed state, platinum dissolves considerable
amounts of hydrogen and oxygen. Its ability to dissolve hydrogen
is utilized in the fabrication of hydrogen electrodes (see Vol. U
p. 294).
In most of its compounds, platinum exhibits oxidation states
of + 2 and + 4 . In both states, it has a clearly expressed ability
of forming complex compounds; of the greatest significance are

platinum(IV) compounds.
When platinum is dissolved in aqua regia, the product is hexa-
cbloroplatinic or chloroplatinic acid H a[PtCl6], which upon evap
oration of its solution separates as red-brown crystals of the com
position H a[PtCl6] • 6HaO. The potassium salt of this acid is one
of the least soluble potassium salts. This is why its formation is
used in chemical analysis to detect potassium.
When chloroplatinic acid is heated in a stream of chlorine to
360 °C, it decomposes with the liberation of hydrogen chloride and
the formation of platinum(IV) chloride PtCl4.
If an alkali is poured into a solution of H2[PtCl6], a brown pre
cipitate of Pt(0H )4 is formed. This substance is known as platinic
acid because it forms a salt when dissolved in an excess amount
of alkali. Platinum(IV) oxide P t0 2 is also known.
Platinum(II) chloride PtCla is obtained when chlorine is passed
over finely comminuted platinum. It has a greenish colour and is
insoluble in water.
The complex compounds of platinum(II) include the salts of
tetracyanoplatinic(II) acid H 2[Pt(CN)4]. The barium salt of this
acid Ba[Pt(CN)4] exhibits bright fluorescence when acted upon
by ultraviolet and X-rays and is used in fluoroscopy to coat fluoresc
ing screens.
133. Palladium. Iridium
Palladium is a silvery metal, the lightest of the platinum metals,

the softest and the most malleable of them. It is remarkable for
its ability to absorb an enormous amount of hydrogen (up to 900
volumes per volume ef the metal). Upon absorbing hydrogen, pal
ladium retains its metallic appearance, but grows substantially
in volume, becomes brittle, and readily forms cracks. The hydro
gen absorbed by palladium is evidently in a state approaching the
atomic one, and is therefore very active. A palladium plate saturat
ed with hydrogen transforms chlorine, bromine, and iodine into
hydrogen halides, reduces iron(III) salts to iron(II) ones, mercury(II)
salts to mercury(I) ones, and sulphur dioxide to hydrogen sulphide.
Palladium is used to make some kinds of laboratory utensils,
and also components of apparatus for separating hydrogen isotopes.
Alloys of palladium with silver are used in communication apparatus,
particularly for making contacts. Alloys of palladium with gold,
platinum, and rhodium are employed in thermostats and thermo
couples. Some palladium alloys are used in jewelry making and
in dentistry.
Palladium applied on asbestos, porcelain, or other supports is
the catalyst of a number of oxidation-reduction reactions. This
Secondary Subgroup. Platinum M etals 375
property of it is taken advantage of both in laboratories and at

chemical enterprises in the synthesis of some organic compounds.
A palladium catalyst is employed to purify hydrogen from traces
of oxygen, and also oxygen from traces of hydrogen.
In the chemical respect, palladium differs from the other platinum
metals by its high activity. When heated to redness, it combines
with oxygen to form the oxide PdO, dissolves in nitric acid, hot
concentrated sulphuric acid, and in aqua regia.
Like platinum, palladium is characterized by the + 2 and + 4
oxidation states; the compounds of palladium(II) are more stable.
Most palladium salts dissolve in water and are greatly hydrolyzed
in solutions. Palladium(II) chloride PdCl2 is very readily reduced
in a solution to the metal by some gaseous reducing agents, particu
larly by carbon monoxide. This underlies its use for detecting carbon
monoxide in gas mixtures. It is also employed as a catalyst of some
oxidation-reduction reactions.
Iridium differs from platinum in its very high melting point
and in its still greater stability to various chemical actions. Neither
individual acids nor aqua regia react with iridium. It is also con
siderably superior to platinum in its hardness.
Pure iridium and an alloy consisting of 90% platinum and 10%
iridium are used to make certain scientific instruments. The inter
national standards of the metre and kilogram are made from this alloy.
Andrianov, K. A., 188, 189 Janssen, P. J., 341
Anosov, P. P., 345, 352
Kazansky, B. A., 145

Bagration, P. R., 249 Kekule, F. A., 145
Baikov, A. A., 352 Kirchhoff, K. S., 164
Bardin, I. P., 352 Klaus, K. K., 371
Bazarov, A. L, 112 Kolbe, H., 121
Berthelot, M. P. E., 121 Kossel, W., 263
Berzelius, J. J., 120, 121 Kucherov, M. G., 156
Bessemer, H., 354 Kumakov, N. S., 223
Boussingault, J, B., 87
Butlerov, A. M., 121, 123, 140, Lavoisier, A. K., 9, 43
Lebedev, S. V., 174
Le Chatelier, H. L., 345
Cavendish, H., 9 Liebig, J., 87
Chernov, D. K., 345 Lockyer, J. N., 341
Chemyaev, I. I., 275 Lomonosov, M. V., 83
Chugaev L. A., 257f, 372 Lovits, T. E., 107
Davy, H., 230 Magnus A., 263

Markovnikov, V. V., 123, 144
Martin, P., 354
Engels, F., 121 Mendeleev, D. I., 120, 190, 337
Morozov, N. A., 340
Favorsky, A. E., 144
Fersman, A. E., 23
Nekrasov, B. V., 276
Glauber, J. R., 57
Grinberg, A. A., 275, 276 Osmond, F., 345
Paracelsus, P., 9 Scheele, K. W., 25, 43, 330
Pavlov, M. A., 352
Perey, M., 232
Pisarzhevsky, L. VM 61
Platd, A. F., 145 Werner, A., 251f, 254, 261, 262
Priestly, J., 43 Winkler, C. A., 190
Pryanishnikov, D. N .t Wohler, F., 121, 304
Ramsay, W., 339, 341 Zelinsky, N. D., 145

Rayleigh, Lord (J. W. Strutt), 33® Zinin, N. N., 167, 168
SUBJECT INDEX
Accumulators), Air,
alkaline, 3701 composition, 42f, 67, 339
cadmium-nickel, 370f dust in, 42
iron-nickel, 370 liquid, 43
lead, 197f mass, 42
silver-zinc, 246 Alanine, 168
Acetaldehyde, 154, 156 Aloohol(s), 1503
Acetic acid, 155, 157 amino, 137
Acetic aldehyde, 154, 155f diatomic, 137
Acetone, 154, 156 hydrolysis, 152
Acetyl cellulose, 166 monatomic, 153
Acetylene, 127, 141, 143 polyatomic, 153
series, 127, 141 wood, 152
Acid(s), Alcoholates, 150
dibasic, 137 Alkanes, 1375, see also Hydrocarbons,
heteropoly, 259 saturated
higher fatty, 158 Alkenes, 141, see also Hydrocarbons,
isopoly, 2581' unsaturated
organic, 136f Alkyl radical, 138
anhydrides, 136 Alkynes, 141, see also Series, acetylene
chloride, 136 Alloy(s), 211f
Acidocomplexes, 256 aluminium, 307
Actinides, 310, 314ff composition-property diagrams,
Actinium, 310f 222f
Agate, 181 cooling curves, 213f
Agent(s), copper, 241
antiknocking, 140f corrosion-resistant, 246,279,291,295
bleaching, 17, 26, 34, 325 eutectic composition, 215
complexing, 252 fusible, 99, 295
charge, 255 heat-resistant, 224, 313, 320, 324,
dehydrating, 91 332f, 337, 367
deoxidizing, 355 iron, 344, 359ff, see also Steel(s)
gas drying, 56 lead, 195
heat-carrying, 99 light-weight, 282, 321
oxidizing, 17, 47, 80t 83, 197, 235, nickel, 369
328, 335, 338f magnetic, 369
properties and medium, 96f phase diagrams, 212ff, 3453
reducing, 51, 54, 233 structure, 216
properties and medium, 96f tin, 191
Agrochemistry, 87 tool, 333, 367
Subject Index 379
Alpha-stannic acid, 193 Antifreezes, 153

Alum(s), 58, 308 Antimonates, 99
ammonium iron, 364 Antimonic acid, 99
chrome, 326, 329 Antimonides 98
potassium, 58 Antimonite, 98
Alumina, 304, 307 Antimonous acid, 98f
Aluminates, 306, 308 Antimony, 66, 98
Aluminium, 299, 304ff hydride, 98
alloys, 307 sulphides, 99
bronzes, 241 Antimony(III),
carbide, 107 hydroxide, 99
chloride, 308 oxychloride, 99
hydride, 305f Antimonyl, 99
hydroxide, 308 chloride, 99
oxide, 307 Apatite, 87
production, 304f Aqua regia, 84
sulphate, 308 Aquacomplexes, 255f, 274
Alulhinizing, 224, 307 and water of crystallization, 256
Aluminosilicates, 177, 183, 184 Argentite, 245
Aluminothermics, 209 Argon, 339f, 342
Alunite, 304 Arsenates, 96
Amalgams, 296 Arsenic, 66, 94ff
Americium, 314 acid, 96
Amethyst, 181 allotropic modifications, 94f
Amides, metal, 69f detection, 95
Aminates, 255 sulphides, 97
Amines, 136, 166f trihydride, 95
Amino acids, 137, 168 white, 95
Ammines, 255 Arsenic(III) hydroxide, 95
Ammonals, 73 Arsenides, 95
Ammonia, 68ff Arsenites, 96
oxidation, 85f Arsenopyrite, 94
preparation, 68, 69, 71, 73 Arsenous acid, 95
spirit, 69 A ^raino
synthesis from hydrogen and nitro Asbestos,' 1S3, 184, 283f
gen, 75f Astatine, 181‘, 20
Ammonium, 71 Atom(s),
chloride, 71, 72, 73 asymmetrical, 131f
hydroxide, 71 bridge, 281, 302, 305
ion, 71 central, 252
hydrolysis, 71f mutual influence in organic mole
test for, 72 cules, 133f
molybdate, 331f radii, 313
nitrate, 72f structure in metals, 200ff
nitrite, 67 Auric acid, 250
sulphate, 72 Austenite, 347, 357f
tetrachlorozincate, 294 Autoxida tion-autoreduction, 17
Ammophos, 94 Azides, 77
Amyloid, 165
Analysis,
luminescence, 294 Band,
physicochemical, 223 conduction, 201ff
Anid, 176 energy, 201 f
Anhydrite, 58 forbidden, 203f
Aniline, 167 valence, 201ff
Anions, complex, 245, 250 Barite, 288
Anthracene, 145 Barium, 277f, 288f
Anthracite, 117, 118 carbonate, 289
380 Subject Index
Barium
ferrate, 367 strength, 20f
hydroxide, 289 three-centre, 47, 53, 302
oxide, 289 triple, 127, 128f
peroxide, 289 formation, 112f
sulphate, 57, 289 Boneblack, 107
tetracyanoplatinate(II), 374 Boranes, 301f
titanate, 321 Borates, 303
Bauxite, 304 Borax, 300, 303
Bearings, porous, 331 Boric acid, 303
Bed, fluidized, 290f Boric anhydride, 303
Benzene, 144f Borides, 301
molecule, segment model, 149 Bonding, 300
properties, 146 Boron, 299ff
structure, 147f carbide, 301
Benzoic acid, 158 halides, 301
Benzyl alcohol, 150 Brasses, 241
Berkelium, 314 Brimstone, 48
Beryl, 279 Bromic acid, 38
Beryllium, 277f Bromides, 32
chloride, 280f Bromine, 18f, 20ff, 26, 27, see a ls o
hydroxide, -280, 2811 Halogen(s)
oxide, 281 chemical activity, 23f
Beta-stannic acid, 192, 193f oxygen-containing compounds, 38
Bidentates, 254 Bromobenzene, 146
Bismite, 99 Bronzes, 241, 295
Bismuth, 66, 99f Brownite, 334
lance, 99 Butadiene, 141, 142
g ydride, 100
ochre, 99
Bismuth(III),
Butylenes, 131
Cadmium, 289f, 295
chloride, 100 bronzes, 295
hydroxide, 100 hydroxide, 295
nitrate, 100 sulphide, 295
oxide, 100 Calcium, 277f, 284ff
sulphide, 100 carbide, 107, 143
Bismuthates, 100 carbonate, 110, 284
Bismuthine, 100 dissociation pressure, 285
Bismuthinite, 99 chloride, 31
Bismuthyl, 100 cyanamide, 74f
Blast furnace, hydride, 278, 284
design, 352 hydrogen carbonate, 110, 286
operation, 352f hydroxide, 285f
Bond(s), nitrate, 85
carbon atoms, in benzene ring, 147f nitride, 69
donor-acceptor, 113, 256, 267f oxide, 285
double, 127, 128 plumbate, 197
ionogenous, 252 sulphate, 57
metallic, 203 Californium, 314
multiple, 127, 128f Calomel, 297
strength, 130 Calorizing, 307
transition to single bonds, 129 Caoutchoucs, 173
non-ionogenous, 252 natural, 173
in organic compounds, 122 Capron, 176
pi, 128f Carat, 246
pi-dative, 270 Carbamide, 112, 121
sigma, 128f Carbides, 107f, 333, 360
single, 127 double, 360
Subject Index 381
Carbine, 103 Cement,

Carbohydrates, 1610 alumina, 188
Carbolic acidt 153, see also Phenoi(s) mortar, 188
Carbon, lOlff setting, 187
activated, 106f silicate, 187
allotropy, 103 Gementite, 347, 357, 362
amorphous, 106f Ceramics, 186f
black, 107 Cerium, 311
bonds between atoms, 1270 Cermets, 331
chains, 125 Cesium, 230, 232f
branched, 130f Chalcocite, 240
structure, 126f Chalcopyrite, 240
unbranched, 130f Chalk, 110, 284
chemical properties, 107 Chalybite, 111
compounds, diversity, 102 Charcoal, 106, 118
covalence, 123 bone, 107
dioxide, 107, 108f Chemistry,
formation in nature, 42 crystal, 251
disulphide, 115 organic, 123
electron configuration, 123 Chlorates, 35
monoxide, 107, 1120 Chloric acid, 35, 36
structure of molecule, 112f Chlorides, 31
triple bond formation, 112f Chlorin, 172
structure, 123 Chlorine, 18ff, 25ff, see also Ha-
tetrachloride, 150 logen(s)
valence angles, 124 chemical activity, 23
Carbonates, 109f dioxide, 36
migration in nature, 110 hydrolysis, 33
Carbonic acid, 109 oxide, 35
dissociation constants, 109 oxyacids, 33ff
salts, 109 oxygen-containing compounds, 33
Carbonyls, metal, 114 Chlorites, 36
Carborundum, 179 Chloroauric acid, 250
Carboxylic acids, 136, 1570 Chloroform, 150
Camallite, 20, 238, 282 Chlorophyll, 258, 284
Camotite, 315 Chloroplatinic acid, 374
Cassiterite, 191 Chlorostannic acid, 193
Catalyst(s), 75, 296, 298, 337, 373, Chlorous acid, 30
374f Chromates, 327f
Phillips, 171 Chrome green, 326
supports, 184 Chrome yellow, 327
Ziegler, 171 Chromic acid, 327
Celestite, 288 Chromic anhydride, 326, 327, 329
Cell(s), Chromite, 325
air-zinc, 292f Chromites, 326
dry, 292 Chromium, 32511
galvanic, 291ff trioxide, 327, 329
manganese-zinc, 291 f Chromium(II),
oxidation-reduction reaction, 292f chloride, 326
Cellulose, 164, 165f hydroxide, 326
acetates,' 166 oxide, 326
nitrates, 165f Chromium(III)
processing into fibre, 166 chloride, crystal hydrates, 327
saccharization, 152 hydroxide, 326
separation from wood, 165 oxide, 326
sulphite, 165 Chromium(VI) oxide, 326
Cement, 59, 187f Cinnabar, 296
acid-resistant, 188 Cfeîsomer, 261f
382 Subject Index
Coal, 116f Complexons, 256f

bituminous, 117, 118 Compound(s),
brown, 117, 118 amphoteric, 38, 168, 190, 192,
hard, 117 196, 197, 280, 281f, 293, 308,
soft, 117 316, 326
underground gasification, 120 clathrate, 21, 340f
Cobalt, 342f, 367f complex, see Complex compounds
glance, 367 coordination, 253
Cobalt(II), coordinationally saturated, 254
chloride, 368 cyclic, 127
hydroxide, 368 high-molecular, 1692
oxide, 368 inclusion, 340
Cobalt(III), intermetallic, 220
hydroxide, 368 intracomplex, 256
oxide, 368 organic, se e Hydrocarbons, Organic
Cobaltite, 367 compounds
Coke, 106 organoelement, 121, 136
peat, 117 organometallic, 136, 141
Colcothar, 365 organosilicon, 137, 188f
Combustion, 44 tautomeric forms, 163
Complex compounds, 243ff, 247f, varying composition, 52
2512, 281, 368, 374 Concrete, 188
acid and basic properties, 274f Constantan, 241, 369
amphoteric, 274 Contraction, lanthanide, 312
basic types, 2552 Converter, 354
chelate, 256f Copel, 241
in nature, 258 Copolymerization, 174f
chemical bond, 263f Copper, 2382
cluster, 258 alloys, 241
coordination formulas, 2522 complex compounds, 2432
confirmation, glance, 48, 240
by exchange reactions, 253 pyrite, 240
by molar conductivity, 253f sulphate, 58
by X-ray structural method, Copper(I),
254 cnloride, 242
cyclic, 256 oxide, 242
dissociation, Copper(II),
primary, 270 acetate, 243
secondary, 270f acetate-arsenate, 243
stepped, 272 carbonate hydroxide, 243
explanation of colour, 267 chloride, 243
high-spin paramagnetic, 266 hydroxide, 242f
inner coordination sphere, 252 nitrate, 243
low-spin diamagnetic, 266 oxide, 242
and molecular orbital method, 270 sulphate, 243
molecular orbitals, 270 Corrosion, 2232
mononuclear, 258 atmospheric, 226
nomenclature, 259f contact, 227
outer coordination sphere, 252 electrochemical, 224f
polynuclear, 258 prevention, 228f
with bridge atoms, 258 gas, 224
sandwich, 267 nydrogen, 11
stability in solutions, 270ff influence of inclusions, 225f
structure, 263f inhibitors, 228
spatial, 2612 local, 227
transition series, 256 in non-uniform aeration, 227
and valence bond method, 2672 in soil, 226f
Complexes, se e Complex compounds Corrosive sublimate, 31, 298
Subject Index 383
Corundum, 307 Dienes, 141

Cracking, 142 Diethyl ether, 154
catalytic, 142 Diethylenes, 141
thermal, 142 Dihydrogen,
Cryolite, 19, 304 arsenates, 96
Cryslal(s), phosphates, 91
lattices, 204f Diiodine pentoxide, 38
plastic shear, 206f Diketones, 137
strength, 207 Dimers, 305
structure, 204f Dimethyl amine, 166
Qryata Hites, 201 Dimethyl ketone, 154, 15
Cuprite, 242 Dinitrogen,
Cuprites, 245 oxide, 77f
Cupronickels, 241 pentoxide, 81
Curium, 314 tetroxide, 80
Curves, trioxide, 81
cooling, 212f Diolefins, 141
alloy, 213f Diphosphates, 92
pure metal, 213 Diphosphoric acid, 92
Cyanides, 116 Diphosphorus,
Cycloalkanes, 144 pentoxide, 91
Cyclobutane, 131 trioxide, 90f
Cycloparaffins, 144 Disaccharides, 163
Disilane, 180
Dacron, 176 Disinfectants, 17, 26, 31, 47, 53,
Dehydrogenation, 141f9 156 156, 248, 303
Demercurizers, 296 Disulphates, 58
Desiccants, 31, 182, 284 Disulphuric acid, 58
Deuterium, 9 Diuranates, 316
Dextrin, 165 Diuranic acid, 316
Diagrams, Divinyl, 141
equilibrium, 212 Dolomite, 282
phase, see Phase diagram(s) Dry-bone ore, 290
Diamond, 102, 103 Duality,
structure, 103f chemical, 12
synthetic, 103f . oxidation-reduction, 16, 79, 82
transformation to graphite, 104, 106 Duralumins, 307
Diantimony, Dust, in air, 42
pentoxide, 89 Dysprosium, 312
trioxide, 98
Diarsenic, Ebonite, 50
pentasulphate, 97 Einsteinium, 314
pentoxide, 96 Electrolysis, diaphragm method, 236
trioxide, 95, 97 Electrolyzer, 304
trisulphide, 97 with diaphragm, 236
Diatomite, 181 Elektrons, 282
Diborane, 302 Elements,
Diboron trioxide, 303 alloying, 360f
Dichloride heptoxide, 36 d, 238
Dichloroethylene, geometric isomers, /, 314
*133 transition, 317fi
Dichloromethane, 150 Enant, 176
Dichromates, 327f Enantiomers, 132
Dichromic acid, 327 Energy, crystal-field splitting, 265
Dicyanogen, 115f Enzymes, 121
Dielectrics, 203 Epsom salt, 283
energy bands, 203 Erbium, 312
384 Subject Index
Erosion, 183 Firewood* 117

Esters, 136, 151, 159f Flasks, Dewar, 42f
hydrolysis, 159f Flint, 181
Ethane, 125, 128 Fluorapatite, 19
Ethanol, 150, 152 Fluorides, 30
Ethers, 136, 154 Fluorine, 18f, 25f, see also Halogen(s)
Ethyl alcohol, 150, 152 anomalous properties, 21
dissociation constant, 151 chemical activity, 23
production, 152f oxidizing properties, 24
Ethyl formate, 159 oxygen-containing compounds, 33
Ethyl radical, 138 Fluoroberyllates, 281
Ethylbenzene, 144f Fluoroplast, 172
Ethylene, 127, 141, 142, 143 Fluorspar, 19
glycol, 153 Fluosiiicates, 180
molecule, Fluosilicic acid, 30, 180
spatial models, 130 Flux(es), 208, 353
structure, 128, 129 soldering, 73, 294
series, 127, 141 Formaldehyde, 154
Europium, 311 Forihalin, 156
Eutectic, 215 Formic acid, 114, 157
Eutectoid, 349 salts, 114
Exchange, cation, 288 Formula (s),
Exchanger, Kekule’s, 145, 147, 149
anion, 288 perspective, 162f
cation, 288 Francium, 230, 232
Explosives, 73, 147, 153 Freons, 26, 150
Fructose, 161, 162
Fuel, 1163
Family, iron, 343 engine, antiknocking properties,
Fats, 1601 140
hydrogenation, 160 gaseous, 118ff
hydrolysis, 160 heating value, 118
Feldspars, 183 solid, gasification, 119
Fermium, 314 Fungicides, 150
Ferrates, 367
Ferric acid, 363, 367
Ferrite(s), 347, 357, 366
Ferrites, 311 Gadolinium, 311
Ferrochrome, 325 Galenite, 194
Ferrotitanium, 321 Gallium, 299, 309
Ferrous acid, 366 Gas(es),
Ferrovanadium, 323 adsorption by charcoal, 106
Fertilizer(s), 31, 72f, 74, 75 , 84, 85, coke, 119f
87, 93f, 112, 237f, 303 complex, 119
compound, 94 detonating, 13
mineral, 93 electron, 203
mixed, 94 generator, Kipp, 10, 11
organic, 93 inert, see Gas(es), noble
single, 94 marsh, 137
Fibre(s), mine, 137
acetate, 166 mixed, 119
artificial, 166, 177 natural, 118, 137
chemical, 177 noble, 3393
natural, 177 compounds, 340f
synthetic, 177 producer, 119
viscose, 166 straight, 119
Filters, metallic, 331 water, 119
Firedamp, 138 Germanates, 190
Subject Index 385
Germanium, 101, 190f, 210 Gutta-percha, 173

dioxide, 190 Gypsum, 57f, 59, 284
hydrides, 190
tetrahydride, 190
Gersdorfite, 368 Hafnium, 319, 322
Glass, 184f, 313 Hallmarks, 246
coloured, 295, 314, 326, 367 Halogen(s), 18ff
crystal, 185 chemical properties, 22ff
fibre, 185 electron configuration, 18
laminates, 186 elementary substances, 20
flint, 185 molecules, 20f
organic, 173 bond strength, 20f
production, 184f oxidizing properties, 22, 24f
properties, 185 oxygen compounds, 33ff
quartz, 185 physical properties, 18ff
refractory, 185, 322 preparation, 25
soluble, 182 uses, 26f
special, 191, 196, 303, 322 Hastelloy, 369
structure, 184 Hausmanite, 334
water, 182 Helium, 339ff
window, 184 discovery, 341
Glass-ceramics, 186 Hematite, 343, 365
Glauber's salt, 57 Hemoglobin, 258
Glaze, 187 Herbicides, 112
Glucose, 152, 161ff Heteroatoms. 135
alpha-form, 162f Hexachloroplatinic acid, 374
beta-form, 162f Holmium, 312
production, 164 Homologues, 126
straight-chain form, 162f Hormones, 121
Glycerine, 153 Hydrates,
Glycine, 168 crystal, 237, 327
Gneisses, 183 isomeric salt, 327
Gold, 238f, 249f Hydrazine, 76
amalgam, 296 Hydrazoic acid, 77
chlorides, 250 Hydrides, 12
compounds, 249f metal-like, 12
oxides, 249, 250 organic, 12
Grains, 205 salt-like, 12
Granites, 183 Hydrocarbons, 135, see also Organic
Graphite, 102, 104f compounds
anisotropy, 104 acyclic, aromatization, 145f
artificial, 105 aromatic, 144ff
in iron, 362 general formula, 144
structure, 104, 105 multinuclear, 145
Group(s), cyclic, 131
aldehyde, 154f derivatives, 135
amide, 169, 176 halogen derivatives, 135, 138, 149f
amino, 136 isostructure, 131
carbonyl, 136, 154 normal structure, 130f
carboxyl, 136, 157 pyrolysis, 143
characteristic, 135 radicals, 135
functional, 135, 154, see also saturated, 126, 137fi
Group(s) cyclic, 144
mercapto, 136 isomers, 139f
nitro, 136 series, 138f
peptide, 169 unsaturated, 127, 141ff
sulphhydryl, 136 general formula, 141
sulnho. 136 series. 141
386 Subject Index
Hydrochloric acid, 30f Hydroxostannites, 192

Hydrocyanic acid, 116 Hydroxozincates, 293
Hydrofluoric acid, 29f Hydroxylamine, 77
Hydrogen, 9ff Hypobromous acid, 38
arsenates, 96 Hypochlorites, 33f
atomic, 14 Hypochlorous acid, 33ff
borides, 301f Hypochlorous anhydride, 35
bromide, 27f, 32 Hypoiodous acid, 38
reducing properties, 32
carbonates, 109i
chemical duality, 12
chloride, 27f Ice, dry, 108
manufacture, 30f Ilmenite, 320
combustion, 13 Inconel, 369
cyanide, 115f Indian red,. 365
difluoride ion, 29 Indium, 299, 309, 343, 371ff
fluoride, 27ff Infusorian earth, 181
dissociation, 29 Insecticides, 89, 97, 150, 180
storage, 30 Intra-salts, 168
halides, 27fl Invar, 369
solubility, 28 Iodic acid, 38
iodide, 27f, 32 Iodic anhydride, 38
decomposition, 24, 28 Iodides, 32
reducing properties, 32 Iodine, 18f, 20ff, see also Halogen(s)
isotopes, 9 chemical activity, 23f
molecule, 9 oxygen-containing compounds, 38
occurrence, 9f tincture, 27
peroxide, 14ff Ion(s),
decomposition, 14f, 17 bipolar, 168
oxidation-reduction duality, 16 central, 252
salts, 16 properties and complexing, 275
structure, 15 complex, 243, 244f, 247, 251
phosphates, 91 charge, 255
hydrolysis, 91 instability constant, 27 Iff
phosphide, 90 stability constant, 272f
production, 10 Iridium, 371ff, 375
industrial, 10 Iron(s), 342ff
laboratory, 11 alloying elements, 352
properties, 9, llff alloys, 359ff, see also Alloys
selenide, 64 alpha-, 346
steel corrosion, 11 beta-, 346
sulphates, 57 blast-furnace, 352
sulphide, 50 carbide, 347
water, 50f carbonyls, 367
sulphites, 54 chemical properties, 362ff
telluride, 64 commercial, 350, 361f
uses, 13f cooling curve, 346
Hydrogenation, 14 crystalline modifications, 346
Hydrolysis, 15, 52, 91, 152, 159f, cyanide compounds, 365f
235, 365 delta-, 346
Hydroxide, properties, electron configuration, 115
and ionic radius, 37f family, 343
and oxidation number, 37 gamma-, 346
Hydroxoaluminates, .306, 308 Gibbs energy and temperature, 346
Hydroxoberyllates, 279, 281 gray, 362
Hydroxocomplexes, 256 high-strength, 362
Hydroxoplumhates, 195 malleable, 362
Hydroxostannates, 193 occurrence, 343f
Subject Index 387
Iron(s), Lactic acid, 132, 158

ore, enantiomers, 132
brown, 343 tetrahedral models, 132
red, 343 Lanthanides, 310, 311ff
spathic, 343 Lanthanum, 310f
pentacarbonyl, 114f, 214, 367 Lavsan, 176
physical properties, 345ff Lawrencium, 314
pig, 352 Lead, 101, 194ff
conversion into steel, 354f alloys, 195
production, 344f, 351 chromate, 327
pyrites, 48, 52, 53, 343f dioxide, 197,
refining, 211 glance, 48, 194
spathic, 111 red, 197
white, 362 sugar, 196
Iron(II), sulphate, 57
carbonate, 364 tetraethyl, 140f
cyanide, 365 Lead(II),
hexacyanoferrate(I I), 366 acetate, 196
hydroxide, 364 chloride, 196
oxide, 363, 364 hydroxide, 196
sulphate, 363 iodide, 196
Iron(III), oxide, 196
chloride, 364 sulphate, 196
hexacyanoferrate(lll), 366 sulphide, 196
hydroxide, 365 Lead(IV) compounds, 197
oxide, 363, 365 Ligand(s)* 252, 254
Iron(VI) compounds, 366f cis-influence, 276
Isobutylene, 131 mutual influence, 275
Isomerism, 121f pi acceptor, 270
cis-trans-j 132f properties and coordination, 274
coordination, 263 Jra/is-influence, 275f
hydrate, 262, 327 Lignite, 117
ionization, 262 Lime,
mirror, 262 burnt, 285
optical, 262 chloride, 34
organic compounds, 130ff chlorinated, 34f
spatial, 131 slaked, 285f
Isomers, 139f unslaked, 285
cis-, 133 water, 110, 285f
geometric, 133 Limestone, 110, 284
hydrate, 327 Limonite, 343
optical, 132 Litharge, 196
trans-, 133 Lithium, 230ff
Isopentanes, 131 Luminescence, 294
Isoprene, 141, 142, 173 Luminophors, 294
Lunar caustic, 247
Jasper, 181 Lutetium, 312
Kainite, 282 Magnaliums, 307

Kaolin, 183 Magnesia,
Kerosenes, 139 alba, 283
Ketones, 136, 154, 155f cement, 283
Khladons, 26 usta, 283
Knocking, engine fuel, 140 Magnesite, 110, 282
Knrpton, 339f, 342 Magnesium, 277f, 282ff
fluorides, 341 carbonate, 110, 283
Kurchatovium, 319 chloride, 283
988 Subject Index
Magnesium, Metal(s),
hydroxide, 283 ferrous, 344
nitride, 69 highly pure, 210
oxide, 283 mechanical properties and dislo
silicates, 283f cations, 206f
silicide, 179 native, 207f
sulphate, 57, 283 passive to corrosion, 226
Magnetite, 343f phase diagrams, 2122, see also
Malachite, 109, 240, 243 Phase diagram(s)
Malt, 152 physical properties, 199
Manganese, 333ff platinum, 343, 3712
dioxide, 335 polycrystalline structure, 205
oxides, 334f protective coatings, 228
Manganese(II), protectors, 229
chloride, 335 rare-earth, 310
hydroxide, 335 refining,
salts, 335 carbonyl process, 211
Manganese(lV) salts, 335 by electron-beam melting,
Manganese(VII) oxide, 337 330f
Manganic acid, 335 iodide process, 211
Manganin, 241, 334 in vacuum, 210
Marble, 110, 284 refractory, 323
Margarine, 160 strength, 207
Marls, 187 structural defects, 205f
Martensite, 358 structure of atoms, 2002
Matches, 36, 89, 99 thermal conductivity, 199
Materials, photographic, 248 work hardening, 207
Mendelevium, 314 zone melting, 210f
Mercury, 289f, 2952 Metallothermics, 209
Mercury(I), Metallurgy, 208
chloride, 297 powder, 330
nitrate, 297 Metaphosphates, 92, 93
oxide, 297 Metaphosphoric acids, 92, 93
Mercury(II), Metasilicic acid, 182
chloride, 31, 298 Metavanadic acid, 324
iodide, 298 Methane, 123, 133f, 137f
nitrate, 298 series, 126
oxide, 297 spatial models of molecule, 124,
sulphide, 298 125
Metaaluminates, 308 structure, 123f
Metaaluminic acid, 308 Methanol, 150, 152
Metaarsenous acid, 95 Methyl alcohol, 133f, 150, 152
Metachromous acid, 326 Methyl amine, 166
Metal(s), 1992 Methyl cyclopropane, 131
alkali, 2302 Methyl ethyl ether, 154
detection, 233 Methyl ethyl ketone, 154
hydrides, 233 Methyl nitrate, 151
alkaline earth, 278f Methyl radical, 138
cathode protection, 229 Mica(s), 182, 184
chemical properties, 200 white, 183
cooling curves, 213 Microelements, 245
corrosion, see Corrosion Microfertilizers, 245
crystal lattices, 204f Minium, 197
unit cells, 204 Misch metal, 313
crystalline structure, 204ff Mispickel, 94
ductility, 199, 203 Mixtures,
electrical resistivity* 199 azeotropic, 31
extraction from ores, 207ff constant boiling, 31
Subject Index 389
Molecule(s), Nitrogen, 662
dimer, 305 atmospheric, binding, 742
electron-deficient, 280f, 301, 305 cvanamide process, 74 f
segment model, 149 cycle in nature, 86f
spatial models, 130 dioxide, 801
structure, 45ff, 53, 55, 128f fertilizers, 72f, 74
Molybdates, 331 hydrogen compounds, 682
Molybdenite, 330 monoxide, 782
Molybdenum, 325, 330f electron configuration, 79
lance, 330 energy-level diagram, 79
Sybdic acid, 331
Monazite, 310, 315
Monel metal, 369
occurrence, 67
oxide, 78
oxides, 772
Monocrystals, 205 oxychloride, 84
Monodentates, 254 properties, 66, 68
Monosaccharides, 161ff trichloride, 70
Mortar, 286 trifiuoride, 70
triiodide, 70
in vital processes, 73f
Naphthalene, 145 Nitroglycerine, 153
Neodymium, 311 Nitron, 173
Neon, 339f, 342 Nitronium, 81
Nephelite, 304 Nitrophoska, 94
Neptunium, 314, 315 Nitrosyl chloride, 84
Niccolite, 368 Nitrous acid, 80, 82
Nichrome, 369 Nitrous oxide, 77
Nickel, 342f, 3682 Nobelium, 314
alloys, 369 Nucleic acids, 87f
arsenical, 368 Number,
refining, 211 coordination, 252, 254
silvers, 241 and charge of central ion, 254
sulphate, 370 octane, 140
tetracarbonyl, 114, 211, 370 standard fineness, 246
Nickel(ll), Nylon-6, 176
hydroxide, 370 Nylon-6,6, 176
oxide, 370
Nickel(III), Oils, 160f
hydroxide, 370 drying, 161
oxide, 370 gas, 139
Nickeline, 369 linseed, 161
Nimonic, 369 lubricating, 139, 189
Niobium, 322, 324f parafiin, 139
carbide, 325 solar, 139
Nitrates, 85 Olefins, 141, see also Hydrocarbons,
Nitration, 84 unsaturated
Nitric acid, 82f Oleic acid, 158
concentration and reduction, 831 Oleum, 58
decomposition, 82 Orbitals, delocalized, 200
production, 81, 85f Ores,
salts, 85 concentration, 209
Nitric oxide, 78 dotation, 209
Nitrides, 69 gravitational, 209
Nitrites, 82 magnetic, 209
Nitrobenzene, 147 definition, 208
Nitrocellulose, 165f Organic compounds, 1202, see also
Nitrocompounds, 147 Hydrocarbons
Nitroethylene glycol, 153 acyclic, 134
390 Subject Index
Organic compounds Perbromic acid, 39

alicvclic, 135 Perchlorates, 36
aliphatic, 134 Perchloric acid, 36
bonds, 122 Perchlorovinyl resin, 172
carbocyclic, 135 Perhydrol, 15
classification, 1343 Periodates, 39
with closed carbon atom chain, 135 Periodic acid, 39
elementary analysis, 242 Perlon, 176 .
heterocyclic, 135 Permalloy, 369
isomerism, 1303 Permanganates, 335f
nitrogen-containing, 136, 1663 Permanganic acid, 334f, 337
with open carbon atom chain, 134 Permanganic anhydride, 337
oxygen-containing, 136 Peroxides, 16
saturated, 134 Perrhenates, 338
sulphur-containing, 136 Perrhenic acid, 337, 388
unsaturated, 134 Perrhenic anhydride, 338
Organogens, 121 Persulphates, 62
Organosilicons, 188f Persulphuric acid, 61f
Orion, 173 hydrolysis, 15
Orthoboric acid, 303 structure, 61
Orthoclase, 183 Pesticides, 50, 58, 115, 243, 363
Ortho-iodic acid, 39 Petrolatum, 139
Orthophosphates, 91 Petroleum(s), 139, 144
Orthophosphoric acid, 91 ether, 139
Orthosilicic acid, 182 fractional distillation, 139
Orthotelluric acid, 65 products, 139
Osmium, 343, 3713 Petrols, 139
octafiuoride, 373 Phase diagram(s),
tetroxide, 372 alloys, 2125
Osmium(VIII), forming chemical compounds,
fluoride, 373 220f
oxide, 372 with limited solubility, 219f
Oxalic acid, 121, 158 mechanical mixture, 2145
Oxyacids, 137 with unlimited solubility, 2176
Oxygen, 405 application, 22
difluoride, 33 iron-carbon, 3456, 356f
isotopes, 42 lead-antimony system, 2146
oxidation number, 16, lead-tin system, 218, 219f
preparation, 43f, 337 magnesium-lead system, 220f
properties, 44 mechanical mixture alloys, 2146
Oxyliquids, 45 metal systems, 2126
Ozone, 45 silver-gold system, 2176
detecting reaction, 47 Phenol (s), 136, 150f, 153
structure oi molecule, 455 dissociation constant, 151
Phenolates, 151
Phenoplasts, 175
Palladium, 343, 371f, 374f Phenyl acetate, 159
Palladium(II) chloride, 375 Phenyl radical, 145
Palmitic acid, 158 Phosgene, 114
Parafiins, 137 Phosphates, 91
Parchment paper, 165 Phosphides, 89
Paris green, 243 Phosphine, 90
Pearlite, 349, 357 Phosphonium, 90
Peat, 117, 118 Phosphoric acids, 9If
coke, 117 Phosphorite, 87, 284
Pentane, 131 Phosphorous acid, 91
Peracids, 61 Phosphorus, 66, 876
Perbromates, 38f allotropic modifications, 88
Subject Index 391
Phosphorus, Potassium
black, 89 chromate, 327, 328
halides, 90 cyanide, 116
oxides, 90f dichromate, 327, 329
pentachloride, 90 ferrate, 367
red, 88f hexacyanoferrate(II), 365f
trichloride, 90 hexacyanoferrate(III), 366
white, 88 hydroxide, 237
Pitch blende, 315 hydroxoplumbite, 195
Plaster of Paris, 57 manganate, 335
Plastics, 170 nitrate, 85
phenolic, 175 perchlorate, 36
Platinic acid, 374 permanganate, 335ff
Platinum, 343, 371f, 373f salts, 231
Platinum(II) chloride, 374 silicate, 182
Platinum(IV) chloride, 374 sulphate, 57
Platynite, 369 tetrafiuoroberyllate, 281
Plumbates, 197 Prazeodymium, 311
Plumbites, 196 Precipitate, 94
Plutonium, 314, 315 Pressure, dissociation, 285
Polonium, 40 Principle, circulation, 76
Polyacrylates, 172f Process(es),
Polyacrylonitrile, 172f Bessemer, 354
Polyamides, 169, 176 carbonyl, 211
Polybutadiene, 174 chamber, 60
Polycumulene, 103 contact, 59f
Polydentates, 254 converter, 354
Polyenes, 141 cyanamide, 74f
Polyesters, 175f hydrogenation, 14
Polyethylene, 171 hydrometallurgical, 208
terephthalate, 176 iodide, 211
Polyhalides, 259 open hearth, 354
Polymerization, photographic, 248
degree, 171 pyrometallurgical, 208
resins, 170f saccharification; 164
Polymers, 169ff Solvay, 111
linear, 281 Promethium, 311
Polymethyl acrylate, 173 Propane, 125
Polymethyi methacrylate, 173 Propanoic acid, 157
Polynitrocompounds, 147 Propyl bromide, 131
Polypeptides, 169 Propyl radical, 138
Polyphosphates, 92 Protactinium, 314
Polyphosphoric acids, 92 Proteins, 168f
Polypropylene, 171f Protium, 9
Polysaccharides, 164ff Prussian blue, 366
Polystyrene, 172 Prussiate of potash,
Polysulphides, 52 red, 366
Polytetrafluoroethylene, 172 yellow, 365f
Polythionates, 63 Pyrite(s), 48, 343
Polythionic acids, 63 coal, 59
Polyvinyl chloride, 172 flotation, 59
Polyynes, 141 iron, 48, 52, 53
Potash, 112 Pyrocerams, 186
caustic, 237 Pyrolusite, 334
Potassium, 230, 237f Pyrolysis, 143
carbonate, 112 Pyrophosphates, 92
chlorate, 35f Pyrophosphoric acid, 92
chloride, 31 Pyrosulphates, see Disulphates
392 Subject Index
Pyrosulphuric acid, see Disulphuric Rubidium, 230, 232f

acid Ruby, 307
Rule, Hund’s, 265f
Ruthenium, 343, 371f, 373
Quartz, 181 tetroxide, 373
Ruthenium(VIII) oxide, 373
Radium, 277f Rutile, 320
Radon, 339f
Rayon, viscose, 166
Reaction(s), Saccharose, 163
in blast furnaces, 353 Sal ammoniac, 73
for carbonate, 109 Salicylic acid, 159
catalytic, 13, 15, 75, 114, 152, 156 Salt(s),
for chloride ions, 32 acid, 109f
combination, 142 complex, 244f
esterification, 159 double, 58, 243
halogenation, 146 mixed, 34
hydrogen-oxygen, 13 normal, 109f
for iron(III) salts, 365 Saltpetre, 85
Kucherov’s, 156 Chile, 85
moisture detecting, 12 Samarium, 311
nitration, 147 Sand, 181
oxidation-reduction, 197, 292f, 329 Sapphire, 307
direction, 97 Scandium, 310f
for ozone, 47 Scheelite, 332
polycondensation, 170 Selenates, 64
polymerization, 143, 170, 171 Selenic acid, 64
for potassium, 374 Selenides, 64
reversible, 327f Selenium, 40, 63f
saponification, 160 Selenous acid, 64
silver mirror, 155 Semiconductors, 64, 178, 190f, 204
for sulphate ion, 57 elecatrical properties and tempera
sulphonation, 146 ture, 204
for unsaturated hydrocarbons, 143 energy bands, 203f
Zinin, 167 Series,
Reagent(s), acetylene, 127, 141
Scnweizer’s, 166 aromatic, 135, 144
for sulphate ion, 57 ethylene, 127, 141
for transition metal cations, 257 fatty, 134
Refrigerants, 31, 150 general formulas, 138, 114, 144
Resins, homologous, 126, 138
condensation, 175 methane, 126
perchlorovinyl, 172 saturated hydrocarbons, 126, 138
phenol formaldehyde, 175 monovalent radicals, 138
polymerization 170f physical properties and molecu
Rhenium, 333, 337f lar mass, 139
Rhenium(VII) oxide, 338 spectrochemical, 2655
Rhodium, 343, 371f Sextet, electron, aromatic, 148
Ring, benzene, 135, 145 Siccatives, 161, see also Desiccants
Rock crystal, 181 Siderite, 343
Rubber(s), 173 Silanes, 179f
butadiene-nitrile, 175 Silica, 177, 181
butadiene-styrene, 174 Silica gels, 182
copolymer, 174f Silicates, 177, 182
raw, 173 natural, 182
synthetic, 174 formulas, 182f
vulcanization, 50, 173f Silicic acids, 181f
Subject Index
Silicides, 179 Sodium,

Silicofluoric acid, 180 superoxide, 235
Silico fluorides, 180 tetraborate, 303
Silicon, 101, 177ff tetrahydroxoaluminate, 306
carbide, 108, 179 thiosulphate, 62f
chains, 125 Solders, 99, 191
dioxide, 177, 181 Solution,
fluoride, 180 azeotropic, 55
tetrachloride, 180 Fehling’s, 155
Silumins, 307 solid, 212
Silver, 238f, 245ff Sphalerite, 290
amalgam, 296 Sphene, 320
bromide, 247, 248 Stannane, 194
chloride, 31f, 247, 248 Stannic acids, 193
complex compounds, 247f Stannites, 192
fluoride, 247 Stannous acid, 192
glance, 245 Starch, 164f
iodide, 247 conversion into glucose, 152
nitrate, 247 Stearic acid, 158
Silver(I) oxide, 246f Steel(s), 350, see also Alloys
Similarity, diagonal, 280, 300 acid-resistant, 326
Sitalls, 186 alloy, 360f
Slags, 208 symbols, 361
Slaking, lime, 285 austenite, 360, 361
Smaltite, 367 Bessemer, 354
Smithsonite, 111, 290 cadmium plating, 295
Soaps, 158 carbon, 359f
Soda, 111, 231 case-hardening, 359
ash, l l l f chromium, 325!
baking, 111 deoxidation, 355
bicarbonate, 111 hardening, 356
caustic, 235 heat-resistant, 324, 326, 361
Sodium, 230, 234ff heat treatment, 356ff
acetate, 157 chemical, 359
amalgam, 234, 296 high-speed, 332, 361
amide, 70 high-temperature, 361
carbonate, 111 killed, 355
chloride, 31, 231 magnetic, 361
occurrence, 19f manganese, 334
cyanide, 116 molybdenum, 331
dichromate, 329 nitriding, 359
diuranate, 316 open, 355
ethylate, 151 pressure treatment, 356
fluosilicate, 180 production, 351f
hydrogen carbonate. 111 rimming, 355
hydroxide, 235S with special properties, 361
hydroxoberyllate, 279 stainless, 228, 324, 326, 331, 361
hydroxostannate, 193 structural, 360
hydroxozincate, 293 tempering, 356
nitrate, 67, 85, 231 high, 359
nitrite, 82 low-temperature, 358
oxide, 234 moderate-temperature, 358f
peroxide, 235 tool, 332, 360!
phenolate, 151 toughening, 359
plumbite, 196 tungsten, 332
silicate, 182, 184 Stellites, 333, 367
sulphate, 57, 231 Stereoisomerism, 131, 132f, 262
sulphide, hydrolysis, 52 mirror, 132
394 Subject Index
Stereoisomers, 131 Sylvinite, 238

Stibine, 98 Sylvite, 20
Stibnite, 98
Strontianite, 288
Strontium, 277f, 288f Table salt, see Sodium chloride
carbonate, 289 Talcum, 283
hydroxide, 289 Tantalum, 322, 324f
oxide, 289 carbide, 325
salts, 289 Tautomerism, 163
sulphate, 57, 289 Tautomers, 163
Styrene, 145 Technetium, 333
Substances, see also Compound(s) Teflon, 26, 172
inorganic, 120 Telluric acid, 65
mineral, 120 Tellurides, 64
organic, see also Hydrocarbons, Or Tellurium, 40, 63
ganic compounds, Tellurous acid, 64
behaviour when heated, 122 Tenorite, 242
quantitative analysis, 122 Terbium, 311
synthesis, 121 Terephthalic acid, 158
Sugar, Terylene, 176
heet, 163 Tetraborane, 302
cane, 163 Tetraboric carbide, 108
fruit, 163 Tetracyanoplatinic (II) acid, 374
grape, 161, 162 Tetradentate, 255
inverted, 163 Tetrafluoroethylene, 150
Sulphates, 57 Tetrathionic acid, 63
solubility products, 57 Thallium, 299, 309f
Sulphides, 51f Theory,
Sulphites, 54 Butlerov’s, chemical structure, 123
Sulphonic acids, 136, 146 coordination, 252ff
Sulphur, 40f, 47ff crystal field, 264fi
crystals, 48, 49 ligand field, 264
dioxide, 53 organic compound structure, 123ff
production, 59 Thermochromizing, 224
structure of molecule, 53 Thioacids, 62
flowers, 48, 50 'Thioalcohols, 136
halides, 63 Thioarsenic acid, 97
liquid, 49 Thioarsenous acid, 97
molecules, 49 Thioethers, 136
monoclinic, 49 Thiophenols, 136
plastic, 49 Thiosalts, 62
rhombic, 49 Thiostannates, 194
rod, 48 Thiostannic acid, 194
trioxide, 54f Thiosulphates, 62
structure of molecule, 55 Thiosulphuric acid, 62
vapour, 49f structure, 62
Sulphuric acid, 55ff Thorium, 314, 315
dissociation, 57 Thulium, 312
oxidizing properties, 56 Tin, 101, 191f
production, 59f alloys, 191
chamber process, 60 amalgam, 296
contact process, 59f bronzes, 241
reaction with metals, 56f dioxide, 193
salts, 57 disulphide, 194
structure of molecules, 55 gray, 191
Sulphurous acid, 53f plague, 191
Superphosphate, 93 tetrachloride, 194
doable, 93 white, 191
Subject Index 395
Tin(II), Viscose, 166

chloride, 192f Vitalism, 120
hydroxide, 192 Vitallium, 367
oxide, 192 Vitriol(s), 58
sulphide, 194 blue, 58, 243
Tin(IV), green, 58, 363
chloride, 194 white, 293f
hydride, 194 Vulcanization, rubber, 50, 173f
hydroxides, 193
sulphide, 194
Tinstone, 191
Titanite, 320 Water,
Titanium, 31911 baryta, 289
carbide, 321 chlorine, 21, 33
dioxide, 321 desalination, 288
refining, 211 formation from elementary substan
white, 321 ces, 13
Titanomagnetites, 320 hard, 286
Toluene, 144f hardness,
Tombac, 241 carbonate, 286f
Topaz, 181, 182 elimination, 288
7>an«-isomer, 26If natural, 286f
Trichlorometh&ne, 150 non-carbonate, 286f
Trilon B, 256f permanent, 286
Trimethyl amine, 166 temporary, 286
Trinitrotoluene, 147 total, 286f
Tripoli, 181 hydrogen sulphide, 50f
Trisilane, 180 preparation, 288
Tritium, 9 soft, 286
Trotyl, 147 softening, 287f
Tungstates, 147 Wax, paraffin, 139
Tungsten, 325, 332f Wires, electrical, aluminium and cop
carbide, 333 per, 307
Tungstic acid, 332 Witherite, 288
Turnbull's blue, 366 Wolframite, 332
Type metal, 89 Wood, 117, 118
Uranates, 316
Uranic acid, 316 Xenon, 339f, 342
Uranic anhydride, 316 fluorides, 23, 341
Uraninite, 315 hydroxide, 341
Uranium, 314, 315 trioxide, 341
hexafluoride, 316 Xenonic acid, 341
isotopes, 315f Xylolite, 283
trioxide, 316
Uranyl, 316
Urea, 112, 121
Vanadates, 324 Ytterbium, 312
Vanadic anhydride, 324 Yttrium, 310f
Vanadium, 322ff
oxides, 324
Vaseline, 139
Verdigris, 243
Vinegar, 157 Zinc, 289fi
essence, 157 blende, 48, 290
Vinyl chloride, 150 chloride, 294
396 Subject Index
hydroxide, 293 Zirconium, 210, 319, 312f

oxide, 293, 294 boride, 301
sulphate, 293f carbide, 322
sulphide, 294 dioxide, 322
Zineates, 293 Zone melting, 210f
Zircalloys, 322
TO THE READER
Mir Publishers would be grateful for your

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Problem s and Exercises in G eneral Chem istry
N. GLINKA, D.Sc.
This is a training aid in general chemistry for students of

higher educational institutions not majoring in the sub
ject. It has been revised quite considerably (the previous
twentieth Russian edition was published in 1973) in order
to be used in conjunction with the latest twenty first edi
tion of the author’s General Chemistry. Each section has
a brief theoretical introduction and examples showing
how to solve typical problems. Many sections of the book
contain questions contributing to full coverage of the ma
terial. All physicochemical quantities are expressed in SI
units. The appendices contain all the reference data
needed for solving the problems.
The book will be a useful aid for self-education in the fun
damentals of chemistry and for students at chemical
technical schools.
Physical Chem istry. Vol. I
Edited by Ya. GERASIMOV, Corr. Mem. USSR Acad. Sc.
This book is the first volume of a two-volume university

course in physical chemistry, and deals with the funda
mentals of chemical thermodynamics, thermodynamics
of solutions, chemical and heterogeneous equilibria, and
surface phenomena and adsorption. A special chapter is
devoted to gas chromatography.
The book is intended for students of chemical faculties
and universities, and will also be found useful by postgra
duate students and teachers of physical chemistry. The
authors presume that the book will be understood by re
aders who are studying physical chemistry for the first
time and have a knowledge of mathematics and physics
within the scope of the usual courses in these subjects
adhered to by chemical faculties.
Physical Chem istry. Vol. II
Edited by Ya. GERASIMOV, Corr. Mem. USSR Acad. Sc.
This book is the second volume of a two-volume university

course in physical chemistry, and deals with the kinetics
of chemical reactions, chain reactions, reactions in
electrical discharges, catalysis, electrochemistry, elect
romotive forces and chemical sources of current.
The size of the book is due mainly to the fact that the
authors did everything possible to set out the fundamen
tals and their mutual relationship as understandable as
possible. The mathematical deductions are given In suffi
cient detail, and in a simple manner.
The book is intended for students of chemical faculties of
universities, and will also be found useful by postgra
duate students and teachers of physical chemistry.
Selected Sl Units
Ouantoty Uno I
NAill() Symbol
Basoc Length metre m

Unot~ ktlogram kg
Mass
Trme second s
Eleclrlc current amnere A
Temperature kelvm K
Amount of substance mole mol
Den veri Force newton N (kgm/s 2 )

Unots pascal Pa 1i~/m;·)
Pressure
Energy, work. amount of heat JOUle J IN m)
Power wall w I Jts)
Quantoty of electncity coulomb c I As)
Eleclnc voltage, elecrnc potential volt v IWIA)
Electncal restslance 011111 n I ViAl
Electncal conductance stem ens s I A IV)
Conversion of Selected Non-System Units to Sl Units
Fundamental Constants
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About the book
Professor N. Glinka's textbook systematizes
the theoretical aspects and includes an extensive
collection of reference data tor the course in general
chemistry. Great attention is given to the structure
of atoms and molecules, the laws of chemical reactions,
and oxidation-reduction, processes. The book has been
very popular in the Soviet Union and other countries
for many years. During the author's life, it saw 12
editions in Russian and was repeatedly published
in other languages. The time that has elapsed after
the author's death, however required the introduction
of appreciable amendments into the book, first of all
beause of the deep penetration of chemistry into many
branches of the national economy and of the tremendous
growth in the volume of the factual material of chemistry.
The required revision of the textbook was carried out in its
sixteenth Russian eoition (1973).
An additional revision of the book mainly due to the
transition to SI1 units of physical quantities and the associated
alterations in the terminology was carried out in the nineteenth
Russian edition (1977). The present English text has been
translated from the 21st Russian edition (1980), and to facilitate
work with the book, has been divided into two volumes.
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions
not majoring in chemistry. It will also be very helpful for persons
studying the fundamentals of chemistry independently, and for
students of chemical technical schools and the senior classes
of secondary schools.

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Nikolai Glinka, after graduating

from the Moscow University in 1908,

Veniamin Rabinovich, the editor of the

*Lanthanides cess~ Pr sg ~ Ndso ~ Pm61 sms2 ~ Eu 63 ~ Gd64 ~ Tb ss ~ Oyss ~ Ho67 ~ Er

n o n pc^aK ij,H eH xaH A . XHM. a a y K

(g) HaA&TejibCTBO «Xhmhh», 1980

Chapter 2. The Halogens 18

Chapter 3. The Main Subgroup of Group Six 40

26. Oxides of Nitrogen 77

Chapter 6. Common Properties of Metals, Alloys 199

Chapter 7. First Group of the Table 230

104. Aluminium 304

Chapter 12. Eighth Group of the Periodic Table 339

Hydrogen (.Hydrogenium*) was discovered in the first half of the

1. Occurrence and Preparation

extraction of oil. But compounds of hydrogen are very abundant.

Hydrogen is customarily prepared in laboratories by the electrol­

2. Properties and Uses

of a proton is very great, owing to which hydrogen is not capable of

flame forming water:

3. Hydrogen Peroxide H20 2

amount of heat being evolved:

water molecules, hydrogen peroxide can detach hydrogen ions, i.e.

and the separation of iodine from potassium iodide:

The elements fluorine (Fluorum), chlorine (iChlorum), bromine

Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine

Configuration of outer dec- 2s22pB 3s23p5 4s24p5 5$a5p6 6s26p5

which leads to an increase in the number of electrons participating in.

4. Occurrence. Physical Properties

The halogens, owing to their great chemical activity, are found in

molecule gradually diminishes, which is reflected in diminishing of

The halogens dissolve comparatively slightly in water. One vol­

Bromine and iodine dissolve much better in organic solvents*

The net ionic equation is

tions. Bromine as regards its activity is only slightly inferior to chlo­

tical charge of an ion it is higher when the ionic radius is smaller.

6. Preparation and Uses

Chlorine can be prepared in a similar way from hydrochloric acid

field of application of chlorine-containing organic products. The re­

Standard Gibbs energy of formation —272.8 -9 5 .2 -5 3 .3 + 1 .8

The strength of the chemical bond in hydrogen halide molecules

The boiling and melting points in the series Hl-HBr-HCl change

Hydrochloric acid is a colourless liquid w ith a pungent odour.

The first of these reactions proceeds to a considerable extent with

characteristic reaction for chloride ions. Silver chloride is used in

Oxygen, ozone, and hydrogen peroxide are always formed in ad­

as a result of which hydrogen chloride and hypochlorous acid HOC1

Hypochlorous acid is a very strong oxidizer. Its formation when

When chlorinated lim e is reacted with hydrochloric acid, chlorine

other easily igniting mixtures. But the main consumer of potassium

A growth in the oxidation number of chlorine is attended by an

change in the acid dissociation constants in the series HOC1 (K —

and perbromic acid H B r0 4 corresponding to them were prepared by

Very little is known to date about the properties of perbromic acid

or by the electrolysis of a solution of H I0 3:

Periodic acid separates from the solution as colourless crystals of

The main subgroup of group six of the periodic table includes

As indicated in Vol. 1, p. 134, such an electron configuration of the

be or + 6 . An exception here is oxygen itself. In the magnitude of

Oxygen Sulphur Selenium Tellurium

Hydrogen is customarily prepared in laboratories by the electrol

The halogens dissolve comparatively slightly in water. One vol

tions. Bromine as regards its activity is only slightly inferior to chlo

field of application of chlorine-containing organic products. The re

Oxygen, ozone, and hydrogen peroxide are always formed in ad

separates from the solution in the form of transparent yellow crys

separated. This occurs as a result of oxidation of the hydrogen sul

is insoluble in water, but dissolves in acids. This difference is ex

Sulphur trioxide is a colourless highly mobile liquid with a den

* S ubstances th a t can be considered as being produced from oxygen-con