02PCYQW Modelling and simulation

of mechatronic systems
Control questions to Lecture 1:

• What is the structure of the course?

• What are your lecturers’ names?
• Is a mechatronic system just a union of mechanical and
electrical/electronic components?
• Are modern cars, aircrafts and other vehicles mechatronic systems?
• Why mathematical modeling is needed?
02PCYQW Modelling and simulation
of mechatronic systems

Lecture 2. Part A. Complex numbers

The Euclidean plane from an alternative viewpoint
 Why do we want to learn them?
In the MSMS course, the complex numbers are useful since
• they arise as eigenvalues of rotational matrices;
• they conveniently represent planar vectors and planar rotations;
• they arise in some parameterizations of 3D rotations (Cayley-Klein parameters);
• they simplify understanding of the quaternion algebra.

Other applications in mechatronics, mechanical and electrical engineering:

• Control theory: frequency-domain stability criteria (Bode, Nyquist etc.);
• Circuit theory and electrical machines: alternating currents, inductances and impedances;
• Signal processing: Fourier analysis (FFT etc.), frequency-domain filter design;
• Fluid mechanics: planar models of flows;
• Quantum mechanics: wave functions…
Complex numbers are from Italy!
Girolamo Cardano, or
Hieronymus Cardanus Rafael Bombelli
(1501-1576) (1526-1572)
used roots of introduced the
negative numbers to symbol i, described
solve cubic equations complex arithmetic

René Descartes
(1596-1650)
used the modern terminology:
real and imaginary parts of a
complex number, imaginary unit.
COMPLEX NUMBERS

 In the early days of modern mathematics, people were puzzled by equations like
this one:

 The equation looks simple enough, but in the sixteenth century people had no idea
how to solve it. This is because to the common-sense mind the solution seems to
be without meaning:

 For this reason, mathematicians dubbed  1 an imaginary number. We

abbreviate this by writing “i” in its place, that is:
DEFINITION
A complex number z is a number of the form x  iy
where
x is the real part and y the imaginary part, written as x = Re z, y = Im z.
i is called the imaginary unit i  1
If x = 0, then z = iy is a pure imaginary number.
The complex conjugate of a complex number, z = x + iy, denoted by z* , is given by
z* = x – iy.
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal.
DEFINITION
A complex number z is a number of the form
x  iy where i  1
x is the real part and y the imaginary part, written as x = Re z, y = Im z.
i is called the imaginary unit
If x = 0, then z = iy is a pure imaginary number.
The complex conjugate of a complex number, z = x + iy, denoted by z* , is given by
z* = x – iy.
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal.
COMPLEX PLANE
 A complex number can be plotted on a plane with two perpendicular coordinate
axes
The horizontal x-axis, called the real axis
The vertical y-axis, called the imaginary axis
y Represent z = x + jy geometrically
P as the point P(x,y) in the x-y plane,
z = x + iy or as the vector OP from the
origin to P(x,y).

O x x-y plane is also known as

The complex plane the complex plane.
POLAR COORDINATES
With x  r cos  , y  r sin 
z takes the polar form: z  r (cos  j sin  )

r is called the absolute value or modulus or

magnitude of z and is denoted by |z|.
z  r  x 2  y 2  zz*

Note that : zz *  ( x  jy )( x  jy )
 x2  y2
TRIGONOMETRIC FORM FOR
COMPLEX NUMBERS
 We modify the familiar coordinate system by calling the horizontal axis the real
axis and the vertical axis the imaginary axis.
 Each complex number a + bi determines a unique position vector with initial point
(0, 0) and terminal point (a, b).
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG X, Y,
R, AND 

x  r cos
y  r sin

r  x2  y2
y
tan  , if x  0
x
TRIGONOMETRIC (POLAR) FORM
OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
 The expression r (cos  i sin  )
is called the trigonometric form or (polar form) of the complex number x + yi.
The expression cos  + i sin  is sometimes abbreviated cis .
Using this notation
r (cos  i sin  ) is written r cis  .
COMPLEX PLANE
Complex plane, polar form of a complex number

Geometrically, |z| is the distance of the

Im point z from the origin while θ is the
directed angle from the positive x-axis to
y
P OP in the above figure.
z = x + iy
r From the figure,
 y
|z | =   tan  
1

x
θ

O x Re
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
 θ is called the argument of z and is denoted by arg z. Thus,
y
  arg z  tan 1   z  0
 x
For z = 0, θ is undefined.
 A complex number z ≠ 0 has infinitely many possible arguments, each one
differing from the rest by some multiple of 2π. In fact, arg z is actually
y
  tan 1    2n , n  0,1,2,...
 x
 The value of θ that lies in the interval (-π, π] is called the principle
argument of z (≠ 0) and is denoted by Arg z.
EULER FORMULA – AN
ALTERNATE POLAR FORM
The polar form of a complex number can be rewritten as :
z  r (cos  j sin  )  x  jy
 re j
This leads to the complex exponential function :
e z  e x  jy  e x e jy
 e x cos y  j sin y 

cos 
2

1 j
e  e  j
Further leads to :
sin  
1 j
2j

e  e  j 
EULER FORMULA
 Remember the well-known Taylor Expansions :
EULER FORMULA

 So, we can conlude that :

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION
 EXAMPLE
A complex number, z = 1 + j , has a magnitude | z | (12  12 )  2

1  
and argument : z  tan    2n    2n  rad
1

1 4 

Hence its principal argument is : Arg z   / 4 rad


   j
Hence in polar form : z  2  cos  j sin   2e 4

 4 4
 EXAMPLE
A complex number, z = 1 - j , has a magnitude

| z | (12  12 )  2
 1   
and argument : z  tan    2n     2n  rad
1

 1   4 

Hence its principal argument is : Arg z   rad
4

Hence in polar form : j   
z  2e 4
 2  cos  j sin 
 4 4
In what way does the polar form help in manipulating complex numbers?
 EXAMPLE
What about z1=0+j, z2=0-j, z3=2+j0, z4=-2?

z1  0  j1 z 2  0  j1
 1e j 0.5  1e  j 0.5
 10.5  1  0.5

z3  2  j0 z 4  2  j 0
 2e j 0  2e  j
 20  2  
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED) Im

●
z1 = + j

0.5
z4 = -2 z3 = 2
● ●
Re

● z2 = - j
EXAMPLE
 Express 2(cos 120 + i sin 120) in rectangular form.
1  1
 cos120   3
2 2(cos120  i sin120 )  2   , i 
 2 2 
3
sin120   1  i 3
2
 Notice that the real part is negative and the imaginary part is positive,
this is consistent with 120 degrees being a quadrant II angle.
CONVERTING FROM RECTANGULAR
FORM TO TRIGONOMETRIC FORM

 Step 1 Sketch a graph of the number x + yi in the complex plane.

 Step 2 Find r by using the equation r  x2  y 2 .

 Step 3 Find  by using the equation tan   y , x  0

x
choosing the quadrant indicated in Step 1.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
 For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,

(a  bi)  (c  di)  (a  c)  (b  d )i
(a  bi)  (c  di)  (a  c)  (b  d )i
 Examples

 (4  6i) + (3 + 7i) (10  4i)  (5  2i)

= [4 + (3)] + [6 + 7]i = (10  5) + [4  (2)]i
=1+i = 5  2i
MULTIPLICATION OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS
 For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,

(a  bi)(c  di)  (ac  bd)  (ad  bc)i.

 The product of two complex numbers is found by multiplying as if the numbers

were binomials and using the fact that i2 = 1.
EXAMPLES: MULTIPLYING
 (2  4i)(3 + 5i) (7 + 3i)2
 2(3)  2(5i)  4i(3)  4i(5i)  72  2(7)(3i)  (3i) 2
 6  10i  12i  20i 2  49  42i  9i 2
 6  2i  20(1)  49  42i  9(1)
 26  2i  40  42i
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN POLAR
FORM

 The representation of z by its real and imaginary parts is useful

for addition and subtraction.

 For multiplication and division, representation by the polar form

has apparent geometric meaning.
Suppose we have 2 complex numbers, z1 and z2 given by :
j1
z1  x1  jy1  r1e
 j 2
z 2  x2  jy 2  r2 e
z1  z 2  x1  jy1   x2  jy 2  Easier with normal
 x1  x2   j  y1  y 2  form than polar form

z1 z 2  r1e  j1
r e
2
 j 2
 Easier with polar form
than normal form
j (1  (  2 ))
 r1r2 e
magnitudes multiply! phases add!
For a complex number z2 ≠ 0,
j1
z1 r1e r1 j (1 (  2 )) r1 j (1  2 )
 j 2
 e  e
z 2 r2 e r2 r2

phases subtract!
magnitudes divide!

z1 r1
 z  1  ( 2 )  1   2
z 2 r2
AXIOMS SATISFIED BY THE COMPLEX
NUMBERS SYSTEM

 These axioms should be

familiar since their general
statement is similar to that
used for the reals.
 We suppose that u, w, z are
three complex numbers,
that is, u, w, z ∈ C, then
these axioms follow:
AXIOMS SATISFIED BY THE
COMPLEX NUMBERS SYSTEM
DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
 De Moivre’s theorem is about the powers of complex numbers and a relationship
that exists to make simplifying a complex number, raised to a power, easier.
 The resulting relationship is very useful for proving the trigonometric identities
and finding roots of a complex number.
DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM
 If r1   cos1  i sin 1  is a complex number, and if n is any real number,
then
r  cos1  i sin1   r n  cos n  i sin n .
n

 In compact form, this is written

 r cis  
n
r n
 cis n .

Slide 8-40
 EXAMPLE: FIND (1  I) 5 AND EXPRESS THE
RESULT IN RECTANGULAR FORM.

1  i  2  cos 225  i sin 225

 First, find trigonometric notation for 1  i

 1  i    2  cos 225  i sin 225 

5
 Theorem 5

 2  cos(5  225 )  i sin(5  225 )

5


 4 2  cos1125  i sin1125 
 2 2
 4 2 i 
 2 2 
 4  4i
Slide 8-41
NTH ROOTS
 For a positive integer n, the complex number a + bi is an nth root of the complex
number x + yi if

 a  bi   x  yi.
n

Slide 8-42
NTH ROOT THEOREM
 If n is any positive integer, r is a positive real number, and  is in degrees, then the
nonzero complex number r(cos  + i sin ) has exactly n distinct nth roots, given
by
n
r  cos  i sin   or n
r cis  ,
 where

  360  k  360  k
 or  =  , k  0,1,2,..., n  1.
n n n

Slide 8-43
EXAMPLE: SQUARE ROOTS
 Find the square roots of 1  3i
 Trigonometric notation: 1  3i  2 cos60  isin60
1
  60 360   60 360  
 
1
 2 cos60  isin60   2 cos   k 
2 2
  isin   k   
    
 2 2 2 2 
  
 2 cos 30  k 180  isin 30  k 180 
 For k = 0, root is 
2 cos30  isin30 
 For k = 1, root is 2 cos210  isin210

Slide 8-44
EXAMPLE: FOURTH ROOT
 Find all fourth roots of 8  8i 3. Write the roots in rectangular form.
 Write in trigonometric form.
8  8i 3  16 cis 120
 Here r = 16 and  = 120. The fourth roots of this number have absolute value
4
16  2.

120 360  k
   30  90  k
4 4

Slide 8-45
EXAMPLE: FOURTH ROOT
CONTINUED
 There are four fourth roots, let k = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
k 0   30  90  0  30
k 1   30  90  1  120
k 2   30  90  2  210
k 3   30  90  3  300
 Using these angles, the fourth roots are

2 cis 30 , 2 cis 120 , 2 cis 210 , 2 cis 300

Slide 8-46
EXAMPLE: FOURTH ROOT
CONTINUED
Written in rectangular form
3i
1  i 3
 3 i
1 i 3
The graphs of the roots are all on a
circle that has center at the origin and
radius 2.

Slide 8-47
EXERCISES
 Let z = x + iy and w = u + iv be two complex variables. Prove that :

 Prove that :
 To make a long story short:
• Complex numbers naturally represent points on a plane (or planar vectors);
• Standard (rectangular) form = Cartesian coordinates;
• Trigonometric (complex exponential) form = polar coordinates;
• Conjugation = reflection on the real axis;
• Addition of complex numbers = vector addition (simpler in the rectangular form);
• Multiplication by a complex number = superposition of scaling (homothety,
dilation) and rotation about the origin (simpler in the trigonometric form).

Please solve the exercises!!!