Poultry Development Review

Poultry welfare in
developing countries
 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

Poultry welfare in developing countries

Christine Janet Nicol and Anna Davies, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Why is poultry welfare in developing component of welfare is good but others are not. For example, an
countries a concern? animal might be in good health but its ability to move may be re-
The poultry sector is one of the most rapidly growing livestock stricted by caging or tethering. It is therefore important to be able
sectors worldwide: between 1961 and 2001 the number of poul- to measure each component of welfare, and to devise ways of
try slaughtered annually increased by 621 percent. Although integrating the different measures to reach an overall conclusion.
industrialized countries have much higher average per capita
consumption of most poultry products, production in develop- The Five Freedoms, principles and criteria for good
ing countries is increasing rapidly. In 2000, Compassion in World welfare
Farming reported that average annual egg production in develop- In the United Kingdom, the welfare of farm animals has been
ing countries had increased by 331 percent since 1980. considered a formal discipline since 1965, when the Brambell
Although chickens are very different from people, it is thought Committee suggested that farmed animals should have five basic
that they are capable of suffering from states such as pain or “freedoms” of movement, such as the freedom to stretch and
frustration. Ethical consideration therefore needs to be applied the freedom to turn around. These can be considered the original
to poultry farming, and ways of ensuring good welfare for such components of animal welfare. However, they are rather narrow,
large numbers of animals need to be found. so to take account of a broader range of animals’ physical and
behavioural needs, these Five Freedoms were modified in 1979
What is animal welfare? by the United Kingdom’s Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC,
The Oxford English Dictionary associates welfare with “well-be- 1979), which proposed that all farm animals should have:
ing; happiness; and thriving or successful progress in life”. In rela- 1. freedom from hunger and thirst;
tion to animals, different cultures emphasize different aspects. 2. freedom from discomfort;
Thus, people from different backgrounds give different relative 3. freedom from pain, injury and disease;
importance to animal welfare factors such as: i) health and nor- 4. freedom to express normal behaviour;
mal biological functioning; ii) the subjective “feelings” of the ani- 5. freedom from fear and distress.
mals; and iii) the animals’ ability to live a natural life (EFSA, 2005).
The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) definition of an- The Five Freedoms have been highly influential, and OIE ac-
imal welfare refers to how well an animal is able to cope with the cepts them as one of the guiding principles governing animal
conditions in which it lives (www.oie.int/eng/normes/mcode/en_ welfare. They are also referenced in most European welfare leg-
chapitre_1.7.1.htm). This definition, derived from Broom (1986), islation, referred to by veterinary and animal welfare organiza-
has widespread, but not universal, acceptance. Other authors tions worldwide, and form the basis for OIE Terrestrial Animal
continue to emphasize the importance of animals’ feelings and Health Code Article 7.1.1. However, they also have drawbacks. In
experiences in their definitions of animal welfare (Phillips, 2009). particular, it is not easy to decide which normal or innate behav-
For the purposes of this review, the concept of animal welfare iours are important for animals in captive environments. Recently,
refers to an animal’s overall state of well-being. OIE considers that the European Welfare Quality consortium (www.welfarequality.
good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary net/everyone) has expanded and clarified the components of ani-
treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane mal welfare, proposing a set of four principles and 12 criteria, as
handling and humane slaughter/killing. In general, many differ- shown Table 1.
ent components of an animal’s state must be considered to judge
whether its welfare is good or bad. Some of the components that Resource-based and animal-based measures
FAO considers important are that the animal should be healthy, Once the principles and criteria for good welfare have been
comfortable, well nourished, and safe. It is also important that agreed, ways of measuring each criterion need to be devised.
animals are able to express behaviours that are priorities in a cap- These measures can be used on farms or other livestock enterpris-
tive environment (Weeks and Nicol, 2006) and that they should es to assess animal welfare. Early assessments of animals on farms
not suffer from unpleasant mental states such as pain, fear and were made by observing whether key resources (e.g., nests or
distress (although these feelings cannot be measured directly). clean drinkers) were present; such measures are called resource-
When considering animal welfare as a whole, it is important to based measures. However, the presence of a resource does not
take each of these components into consideration. mean necessarily mean that it is being used effectively. Recently,
there has therefore been a move to make direct observations and
Measuring animal welfare measurements of the animals themselves, using animal-based
The state of an animal’s welfare can range from very good to outcome measures. This is important to ensuring the good wel-
very bad (Duncan and Fraser, 1997). Sometimes, however, one fare of all individual animals within a flock or herd.

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Table 1 Interactions between welfare and

Welfare principles and criteria as defined by Welfare Quality productivity
It is often thought that good production will itself guarantee
Welfare principles Welfare criteria
good welfare, but the relationship between production and wel-
Good feeding 1. Absence of prolonged hunger
fare is more complex than this.
2. Absence of prolonged thirst
In the following two examples, welfare and production are
Good housing 3. Comfort around resting
4. Thermal comfort positively associated:
5. Ease of movement (i) In some backyard, village environments, chickens may be able
Good health 6. Absence of injuries to express normal behaviour, but their overall welfare may be poor
7. Absence of disease if they are affected by disease, parasitism or malnutrition. Address-
8. Absence of pain induced by
ing these welfare issues will also result in increased productivity.
management procedures
(ii) In many cases, acute or chronically stressful events will re-
Appropriate behaviour 9. Expression of social behaviours
10. Expression of other behaviours duce productivity. For example, moving hens from pens to cages
11. Good human-animal relationship produces a marked short-term decrease in egg production. Simi-
12. Positive emotional state larly, chronic stress can impair immune function and lead to in-
creased disease and mortality, and reduced production.
However, in the next two examples, welfare and production
Much progress has been made in developing valid, repeatable are in conflict:
animal-based outcome measures for chickens. The Welfare Qual- (i) Intense genetic selection for production traits can have ad-
ity Project has suggested appropriate measures that could be verse consequences on other aspects of bird health. For example,
used to assess each of the 12 welfare criteria for poultry, and the laying hens selected for high egg production have increased skel-
majority of these are animal-based outcome measures. Thus, the etal problems (see information note on “Welfare issues in com-
absence of hunger can be measured by assessing emaciation on mercial egg production”), and broiler chickens selected for very
an agreed scale, and thermal comfort can be measured by assess- high growth rates have problems with leg health and lameness
ing whether birds are panting or huddling. In drawing an overall (see information note on “Welfare issues in commercial broiler
conclusion about the welfare of chickens at a specific site, the production”).
measures for each criterion can be given different weights, with (ii) Restricting the quantity of feed fed to broiler-breeding
higher weights given to criteria that are thought to be especially flocks/birds is a normal management method because egg pro-
important. duction and hatchability are poor if female breeding birds are fed
ad libitum. However, this means that the birds experience chronic
Scientific assessment of welfare hunger (see Information note “Broilers”).
It is important that the measures used on farms to assess ani-
mal welfare are backed up by more fundamental scientific re- Safe-guarding animal welfare
search, to ensure that they really do measure factors associated When production gains can be achieved by improving animal
with quality of life. The scientific assessment of poultry welfare welfare, as in the first two examples above, there should be no
usually depends on measuring a range of physiological, behav- need for any other mechanism to safe-guard animal welfare; ad-
ioural or clinical indicators, and comparing these measurements dressing issues of health or malnutrition will benefit both farmers
among chickens that are housed or treated differently in some and chickens. This is why poultry welfare is being integrated into
way. A broad range of indicators can be used to assess stress re- food safety policy, based on scientific evidence that well-treated
sponse and immune function in an attempt to measure whether animals are generally healthier and more productive than badly
the animal is coping with its environment or not. However, inter- treated ones (European Commission, 2002). OIE also recognizes
pretation of these indicators is sometimes difficult. An alternative the links between welfare and animal health and is introducing
scientific approach has therefore been to examine the environ- guidelines for the transport and slaughter of farmed animals.
mental conditions chosen by chickens. Early studies examined the However, when increased production conflicts with good welfare,
environmental choices of chickens for food types, laying, foraging other checks and balances are required to ensure that the animals
and exploratory materials, heat, lighting, and social conditions. are not suffering or unduly exploited. The mechanisms available
The strength and importance of these preferences has recently to ensure good welfare in these circumstances include the law,
been assessed by determining how hard chickens will work to codes of practice and voluntary assurance schemes.
obtain these resources or conditions when access becomes more
difficult or demands more energy (Nicol, 2010). Important new Poultry welfare and the law
scientific research is examining how welfare indicators and the The extent to which poultry welfare is protected by the law varies
environmental choices of chickens interrelate (Nicol et al., 2009). greatly. In 2000, the European Scientific Committee on Animal
The International Society for Applied Ethology is a scientific body Health and Animal Welfare investigated international welfare
with an interest in how animal behaviour can be used to assess standards and found no generally recognized, specific standards
animal welfare (www.applied-ethology.org/index.htm). Many worldwide. Although there appears to be little legislation in the
other organizations are interested in the scientific assessment of developing world concerning the welfare of farmed animals,
welfare; their newsletters can be accessed via the FAO website: many other countries have laws relating to acts of cruelty to indi-
www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/animal-welfare/en/. vidual animals. Significant progress has been made in the last ten

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 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

years, particularly in non-European Union (EU) Europe (European tained from males killed at between 12 and 20 weeks of age, and
Commission, 2002). Most legislation refers to the Five Freedoms from egg laying birds that have ceased to be productive.
(FAWC, 1979), but this may change if the expanded principles Many developing countries are now investing heavily in more
and criteria mentioned earlier become widely accepted. Increased intensive commercial systems of poultry production to provide
legislation often follows increased public awareness of animal meat and eggs for growing urban and peri-urban populations. In
welfare issues. these systems, egg laying hens and broiler meat chickens are ge-
There are two main approaches to introducing welfare legisla- netically very different from each other and from the indigenous
tion (European Commission, 2002). Binding codes are usually in- breeds kept in small family flocks by villagers in rural areas, and
cluded within legislation, and it is a legal requirement to conform. are kept and managed differently.
An example of binding legislation in the EU is the Laying Hens Intensive broiler production systems obtain chicks from com-
Directive (1999). As part of an interim review of the scientific evi- mercial hatcheries, and then house them in flocks in floor-
dence required before adoption of the legislation, the European based systems until they reach slaughter weight, when they are
Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2005) produced an opinion on the caught, transported and slaughtered at a specialized abattoir.
welfare aspects of all housing systems used for laying hens. Fol- Intensive egg production systems also obtain chicks from com-
lowing this, the LayWel project, funded via the European Com- mercial hatcheries, but these chicks are usually kept in large
mission’s Sixth Framework Programme and national funding from rearing flocks until they reach sexual maturity and start to pro-
several EU countries, studied the welfare implications of different duce eggs. At point of lay, the pullets are transported to the
poultry farming systems. The scientific opinion derived from both adult housing system, which contains egg-handling facilities. A
these exercises provided the basis for banning conventional cag- great range of adult housing systems exists, including conven-
es, summarizing evidence that conventional cages do not allow tional cage, furnished cage, single-tier aviary, multi-tier indoor,
hens to fulfil behaviour priorities, and present a significant threat and free-range (described in www. laywel.eu). At the end of the
to the birds’ skeletal health. The EU ban on conventional cages is commercial laying period, generally at around 18 to 24 months
scheduled to take effect from 1 January 2012. From that date, all of age, these birds are caught, transported and slaughtered in
cages must contain enrichment (furnishings to assist the birds in specialized facilities.
performing natural behaviours), such as an area for dust-bathing,
and perches. The EU has also introduced a Broiler Directive (2007), Major welfare issues
which limits the stocking density at which poultry may be kept for Poultry welfare is affected by genetics, by the hatching, rearing
meat production. Farmers will be able to keep broiler chickens at and adult housing environments, by the methods of transport
higher densities only when high welfare is exhibited and proved. and slaughter employed, and to a great degree by the attitudes
This is likely to be assessed by looking at animal-based outcome and standards of care of the stockpersons.
measures such as mortality.
Welfare issues in a village environment
Codes of practice In the village environment, birds are mainly indigenous breeds,
Non-binding codes of practice can be used alongside the law. which are generally better able to cope with the natural environ-
Codes of practice establish recommendations for good practice ment than those breeds that have undergone extensive genetic
as followed by competent and conscientious practitioners. Codes selection for production traits. However, disease transmission is
of practice can be particularly useful if they set out clearly what high in backyard poultry systems, often resulting in low produc-
farmers must do to ensure good welfare (minimum standards), tivity and high mortality. Newcastle disease is one of the most
and what they can do further to optimize welfare. problematic and widespread diseases in both village and intensive
production systems. Vaccines have been developed, but not all
Self-imposed codes/assurance schemes farmers have access to them, and vaccinating free-ranging poul-
In many countries, there are voluntary schemes for certifying that try can be a challenge (FAO, 2001).
farm animals have been kept at specified welfare standards. Self- Another challenge facing small-scale poultry producers in
imposed codes are voluntary, but producers conform as they are developing countries is the availability of appropriate nutrition.
likely to offer a marketing advantage. Examples include farm as- Many smallholder farmers and their families have limited food,
surance schemes, which are common in Europe. They have been and are thus unable to provide feed for their small scavenging
introduced in response to consumer demands that animal prod- chicken flocks. Poultry frequently also lack access to a source of
ucts satisfy certain safety, environmental and welfare standards. clean and cool water. This is a welfare concern for the poultry
and for the people rearing them, as productivity will be low. In
Housing and management of poultry hot climates, birds may have difficulty staying cool if natural or
In developing countries, the majority of poultry are indigenous artificial shelter is not provided, as all chickens are derived from
breeds, kept in small flocks living in a backyard, village environ- jungle-living birds and they actively seek shade.
ment. Gueye (1998) reports that approximately 80 percent of Most of these welfare issues can be addressed by improved
poultry in Africa can be found in traditional production systems. veterinary care and nutrition and the provision of simple facilities
In these systems, birds are generally free-ranging and often scav- such as clean drinking-water and shade.
enge or are fed household scraps. In this type of poultry produc-
tion system there is no real distinction between birds reared for Welfare issues of broilers in commercial production
meat and those kept as egg layers. Poultry meat is typically ob- The major welfare issues for commercially reared broilers are leg

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health problems and lameness, metabolic disorders, and hunger ily Poultry Development and the Network for Small-holder Poultry
in restricted-fed broiler breeder flocks. Development are helping village women to make their poultry
enterprises more productive, efficient and profitable. This has a
Welfare issues of laying hens in commercial production positive impact on the empowerment of women and provides
The major welfare issues for commercially reared laying hens are them with social contact both within and outside the village.
bone problems such as osteoporosis and the high incidence of The model farm project set up by the World Society for the
resultant bone fracture, behavioural deprivation resulting from Protection of Animals and the Food Animal Initiative also aims to
housing in cage systems, unequal access to facilities for birds help farmers in developing countries to rear their animals in ways
housed in non-cage systems, and injurious pecking and plumage that will provide them with optimal economic outputs. A number
loss, which occurs in all types of housing system. of farms have been set up in China, where high-welfare animals
are reared to organic standards and receive a premium when sold.
Welfare issues during transport and slaughter The farms provide training for producers and exemplify a viable
The major welfare issues arising during transport and slaughter alternative to intensive farming.
are high levels of stress due to inappropriate handling, and pain
and stress if birds are not properly stunned before slaughter. References
Broom, D.M. 1986 Indicators of poor welfare. British Veterinary Journal,
Benefits of improving animal welfare 142: 524–526
FAO recognizes the importance of animal welfare practices that Duncan, I.J.H. & Fraser, D. 1997 Understanding animal welfare. In M.C.
lead to benefits for both people and their animals, and supports Appleby and B.O. Hughes B.O., eds. Animal welfare, pp. 19–31. Wall-
their implementation, recognizing that the welfare of humans ingford, UK, CABI Publishers.
and the welfare of animals are closely linked: www.fao.org/ag/ EFSA. 2005. The welfare aspects of various systems of keeping laying
againfo/resources/en/pubs_awelf.html hens. EFSA Journal, 197: 1–23.
European Commission. 2002. Communication from the Commission to
Consumer acceptance the Council and the European Parliament on animal welfare legislation
Throughout the world, people are becoming increasingly aware on farmed animals in Third Countries and the implications for the EU,
of the importance of farmed animals’ welfare (European Com- http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/international/2002_0626_
mission, 2002). Consumers are interested in the origin of their en.pdf
poultry products, and surveys such as Euro-barometer show that EU Broiler Directive 2007/43/EC laying down minimum rules for the
most people believe that the broiler and laying hen industries protection of chickens kept for meat production. Official Journal of the
need to improve the current level of bird welfare: European Union L182/19
http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/survey/sp_barometer_ FAO. 2001. Livestock keeping in urban areas. A review of traditional tech-
fa_en.pdf. nologies based on literature and field experiences by H. Schiere and
Consumers’ perception of animal welfare can affect the type R. van der Hoek. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 151.Rome
of products purchased; 43 percent of consumers say that they FAWC 1979. http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm
consider the welfare and protection of meat animals before they Gueye, E.F. 1998. Village egg and fowl meat production in Africa.
make a purchase. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 54: 73-86
LayWel. 2006. Welfare implications of changes in production systems
Access to markets for laying hens. www.laywel.eu/web/pdf/deliverable%2071%20wel-
At present, the World Trade Organization (WTO) operates a free- fare%20assessment.pdf.
trade policy and will not allow countries to restrict trade because Nicol, C.J. 2010. Behaviour as an indicator of animal welfare. In J. Web-
of differing standards of animal welfare. This is becoming a con- ster, ed. UFAW Handbook, The Management and Welfare of Farm Ani-
cern within the EU, however, where there are guidelines relat- mals, 5th edition. Oxford, UK, Blackwell Publishing.
ing to animal welfare to which farmers must conform. The EU is Nicol, C.J., Caplen, G., Edgar, J. & Browne, W.J. 2009. Associations
pushing for welfare to be included in the WTO multi-lateral trade between welfare indicators and environmental choice in laying hens.
negotiations. If this happens, imported products will have to meet Anim. Behav., 78: 413–424. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.05.016
basic EU standards to enter this market. Phillips, C. 2009. The welfare of animals: the silent majority, Springer
Science and Business Media BV
Employment Weeks, C.A. & Nicol, C.J. 2006. Preferences of laying hens. World’s Poul-
Improvements in animal welfare can create work in countries try Science Journal, 62: 296–307.
where employment is difficult to find. It is particularly important
that intensification is coupled with increased labour, as one of the
best ways of raising animal welfare standards is to improve in-
spection and handling practices. Intensification without increased
labour may result in welfare problems being overlooked. In many
developing countries, poultry are raised by women and children.
Learning how to raise poultry to optimal welfare standards can
help women to improve their productivity, and may help alleviate
poverty. Organizations such as the International Network for Fam-

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Welfare issues in commercial egg production

Christine Janet Nicol, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

This information note considers aspects of welfare that have been be minimized by providing sufficient calcium, phosphorus and
highlighted as concerns within commercial egg production (Perry, vitamin D in the diet. Another contributor to the severity of os-
2004; EFSA, 2005; LayWel, 2006). First some issues affecting teoporosis is genotype. Some genetic strains appear to be more
chicks and growing pullets are mentioned, before discussing the susceptible to osteoporosis than others. It has been suggested
most significant issues facing adult laying hens. that it is possible to select genetically against osteoporosis while
still maintaining a high egg yield, but this has not been attempted
Chicks and pullets on a commercial scale.

Disposal of male chicks Keel fractures

When chicks are hatched for egg production, only females are One consequence of osteoporosis is that it greatly increases the
needed. Male layer strain chicks have no commercial value, which susceptibility of bones to damage and fracture. In laying hens, the
means that 50 percent of the chicks hatched have to be killed. bone most likely to sustain a fracture is the keel bone, which can
Their disposal raises practical and ethical issues. Methods of dis- be damaged in two main ways: i) by misjudged landings when
posal vary from region to region and country to country. In all birds are perching or nesting in a furnished environment; or ii)
cases, the aim should be to ensure that every male chick is killed when birds are handled during depopulation at the end of lay.
humanely and instantaneously. The incidence of keel fractures caused by furnishings is higher in
non-cage systems than in cage systems. In free-range and single-
Chick handling tier aviary systems (barns), the mean prevalence of bone break-
Whether chicks are to be reared for meat or egg production, it ages is 65 percent, 90 percent of which are keel bone breaks
is important that they are handled with care in the hatchery. Af- (Wilkins et al., 2004). These findings are of particular importance
ter being taken from the hatching trays by hand, chicks may ei- in the EU, where conventional cages are being banned in 2012.
ther be sexed and sorted manually, or placed on a conveyor from However, the incidence of new breaks – those caused during de-
which the males (often with different sex linked feathering rate or population – is higher in conventional cage systems than in other
feather colour) are removed for slaughter. The female chicks are systems. This may be attributed to weaker bones in caged birds,
then placed in disposable chick boxes with perforated ventilation due to lack of exercise. Access to the birds within the cage (i.e.,
holes, for transport to the rearing houses. the size of the aperture) and the manner in which the birds are
withdrawn from the cage during depopulation are critical factors
Variation in chick or pullet sizes in determining bone breakages.
The aim of the hatcheries and farms that supply pullets should be
to produce birds of even body-weight and size. Variation in size Behavioural restriction
can result in later problems of aggression, poor performance and In 1999, the EU introduced the Laying Hens Directive, stating that
injurious pecking. all hens must be housed in an enriched environment from 2012
onwards. This has involved the introduction of furnished cages,
Laying hens which will replace conventional caged systems. Furnished cages
will provide birds with a nest, perches and pecking/scratching
Osteoporosis mats. A recent study comparing the physical and physiological
Osteoporosis in laying hens is a major welfare concern. It is the condition of birds in four different housing systems for layers in
progressive loss of structural bone throughout the skeleton, which the United Kingdom concluded that these aspects of bird welfare
results in weakened bones. Weakened bones can lead to a high are better in furnished cages than in any other system (Sherwin,
number of birds suffering keel, leg and wing fractures, which are Richards and Nicol, 2010)
likely to be painful. Osteoporosis can also cause birds to become The importance of providing nests, perches and pecking areas
paralysed, which can lead to death. Loss of structural bone in stems from the natural behaviour of chickens. In the wild, poultry
hens begins around sexual maturity and continues throughout have the ability to build nests, scratch and peck, dust-bath and
the laying period. The process is accelerated in caged systems, perch. These are all behaviours that have not been lost through
which prevent birds from exercising. Fleming et al. (2006) found genetic modification of poultry breeds and they are still important
significant improvements in bone strength when birds were for good welfare of modern-day laying hen (Weeks and Nicol,
housed in aviaries, rather than battery cages. Nutrition also ap- 2006). In conventional cages, it is virtually impossible for hens
pears to affect bone strength, and the effects of osteoporosis can to perform these behaviours. Hens also need at least 600 cm2

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each to be able to stretch their wings and perform other comfort Cannibalism
movements. Furnished cages do not allow birds total behavioural Cannibalism occurs when the flesh or blood of another individ-
freedom, but they do allow birds to perform their most important ual of the same species is consumed. It is a common problem in
behaviours to a degree not possible in conventional cages. poultry, particularly laying hens (Newberry, 2004). Cannibalistic
Non-cage systems permit even greater freedom of behaviour behaviour may be learned by hens, and the problem can spread
for the majority of birds in a flock. In large flocks of hens, how- rapidly throughout a flock. Cannibalism can arise as a result of
ever, some birds’ access to facilities such as nests and perches is severe feather or vent pecking, which often occurs due to frustra-
restricted by other birds, and aggression can be common. A small tion. Producers have attempted to reduce the incidence of feath-
proportion of birds in non-cage systems can be excessively per- er pecking and cannibalism by beak trimming, which involves
secuted by their flock-mates. These so-called “pariah” birds have removal of up to two-thirds of the upper beak. This process is
extremely poor welfare. likely to cause pain, and does not combat the root of the prob-
lem. Some producers raise birds at low light intensities so they do
Injurious pecking not have the visibility to perform cannibalism. This has not been
Injurious pecking in laying hens is a major welfare concern that effective however, as the increased light levels needed to inspect
can spread through flocks, resulting in pain and high mortality. In- birds are associated with cannibalism. Beak trimming has been
jurious pecking can occur in all types of layer hen housing. In cage banned in a number of countries, so an alternative is needed.
systems persecuted birds are unable to escape, but the problem Providing birds with enrichment, such as litter to peck at, may
tends to be confined to particular cages. In non-cage systems, reduce frustration. It is also important to provide pullets with litter
once injurious pecking starts it can spread rapidly throughout the in their rearing environment. Cannibalism is also positively corre-
whole flock. Injurious pecking comprises feather pecking, vent lated with mineral, protein and energy deficiencies, so providing
pecking and cannibalism. all nutritional requirements may reduce cannibalism. Selection of
genetic strains that are not predisposed to cannibalism should
Feather pecking also be encouraged.
Gentle feather pecking occurs when one hen pecks at the feathers
of another, without pulling or removing the feathers. Severe feath- Vent pecking
er pecking occurs when feathers are pulled violently or removed. As with feather pecking, vent pecking can lead to cannibalism.
The relationship between these two types of feather pecking is not Vent pecking is directed at the tissue around the cloaca (see pho-
clear, and they appear to have distinct risk factors. There may be to).
a number of reasons for the onset of feather pecking, including This may be investigative behaviour to begin with, but once
deprivation of natural behaviours such as ground pecking (Roden- established can lead to birds pecking at internal organs or tissue.
burg and Koene, 2004). The inability to perform behaviours can The result is often death. It is therefore advantageous to prevent
lead to long-term frustration, which may result in arousal, aggres- birds from viewing the cloacal areas of other birds, by ensuring
sion or fear. Any of these emotional states may increase the likeli- that nesting areas are not brightly lit and that there are sensible
hood that a hen will start feather pecking. There are clear genetic perch arrangements. It is also important not to bring the flock
influences on feather pecking (Rodenburg et al., 2008), and epi- into lay too early – vent pecking can be triggered when small
demiological studies have identified a range of important environ- birds are encouraged to lay large eggs too early.
mental risk factors. Bald patches on hens, where feathers have
been removed, encourage further pecking of exposed body tissue. Emaciation
This has an economic impact on production, as birds lose energy The metabolic demands of high egg production are great, and by
and heat and therefore consume more food. Feather pecking is the end of lay many hens show signs of emaciation, poor body
likely to be very painful for the affected hens, and may lead to can- condition and chronic stress. This can be minimized by ensuring
nibalism. The risks of feather pecking can be reduced by feeding that a good diet with adequate levels of nutrition is supplied to-
mash rather than pelleted diets; providing additional foraging and wards the end of the laying period.
fibre sources, such as chopped straw and vegetables; and ensuring
good litter condition, to encourage birds to peck the litter rather Avoiding welfare problems in hens
than each other. Reducing light intensity is a short-term measure Several sources provide advice on avoiding welfare problems in
that does not address the cause of the problem. layers. These include national government codes of practice, such

Varying severity of vent damage in laying hens

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as the United Kingdom’s Department for Environment, Food and ing brighter light over the litter areas, to encourage birds to for-
Rural Affairs (DEFRA) code www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/consult/ age and dust-bath, and lower light levels near the nest boxes
broiler-welfare/annex-g.pdf, and assurance schemes guidance, and perches, to reduce the risk of vent pecking.
such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani-
mals (RSPCA) Freedom Food scheme, which details and specifies References
high standards of management and provision: www.rspca.org. EFSA. 2005. The welfare aspects of various systems of keeping laying
uk/servlet/Satellite?pagename=RSPCA/RSPCARedirect&pg=welfa hens. EFSA Journal, 197: 1–23.
restandards&marker=1&articleId=1123153964606. Fleming, R.H., McCormack, H.A., McTeir, L. & Whitehead, C.C. 2006
The following are some important practical tips for avoiding Relationships between genetic, environmental and nutritional factors
welfare problems: influencing osteoporosis in laying hens. British Poultry Science, 47:
• Avoid conventional unfurnished cages, as these cannot provide 742–755.
good welfare for laying hens. LayWel. 2006. Welfare implications of changes in production systems
• If using a cage system, use furnished cages with at least 600 for laying hens. www.laywel.eu/web/pdf/deliverable%2071%20wel-
cm2 of floor area per bird and a nest area. Manufacturers of fare%20assessment.pdf.
furnished cage systems are listed in the LayWel project de- Newberry, R.C. 2004. Cannibalism. In G.C. Perry, ed. Welfare of the lay-
scription of laying systems: www.laywel.eu/web/pdf/deliver- ing hen, pp. 239–258. Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing.
able%2023.pdf. Perry, G.C. 2004. Welfare of the Laying Hen Wallingford, UK, CABI Pub-
• Produce plans for preventing or coping with emergencies such lishing
as equipment breakdown or fire. Rodenburg, T.B., and Koene, 2004. Feather pecking and feather loss.
• Inspect flocks at least twice a day and check individual birds, In G.C. Perry, ed. Welfare of the Laying Hen, Wallingford, UK, CABI
even in cage systems where it can be difficult to observe indi- Publishing
vidual birds at the back of a cage. At monthly intervals, catch Rodenburg, T.B., Komen, H., Ellen, E.D., Uitdehaag, K.A. & van
samples of birds to look more closely for problems such as mite Arendonk, J.A.M. 2008. Selection method and early-life history affect
infestations or vent pecking. behavioural development, feather pecking and cannibalism in laying
• Keep good records of mortality and the causes of mortality. hens: A review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 110: 217–228.
Record spontaneous mortality separately from culling figures. Sherwin, C.M., Richards, G.J. & Nicol, C.J. 2010. A comparison of the
• Seek veterinary advice if birds show signs of sickness. There welfare of layer hens in four housing systems in the UK. British Poultry
are many links between poor welfare and poor health/disease. Science (in press).
Improving one can often improve the other. Weeks, C.A. & Nicol, C.J. 2006. Preferences of laying hens. World’s Poul-
• If possible, obtain birds from rearing units close to the laying try Science Journal, 62: 296–307.
farm, as this will minimize stress during transfer. The new laying Wilkins L.J., Brown, S.N., Zimmerman, P.H., Leeb, C. and Nicol, C.J.
flock will settle more easily and early egg production is likely to 2004 Investigation of palpation as a method for determining the preva-
be improved. lence of keel and furculum damage in laying hens. Veterinary Record,
• Do not bring the flock into lay too early. Onset of lay at 17 or 155: 547-551.
18 weeks is associated with a greater risk of vent pecking than
onset of lay at 19 weeks.
• Do not place perches at heights that permit one bird to peck
another bird’s vent.
• The use of mash rather than pelleted feed allows the hens to
spend a longer time feeding, and reduces the risk of injurious
pecking.
• The provision of good, dry litter to a depth of at least 10 cm is
vital for the good management of hens in non-cage systems.
• For birds in non-cage systems, provide a raised slatted or wire
mesh area separate from the litter area. Do not provide high
perches, which are associated with “crash-landings” and sub-
sequent bone fractures.
• In non-cage flocks, the risk of injurious pecking can be reduced
by ensuring that the litter area is kept dry and friable. Add fresh
litter regularly and, if possible, provide hens with additional
pecking materials, such as straw or other dry vegetation.
• If the birds have access to an outdoor range area, encourage
them to go outside as much as possible, by providing areas of
shelter (from sun or rain) on the range. This reduces the risk of
injurious pecking in the flock.
• Birds should have at least eight hours of light and at least six
hours of dark in every 24-hour period, and light levels should
not be less than 10 lux. In non-cage systems, consider provid-

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 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

Welfare issues in commercial broiler

production
Christine Janet Nicol, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

This information note considers three aspects of welfare that have which suggests that birds might actively seek to control their own
been highlighted as concerns within commercial broiler produc- pain levels.
tion (Weeks and Butterworth, 2004): leg health, metabolic disor- Environmental and management factors that increase the risk
ders, and hunger in breeding birds. General issues of health and of chickens developing lameness include diet, lighting regime and
disease are considered elsewhere (see review on Poultry Health antibiotic use (Knowles et al., 2008). It is also generally accepted
and Disease Control in Developing Countries). that stocking density has an effect on lameness, although there is
conflicting evidence. Dawkins, Donnelly and Jones (2004) report
Leg health that other environmental and management factors such as air
The incidence of leg disorders is a major issue in broiler produc- and litter quality within the house may have more of an effect
tion and often leads to lameness. The most recent large-scale on bird welfare than stocking density. Nonetheless, high stock-
study in the United Kingdom found that 27.6 percent of the birds ing density does seem to exacerbate other welfare problems, and
assessed close to slaughter age showed poor locomotion, and 3.3 the EU Broiler Directive (2007) sets limits on stocking density for
percent were almost unable to walk (Knowles et al., 2008). These farms where leg health problems are apparent.
figures arose even though the participating farms had good cull- Lameness is not the only leg problem affecting broiler chickens.
ing procedures, with severely lame birds identified and killed Contact dermatitis (pododermatitis) appears to be increasing in
humanely to avoid further suffering. A similarly high prevalence prevalence in some countries. Signs of contact dermatitis include
of lameness has been found in other studies around the world the appearance of lesions, ulcers or scabs on the footpads (see
over the past 15 years. Assuming the worldwide prevalence of photo), hocks or breast. In severe cases, extensive areas of skin
leg disorders is similar to that in the United Kingdom this equates may turn black. This results from these parts of the birds’ bod-
to 12.5 billion broilers experiencing leg problems worldwide per ies being in prolonged contact with irritant substances derived
year. Although breeding companies are directing far more atten- from faeces, such as ammonia. Lesions can act as a gateway for
tion and resources to finding ways of selecting against leg disor- bacteria, which may spread through the bloodstream and cause
ders, negative correlations with meat yield can sometimes hinder joint inflammation.
progress.
There are several causes of lameness in broiler chickens, broad- Metabolic disorders
ly divided into infectious and developmental causes, although There are a number of problems associated with poultry metabo-
the two are interrelated. One of the main factors contributing to lism, and they often have a genetic cause. The major issues result
both types of leg problems is genotype. Through intensification from a very high metabolic rate, efficient feed conversion and
of production and genetic selection over the last 50 years, broiler rapid growth. Rapid growth places pressure on poultry’s internal
growth rates have increased from 25 g per day to 100 g per day organs. This can lead to cardiovascular diseases, the most preva-
– a 300 percent increase. Owing to the rapid growth of broiler lent of which are ascites and sudden death syndrome. Ascites is
chickens, it is possible for them to reach slaughter weight at less the accumulation of fluid in the lungs and abdomen caused by
than 40 days of age. The problem is that this rapid growth places
stress on the skeleton, resulting in skeletal abnormalities. Rapid
growth can result in valgus varus deformation, ruptured tendons,
separation of the proximal epiphysis, bending and rotation of
the tibia, osteochondrosis, degenerative bone disease and micro-
fractures. It has also been demonstrated experimentally that rapid
growth increases the risk of a range of infectious leg conditions
including arthritis and tenosynovitis. Generally, the risk of lame-
ness increases rapidly with bird age, up to the point of slaughter.
The innervation of chicken legs is similar to that in humans, so leg
disorders may be painful to poultry (European Commission, 2000)
and some causes of lameness may be associated with more pain
than others. When birds are given analgesic (pain-killing) drugs,
their walking ability generally improves. In addition, one study
showed that lame birds preferentially select food containing an
analgesic drug, a feeding pattern not observed in non-lame birds, Varying severity of footpad dermatitis in broiler chickens

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 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

deficiency of the cardio-pulmonary system in adequately oxygen- • Manage the litter, keeping it as dry and friable as possible. Do
ating the blood pumped through the large muscle mass of the not allow ammonia levels to rise too high. Consider topping up
modern-day broiler chicken. This can result in right-side ventricu- the litter frequently, to allow birds to rest and dust-bath and to
lar failure. The condition appears to be more prevalent at high minimize the risk of skin lesions and ulcers.
altitudes, although it affects birds worldwide. In 1996, a world- • Avoid high stocking densities, as these are associated with de-
wide survey estimated the incidence of ascites in broilers to be pressed health and welfare.
approximately 4.7 percent. Selection based on oximetry or serum • Providing perches at a height of 10 to 30 cm above the floor
levels of cardiac-derived Troponin-T has reduced the incidence of can improve leg health. Allow a minimum of 2 m of perch
ascites in broiler flocks in recent years, but it is still an important length per 1 000 birds.
cause of loss, accounting for up to 50 percent of total mortality in • Average growth rates of more than 45 g per day from hatch to
commercial flocks of birds reared to 42 days. slaughter may be associated with welfare problems.
• Ensure that birds have a period of darkness in each 24-hour
Hunger in broiler breeders period, to allow them to rest.
When considering the welfare of broilers it is important to con- • Make sure that wild birds, cats, dogs or rodents cannot enter
sider all stages of production. The welfare of broiler breeders is the chicken house.
often compromised by routine feed restriction. To compensate for • Check for the appearance of panting, which may indicate that
the negative effect of selection for growth rate on reproductive the birds are too hot. Good ventilation is essential. In hot cli-
performance, food is restricted during both the rearing and the mates, consider roof insulation as a way of reducing the impact
laying phases to prevent birds from becoming too fat and heavy, on birds.
which would compromise egg production and fertility. These • Ensure that the house is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
birds are almost certainly experiencing extreme hunger, at least between flocks.
during the rearing phase, when they are often given less than half
of their voluntary food intake References
Dawkins, M.S., Donnelly, C.A. & Jones, T.A. 2004. Chicken welfare is
Avoiding welfare problems in broilers influenced more by housing conditions than by stocking density. Na-
Several sources provide advice on avoiding welfare problems in ture, 427: 342–344.
broilers. These include national government codes of practice, European Commission, 2000, The Welfare of Chickens kept for Meat
such as the United Kingdom’s Department for Environment, Food Production (Broilers), http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg24/health/sc/scah/
and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) code www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/con- index_en.html
sult/broiler-welfare/annex-g.pdf, and assurance schemes guid- Knowles, T.G., Kestin, S.C., Haslam, S.M., Brown, S.N., Green, L.E.,
ance, such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Butterworth, A., Pope, S.J., Pfeiffer, D. & Nicol, C.J. 2008. Leg dis-
Animals (RSPCA) Freedom Food scheme, which details and speci- orders in broiler chickens: prevalence, risk factors and prevention. PLoS
fies high standards of management and provision (www.rspca. One, 3: e1545.
org.uk/servlet/Satellite?pagename=RSPCA/RSPCARedirect&pg= Weeks, C.A. and Butterworth, A. 2004. Measuring and auditing broil-
welfarestandards&marker=1&articleId=1121442811407). er welfare. Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing

The following are some important practical tips for avoiding

welfare problems:

• Demand good stock from hatcheries, and contact the breeding

companies if leg health problems are experienced.
• Produce plans for preventing or coping with emergencies such
as equipment breakdown or fire.
• Inspect flocks at least twice a day, and check individual birds.
Check that all birds can move freely with gait scores of less than
3 (gait scores are described in Knowles et al., 2008).
• Check that there are no signs of breast or leg lesions. Such
symptoms are usually associated with wet and dirty litter. If le-
sions are apparent, take steps to improve litter condition and
ventilation.
• Keep basic records detailing the number of birds in the house,
maximum and minimum temperatures, etc.
• Keep good records of mortality and the causes of mortality.
Record spontaneous mortality separately from culling figures.
• Birds that cannot move sufficiently well to have easy access to
feed and water should be culled, as they are unlikely to recover
and culling will prevent them from experiencing further suf-
fering.

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 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

Transport and slaughter of poultry

Christine Janet Nicol, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Depopulation modulated lorries, similar to those used in the EU. The stocking
In the village environment, birds may be reared in small numbers density is usually very high, as few legal guidelines exist. This pos-
and slaughtered as and when they are needed for food. In some es a problem, particularly in very hot countries, where many birds
ways, this system is better for welfare, as it does not require large- may die of heat stress. A major welfare issue with this method of
scale depopulation and transport. Birds can usually be caught transport is the movement of birds from a controlled (relatively
from their night-time enclosures. stable) environment to a lorry, which may provide birds with little
Depopulation on a larger-scale usually takes place during the protection from extreme climates.
night, when birds are easier to catch and therefore do not become In many developing countries, there is demand for fresh meat,
as stressed by the process. Most large producers are responsible and animals are often killed at markets in the presence of the
for providing both the catching team and the transportation for consumer. Worldwide, billions of people buy their poultry at
the birds. Catching teams are required to grasp large numbers “wet” markets, many of which are unlicensed. Birds are often
of birds quickly and efficiently. Unfortunately, this often involves transported under stressful conditions. Small producers may uti-
handling them incorrectly. The preferable method for handling lize what little transport they have by tying poultry to the back of
chickens is to catch both legs simultaneously, to avoid hip disloca- their bicycles or motorcycles, often in an inverted position, thus
tions and broken bones. However, owing to the speed at which causing a high degree of stress.
the catching team works, it is usual for only one leg to be caught,
which often results in painful leg dislocations. Birds are usually Slaughter
inverted when caught, so that many may be held in each hand In large commercial abattoirs, chickens are generally stunned be-
simultaneously. This does not provide optimal bird welfare, as fore being slaughtered. A stunning process causes immediate loss
birds prefer to be held upright. These processes are likely to cause of consciousness, which lasts until death. Stunning in poultry is
pain (Weeks, 2007) to the birds, so it is important that they are usually performed by passing an electric current across the brain,
handled as carefully as possible to minimize the risk of damage. disrupting normal electrical activity and causing a loss of con-
Techniques are being developed for avoiding excessive han- sciousness (HSA, no date). This enables them to be killed without
dling of birds during depopulation. Automated “broiler harvest- feeling the pain associated with the slaughter process.
ers” are large machines that depopulate broiler houses rapidly, In large abattoirs, poultry arrive on lorries and are often kept in
by picking up chickens using revolving rubber fingers. Trials have a lairage (holding area) before being killed. In extreme climates,
demonstrated that they may halve the risk of catching damage this can be very stressful as birds are densely stocked and un-
to the legs (Weeks, 2007), but they can only be used in large able to cool themselves. Many birds may die before reaching the
clear-span houses. Similar good results can be achieved if birds slaughter line, often through heat stress. Not only is this bad for
are caught using gentle and correct handling techniques.
Cage systems for laying hens present special problems during
depopulation, and injury and damage levels can be high, as birds
have to be removed from the cage fronts. In the EU, attempts
have been made to improve cage design so that birds can be
removed more easily through the whole cage front, rather than
through narrow gaps; this has resulted in a reduced incidence of
broken bones sustained at the end of lay.

Transport
In developing countries, there are three main methods for slaugh-
tering birds. The system in which they are reared determines
whether and how they will be transported. Backyard village poul-
try are often slaughtered by their keepers, within the home envi-
ronment, which does not require transportation. Larger producers
however transport birds to either a “wet” market or a commer-
cial abattoir. The range of transportation to each varies among
countries and regions. In general, birds that are slaughtered in Highly stressfull transport of chickens
abattoirs are transported from the farm in large loose-crates or on

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 Poultry Development Review • Poultry welfare in developing countries

the welfare of the birds, the economic loss can also be extreme. tine method of slaughter (HSA, no date). As with the commercial
Unloading takes place directly from modular or loose crates. slaughter of poultry, bleeding should be carried out immediately
Birds are inverted and hung on shackles by their legs. This is like- after either neck dislocation or producing concussion, to ensure
ly to cause pain, particularly for large birds, as the shackles are that the birds are killed.
one-size and do not accommodate variations in bird leg size and
shape. The shackles carry birds through an electrically charged References
water-bath stunner. It is essential that the stunner is monitored to HSA. no date. Practical slaughter of poultry. Humane Slaughter Associa-
ensure that it delivers enough electricity through the brain of each tion (HSA). www.hsa.org.uk/information/slaughter/poultry%20slaugh-
bird. Birds should be observed for the following signs of effective ter.htm.
stunning: neck arched and eyes open; no rhythmic breathing; rig- Weeks, C.A. 2007. Poultry handling and transport. In T. Grandin, ed.
idly extended legs; constant rapid body tremors; and wings held Livestock handling and transport, 3rd edition, pp. 295–311. Walling-
close to the body (HSA, no date). ford, UK, CABI Publishers.
Following stunning, birds may regain consciousness if the brain
has not been properly disabled. This makes it essential that birds
are bled (by cutting the blood vessels in the neck) within 15 sec-
onds after stunning. In the United Kingdom, it is a legislative re-
quirement that at least one carotid artery is severed during neck-
cutting. However, it is recommended that both carotid arteries and
both jugular veins are severed, as death then occurs more rapidly.

Slaughter of village poultry

In a village environment, poultry that are not transported to be
sold at wet markets are likely to be slaughtered on demand within
the village. It is likely that only a few birds will be slaughtered at
a time, giving the slaughterer plenty of time to ensure that each
bird is killed humanely. In wet markets, however, less time may be
taken over slaughtering birds, and it is likely that a number are still
conscious while being killed. Unlike in commercial abattoirs, stun-
ning is rare at wet markets, although it is a legal requirement in a
number of countries. An alternative to the water-bath stunner is
a hand-held, low voltage stunner with electrodes that are placed
either side of the bird’s brain, passing an electric current through
it (HSA, no date); however, this has not yet been widely adopted.
The methods of slaughtering poultry that are likely to be used
in villages are neck dislocation, decapitation or delivering a con-
cussive blow to the head (leading to loss of brain function). Al-
though none of these methods provide pre-slaughter stunning,
they are regularly used for emergency on-farm killing. Each of
the three methods has welfare problems associated with it. If per-
formed correctly, a concussive blow to a chicken’s head may be
the most effective way of killing it. To be effective, however, the
blow must be very heavy and accurately directed to the bony part
of the head, behind the comb. If delivered to any other part of
the head, soft tissue may absorb some of the force of the blow,
which may not result in concussion. For a concussive blow to be
a reliable method of slaughter, it must be performed accurately
and consistently.
Neck dislocation and decapitation must also be performed
correctly to be effective methods of slaughter. Of the two, de-
capitation may be the more reliable, as it involves severing all the
arteries supplying blood to the brain (the largest of which are the
carotid arteries in the neck) immediately. This gives a very rapid
loss of blood pressure, and death follows shortly after (HSA, no
date). Neck dislocation involves stretching the neck to dislocate
the spinal cord and cause damage to the surrounding blood ves-
sels (HSA, no date). The procedure can be difficult to perform
correctly and consistently, and does not always concuss the brain,
causing insensibility. It is therefore not recommended as a rou-

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