Chapter 2

Building Science Basics

Key Points to Learn

• Heat flows from warm to cold by conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Insulation must be installed carefully.
• Air tightness prevents major loss of purchased heat.
• Dew point is the temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid water.
• A vapor retarder reduces moisture transport by diffusion and must be placed on the
warm side of the dew point. It can also serve as a primary air leakage retarder.
• An air retarder controls air leakage. It can be placed on the interior, exterior, or both.
• Movement of heat, air, and moisture must be controlled. Controlled mechanical ventilation
is a necessary element of Alaska homes.
 Introduction
Building science is the study of how to be long lasting, affordable to build,
buildings function under varying condi- and economical to operate.
tions. The ability to predict how the Our success in designing and build-
building functions as a system allows ing these homes depends upon our un-
the builder and designer more flexibility derstanding of the physical forces that
in designing an energy-efficient home. create a tug of war between the outside
A study of the concepts of building sci- and inside environments. The study of
ence helps explain how the house as a these forces, which helps us understand
system and its occupants can work to- how houses work, is called building
gether to achieve the most economical, science.
energy-efficient home possible. This chapter summarizes the build-
We build houses to create safe and ing science basics that affect the dura-
comfortable living environments so bility, comfort, and energy efficiency
that we may be comfortably sheltered of houses. The following sections on
from the outside environment. We want energy flow, air flow, and moisture flow
our homes to be warm when it’s cold present the principles that are the foun-
outside, cool when it’s hot outside, dry dation for the construction techniques
when it’s raining, light when we’re awake, discussed in later chapters. Understand-
secure from buffeting winds, comfort- ing these principles is the first step to-
ably humid at all times, filled with fresh ward building quality housing.
air when doors and windows are closed The designer must look at the
against the elements, enlivened with sun- building as a system of interconnected
light, and resistant to earthquakes and components or subsystems, each of
other natural events. We also want them which contribute to a unified whole.

Air

Moisture

Heat

Envelope Mechanical Occupants

Systems Health Safety

Comfort

Durability Affordability

Figure 2.1: The total performance of the house as a system depends on a bal-
ance of envelope, mechanical systems, and occupants. All these parts of the
house affect the flow of heat, air, and moisture into and out of the house.

22 Chapter 2
These subsystems include the building in mind to minimize the flows of heat,
envelope, mechanical systems, building air, and moisture through the building
occupants, and the external environ- envelope. Heat flow out of a building
ment. These subsystems must operate wastes precious fuel, air leaking out car-
in balance. Any change in any of these ries both heat and moisture, and mois-
components will have an effect on the ture that escapes from the interior of a
performance of all the other parts of the building can condense or freeze in the
system. insulation, reducing the effectiveness of
There are ten fundamental concepts the insulation and causing damage by
that must be understood before de- mold and rot.
signing a new structure or retrofitting The following concepts of building
an existing building. Every subsystem science provide the foundation for de-
should be designed with these concepts signing a building as a system:

Top Ten Building Science Concepts

1. Heat flows from hot to cold.
2. Heat does not rise—warm air rises.
3. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.
4. Heat flow through insulation is slowed by trapped air or other gases.
5. Airtightness prevents major loss of heat.
6. Air flows from higher pressure to lower pressure.
7. Air leakage is the primary moisture transport mechanism.
8. Diffusion is a secondary moisture transport mechanism.
9. Dew point is the temperature at which airborne water vapor condenses into liq-
uid water. Water vapor is not a problem—liquid water is.
10. The vapor retarder should be placed on the warm side of the thermal envelope.

Figure 2.2: Can you identify the Building Science

Concepts that make this balloon fly?

Building Science Basics 23

Mechanisms of Energy Use
Heat is a form of energy. Heat flows Energy enters a home from three pri-
naturally from warm areas to cold areas mary sources:
in all directions. Without provisions 1. Purchased energy is usually in the
for controlling this flow, heat quickly form of electricity, oil, natural gas,
escapes from the home in cold weather. propane, or wood.
Construction of quality homes requires 2. Solar energy is energy captured
a good understanding of how energy en- from sunlight, either through solar
ters the home, how energy is used in the collection systems or transmission
home, and how energy leaves the home. through windows.
3. Internal energy is heat gain gener-
Figure 2.3: Heat flows naturally ated by the occupants. An average
from warm areas to cold areas in all person at rest gives off about the
directions. Press your hand onto a cool same amount of heat as a 100-watt
table top. The table surface will soon light bulb.
feel warm under your hand because
the heat is transferred downward into Energy is used in conventional
the table. This type of heat transfer is homes in the following ways
called conduction.
• Space heating and cooling account for
as much as 70 percent of energy use.
• Water heating is typically 15 percent
of total energy use.
• Lighting and appliances, including
stoves, refrigerators, washers, dryers,
computers, televisions, etc., account
for approximately 15 percent of total
energy use. Energy consumption for
appliances will vary by model and
amount of use, while energy con-
sumption for lighting will vary by
the model, amount of use, and the
amount of natural lighting used.
In contrast, in an energy-efficient
home, space heating and cooling use
about one-third of the energy, water
heating uses one-third, and lighting and
appliances use one-third. Total energy
use will be much less.
Today it is clear there is a limit to
the earth’s ability to provide fossil fuel
energy. By learning about the mecha-
nisms of energy flow and how to control
heat loss, it is possible to analyze where
the greatest energy loss is in a house and
how to minimize energy waste.

24 Chapter 2
How Energy is Used in Homes and Buildings
The chart in Figure 2.4 shows where the The goal for energy use in modern
energy comes in and goes out of a typi- homes is to reduce purchased energy
cal building. input while increasing natural or free
When we translate energy to dollars, energy input when desired. Of course,
it soon becomes very interesting to the solar energy needs to be reduced when
person paying for all this energy to run a unnecessary as on uncomfortably hot
home or building. days.

Figure 2.4: Energy flows in housing.

Building Science Basics 25

The Building as a System
The total performance of the house as
a system depends on a balance of en-
velope, mechanical systems, and occu-
pants. All these parts of the house affect
the flow of heat, air, and moisture into
and out of the house.

Figure 2.5: The house as

a system.

26 Chapter 2
The Way Heat Moves: Radiation, Convection, Conduction
There are three ways that heat moves in and out. These holes are a convective
from one place to another: conduction, heat loss mechanism.
convection, and radiation (Figure 2.6). Warm air is lighter and more buoy-
ant than cooler air, which is more
Conduction dense. This causes warmer air to natu-
rally rise above cooler air, and it is the
The conduction of heat takes place by
source of the mistaken belief that heat
means of direct contact. Because it is a
rises (Building Science Concept #2).
relatively efficient and fast means of heat
In leaky houses, there is a steady sup-
transfer, especially through solids, it can
ply (infiltration) of cool air. This dense
be the major cause of heat loss in houses.
air displaces the warmer air, which is
Fortunately, we can slow down the
lighter and is forced upward, resulting
conduction of heat from inside our
in the stratification (cold feet, hot head
homes to the outside by using building
phenomenon) that we rightly associate
materials that are poor conductors (in-
with poorly designed houses. The warm
sulation) and minimizing or eliminating
air then leaves the leaky house through
the number of direct heat paths from
gaps in the ceiling vapor barrier. The
inside to outside that are formed by
movement of warmer air up and out of
good conductors (wood framing materi-
the house through holes (exfiltration)
als, aluminum window frames, etc.). In
can account for as much as 35 percent
later chapters, we will examine window
of the heat loss of a conventional house.
technology and advanced framing tech-
Only if we eliminate the holes in our
niques that help reduce heat loss by
buildings can we heat them efficiently
conduction.
and comfortably. A home without holes
and their consequent air leakage can
Convection have uniform temperatures throughout.
To better understand convection, we Convection can also take place with-
will focus on the movement of air in in insulation, as we will discuss later.
houses. There are always currents of air
moving and colliding inside our homes, Radiation
and there is always some air flow into
The most evident source of radiant heat
and out of our homes. Unintentional
in our lives is the sun, the source of
holes in the building allow air to move
radiant energy which, having traveled

Conduction Convection Radiation

Air is
Warmed
and Rises

Outside Inside

Air is Cooled
and Falls

Figure 2.6: Three methods of heat transfer (Building Science Concept #3)

Building Science Basics 27

 through the vacuum of space, warms panes) are now made resistant to the
the earth, including the contents of our transmission of infrared radiation from
homes. These contents store this heat the inside to the outside of the house.
for a while, but inevitably reradiate But these glazings (low “E” or Heat Mir-
some of it to cooler objects in the room ror glazings) still allow warmth from the
or through the windows to the cooler sun to enter the house. This type of bar-
world outside. In fact, radiant heat loss rier to radiant heat loss will be described
in houses takes place primarily through further in Chapter 8, Windows.
windows, which is why glazings (glass

Insulation Rating
Insulation materials are rated with R-value. This helps when different types or thicknesses of
insulation are compared with each other. The larger the R-value the greater the insulation value.
It is useful to consider the R-values of all components of any given assembly to determine the
average overall R-value of an entire system. By adding up the R-values of all the components of
any given section of the building envelope, the total R-value can be determined. The total system
R-value can vary greatly, depending on design, materials, and installation.
For example, a wall section using two-by-six studs on two-foot centers holds batt insulation
with an initial R-value of 21. The interior and exterior sheathing and finish materials can also
increase the overall R-value. However, as discussed in the next section, using an R-21 batt does
not guarantee an R-21 wall.
Knowing the R-value and area of a given section of the building envelope allows you to calcu-
late the rate of conductive heat loss in BTU. The basic design heat loss calculation for conductive
heat loss is:
Heat loss (in BTUs per hour) x area x ∆T

28 Chapter 2
Calculating Heat Loss—Terms and Definitions
Understanding how heat moves allows of heat loss in BTUs per hour through a Insulating materi-
the designer and builder to evaluate dif- square foot of surface for each degree als only retard
ferent sections of the building envelope Fahrenheit temperature difference be- heat flow, they do
and their relative importance to energy tween warm and cold surfaces. not stop heat flow
use. The rate of heat loss across the entirely.
building envelope is controlled by Delta R-value The difference
T, R-value, and surface area through between inside and
which the heat flows. The ability of a material to resist heat
outside tempera-
There is no simple formula for calcu- transfer is measured in R-value. The
ture is called Delta-
lating radiant heat loss. Here are a few higher the resistance to heat transfer,
T (∆T).
definitions that will help in understand- the less heat transfer through the ma-
The greater the
ing the following discussion about calcu- terial. The R-value of most common
∆-T, the faster the
lating or measuring heat loss. construction materials is included in
heat is lost.
Appendix 1. R-value is the reciprocal of
the U Factor or conductance (R-1/u or
BTU
U=’/R).
Heat is commonly measured in British
Thermal Units (BTUs). One BTU is the Delta T
amount of heat required to raise the

House wall
temperature of one pound of water one The difference in temperature between
degree Fahrenheit. The amount of heat inside temperature and outside tem-
given off by the burning of a typical perature is represented by Delta T (∆T).
wooden kitchen match is roughly one Delta T is an engineering term using the Outside Inside
BTU. Houses will typically use millions of
Greek letter delta (∆), which means “a
BTUs each year and require tens of thou-
change in.”
sands of BTUs each hour to stay warm
during cold days. Heating Degree Days Figure 2.7: Delta T (∆T)
Heating degree days is a measure of the
U Factor need for heating based on the cumula-
The ability of a material to transmit tive days below 65 degrees and the daily
heat is sometimes called the total con- temperature. The lower the daily aver-
ductance or U Factor. The lower the age temperature, the more heating de-
conductance, the less heat loss through gree days. Barrow, Alaska, has the most
the material. The U Factor is the rate heating degree days in the United States
(about 21,000). Miami, Florida, has no
heating degree days.

Building Science Basics 29

 Energy Modeling by Computer
Although it is possible to calculate the rate of heat loss and total heat loss of a house by hand,
computer programs to do these calculations are an indispensable aid in designing efficient
houses. Computers allow you to compare various energy strategies quickly and then decide
what is the best use of the money to resist heat loss. We must decide, for example, the relative
value of better windows, more insulation, or a higher efficiency boiler, and a computer analysis
is the only practical and timely way to examine these and other options. This computer examina-
tion will help to ensure that the components of the house are in balance with each other: that
the house will work as a system.

AkWarm Energy Use Software

AkWarm is Alaska Housing Finance Corporation’s new computerized home energy audit tool. It
was developed to help energy raters, weatherization assessors, builders, designers, and hom-
eowners evaluate the energy performance of homes. AkWarm was designed in Alaska specifi-
cally for Alaska’s residential housing needs.
AkWarm will allow you to:
• Create, modify, and save a house data file.
• Analyze energy use.
• Show compliance with the Alaska Building Energy Efficiency Standard for new construction.
• Generate a Home Energy Rating that is accepted by all the major lending institutions (Fannie
Mae, Freddy Mac, VA, FHA, AHFC) for use in obtaining energy efficient mortgages, and by AHFC
for obtaining an energy-efficiency interest rate reduction.
• Compute the savings of individual energy conservation measures.
• Produce reports on home energy use and improvement recommendations.

Controlling Heat Loss

The primary method of controlling small spaces that minimize conduction,
heat loss is by restricting heat flow, i.e., convection, and radiant heat transfer.
conduction, convection, and radiation. There are six primary factors that
To restrict heat flow, the designer and affect the overall R-value:
builder need to consider proper installa- 1. Thermal bridging is a “short-circuit”
tion of the optimal amount of insulating route for conductive heat trans-
materials. fer. Heat is conducted through a
Insulating materials only retard heat “bridge” to a colder area. For ex-
flow; they do not stop heat flow entirely. ample, a wall stud can form a bridge
Insulation restricts heat flow by trap- between the warm interior finish
ping air or gasses. It is the trapped, still and the cold exterior finish. Wall
air or gasses that perform the insulating studs, which have a lower R-value
role, not the glass fibers or other fibrous than insulation, occupy a portion
materials, which will conduct heat. Insu- of a wall system. Although 89 per-
lation performs best when it traps air in cent of the wall section is R-23.76,

30 Chapter 2
 conductive transfer of heat across of the insulation, capture heat, and
the studs causes the overall average transfer the heat to the outside en-
R-value of the two-by-six stud wall vironment (Figure 2.9). Performance
to be R-19.90. of some types of insulation, such
2. Insulation voids are areas without as fiberglass, is affected to a great
insulation because of improper in- degree by air intrusion while others,
stallation. The effect of insulation such as rigid insulation, show little
voids varies with the level of insula- or no decrease in performance. Air
tion installed. If three percent of an intrusion can also affect the perfor-
R-21 wall consists of insulation voids, mance of wall insulation, especially
the average R-value is degraded to in windy locations.
less than 16. Gaps, folds, or unfilled 4. Compression also affects R-value. In-
corners can also permit convective sulating products are designed for an
loops within the cavity, causing heat optimal density to achieve maximum
to bypass the insulation. Heat is R-value. Compressing an R-19 batt
conducted from the interior of the into a two-by-four stud cavity will
house into the wall cavity. Warm only result in an R-value of 13 to 14.
light air in gaps or voids in the wall 5. Moisture reduces insulation value as
rises upward, where the heat is lost it accumulates in insulating materi-
through the building envelope. The als. Moisture susceptibility varies
cool heavy air drops back to the bot- greatly between types of insulating
tom of the void, picks up more heat, materials. Fiberglass and cellulose
and the convective loop repeats. insulations can be reduced to es-
Many batt types of insulation can sentially no insulating value when
have insulation voids if they are not saturated with moisture. Some rigid
properly installed (Figure 2.8). insulation material is not severely
affected by moisture.
There are some manufactured
6. Temperature also affects overall R-
high-density fiberglass insulations
value of insulating materials. Most
that have a higher R-value per inch
insulating materials have a slightly
than standard density insulations.
higher R-value at lower temperatures.
Although these are more expensive,
they might be a good investment in
Now that we’ve examined the three
some instances. A computer analysis
mechanisms of heat flow and the main
will help the builder to examine the
reasons for heat flow from our houses,
cost effectiveness of these products.
let’s summarize. To reduce the rate of
To reduce the likelihood of leaving
heat loss from houses, the designer and
voids, insulation should be carefully
builder must:
cut and fit.
3. Air intrusion results from air pen-
etration of insulation. Insulation
Reduce conductive losses by:
must trap still air or gasses to work • correctly installing insulation appro-
effectively. Air allowed to pass priate to the climate,
through insulation severely reduces • minimizing or eliminating thermal
its performance. Even air that pene- bridges by reducing excessive fram-
trates from only one side affects in- ing materials,
sulation performance. For example, • avoiding compressing insulation and
in some attics air is allowed to pass thereby reducing its overall R-value,
over and penetrate the upper surface

Building Science Basics 31

 • preventing moisture from reaching • sealing the house to avoid holes
the insulation from the inside or through which air infiltrates and ex-
outside the house, and filtrates, and
• using windows with advanced edge • using windows with a dense gas
spacers that reduce thermal bridges. filling (for example argon) that sup-
presses convection between the
Reduce convective losses by: panes

• installing the insulation in a way that

Reduce radiant heat losses by:
prevents voids,
• preventing moving air from enter- • using windows with low emissiv-
ing the insulation from the outside ity (“low-U”) coatings that retard
(intrusion), the transmission of short-wave
radiation.

Chimney
Leaks Air
From House
Joints at Continuously
Ceiling Light
Attic Hatches
Fixtures

Joints Vents from

Between Wall Joints at Plumbing Chimney Bathroom
and Ceiling Interior Stack Penetration and Kitchen
Joints at Parti- Penetra- of Ceiling Electrical
Windows tions tions Outlets

Joint Between Cracks Holes and Tears

Sill and Floor at Doors Through Vapor
Retarder
Joint
Between
Joists and
Basement

Electrical
Service Entrance
and Cable TV
Floor Drain (Air Enters and Telephone
Via Weeping Tile) Entry Points

Around Posts
and Columns Around
Plumbing Stack

Figure 2.8: Air leakage points in a house.

32 Chapter 2
Air Flow
In our discussion of convection, we are found at bottom and top plates,
briefly examined air flowing in and out around windows and doors, etc. Holes
of houses. This air leakage is uncon- also result from the penetrations that
trolled and has no benefit to us. Air we intentionally make (electrical wires,
movement causes heat loss, makes the outlets and light fixtures, water lines
occupants uncomfortable, lowers in- and vent stacks, exhausts for dryers and
door humidity to uncomfortable levels, ranges, etc.) but do not intentionally
introduces soil gasses and other con- seal. All potential flow paths in and out
taminants to the house, forces damaging of houses must be sealed and blocked.
moisture into insulation and structural If they are not, three major pressure dif-
elements, and causes cosmetic damage ferences will cause serious problems:
inside and outside the house. • wind effect
In some homes, the total air volume • stack effect
of the house, along with heat and mois- • flue and vent effect
ture, can leak out two or three times Wind speed and direction can
each hour. It is not possible to build cause large pressure differences across
a comfortable, durable, and efficient the building envelope. A positive
house without understanding this air pressure on the windward side of the
flow more completely and employing house drives air in through cracks and
field-proven construction techniques holes. At the same time a negative pres-
to stop it. Many of the most significant sure is created on the leeward side of
failures in houses are a direct conse- the house, drawing air out through
quence of unintentional air flow. Fortu- cracks and holes (Figure 2.9).
nately, basic building science is the basis The stack effect demonstrates how
for strategies and techniques that can air flow is influenced by temperature.
virtually eliminate these problems. Warm air is more buoyant than colder
The solution is simple: no holes. dense air. When the temperature inside
There are two requirements for air to be the building is higher than the outside,
able to leak from a house: first, holes, and a positive pressure is created inside the
second, pressure differences from one building envelope along the ceiling and
side of these holes to the other, which upper area of the exterior walls and a
causes air to flow through them. We cre- negative pressure is created along the
ate air pressure differences between the floor and lower area of the exterior
top of the building (warmer air press- walls. The negative pressure in the lower
ing to escape causes a higher pressure) portion of the building envelope causes
and the bottom of the building (air is colder air to infiltrate through cracks
cooler, but being heated, so the pressure and holes along the floor and lower por-
is lower). Other pressure differences are tion of the exterior walls. The positive
the result of natural phenomena, like the pressure caused by the temperature dif-
wind, and are also beyond our ability to ferences pushes air upward and the air
control. But we can fill the holes. We do exfiltrates out through the cracks and
this by design and construction, using air holes in the ceiling and upper portion
and vapor retarders. of the building envelope. The greater
Houses generally have two kinds the temperature difference between the
of holes through which air can flow. inside and the outside, the larger the
Holes that result from framing typically potential for pressure differences to be

Building Science Basics 33

 created by the stack effect. Preventing Measuring Air Leakage
holes limits this kind of heat loss.
A common device for determining
The flue and vent effect contrib-
air leakage is called a blower door. It
utes to pressure differences when equip-
consists of a calibrated fan, an adjust-
ment such as wood stoves or bathroom
able door frame, and metering equip-
fans are operating inside the home and
ment. It is placed in the door opening
forcing combustion products and stale
of the house. The fan blows air out of
air out of the house through vents and
the house to depressurize the build-
flues. While the equipment is operating,
ing envelope, causing air to enter the
air is exhausted out through the chim-
house through the cracks and holes in
neys and flues, causing negative pressure
the building envelope to equalize the
in the house. Outdoor air is drawn in to
pressure. We measure the amount of
replace the air being exhausted.
air that must be removed to maintain
An area of neutral pressure separates
a constant house pressure difference,
the regions of the house where air pres-
to calculate the air changes per hour
sure is neither positive nor negative
and the total equivalent leakage area of
compared to outside pressure. This con-
the building envelope. One air change
cept is typically referred to as the neu-
per hour means that all the air volume
tral pressure plane. This is an imaginary
in the house totally leaks out and is
line separating the positive and negative
replaced by incoming air in one hour.
pressure areas. The plane may be hori-
Equivalent leakage area is the total area
zontal or diagonal, and its location varies
of all cracks and holes in the building
constantly depending on the wind effect,
envelope added together and expressed
stack effect, or flue and vent effect.
as the size of an equivalent single hole in
Negative pressure on one side of the
the building envelope.
plane draws air into the building enve-
Pressure difference is measured in
lope through any cracks or holes, while
Pascals. House air leakage tests are
the positive pressure on the other side of
typically conducted by maintaining a
the plane pushes air out of the building
constant pressure difference of 50 Pas-
envelope through any cracks or holes.
cals. Fifty Pascals is equivalent to the
There is no infiltration or exfiltration
amount of pressure exerted by 0.2 col-
through cracks or holes at the level of
umn inches of water at 55 degrees F or a
the neutral pressure plane itself, because
20-mile-per-hour wind on all six sides of
there is no pressure difference there.
the structure.

Cracks
at doors

flue and vent effect stack effect wind effect

Figure 2.9: Three ways air is forced out of houses through leaks

34 Chapter 2
Controlling Air Leakage
By understanding the mechanisms of The house in Figure 2.10 was built in
air flow and how to calculate air leak- 1973 and the joint above the gable wall
age rates, the designer and builder can of logs is “sealed” with fiberglass sill
choose the most economical and effec- sealer, a good air filter but not a barrier
tive materials and the best installation to air leakage. We have better materials
procedures to minimize wind effect, today that are ideal for sealing in just
stack effect, and flue and vent effect. such locations: polyethylene foam sill
Air leakage is reduced by installing sealer.
a continuous air retarder. Air retarder The resulting hoarfrost accumula-
materials are highly impermeable to air. tion under the eave of the house on the
They should be applied to the exterior gable end is a clear and visible indication
of the envelope. The most important of air leakage resulting from warm moist
concept is that to be effective, an air re- air streaming out the top of the build-
tarder must be continuous and all seams ing under rather extreme conditions.
or penetrations must be sealed with an This process is going on most of every
appropriate caulk, sealant, or tape over winter in every heating climate, but only
solid backing. It is also important that when the temperature gets very cold
it have the property of ample vapor is it actually so visible! Alaska makes
permeability, so that if any water vapor building science easier to understand,
does get into the wall or roof cavity, it because natural leakage like this, shown
can escape relatively easily, rather than by the deposition of hoarfrost as the
be trapped in the building envelope. warm moisture-laden air leaves the top
Wind effect can be reduced by plant- of the house, is visible, whereas in most
ing trees and shrubs near a building. climates, although it happens in the
In many homes, a bypass, or inten- same way, it is invisible, and therefore
tional opening for electrical, mechani- few really appreciate its magnitude or
cal, or plumbing, runs from the crawl effect like we can in Alaska. We can feel
space to the attic. Although most build- air leakage into the house under door
ing codes require bypasses to be sealed, sills and around cracks, but we don’t live
they seldom are. Unsealed bypasses at the top of the building so we rarely
are a major avenue for the stack effect notice the air leakage out of the build-
mechanism of air leakage. ing at the top. We live on the floor. If air
The problems associated with flue is leaking in low, such as under the door,
and vent effect are minimized by us- it must also be leaking out somewhere
ing direct-vent heating equipment and near the ceiling. This photo shows the
properly designed and installed ven- reality of that leakage and also demon-
tilation systems. Direct vent heating strates that sealing the air leakage at the
equipment uses combustion air sup- top of the building is a crucial detail.
plied from outside the building thermal A good air/vapor retarder at the ceiling
envelope rather than air from inside allows better control of air leakage and
the building envelope. Homes need to indoor humidity, and also protects the
have intentional openings for controlled roof insulation from moisture damage,
ventilation. which could occur if air leaked regularly
Figure 2.10 is a photo of a log home into it.
in Fairbanks, taken in February when
the outdoor temperature was –40˚F.

Building Science Basics 35

 Figure 2.10: This photo shows air leakage at the top of an older log home.
Because the air temperature at the time of this photo was –40 degrees F, air
leakage is made visible by the accumulating hoarfrost under the eave. The air
leakage is normally invisible, and because it is occurring at the ceiling and eaves,
is undetected by the occupants. This photo clearly shows that the air leaking
out is not only substantial, but it takes moisture with it, which is deposited under
the eaves as hoarfrost. Sealing at the roof–ceiling interface and at the gable
ends of the roof are very important control measures to ensure this leakage is
minimal. Controlling this leakage is not only helpful for good interior humidity but
also saves energy by keeping heated air in the house.

Moisture Flow—Terms and Definitions

Water that has condensed on or in the mechanisms of water vapor flow and
building elements is responsible for choose the most economical and effec-
many common problems found in con- tive materials and the best installation
ventional housing, such as: procedures to minimize water vapor
• condensation on windows; flow and its related damages.
• mold, mildew, rot, and resulting de-
terioration of window frames, struc- Mechanisms of Moisture Flow
tural framework, rafters, trusses,
etc.; The following definitions will help in
• paint blistering and peeling; and understanding moisture flow:
• staining of ceilings and walls along
joists, studs, or nail and screw heads. Condensation
Water in its liquid form within the Condensation is the physical change
building envelope is the single most of water from a vapor to a liquid. Con-
destructive force in housing. We must densation occurs when air temperature
understand the sources of moisture and

36 Chapter 2
cools to the point that the air can no the temperature at which condensation
longer hold all its water vapor and liquid will occur. There are charts available,
water forms. called psychrometric charts, to help de-
termine dew point. Chapter 3 contains
Dew Point more information on how dew point is
related to relative humidity.
Dew point is the temperature at which
the air can no longer hold moisture. It is

What is a Dew Point?

The dew in “dew point” is just Dew Point
moisture condensed to form
water droplets. The dew point is
the temperature at which dew
begins to form. Humidity and
pressure can affect the dew
point.
During cold weather, the Vap
walls of buildings get cold on the
outside and warm on the inside.
Then the dew point (tempera-
ture) for condensing moisture
out of the air is often found
somewhere inside the wall, and
Moisture-laden air condenses
point inside a wall Vapor retarder stops moisture-laden
you will get water in your insula- Figure 2.11: Dew
with no vapor retarder, causing damage from entering wall
tion and rot in your wall.


 




  
  C
 




  
 


 
  
   

  
  


 
 

  


   

 

  


  

 
 
  
 
 

Figure 2.12: The relationship between pressure, diffusion, and air transport.

Building Science Basics 37

 Specific Volume, cu. ft./lb Dry Air

50
14.5

45
.028

40

p.

Humidity ratio, pounds moisture per pound dry air

tem
024
Air

14.0

n
tio
Dry
35

ura
/lb

sat
.020
BTU

or
lb
30

bu
et
W
13.5 .016
25

%
0%

80
10

60%
.012
13.5
20

y
% idit
40 hu m .008
tive
Rela
15

12.5 20% .004

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Dry bulb temperature in degrees F.
cooler air warmer air

Figure 2.13: A psychrometric chart presents physical and thermal properties of moist air in a graphi-
cal form. This chart contains a lot of information packed into an odd-shaped graph. Note that cooler air
(located along lower, left region of chart) will not hold as much moisture (as seen on the y-axis’ humidity
ratio) as warm air (located along right side of chart).

Relative Humidity ing more moisture. Typical relative hu-

midity of outdoor air in the winter at 0
Relative humidity is a measure of the
degrees F is 75 to 90%, but heated to 70
amount of water vapor that is held by air
degrees the relative humidity would be
at a given temperature, expressed as a
about 5%. Figure 2.14 shows the health
percentage of the maximum amount of
affects of various relative humidities.
water vapor the air can hold at that tem-
Research indicates that the optimal
perature. Warm air can hold more water
range of relative humidity for human
vapor than cold air (see Figure 2.13).
health is between 40 and 60 percent. If
The way our houses dry out in the
relative humidity is too low, people may
winter is by the exchange of exterior
experience respiratory irritation. If rela-
air for stale interior air. However, when
tive humidity is too high, condensation
that cold outside air is brought inside
occurs on cool surfaces, such as win-
and heated, its relative humidity drops
dows and outside corners, where mold,
because the warm air is capable of hold-

38 Chapter 2
 Decrease in bar width
indicates decrease in effect

Bacteria

Viruses

Fungi

Mites

Respiratory
Infections *

Allergic
Rhinitis
and Asthma

Chemical
Interactions

Ozone
Production

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Relative Humidity (%)

Figure 2.14: The effects of indoor humidity on health. Source: Sterling et al.
1985. Optimum zone moved 10% to left by the authors.

mildew, fungi, and bacterial growth are tard or slow vapor diffusion better than
stimulated. In Alaska, we do not have others. A material with a high perme-
the window technology to tolerate a ance rating allows water vapor to diffuse
relative humidity much above 50% dur- through it relatively freely. Permeance
ing the coldest temperatures we see, so (or perm) ratings of most common build-
we must design in a lower anticipated ing materials are listed in Appendix 2.
relative humidity for Alaskan homes. Moisture is generated during normal
This is more of a concern in the subarc- household activities through cooking,
tic and arctic climate zones where lower bathing, washing and drying clothes,
winter minimum temperatures are more and human respiration. A great deal of
common. moisture can be given off by building
materials such as wood and concrete,
Permeance especially during the first year in a new
house.
Permeance is a measure of the ability of
In an insulated wall there is typically
a material to allow water vapor to diffuse
a difference in temperature across the
through it. Some building materials re-

Building Science Basics 39

 wall from the warmer indoor tempera- flow-through principle. Whenever pos-
ture to the cooler outside temperature. sible and practical, place materials with
If water vapor enters the wall along low permeance (perm) on the warm side
with air leakage and the temperature of the dew point. For stick-framed walls,
decreases as the air moves toward the the flow-through principle requires that
outside, cooler surface, ultimately the no layer on the cold side of the vapor
dew point is reached and condensation retarder have a perm rating less than
will occur. Building assemblies should 1.0, so water vapor will not be trapped
be designed and constructed so that within the building materials.
each layer used from the inside to the
outside has a higher perm rating than Air Leakage
the previous material. This will prevent
As air leaks into the house through
any moisture that penetrates the wall
cracks and holes in the building enve-
from being trapped at any point inside
lope and flows through the house via
the wall. This is sometimes called the
the wind, stack, and flue and vent ef-
fects, the air warms and accumulates
moisture, then leaves the house through
cracks and holes in the upper portion of
the building envelope. Nearly all mois-
ture removal from a conventional house
Low permeance occurs as a result of air leakage.

Vapor Diffusion
Vapor diffusion is the transport of water
vapor through a solid material. Just as
heat flows from a warm area to a cold
area and air flows from a high (positive)
pressure area to a low (negative) pres-
sure area, water vapor flows from an
Higher permeance area of high vapor pressure to an area
of low pressure. The vapor pressure
depends on the level of humidity and
temperature. Water vapor can move
independently of air flow, by diffusion,
and can pass through some materials
through which air cannot flow. Vapor
diffusion is a minor mechanism for
moisture flow. A comparison between
Very high permeance the amount of moisture transferred by
diffusion through a typical wall section
during a heating season and the cor-
responding amount of moisture trans-
ferred by air leakage through a one-inch
square hole is shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.14: This cartoon suggests different lev-

els of permeance. The moisture is represented
by arrows.

40 Chapter 2
Capillary Action ous mechanism of moisture flow in a
house, but can be a major contributor to
Capillary action is the ability of a liquid
moisture entering the building envelope
to rise by absorption. A wick placed in a
through the foundation.
kerosene lamp is a common example of
how capillary action occurs and how the
level of the liquid in the wick can rise Gravity
higher than the level of the liquid in the Gravity causes water to flow downward.
lamp. No pressure differential is neces- Surface runoff, ground water, and driv-
sary for capillary action to occur. Porous ing rain can enter the building envelope
material, like concrete used in founda- through cracks and holes. Gravity will
tions, is another example. Through also transport water resulting from
capillary action, water in the ground condensation or melting ice into the
will rise up through the foundation’s structure or down along the foundation.
absorbent material and be released into All drainage of water should be directed
an area with a lower water vapor pres- away from the house and its foundation.
sure. Capillary action is the least obvi-

Vapor diffusion
transport of water

4’x8’ sheet of gypsum board

Interior at 70˚ F and
40% relative humidity
results in 1/3 quart of water

Air leakage
transport of water
4’x8’ sheet of gypsum board
with a 1 inch square hole,
Interior at 70˚ F and
40% relative humidity
results in 30 quarts of water.

Figure 2.15: Air Leakage is the primary moisture transport

mechanism (Building Science Concept #7)

Building Science Basics 41

 Dew Point Dew Point

Vapor Retarder

Moisture-laden air condenses inside a wall Vapor retarder stops moisture-laden air
with no vapor retarder, causing damage from entering wall

Figure 2.16: Dew point and vapor retarder (Building Science Concept #9)

Insulated Ceiling Interior Finish

and Stud Spaces (Drywall Shown)

Polyethylene
Air/Vapor Retarder

Permeable Air
Retarder at Rim

Framed Interior
Basement Wall With
Batt Insulation and
Polyethylene
Air/Vapor Retarder
Figure 2.17: Placement of vapor retarder.

42 Chapter 2
Controlling Water Vapor and Condensation
Vapor must be prevented from reach- A vapor barrier (retarder) is used to
ing the dew point temperature in the reduce diffusion of water vapor across
wall. To control the movement of vapor the building envelope. Few materials
throughout the building envelope, two stop diffusion completely; they only
distinct functions are required: an air slow the rate. Thus the term vapor re-
retarder and a vapor retarder. tarder, rather than barrier, is more accu-
Moisture movement also occurs rate. The water vapor that does get past
through the air where there are gaps in the interior vapor retarder should be
materials. If there is no associated air allowed to pass through the exterior sur-
leakage, the amount of moisture trans- face of the assembly to the outside. The
ferred to the wall cavity is usually very vapor retarder must be installed on the
small. If there are gaps in the warm-side warm side of the dew point to reduce
air or vapor retarder, convection can the transport of water vapor through
also carry moisture and deposit it on the the building envelope and minimize
cold side of the envelope. moisture condensing in the walls or roof
An air retarder is necessary to pre- cavity.
vent moisture being transported by In short, it should be difficult for
air leaking into the wall cavity. The air moisture to get into the building enve-
leakage is enhanced by wind and stack lope. If it does, it should be easy for it
effect. The air retarder must be continu- to escape to the outside. This escape
ous, without holes or cracks. In most could be by diffusion through holes such
instances an air retarder is an external as unsealed seams in siding or sheath-
element of the wall section, usually ap- ing. However, removal of water from
plied at or directly under the exterior the wall by air circulation is not recom-
siding. mended because it could drastically re-
When an air retarder (wind re- duce the effectiveness of the insulation.
tarder) is placed under the exterior The air-vapor retarder should be at
finish, it should have a high permeance or near the inside surface, which is the
to water vapor and a low air porosity, warm side of the dew point, so that
which means it is a block to air leak- most of the water vapor within the
age. It should be tear resistant. Some house will never get inside the wall and
types of hardboard siding can buckle so will never reach the dew point. This
when damp, which makes the interior method of vapor retarder installation
of the wall vulnerable to air leaks and corresponds to the traditional method
wind-driven rain. Air and water leaking in which a polyethylene sheet is posi-
into the wall cavity will increase energy tioned just under the interior finish.
requirements by wetting the insulation Research has demonstrated that the
and increasing its thermal conduction. air-vapor retarder can be positioned
Wet insulation can settle, which may within the building envelope, as long as
leave air gaps at the top of the wall, fur- roughly two-thirds of the R-value of the
ther increasing energy requirements. insulation is outside this retarder, leav-
The specifications of plastic air- ing the remaining one-third inside. This
retarder materials—vapor permeance, has permitted some novel approaches to
thickness, weight, available size, tensile construction.
strength, tear resistance, and air poros- This one-third/two-thirds rule for
ity—are listed in Appendix 1. placing the vapor retarder is suitable

Building Science Basics 43

 for moist temperate climatic regions and vapor retarders that may simplify
of America and coastal Alaska. How- construction techniques and provide
ever, in extremely cold climates, above a more durable replacement for poly-
12,000 heating degree days, the vapor ethylene.
retarder should be recessed no more One successful approach is to use
than one-quarter of the way in from the foil-backed foam insulation on the in-
warm side of the building assembly. In terior walls and seal the joints between
climates above 14,000 heating degree the sheets of foam with vapor-barrier
days (see map Figure 2.17), the rule is tape. Wiring can be run between fur-
that only one-fifth of the insulating ring strips that are fastened through the
value should be on the warm side of the foam to the studs.
vapor retarder. These rules of thumb for Another technique takes advantage
vapor retarder placement allow some of the resistance to air flow provided by
flexibility in construction and air-vapor drywall. Continuity of the air retarder
retarder placement. is provided using gaskets and sealants
The builder or designer must keep between different components of the
in mind the separate functions and re- building envelope, as with wall plates
quirements of the air retarder and the or headers. In such a system, a separate
vapor retarder. While in the past most vapor retarder must be provided. This
energy-efficient houses have combined system is called the airtight drywall ap-
these functions into one air-vapor proach. Because there isn’t enough test
retarder, it must be realized that this data in areas of high seismic activity and
element is performing two functions. magnitude, we do not endorse its use.
There are times when it is convenient to
separate those functions (Figure 2.18).
There have been investigations into
alternative treatments of air retarders

BARROW
20,000

19,000
18,000
17,000
KOTZEBUE
16,000

NOME 15,000 Air Retarder

FAIRBANKS
14,000
Vapor Retarder
15,000
MCGRATH

Inside Outside
BETHEL ANCHORAGE
13,000 VALDEZ
12,000 12,000 10,000
11,000 JUNEAU

8,000
11,000

10,000 Source: Environmental Atlas of Alaska, 1978

Charles Hartman and Philip Johnson
Figure 2.18: The difference in place-
ment of an air retarder (on the
Figure 2.17: Heating degree days in outside) and a vapor retarder (two-
Alaska (map from somewhere thirds/one-third rule)

44 Chapter 2
Controlling Liquid Water
An often-neglected function of the
building envelope is that of controlling
the movement of liquid water (not to
be confused with water vapor). Liquid
water, such as driving rain, must be
prevented from entering the build-
ing envelope. This is usually done with
the exterior siding or roofing material.
The important point to remember is air cavity
that this barrier, while preventing the
passage of water from outside into the
envelope, should permit vapor to pass
from the envelope to the exterior. It
must also restrict liquid water and air
penetration.
Flashing is used in the conventional
manner to direct water to the outside
if it has penetrated the siding or roof-
ing. In regions with a low drying index
(wet, humid climates such as southeast
Alaska), consider isolating the exterior
siding from the wall cavity and sheath-
ing. Ventilating the wall can reduce the siding
potential for moisture that has been
absorbed by the siding from moving into
the wall assembly. Most typically this furring
would involve the use of furring between
the air retarder and the siding, allowing air retarder
a drainage cavity and an air cavity that
structural
can dry the back side of the siding (see
sheathing
Figure 2.19).
An air retarder should also stop Figure 2.19: A wall with a drainage cavity to allow water to
convection currents and cold air from escape in rainy climates
blowing through the insulation, which
restricts the performance of the insula-
tion. It is becoming common practice to
install an outer air retarder consisting of
a permeable air-retarder material that is
taped or caulked at the seams, especially
in wind-dominated climates.
When an air retarder is used on the
exterior of the building, its purpose is
to stop air intrusion. It must also be
highly permeable to water vapor so that
it does not trap water vapor in the wall.
The standard six-mil polyethylene vapor
retarder material that is now recom-

Building Science Basics 45

 mended practice, installed on the warm Capillary Action and Gravity
side of the insulation (the high vapor-
Controlling air leakage and vapor dif-
pressure side), constitutes both an air
fusion reduces the potential for exfil-
and vapor retarder. In cold climates,
tration of vapor through the building
water vapor control is more crucial be-
envelope. In addition, controlling the
cause vapor movement into wall cavities
capillary action and gravity mechanisms
can quickly cause damage and diminish
of moisture flow prevents infiltration
insulation value when framing members
of water into the building envelope. We
and insulation get wet. For this reason,
can prevent capillary action by using a
the vapor-transfer control function of
nonabsorbent material and prevention
the air–vapor retarder on the warm side
techniques. Moisture flow by gravity is
becomes a focus of attention.
reduced primarily by designing and con-
The vapor or retarder is inherently
structing roofs, walls, and foundations
an air retarder too, but it is not always
to shed water. This is done by installing
perceived that way, and thus the confu-
proper flashing, rain gutters, and footing
sion. It is easy to get into the habit of
drains and by properly sloping the finish
calling the warm side air–vapor retarder
grade away from the building.
simply a vapor barrier. Air retarder
Understanding how air leakage,
products are specifically named air bar-
vapor diffusion, capillary action, and
riers and are designed for exterior cold-
gravity can transport moisture from
side use on walls, making the separate
inside or outside the home into the
function implicit in the separate loca-
building thermal envelope and how to
tion of the air retarder from the interior
control the mechanisms of moisture
vapor retarder. Air retarder products are
flow allows the designer and builder to
also not adequate for, nor intended for,
choose the most cost effective methods
use as a vapor retarder.
and materials to improve the comfort,
durability, and performance of the house
as a system.

46 Chapter 2
Vapor Retarder Design: What, Why, Where
What is a Vapor Retarder?
Commonly called vapor barriers, vapor
retarders are most simply described as
a film or sheet of material to prevent or
retard moist air from moving into the
wall of a building. They also help to stop
warm air from moving through a wall
(see Figure 2.20).
Figure 2.20: This small hole in the vapor barrier
Why Do We Need Vapor was made during construction: there was no hole
Retarders in Buildings? in the drywall. The dark stain around the hole shows
airborne contaminants trapped in the insulation like
If we prevent moist air from getting
an air filter. This shows that over time a lot of air is
inside of a building’s walls and roof, we
passed through even this small hole.
can avoid damage to the building from
rot and decay. Also, mold growing in
walls and poorly vented cavities can be a
serious heath problem.

Where Do We Put
Vapor Retarders? 2/3 of total R-value
less than 12,000 heating de-
A vapor retarder is built into a wall to
gree days.
form a balloon or envelope to keep warm
moist air inside. This vapor retarder is
hidden inside the wall in a finished build-
ing. A vapor retarder must be placed
Cold side Warm side
with careful design and craftsmanship,
because a poor vapor retarder can some- (outdoors) (indoors)
times cause as much or more damage as
none at all. Different climates require 3/4 of total R-value
different placement of vapor retarders. 12,000 to 14,000 heating de-
gree days
The TwoThirds/One Third Rule
for Vapor Retarders
To prevent moisture from reaching
the dew point inside the wall, no more
than one third of the total R-value of
the wall should be on the warm side
of the vapor retarder in areas of the 4/5 of total R-value
country with less than 12,000 heating over 14,000 heating degree
degree days (Figure 2.21). days
In areas with heating degree days
Figure 2.21: The two-thirds/one third rule:
of 12,000 to 14,000, no more than one
three different wall designs showing placement
quarter of the insulation should be on
of vapor retarder (dashed line).

Building Science Basics 47

 the warm side of the vapor retarder, and Building Code, the Uniform Mechanical
in climates of over 14,000 heating degree Code, the Uniform Plumbing Code, the
days, no more than a quarter (one-fifth is Americans With Disabilities Act, and
recommended) of the insulation should the National Electrical Code as well as
be on the warm side of the vapor re- the energy efficiency standards set forth
tarder. Following this rule prevents water here. All mechanical components, includ-
vapor from getting too cold and con- ing doors and windows, should have the
densing before it is stopped by the vapor manufacturer’s name, the model, and a
retarder. (For the heating degree days in customer service phone number clearly
your location, see map on page 46). marked on a visible surface. This identifi-
All construction should comply with cation will help if repairs are necessary.
local building codes and the Uniform

Summary
This chapter has presented building sci-
ence basics that explain heat, air, and Are you getting
moisture flow and the principles that any of this?
control them.

What is R-value?
R-value: The ability of a material to resist
heat transfer is measured in R-value.
What is a dew point?
A dew point is the temperature at which wa-
ter condenses and dew begins to form.
What is a heating degree day?
Heating degree day is a measure of the need
for heating based on the number of days
the outside temperature is lower than 65
degrees F.

48 Chapter 2