2.

Synchronous Generating Unit

Modeling and Parameter
Validation

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 Outline

1. Basics of Power System Operation

2. Concepts of Power System Stability

3. Synchronous Generator Modeling

4. Generator Terminal Characteristics

5. Generator Reactive Capability

6. Generator Parameter Testing Methods

7. Field Testing for Determination or Validation of Generator

Parameters

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 Power System Operation

A well-designed and well-operated power system should:

• meet the power demand and maintain a sufficient active and
reactive power reserve to cope with ongoing changes in
demand and system disturbances due to contingencies
• operate safely with minimum operating costs and environmental
impacts
• maintain an adequate level of reliability
• provide an acceptably high level of power quality (maintaining
voltage and frequency within tolerable limits)
The system also needs to be well-maintained to meet the
operation and reliability requirements.

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 Frequency and Voltage Control

Frequency and voltage need to be maintained for the normal operation of

the power system

Several levels of control involving a complex array of devices used to

meet performance requirements. For example,

• Frequency/active power by prime mover action

• Voltage/reactive power by excitation system
• Voltage control by on/off-load tap-changing transformer
• Active power by phase-shifting transformer
• Active power by DC lines
• Voltage by switchable shunts, SVCs, STATCOM, etc.

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 Generator Speed and Voltage Regulation

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 Active and Reactive Power Control

Active power and reactive power flow in an electrical network are:

• the key measures of a power system

• fairly independent of each other;
• influenced by different control actions. Therefore, they may be
studied separately for a large class of problems
• active power control is closely related to frequency control
• reactive power control is closely related to voltage control
• The control of active and reactive power is of vital importance to
the satisfactory operation of power systems.

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 Active Power - Frequency Control

The frequency of a power system is dependent on active power

balance

• Frequency is a common factor throughout the system. A

change in active power demand at one point is reflected
throughout the system

• Because there are many generators supplying power for the

system, some means must be provided to allocate change in
demand to the generators

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 Active Power - Frequency Control
Speed governor provides primary speed control function.
Supplementary control originating at a system control center allocates
generation.

• In an interconnected system, with two or more independently controlled

areas, the generation within each area has to be controlled so as to
maintain scheduled power interchange
• The control of generation and frequency is commonly known as load
frequency control (LFC) or automatic generation control (AGC)

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 Power System Frequency Control

System Frequency after Loss of 1400 MW Generation (a Single Largest Unit) in

an Interconnected System with 2058/3198 Units Generating 124 GW
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 Reactive Power – Voltage Control

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is installed on every generator

connected to the power system.
Voltage control is mostly realized locally for the balance of the reactive
power, using reactors and capacitors

• In an interconnected system, with two or more independently controlled

areas, the voltages of the Point of Interconnection within each area has
to be controlled so as to maintain scheduled power interchange
• The control of reactive power and voltage is important to power system
voltage stability

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 Power System Transients

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 Power System Stability Classification

Power System Stability

 Ability to remain in operating equilibrium
 Equilibrium between opposing forces

Rotor Angle Stability Voltage Stability Frequency Stability

 Ability to maintain  Ability to maintain  Ability to maintain steady
synchronism acceptable steady and frequency within a nominal
 Balance of synchronous transient voltage range
machines torques  Balance of reactive power  Balance of active power

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 Power System Rotor Angle Stability
Rotor Angle Stability

Transient Stability Small-signal Stability

 Large disturbance  Small disturbance
 First-swing aperiodic drift  Under damped oscillations
 Nonlinear differential equations  Linearization of nonlinear equations
 Time-domain simulation  Eigenvalue analysis

Oscillatory Instability Non-oscillatory Instability

Insufficient damping torque Insufficient synchronizing torque

(fast AVR or poor controls) (No AVR or extremely slow exciter)

Machine Plant Inter-area Control Torsional

Modes Modes Modes Modes Modes

0.8 ~ 3.0 Hz 0.8 ~ 3.0 Hz 0.2 ~ 0.8 Hz > 2.0 Hz 5.0 ~ 55 Hz

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 Power System Voltage Stability

Voltage Stability
Ability to maintain steady-state and transient voltages at all buses of a system
Instability may be caused by a loss of transmission lines, increase in load
demand, or other disturbances.
Instability usually leads to progressive and uncontrollable fall or rise in voltage

Large Disturbance Small-Disturbance

Voltage Stability Voltage Stability
 Large disturbance or faults  Small-disturbance in steady-state
 Dynamics of ULTC and loads  PV or QV analysis
 Action of protection and limiters  Reactive power reserve
 Time-domain simulations  Sensitivity analysis of PF equations

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 Power System Frequency Stability

• Ability to maintain system steady frequency within a permitted

range following a disturbance leading to a significant loss of
generation or load

• Instability may occur in the form of sustained frequency

swings that lead to tripping of generating units and/or loads

• Maintaining frequency stability is a key issue in operation of a

small system, or a large interconnected system splitting into
several islands following a major system event.

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 June 16, 2017 WECC System Frequency Event

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 Synchronous Generator Modeling

Modeling of synchronous generators commonly used in power

system analysis includes:

• Acceleration (swing) equations of the turbine-generator rotor

• Differential and algebraic equations describing the generator

electrical flux dynamics, voltages and torques

• Generator saturation characteristics

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 Rotor Mechanical Model

The swing (acceleration) equations are simply Newton’s second law of

motion applied to the rotating mass of the turbine-generator rotor.

 d
 dt  0  r

2 H d r  T  T  D r
 dt
m e

 r , T m , T e in per unit
t in seconds
0 in electrical radians per second

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 Assumptions in Synch. Generator Modeling

• Consists of two sets of windings:

− 3-phase armature winding on the stator distributed with centers

120° apart in space

− Field winding on the rotor supplied by DC

• Two basic rotor structures used:

− Salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic units (low speed)

− Round rotor structure for thermal units (high speed)

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 Assumptions in Synch. Generator Modeling, cont’d

• Salient poles have concentrated field windings, usually also carry

damper windings on the pole face.

• Round rotors have solid steel rotors with distributed windings

• Nearly sinusoidal space distribution of flux wave shape obtained by:

− Distributing stator windings and field windings in many slots (round

rotor);

− Shaping pole faces (salient pole)

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 Circuits in an Ideal Synchronous Generator

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 Basic Equations of a Synchronous Generator

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 Self and Mutual Inductances in abc Frame

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 Self and Mutual Inductances in abc Frame

Important Notes:
1) Self-inductances of stator windings are positive, and varies with rotor position θ
which in turn varies with time
2) Mutual inductance between stator windings are negative, also varies with rotor
position θ
3) Self- and mutual inductance of rotor windings are positive. The mutual
inductance between fd and kq windings, and kd and kq windings are zero since
they are displaced in 90 degrees apart.
4) Mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings are positive, but varies
with rotor position θ
Remark: It’s nearly impossible to obtain an analytical solution due to the time-
varying self- and mutual inductances which are a function of rotor position θ.
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 Park (dq0) Transformation

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 Generator Currents in dq0 Frame

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 Generator Flux Linkages in dq0 Frame

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 Stator Voltages and Electric Power in dq0 Frame

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 Electric Torque in dq0 Frame

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 Generator Base Values and Per Unitization

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 Generator Base Values and Per Unitization

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 Generator Base Values and Per Unitization

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 Generator Equations in Per Unit in dq0 Frame

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 Generator Fundamental Parameters

• Equations and equivalent circuits are developed in terms of

inductances and resistances of stator and rotor circuits

• Fundamental parameters specify electrical characteristics

completely - However, they cannot be directly determined from
measured machine responses

• The traditional approach to assigning machine data - In terms

of derived parameters related to observed behavior from the
terminals under specified conditions

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 Synchronous Machine Parameters

• Traditional approach to assigning machine data.

• Derived parameters related to time responses of terminal

quantities following a disturbance:
 Currents are induced in rotor circuits
 Currents in some circuits decay faster than others

• Parameters associated with

 Rapidly decaying components (sub-transient constants)
 Slowly decaying components (transient constants)
 Sustained components (synchronous constants)

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 Generator Standard Parameters
• Standard parameters
– effective inductances seen from stator terminal during
sustained, transient, and sub-transient conditions

Ld Lq Ld Lq Ld Lq

– Saturation factors: S1.0 S1.2

– time constants associated with the decay of transient and
sub-transient currents

Open-circuit time constants: Td0 Tq0 T d 0 T q 0

Short-circuit time constants: Td Tq T d T q

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 Standard and Fundamental Parameters

Generator Parameter Relationships

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 Representation of Generator Saturation

• Correct representation of generator saturation effect is critical for accurate

simulation of generator stability performance
• Generator magnetic saturation effects can be considered in various ways,
and may vary with simulation programs
• For salient pole machines
– Saturation has normally been assumed to occur only in the d-axis, and
the generator open-circuit saturation curve is used to determine the
saturation factors in the d-axis
• For solid rotor machines
– Saturation can be significant in both the d- and q-axes
– Saturation in the d-axis affects principally the excitation level, while q-
axis saturation mostly affects Xq, which determine the power angle
– Q-axis saturation data are not easily obtainable

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 Determination of Generator Parameters

• Conventional method
– based on short circuit test on unloaded machine; IEEE standard
115-1983 (1995, 2009)
– provides only d-axis data; field circuit not specifically identified

• Methods proposed and used for determining more accurate

parameters
– enhanced short circuit tests
– stator decrement tests
– frequency response tests: standstill, open-circuit and on-line
– analysis of design data: finite element analysis

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 Short-circuit Test

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 Generator Model (GENROU in PSS/E)

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 Generator terminal characteristics
• In voltage stability and long-term stability studies, it is important to
consider the reactive capability limits of synchronous machines

• Synchronous generators are rated in terms of maximum MVA output at

a specified voltage and power factor which can be carried continuously
without overheating

• The active power output is limited by the prime mover capability

• The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three

considerations
– armature current limit
– field current limit
– end region heating limit

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 Armature Current Limit

Armature current results in power loss, and the resulting heat

imposes a limit on the output. The per unit complex output power is:

S  P  jQ  Et I t  Et I t cos  j sin 
~ ~*

where Φ is the power factor

angle
In a P-Q plane the armature
current limit appears as a circle
with center at the origin and
radius equal to the MVA rating

Armature current heating limit

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 Field Current Limit
Because of the heating resulting from RfdI2fd power loss, the field
current imposes the second limit

The left phasor diagram shows

the relationship of Et, It and Eq
(with Ra neglected)
Equating the components
along and perpendicular to the
phasor:

X ad i fd sin  i  X s I t cos  , X ad i fd cos  i  Et  X s I t sin 

X ad X ad Et2
P  Et I t cos   Et i fd sin  i , Q  Et I t sin   Et i fd cos  i 
Xs Xs Xs
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 Field Current Limit
Et2 2 X ad
 The relationship between P and P  (Q 
2
) ( Et i fd ) 2
Q for a given field current is a Xs Xs
circle centered at on the Q-axis
and with X ad Et i fd as the radius.
Xs
 The effect of the maximum field
current on the capability of the
machine is shown in the Figure

 In any balanced design, the

thermal limits for the field and
armature intersect at a point (A)
which represents the machine
name-plate MVA and power factor
rating

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 End Region Heating Limit

Sectional view end

region of a generator

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 End Region Heating Limit
• The localized heating in the end region of the armature affects the
capability of the machine in the underexcited condition

• The end-turn leakage flux enters and leaves in a direction perpendicular

(axial) to the stator lamination. This causes eddy currents in the
laminations resulting in localized heating in the end region

• The high field currents corresponding to the overexcited condition keep the
retaining ring saturated, so that end leakage flux is small. However, in the
underexcited region the field current is low and the retaining ring is not
saturated; this permits an increase in armature end leakage flux.

• Also, in the underexcited condition, the flux produced by the armature

current adds to the flux produced by the field current. Therefore, the end-
turn flux enhances the axial flux in the end region and the resulting heating
effect may severely limit the generator output, particularly in the case of a
round rotor machine.

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 Reactive Capability of Synchronous Machines

• Example of a 400 MVA hydrogen cooled

steam turbine generator at rated armature
voltage

• The effectiveness of cooling and hence the

allowable machine loading depends on
hydrogen pressure

• The segment AB represents the field

heating limit, the segment BC armature
heating limit, and the segment CD the end
region heating limit

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 Effect of Armature Voltage on the Capability

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 Effect of Unit Output on Rotor Angle and Excitation

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 Typical Generator Protections and Limiters

• Armature and field limiters (SCL,UEL and OEL)

• Armature and field shorts
• Loss of excitation (or loss of field)
• Over/under voltage
• Loss of synchronism (out-of-step)
• Armature and field unbalance
• Volt/Hertz
• Reverse power
• Under and over frequency etc.

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 Generating Unit Model Validation

By performing field testing and computer simulation:

• Determine the generator dynamic model parameters used in

simulation software
• Derive and validate the excitation system model parameters
• Validate turbine-governor system model parameters
• Verify the settings and functionality of excitation limiters
• Check the functionality of PSS and validate the model parameters
• Verify the active and reactive power capabilities of the generating unit
• Verify the proper coordination of the limiters and protective relays

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 Generator Model Validation Procedure
1. Gather and review plant documentation
2. Develop a detailed unit specific test plan
3. Perform pre-test simulations if necessary
4. Execute the test plan (perform staged tests) onsite
The actual testing time varies with the unit conditions and the ability
of the unit can be maneuvered by the testing personnel. Typically it
takes around 12 hours to complete a full baseline testing on one unit.
5. Develop or validate models using obtained field test results
This is normally carried out off site and takes longer time than field
testing. Commercial simulation software or model simulation tools will
be needed.
6. Prepare the generator testing report per regulatory body
and/or regional system operator compliance requirements.

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 Gather & Review Unit Documentation
• One-line, 3-line diagram (circuit breaker, field supply, CT and PT’s etc.)
• Nameplate data for generator, turbine and exciter, transformer etc.
• Manufacturer-provided generator data and curves
─ reactance, time constants and winding resistances
─ saturation and capability curves
• Site commissioning test records
• Exciter and voltage regulator schematic and settings
• Turbine configuration, governor control logic and settings
• Brushless exciter (no load and load) characteristics
• Exciter and governor control settings, existing models if available
• Constraints imposed on unit or plant operations
• These data are essential for:
─ Preparing a detailed unit-specific test plan
─ Identifying the model structure to be used for each unit component
─ Starting the curve fitting in model validation studies

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 Develop Detailed Test Plan

Identify signals to measure:

1. Generator stator voltages: VA, VB, VC, or VAB, VCB (PT ratio)
2. Generator stator currents: IA, IB and IC (CT ratio)
3. Field voltage (generator / brushless exciter) VF (range)
4. Field current (generator / brushless exciter) IF (shunt ratio)
5. Load/speed set point reference value (if available)
6. Wicket gate, needle, deflector, blade angle positions (hydraulic)
7. Turbine exhaust temperature (GT)
8. Fuel inlet valve position and fuel mass flow (GT)
9. Governor control and intercept valve positions (ST)
10. First stage HP turbine pressure (ST)
11. Other signals

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 Develop Detailed Test Plan Cont’d

Determine Method of signal injection:

1. DC signal injection to AVR (external analog voltage reference)
2. Shunt POT bypass to 90/70 (on old motor-driven voltage/current setter)
3. Software tool for changing voltage reference
4. AC signal injection to AVR (for frequency response measurement)
5. DC signal injection for Load/speed set point reference change
6. Software tool for changing Load/speed set point reference
7. Disturbance to MW measurement circuit
8. Step and frequency response measurement for PSS modules
9. Possibility of utilizing other units in close vicinity
10. Other means on plant/system side for measuring the unit under test

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 Develop Detailed Test Plan Cont’d

Detailed test procedure should at least specify:

• Machine operating condition (FSNL, MW, MVAr, kV)
• Excitation controller and governor control mode (AVR, FCR, PSS,
Droop, etc.)
• Controls or relays to be bypassed or defeated, such as reverse
power, SNL solenoid
• Actions such as open generator circuit breaker, adjusting field, or
introducing a step
• Cautions and concerns
Note:
Test procedures are generally designed based on unit specifics such
as type configuration, controls (digital or analog) and signal
accessibility.

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 Test Procedure – a sample test

Reactive Current Compensation Test (VAR Rejection Test )

The unit will be synchronized and adjusted to supply 0 MW and around –

20MVAr, with exciter in AVR control. The unit circuit breaker will then be
opened to reject the VAR load.

This test will be used for determining reactive current compensation setting,
and further validating the excitation system model.

Notes:
(1) AVR voltage setter/follower should be blocked/disabled
(2) Reverse power relay may be disabled to prevent turbine tripping

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 Simplified Test Plan (Sample)

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 Pre-test simulation

Can only be performed when sufficient information is available

1. The models representing the system and the unit to ne tested
2. Reasonably-accurate generator models and parameters
3. Information on the operating orders of the unit to be tested
4. Related protective relay settings

Make sure the proposed tests can be carried out safely

1. Check the usability of the existing models
2. Determine the voltage limits for the proposed offline and online tests
3. Decide the voltage and power level for proposed load rejection tests
4. Verify the coordination of the limiters and the protective relays

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 Generating Unit Model Validation
Baseline Validation Practice:
• Generator model parameters first
• Excitation system added to Generator – Unit offline
• Online governor and excitation system step responses, for the
whole unit and generator steady-state characteristics

Field Tests performed:

• Open-circuit saturation, excitation removal, manual excitation step

response, D-axis load rejection, Q-axis load rejection
• Offline AVR voltage reference step response (frequency response)
• Online governor speed/frequency reference step response, online
AVR voltage reference step response & PSS performance, PSS
tuning (frequency response), steady-state measurements

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 Tools Essential for Testing & Model Validation
Testing Equipment:
• Digital AVR and/or Governor with built-in testing and data recording
capabilities
• Specialized testing equipment, such as, Tabula data acquisition
system (hardware & software)
• Other off-the-shelf digital recorder

Simulation Tools:

• Power flow and short-circuit analysis (PSAT, PSS/E, PSLF…)

• Time domain simulation (TSAT, PSS/E, PSLF…)
• Eigenvalue analysis (SSAT, …)
• PSS tuning tools (CDT)
• MATLAB/Simulink for controls, DIgSILENT, PowerWorld, …

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