FUEL AND COMBUSTION

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent, which on proper burning
gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for domestic and industrial purpose.
Example: Wood, charcoal, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil gas etc. During the process
of combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen with liberation of heat. The calorific
value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of Carbon and Hydrogen.
A good fuel should have the following characteristics:
 High calorific value.
 Moderate ignition temperature.
Fuels may be classified into three main groups as follows:
 Solid fuels: Wood and coal are examples of solid fuel. The analysis of these fuels can be
carried out in two ways.
Proximate analysis: In the proximate analysis, moisture (M), Ash (A) and volatile matter
(VM) are determined. Fixed carbon (FC) is obtained from the following equation:

FC= 100 – (%M + %A+ %VM)

There are standard tests to determine proximate analysis. Moisture is determined by drying
1gm of sample at 105oC for 1 hr. Weight loss is expressed in % of initial weight of sample ,
i.e. %M = (weight loss/ weight of sample) x 100

Ash is weight of reside obtained after complete combustion of 1g of coal at 700- 750oC . Ash
in % is %A = (weight of residue / weight of sample) x 100

Volatile matter is the weight loss obtained on heating 1gm sample of coal at 950oC for 7
minutes in the absence of air .

Total weight loss of a moist coal = Weight loss due to Volatile matter +Moisture

Weight loss due to VM = Total weight loss – Moisture

If coal sample is dry then weight loss is due to VM only.

%VM = (weight loss due to VM / weight of sample ) x 100.

Ultimate Analysis : the main chemical element in coal (apart from associated mineral matter)
are C, O, H , N, and S . the chemical analysis is very important to calculate material balance
accurately and calorific value of coal. For the ultimate analysis C, H , S , and N are determined by
chemical analysis and is calculated on moisture free basis . then ,
%O = 100(%C + %H + % N + % S +ash).

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

Coal is classified into 4 categories

a) Peat
 Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal.
 Its calorific value is about 4000-5400 k cal/kg.
 It is an uneconomical fuel due to its high proportion of (80 -90%) moisture and
lower calorific value.
b) Lignite
 Lignite is an intermediate stage in the process of coal formation.
 Its calorific value is about 6500-7100 k cal/kg.
 Due to the presence of high volatile content, it burns with long smoky flame.
c) Bituminous coal
Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the basis of its carbon content into three
types as: i) Sub- bituminous coal,
ii) Bituminous coal
iii) semi-bituminous coal.
It has a carbon content of between 77 and 87% on a dry ash-free basis
d) Anthracite
1. Anthracite is the superior grade of coal.
2. Its volatile, moisture and ash contents are very less.
3. Its calorific value is about 8650 k cal/kg.

 Liquid Fuels: petrol, paraffin1, diesel, kerosene, oil and heavy fuel oil. It has higher
calorific value and easy control in combustion.
Petroleum
Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural gas, petroleum was
formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plants, algae, and bacteria.
Over millions of years of intense heat and pressure, these organic remains (fossils)
transformed into carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials for fuel and a wide
variety of products.
Petroleum is classified on the basis of various types of hydrocarbons.
i) Paraffin based oil - Contains mainly n - alkanes (Ex : Pennsylvanian and gulf coast oil)
ii) Asphalt base oil - Contains aromatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons. (Ex: Californian oil)
iii) Mixed base oil - Contains higher proportion of aromatics and naphthenes (cyclo alkanes).
(Ex: Mexican oil)
Crude oil , after it is extracted from oil rigs are refined in distillation towers where different
petroleum products are extracted. A picture of distillation process is shown in F1.

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

F1. Distillation
tower and process.

Source:internet

(siahfam.com)

 Gaseous fuels: natural gas, coal gas, town gas, coke oven gas, producer gas. It has following
advantages :
o Easy production at one point and distribution through pipe lines
o No problem of ash disposal
o Complete combustion without pollution is possible
Natural Gas

Natural gas is always found above the oil in the oil wells. It is also called Marsh gas. It consists of
methane and other saturated hydrocarbons. The average composition of natural gas is as follows:
Its calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3.
Constituents Percentage (%)

Methane 88.5

Ethane 5.5

Propane 4

Butane 1.5

Pentane 0.5

If natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane it is called lean or dry gas. If
the natural gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane , butane along with methane it is called
rich or wet gas. .

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

Methanol used as fuel.

Transportation of people and goods largely relies on the use of fossil hydrocarbons, contributing
to global warming and problems with local air quality. There are a number of alternatives to fossil
fuels that can avoid a net carbon emission and can also decrease pollutant emissions. However,
many have significant difficulty in competing with fossil fuels due to either limited availability,
limited energy density, high cost, or a combination of these.

Methanol (CH3OH) is one of these alternatives, which was demonstrated in large fleet trials
during the 1980s and 1990s, and is currently again being introduced in various places and
applications. It can be produced from fossil fuels, but also from biomass and from renewable
energy sources in carbon capture and utilization schemes. It can be used in pure form or as a
blend component. Methanol, CH3OH, is a simple oxygenated hydrocarbon that is among the top
five of most widely traded chemicals in the world. Methanol has many desirable attributes which
make it an excellent spark-ignition engine fuel. These include :

• High heat of vaporization (‘latent heat’)

• Low stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (AFR)

• High specific energy ratio (i.e., energy per unit of fuel-air mixture)

• High flame speed

• High molar expansion ratio

• Low combustion temperature

• High hydrogen-to-carbon ratio

• Being liquid at standard temperature and pressure (STP)

The table T2 shows some physical characteristic of methanol as compared to hydrogen and other
hydrocarbons used as fuels.

T2. Some physical and chemical properties of commonly used fuels.

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE (H.C.V.):
All fuels containing hydrogen produces water vapours during the process of combustion. If these
products of combustion are cooled to the room temperature then all water vapour will condense
evolving their latent heat, producing the maximum amount of heat per kg of fuel. This heat is called
H.C.V.
LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE (L.C.V.):
The cooling of the flue gases to room temperature is not possible in most of the combustion processes.
Therefore the amount of latent heat of water vapour goes waste.
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – Heat carried away by water vapour formed per kg of fuel burned
= H.C.V. – mw x hfg
Where mw = mass of water vapour formed per kg of fuel burned.
hfg = latent heat of vaporization at the partial pressure of water vapour in the combustion
product
= 2395 kJ/kg.
Calorific values of various fuels are given in table T1.
Table T1. Calorific values of fuels. Ref.: (Book) Engineering Thermodynamics – Dr. Sadhu Singh.

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

The H.C.V. is given by :

Where C, H, O, S are percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur.

The L.C.V. is given by,
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – (9/100) x H X 2460 kJ/kg

COMBUSTION

Combustion is a self-propagating exothermic oxidative chemical reaction, mostly in gas phase,

producing light, heat and smoke in a nearly-adiabatic flame front. The overall process in combustion
is analogous to those taking place in fuel cells and living-matter respiration, so that the same overall
results apply in all three cases, in spite of their details being so different; combustion is characterised
by the very high temperatures reached. Combustion Thermodynamics focuses on the former physio-
chemical phenomena: fuel/air ratios, heating values, maximum work obtainable, exhaust composition,
etc.
In combustion of methane , CH4 ,

The chemical reaction involved is:

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
For any hydrocarbon fuel , we have,

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

xCn H2n+2 + yO2 aCO2 + b H2O

where x, y, a and b are constant to be evaluated . Equating weights of C, H and O on both sides of
the equation and solving for x, y, a and b and substituting their values in combustion equation , we
get
3n+1
Cn H2n+2 +( ) O2 nCO2 + (n+1) H2O
2

CONVERSION OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS TO MASS (OR GRAVIMETRIC )

ANALYSIS AND VICE VERSA
Let the fraction of CO , CO2 , N2 , and O2 by volume of dry exhaust gases be C1, C2 , N , and O
respectively obtained by the Orsat apparatus , then this volumetric analysis can be converted into
volumetric analysis as shown in table T3.

Table T3.: conversion from volumetric to gravimetric analysis, source: Engineering

Thermodynamics – Dr. Sadhu Singh.

Table T3.:
conversion from volumetric to gravimetric analysis, source: Engineering Thermodynamics – Dr.
Sadhu Singh

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

Bomb Calorimeter

A bomb calorimeter (figure F2 and F3) is a device that is designed to measure the amount of heat that
is given off or taken in by a reaction. It is designed to be isolated from the surroundings, meaning that
no heat can leave or enter the device.

Fig: F2 :A bomb calorimeter ,

source:internet(study.com)

Fig: F3 :A bomb calorimeter

source: : Engineering
Termodynamics-Dr. Sadhu Singh

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

Inside the calorimeter is a vessel in which the reaction occurs surrounded by a water bath. The
temperature of the water bath can be monitored via thermometer.

When a reaction takes place in the calorimeter, the temperature of the water bath changes. If an
exothermic reaction occurs, the water bath temperature goes up. If an endothermic reaction occurs, the
water bath temperature goes down.

In an ideal calorimeter all the heat exchange would take place with the water. However, in real life,
the materials from the calorimeter itself, the stainless steel, thermometer, etc., exchange heat with the
system as well. We can correct for this by using a heat capacity for the calorimeter in our calculations.

Because all the heat is exchanged inside the calorimeter, we can set the total heat to zero. We have
three terms for the three parts of our calorimeter: the calorimeter itself, the water bath, and the
chemical reaction.

qcal +qwater + qreaction =0

Substituting the equations for the heat of the water and the heat of the calorimeter, we get a more
detailed equation:

Ccal ΔTcal + mCp ΔTwater + qreaction =0

The term for qcal has no mass. This is because it is assumed that the mass of the calorimeter is constant
and therefore can be included in Ccal .Also note that ΔT should always be calculated as Tf (final temp)
- Ti (initial temp). This means that if the temperature of that object goes down, ΔT will be negative.
Cp is the specific heat capacity for water and is 1 cal/g°C.

Solving for qreaction ,

qreaction = -(Ccal ΔTcal + mCp ΔTwater)

FLUE GAS ANALYSIS BY ORSAT APPARATUS

Flue gases are the outlet gases obtained when a fuel is burned with air in combustion equipments like
engines and boilers. Based on the fuel composition flue gases are formed, a fuel having carbon and
hydrogen compounds generates flue gas containing oxides of carbon and hydrogen because of the
oxygen in air burns with components that release heat energy and resulting in the combusted
materials. In the construction of fire heater, boilers, combustion engines and combustor the outlet is
given out with a cylinder shape chimney so that the hot flue gases are ejected into the atmosphere. In

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

design and calculating the performance of the above equipments the flue gas is used for analysis
which helps to determine the composition of the carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
monoxide. Based on this analysis results the fuel inlet flow rate, air flow rate and burner are
controlled to get the efficiency of the fired heaters. By the following presentation, the flue gas
analysis can be demonstrated by using Orsat apparatus (figure F4) , of course, this is a standard piece
of equipment. Many high accurate digital and portable devices are available to determine
the composition of flue gas.
Orsat operation in four steps:
1. Filling the flue gas
2. Expelling excess gas
3. Absorption of the gas through contact with the chemical by raising and lowering the levelling
bottle
4. Finally measuring the percentage of the component by equating the water levels, repeating (3
and 4) with other two absorber chambers.
Orsat apparatus operation representation with single absorber chamber to understand easily. This is
performed with other chemical absorption units for same inlet gas.

Governing chemical absorption reactions in Orsat apparatus: Typical flue gas analyzers measure
the quantity of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen by a chemical absorption principle.
Based on the absorption factor of these three components their respective absorbing solutions are
selected in three different bulb compartments. When the gas is passed into these bulbs consecutively,

Fig.: F4.Orsat Apparatus, source: Engineering Thermodynamics-Dr. Sadhu Singh

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

where each component is separated in the sequence that helps to know the volume drop from initial
flue gas volume.

Water vapor in flue gas removed by adsorption on solid calcium chloride and then passed into three
pipettes. The sequence of absorption should always be started from CO2, O2 and CO if the absorption
solutions are ammoniacal cuprous chloride; alkaline pyrogallic acid and KOH were selected as a
reagent in the Orsat apparatus analyser.
 The gas then passed into KOH (potassium hydroxide) solution pipette to absorb CO2 to form
potassium carbonate by the reaction 2KOH + CO2 ↔ K2CO3+ H2O at ambient conditions.
 After confirming no change in the volume of the reservoir than gas led to alkaline pyrogallic
acid containing pipette to absorb oxygen by the reaction:
 2C6H3(OH)3(pyrogallol) + 2KOH(saturated alkaline)+ O2 ↔ 4H2O + 2C5H3OCOOK and a
physical colour change is observed.
 Finally, carbon monoxide is absorbed by ammoniacal cuprous chloride pipette by the
reaction,
 2CuCl + 2CO →(in NH3 solution)→ [CuCl(CO)]2
The average molecular weight of the flue gas can be calculated using the volume or mole
percentage composition determined by the Orsat analysis.

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FUEL AND COMBUSTION

REFERENCES

 Engineering Thermodynamics- Dr. Sadhu Singh

 Methanol used as a fuel for internal combustion engines , Sebstian Verhelst , James WG
Turner, Louis Sileghem, Jeroen Vancoillie.
 INTERNET
o study.com
o nptel.com
o inclusive-science-engineering.com
o siahfam.com
o britannica.com
o ddscalorimeters.com
o basicmechanicalengineering.com

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