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 OPERATIONS REPORT
* LESSONS LEARNED
REPORT 1-67

F'JU
M
18

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 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT GENERAL
WASHINGTON, D.C. .0810

IN VL.Y I"1 TO
AGA-P (M) (24 Jan 67) FOR OT RD 30 JeIsuary 1967

SUBJECT: Operations Report - Lessons Learned 1-67 - "Observations of a

Platoon Leader"

TO: SEE DISTRIBUTION

1. This is the eleventh of a series of reports from operations

being conducted by US Forces in Vietnam.

2. Information contained in this report Is provided to insure

appropriate benefits in the future from lessons learned during the current
combat operations. The lessons cited in this report may be adapted for use
in developing training material.
3. Observations of a Platoon Leader is an account by 1st Lieutenant
Patrick H. Graves, Jr. of the lessons that he learned as a platoon leader
while serving with tie 1st Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division in Vietnam.
The opinions stated herein do not necessarily reflect official Department
of the Army approved doctrine.

4. The war in Vietnam has been characterized as, a small unit leaders
war. 'this report addresses the small unit leader and should be of particular
value co all junior officers and senior non-commissioned officers. It is
anticipated that portions of this report will appear in a future publication
of the Infantry Magazine.

5. Previously published reports of the Operations Report - Lessons

Learned sericEs were:

a. Summary of Lessons Learned, Vietnam, 2 November 1965,

UNCLASSIFIED.
b. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 1-66, Operation
CRIMP, 22 March 1966, marked FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
c. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 2-66, The
Battle cf Annihilation and the BONG SON Campaign, 1 April 1966, CLASSIFIED.

2)
 Ii

d. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 3-66,

The PLEIKU Campaign, 10 May 1966, UNCLASSIFIED (Limited Distribution).

e. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 4-66, Evasion

and Escape RVN, 24 May 1966, CLASSIFIED.

f. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 5-66, Combat

Service Support - RVN, 10 June 1966, UNCLASSIFIED.

g. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 6-66, Lessons

Learned in Vietnam -- 1966, 1 July 1966, UNCLASSIFIED.

h. Operations Report - Lessors Learned, Report 7-66, Operations

COCOA BEACH and HAPPY VALLEY, 11 Aug 19o6, CLASSIFIED.

i. Operations Rt.pozt - Lessons Learned, Report 8-66, !ngineer

Notes #1, 13 October 1966, UNCILSIFIED.

J. Operations Report - Lessons Learned, Report 9-66, Equipment,

7 December 1966, CLASSIFIED.

5. Addressees other than US Army are provided copies of Operations

Report - Lessons Learned in accordance with the provisions of DJSM 545-66,
dated 2 May 1966.

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

1 Incl KENNETH G. WICKHAM

Lessons Learned 1-67 - Major General, USA
tObservations of a Platoon LeaderV The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:
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2
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COPIES FURNISHED:
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V/

5
 I

CONTENTS

FOREWORD
PAGE
I. TERRAIN 1

II. NAVIGATION 4

III. FORMATIONS AND TACTICS 5 1

IV. CONDUCT OF THE NIGHT DEFENSE 14

V. ENEMY DEFENSES AND DEVICES 18

VI. FIRE SUPPORT 23

VII. WEAPONS 27

VIII. EXPLOSIVES 31

X. COMMUNICATIONS 34

XI. ANIMALS, INSECTS, REPTILES, AND DISEASES 36

XII. SUMMARY OF LESSONS LEARNED 37

QI
 , FOMORD

The material contained herein has been prepared in the

hope it will be of value to junior officers, especially those
subject to di'ty in Vietnam. I believe this text offers a fresh
approach to the subject material since I, a platoon leader,
~address platoon leaders.

The various topics of particular importance are titled

and subtitled for special consideration.

Information has been compiled largely through persoral

experience, and through conversation with fellow officei's. In
addition, I was fortunate to have observed the 1st Battalion,
Royal Australian Regiment, for one month, two weeks of which
were on operations against the enemy. One of these operations
waE the important Operation Crimp, during which the Australian
forces discovered a complex tunnel system near Ben Cat.

The experience within these pages has been derived from a

tour in Vietnam with the 1st Battalion (Airborne), 327th Infantry,
101st Airborne Division. This material does not necessarily
... reflect the policy of the unit.
Many points herein may be controversial. I qualify
Observations of A Platoon Leader only by the fact that I was
a rifle platoon leader in a Platoon Leader's War.

II PATRICK H. GRAVES, JR.

1ST LT, INF

IJ
 OBSERVATIONS OF A PLATOON LEADER

In any situation presented in combat, the leader is the

control center. He makes an estimate of the situation, decides
on a course of action, and directs his unit to completion of
the mission. Whether these actions take place in a few minutes
under the roar of a fire fight or in hours of deliberate planning,
the leader is the center of control.

In counter-insurgency operations, small unit actions are

prevalent. For this reason, the small unit leader frequently
functions alone, Thus this type of warfare becomes the small
unit leader's war. Now, because this is true, the squad and
platoon leader can expect to share a greater burden of combat
activity. The small unit leader is the control center and the
units' actions are his responsibility.

Many other aspects of the war In Vietnam are unique in that

they have not been experienced by the American Army during recent
wars. New lessons are being learned and new techniques are
being developed each day of the war.

Based on my personal experience as a platoon leader, I

have accumulated the following information to aid the small
unit leader. It should provide a guide for those who are
destined to be small unit leaders in Vietnam.

TERRAIN:

Four distinct classes of terrain exist in Vietnam; the

Central Highlands, the flat coastal areas, the Delta Regio.,
.1
and the jungle. Each area has its peculiar advantages and
disadvantages to the infantry unit.

Central Highlands. The Central Highlands as found around

An Khe requires extensive use of the file formation since under-
growth is thick. Here the terrain is dominated by mountains
providing excellent navigational aids. Mountains break into
hills and deep stream beds which contain the densest vegetation
in the area. Movement is limited to a crawl. Occasional open
areas consist of cultivated land or fields of elephant grass.
Numerous mountain passes provide excellent ambush sites.

Control is difficult in this thick vegetation. Duria

movement the point team of a unit provides frontal security and
performs trail-blazer duties. Flank security of the column
poses unmanageable problems because such elements are difficult
to control. Also this requires cutting three paths as opposed
I., i

dt i
 I

to one, thus impeding rapid movement. Noise is a factor here U

also. Observation is often l mited to several meters and fields
of fire are non-existent. These factors do not favor the enemy
ambush on other than we.l defined routes.
Flat Coastal Areas. Here completely different terrain
is encountered, therefore, tactlea and formations must be altered.
These areas are entirely f) at between mountain ranges and
occasional lone mountains. Only slight changes in elevation
exist otherwise. Rivers, streams, and canals, often unfordable,
are plentiful, and cut the large fields where otherwise un-
hampered vision may exist for thousands of meters. Although they
are comparatively narrow, canals present a great obstacle due
to their depth and foliage along the banks. Fords are frequent
in the area and may be used with caution. Such crossings are
easily located along paths. Bridges of bamboo poles laced to-
gether with vine are more common than concrete or wood structures.

Many villages built-up above the rice paddies dot the

entire area. Access to the larger villages is by well defined
roads and trails, and to the smaller villages by foot paths along
dikes bordering the paddies.

The flat coastal areas are not entirely made up of rice

paddies as described above. In some areas such as that around
Phan Thiet, Phan Rang, and Cam Ranh Bay, the flat land consists
of sparse shrub and few trees. This resembles to a great degree
the western United States. Vegetation density increases closer
to the bordering mountain ranges, but observation in the area is
generally excellent.
The rice regions of Southeast Asia are not confined to
any particular area. They exist inland and on the coast. Rice
paddies are danger areas by virtue of the excellent observation
and fields of fire afforded the enemy. During the cycle of each
rice crop, the paddy is flooded much of the time. Due to the
muddy bottom and water level, movement through the paddies is
slow, noisy, and during the rainy season, very dangerous.

During the dry season when the paddies have been plowed,
movement is again hampered by the roughness of the ground. This
condition is almost as bad as the wet rice pa&.dy.

To add speed to movement, dikes may be used provided the

route is not restricted to one dike. Dikes are often very narrow
requiring constant attention to where one walks. Observation
uf the surrounding terrain is thus neglected. Well traversed
dikes which provide a high speed approach may often be mined.

2
 LAI

44
 II

In the open terrain, the wedge and echelon formations

have proven to be very useful. When using the file or column,
flank and point security should be pushed well out. Unless
movement is conducted at night, troops must be trained to disperse
in such open areas.
The Delta Region. This region most closely resembles the
rice paddy areas previously described. Here, however, water is
more abundant and canals, streams, and rivers are influenced by
tidal changes. Many march areas exist and present a formidable
obstacle to foot and vehicular movement. Sugar cane brakes and
pineapple crops are more abundant here than in the coastal
regions.

The Jungle. In and around War Zones C and D west of Ben

Cat and north of Bien Hoa, respectively, much of the Jungle
terrain in Vietnam is encountered. The Jungle may further be
classified into distinct type of growth, primary and secondary
growth. Primary Jungle - the canopy, consists of towering trees
often 250 feet high, which block out the light of day. A heavy
rain becomes a steady trickle on the Jungle floor below lasting
long after the rain has subsided.

The absence of this canopy gives way to dense under-

growth or secondary Jungle. Movement is rapid where the primary
Jungle or canopy exists as compared to movement through secondary
Jungle. Secondary Jungle growth is perhaps the thickest vegeta-
tion in Southeast Asia.

Frequent use is made of the file formation in the Jungle

since control is a major concern. Problems of movement in the
Jungle resembles those in the dense vegetation of the Central
Highlands.

Because clear areas are scarce in the Jungle and other

densely vegetated terrain, landing zones are marked in the same
manner as rallying points. The preparation of LZs is difficult
and time consuming and requires a large effort.

NAVIGATION:
Thorough understanding and professional use of map reading
and navigation are essential to the accomplishment of the mission.
The importance of map reading ability is often not meaningful,
nor appreciated, through the long hours of tedious classroom
instruction. Practical exercise in the field is where pro-
fessional ability is founded. Believe me, you must be able
to put your classroom knowledge of map reading to practical
application in Vietnam.

4
 The junior officer proficient in map reading and navigation
is a most notable asset to his unit whether it be an American
or Vietnamese unit. In counter-insurgency operations in Vietnam
where movement is critical, this is especially valid.

The platoon leader who fails to use and trust his non-
commissioned officers with the map is creating a problem for
himself. Most senior NCOs have had many years of experience in
map reading and navigation. They can offer much assistance.
This does not, of course, relieve the leader of the responsibility
for the actions of his unit. The platoon leader is a supervisor
at all times and must be aware of, and check, the actions of his
subordinates.

Maps. Units have been fortunate to have excellent maps of

operational areas of Vietnam. Maps are scaled 1:50,000. Aerial
photographs are often of a larger scale. Large terrain features
as a rule, are accurate for navigational purposes as are villages
and rice paddies to a lesser degree. Map errors do exist,
however, and this should be considered, especially when using
fire support. In plotting a course of movement, the G-M angle
for Vietnam is not so large to require consideration. A good
map reconnaissance is invaluable to any mission and should be
included as an integral part of the planning phase. Such a
reconnaissarce does not stop at squad leader level but is conducted
with each member of the unit.

Compass and Pace. The compass is used extensively everywhere

in Vietnam. In the Jungle and other densely vegetated areas
where noticeable landmarks do not exist or are not observable, one
must rely solely on the compass and pace for navigation. A
compass issued down to each fire team leader is desirable. Once
in a semi-permanent or permanent base area, a unit should set up
a compass check and pace course.

FORMATIONS AND TACTICS:

In discussing the tactics used by the American forces in

Vietnam, I must note that our small unit tactics are for the
most part conventional. Most officers have the idea that duty
in Vietnam means divorcing oneself from formner tactics instruc-
tion. This is not true. Although the peculiarities of the war
in Vietnam have resulted in the revision of certain tactics and
the formulation of new techniquesbasic infantry tactics form a
foundation for any operation or action. Further, this conflict
gives the Army the opportunity to test and perfect old and new
tactical concepts in a counter-insurgency environment.

2) 5
 Movement. Let me first discuss movement. En a guerrilla
infested area, the leader must keep bne principle in mind above
all else - SECURITY. It is mandatory to move with all around
security when terrain permits. This is executed by providing
point, flank, and rear security teams. A platoon file may look
like this: 0 0 a PY.,k 5eC4,-IP5

0oo oao 00/00 000 oo o 000 ,

^0 " r4
0;

An explanation of the duties of each element and team

Some
repetitious of selected manuals and training.
beAwould
points, however, are worthy of comment. The machine gun posi-
tioned behind the platoon leader gives him control of a forward
gun while the weapons squad leader or platoon sergeant controls
the rear gun.

Notice the security provided on all sides. The rear

security element drops away from the column periodically to detect
and destroy a trailing enemy. Such security is essential for the
commonly used file and column formations.

The wedge formation is used for relatively open areas

where danger exists on both flanks and to the front. It may
look like this:

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44
~0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

00 0o o0 0
0 o

6
 'IV

S 'it
IA

~\7 ~ SZURTY -STAY ALERT.

 Notice here too the placement of weapons and the firepower
to front and flanks. Security is provided where needed, to the
front and flanks, by virtue of the formation.

When a dan ar area such as a river exists on the flank, the

echelon format .n is used. It looks like this:

0 0 0)
)( o

0 0 0 0

Again security is provided to a particular flank.

The Vee formation is used also. None of these formations

are new. I demonstrate here the use of conventional formations
against an unconventional enemy and emphasizes the important
principle, SECURITY. (See WEAPONS: M-60, Light Machine Gun, for
a discussion on the placement of this weapon in the above
illustrations.)

The difficulty of mcvement in the terrain common to the .

Central Highlands and jungle is lessened greatly by the proper
selection of routes prior to a mission. As stated In the FMs,
avoid crossing compartments because such a practice is time
consuming and tiring. Instead plan routes along ridge lines and
other arteries. Stream beds and river banks provide high speed
avenues of advance. Time limitations often make the use of
such routes mandatory in order to accomplish the mission.i

The old proverb derived from past experiences In counter-

insurgency situations - "Never use roads and trails" - has a
sequel that applies here. "Never use roads and trails unless
the route can be secured."--

Enemy Sniper. More often than not the enemy will be

encountered in small numbers. The sniper is a good ,.xample of
the type of small unit action frequently encountered. The mission
of the sniper varies. Most often he is employed to harrass.
The sniper, however, Is used in areas where enemy strength is
nominal. Here he is used to demonstrate to the inhabitants of
the area that 'he Viet Cong can resist a larger government or
American forcu, Primarily, such light resistance is for propaganda
purposes.

8
 In a delaying mission the sniper is very effective. A
single sniper can hold up a greatly superior force while his
comrades effect withdrawal. Very often too, the sniper is
utilized to bait an ambush by withdrawing into the prepared
trap7.

The effectiveness of the sniper depends on the type of enemy

and the terrain. When the enemy is greatly outnumbered or when
his experience and equipment make him other than a regular, he
will usually engage at ranges which will allow immediate retreat
after initiating the action. Main force Viet Cong and NVA snipers
are bolder and possess better weapons, often complete with
sniperscope. This type of sniper will allow forces to closely
approach his position before engaging them. Obviously the latter
sniper is tore effective and casualties are higher for opposing
forces.
Terrain plays a role here too. The open areas predominately
found in the ;Iat rice regions are critical danger areas. Here,
well emplaced small forces and snipers taking advantage of
terrain obstacles such as rivers and canals can effectively delay
a greatly superior unit. On the other hand, densely vegetated
areas cause engagement to be at much closer ranges.

The sniper presents a particular problem. In closing with

) and destroying the sniper a problem arises in the range involved.
Closure must be executed with speed and aggressiveness by virtue
of the sniper's ability to escape on preplanned avenues. This is
where fire and maneuver comes into play. Utilize grenade launchers
to the utmost, concentrating on trees and other suspected sniper
locations. Aggressiveness is often the key to success or failure
in destroying a sniper. A unit adept in -apidly neutralizing
snipers will discourage further use of snipers in their area of/
operations.
Artillery and mortar support may be employed. Such support,
however, requires valuable time in obtaining and adjusting the
fire, time which slows rapid closure. Heavy support can be used
effectively to close off suspected avenues of withdrawal. This
engagements with the sniper unless fire and maneuver cannot in
support, however, is most often neither needed nor desired be
executed.

Avoid over-reaction to the situation involving the sniper.

Be cautious of the baited ambush.

9
 Fire and Maneuver/Movement. Fire and maneuver/movement demand
special consideration here. These are the most basic of tactical
lessons, the first learned in training but often the first
forgotton in combat. The common communication, "My unit is pinned
down by fire," is an impossibility unless the enemy enjoys
superiority in number or a superior position. In almost any
combat situation involving an engagement with the enemy, fire and
maneuver is the immediate solution. This lesson is so often
violated by the small unit leader that it is rapidly becoming
absurd.
Search and Clear/Destroy. The basic difference between a
search mission and the movement to contact mission is the time
allotted. Proper execution of the search mission requires adequate
time, while the latter is concerned with contact and pursuit and,
therefore, is conducted quite rapidly.

A common example presents itself many times. A unit receives

fire from a village or inhabited area. Upon closing on the
village, it is found that the enemy has fled. Now the question
confronts the leader whether to pursue or to search the village.
In a counter-insurgency environment to gain and maintain contact
is the goal and thus the unit should pursue. If there is reason
to suspect that the village may contain supplies, weapons, or
intelligence data, a unit may elect to leave a group in the village
to deny it to the enemy while the remainder offers pursuit. Any
such separation of forces should not be made over a great distance
unless each group is strong enough to sustain itself. Remember
here too that over-reaction is dangerous.

The systematic and thorough search of a village is rarely

conducted. Time limitations or a situation requiring pursuit is
often the cause. If the mission dictates a search, time must be
allocated to make the search thorough.
The mine detector is excellent in village searching to
locate caches and hidden weapons in addition to its primary role.
The sniper or harasser will often hide his weapon in a nearby
rice paddy, a well, or a dung heap after initiating the action.
He then carries on normal activity in the presence of troops.
Unless located the weapon will be cleaned and used again.

During village clearing operations, use villagers to

precede point elements through the village. They will avoid
booby traps and concealed enemy.

10
 In villages, huts may contain bunkers for protection
against artillery. These bunkers may be inside or close to the
hut. If a bunker is to be destroyed, insure that no civilians
are hiding inside. Smoke or tear gas are good means to drive
persons from a bunker. The same results are obtained by
indicating in the presence of villagers that a grenade will be
thrown into the bunker. This will encourage villagers into
talking friends and perhaps the enemy from underground shelters.
aThe absence of children in an area frequently is a good
indication of enemy activity. This situation should trigger
caution, observation, and alertness.

The mission may call for the search and destruction of

Never makecontrolled
an enemy area.
the mistake Civilians everything
of believing will be encountered.
found belongs
to the enemy. For example, if rice is located in a large
amount, estimate the amount required to feed the family present
until the next rice harvest. The remainder may be extracted
or destroyed as orders dictate. Viet Cong rice taxes are heavy,
but villagers are-usually aljowed to retain enough to sustain
themselves.
Suppose a large rice cache is found during the vearc and
it is decided that it must be destroyed! What is the most
effective method to destroy the rice? This is often a difficult
problem. Burning.or dumping it in a stream have proven to be
effective means of disposal. Burning rice, however, is difficult
without fuel. A white phosphorus grenade will not suffice since
only the surface grain is charred. When burning or dumping is
not feasible, the rice can be scattered over the ground, as a
last resort.

Ambush. The night ambush is used frequently outside the

defensive perimeter. Good ambush habits must be established
early in a unit's training in order for the ambush to be
effective. Light and noise discipline is a major problem
area. The frequency of ambush missions and the infrequency
of contact tends to increase the natural impatience of the
American soldier and to cause a breakdown in light and noise
discipline.
Each ambush mission must be initiated with the belief that
each mission will net a kili. Planning must be thorough and
precise since poor preparation serves to increase the soldier's
indifference to the mission. The most common pitfalls for
conventional forces in a counter-insurgency role are the bad
habits and indifference formed by the infrequency of contact
with the enemy.

ii
*614

-et

46Ks

Z44
" A ,

1,51

r*V MV
A 't-i !H
 The planning phase of the ambush, however, is often
shortened greatly by time limitations imposed by last-minute
missions. Therefore, SOPs must be formed to eliminate some
of the time consuming steps in preparing a unit for a mission.
These procedures are explained to all new personnel soon after
arrival in the unit. The SOP is reviewed and revised periodic-
ally. A reconnaissance by the platoon leader is essential to
the successful accomplishment of the ambush mission. Lack of
knowledge of the terrain will cause confusion at the ambush
site and often will lead to the selection of a poor location.
In the event a leader's reconnaissance is not possible during
the planning phase due to time limitation or inaccessibility
of the proposed location, it may be conducted as the unit moves
into the area. This technique is especially useful when danger
of enemy or native observation of movement into the ambush site
exists. The entire unit is able to observe the proposed loca-
tion as the patrol moves through the area. The patrol then moves
to a location preferably at some distance away to plan the layout
of the ambush. Count on all movements being observed by the
inhabitants or the enemy thus lessening the chance of surprise.

The ambush must be conducted with aggressiveness and speed.

Here explosives and automatic weapons play a decisive role.
Special care is taken in placement of the automatic weapons and
explosives. Claymores are ideal for the ambush and are used
) by both security and killer elements. Detonating cord is effective
when laid linearly over suspected routes of escape from the
killing zone.

Fire support is an important part of a successful ambush and

must be included in the planning phase. It can be used to
protect flanks and to secure the withdrawal. Concentrations J/
registered on the proposed ambush location compromise its
intended use.
Most frequently the ambush mission will be assigned to the
squad or platoon. Supporting distance is of prime considera-
tion and is determined from the intelligence analysis of the
enemy's capability.

Open Areas. Rice paddies and other flat terrain present

the problem of crossing large open areas. First, such areas
are always considered danger areas. Second, movement across
danger areas is conducted only as a last resort and then with
utmost caution. Movement is conducted making use of available
cover and concealment. Very large open areas may be crossed
with little danger if the route is out of effective range of
possible enemy locations.

If a danger area must be crossed, cover the move with available

supporting fires. Concentrate machine guns mad grenade launchers.
Move by bounds.

I 13
•
 Open areas present a formidable problem when attempting
to cloLe with the enemy. Regular enemy forces such as main
force Viet Cong and NVA units will allow troops to gain close
proximity to the enemy defenses before engaging. Again, move
in open areas exercising great caution.

Do not close with a well entrenched enemy, commanding

ex..ellent fields of fire, without first utilizing artillery and
air support. After or in conjunction with this support, close
with and destroy the enemy. Avoid practicing routine in any
tactical situation. Routine and repetition lead to indifference
and carelessness. The enemy takes advantage of such a situation.
Rely heavily on former tactical instruction to form a base for
any operation. Fire and maneuver/movement must be conditioned
responses in each soldier.

Breeching Minefields. Unmarked minefields exist in Vietnam.

In some instances these minefields were left by the French over
a decade ago. More recently unmarked minefields have been laid
by the Vietnamese. In breeching these obstacles, utilize
existing trails or cattle paths if present. Keep in mind that
such avenues may be covered by enemy fire.

CON_CT OF THE NIGHT DEFENSE:

Units will find themselves confronted with the night

perimeter defense more often than any other single situation.
It is imperative, therefore, that the night defense provide
the greatest possible security for the unit.
The successful conduct of the night defense depends on a
strong and thorough planning phase. Precise initial planning
lows creation of unit SOPs which simplify and hasten the
preparation of the defensive posture. The following are
important points to consider.

Selection of Terrain. Terrain plays a decisive role in the

success of any defense. The limitations on observation imposed
by darkness and dense undergrowth often allows the selection of
terrain other than is suitable to the daylight defense.

Except for moonlit nights, the defense relies to a large

extent on a listening post type of defense. The dense jungle
undergrowth, for example, has few clear areas making movement
easily audible. To allow grenades to be atilized, overheau
frontal clearance, and fields of fire must be prepared.

14

L
 In clear areas, the defense will take different form.
Positions will be further apart because visual observation
is a greater consideration than in dense vegetation. In
open areas bounded by a woodline, the perimeter should be
entrenched out of grenade range from the woodline. Plan on
booby trapping with trip flares and noise making devices.

In the flat rice paddy areas, the best defendable position

may be a small village. Villages are built on mounds above
the surrounding paddies and command excellent fields of fire
in all directions. Visual observation is excellent. Sounds
of movement in the wet rice paddies are easy to detect.
Grazing fires make this position a machine gunner's dream.
In the rice paddies, use the dikes to provide protection for
the prone position.
It is not difficult to understand why the enemy very
frequently chooses such locations for the defense.

Clear the area in and around the proposed defensive

position. This is especially important when the perimeter
includes huts and tunnels. If inhabitants are within the
perimeter, they are guarded. (See ENEMY DEFENSES AND
DEVICES: Tunnels.)

The Perimeter. The next step in the conduct of the

night defense is the preparation of the perimeter. Maximum
advantage of the terrain Is utilized.

Select the distance between positions by considering

the terrain, observation, the size of the unit, and the
enemy's capability. The tendency is to make the perimeter
too large thus decreasing security.

Each position is manned with a minimum of two personnel

and 50% alertness is maintained. If the situation allows,
three and fou: man positions are desirable to permit each
soldier to get more rest. Alertness is also increased.

Foxholes are dug and all personnel sleep below the

level of the ground. A poncho or tent for sleeping compromises
the fighting position if erected nearby and not camouflaged.
One method to eliminate sleeping in or near the fighting
position is to prepare the sleeping positions at a near
distance from the fighting positions. A piece of communica-
tion wire, WD1, or string is tied to the sleeping man. A
tug on the wire from the fighting position alerts the off
duty soldier of his turn for duty. The individual on duty

15
 thus does not lea~ve the fighting position. t
Do not neglect observation and listening posts. These
early warning systems apply In Vietnam as in former wars.
Maximum use is made of explosives and early warning
devices in the night defense. Claymores, trip flares, and
noise makers are positioned at dusk or after dark if possible.
Remember here that trip flares are very difficult to rig
utilizing the pressure-tension device. Squad leaders should
supervise the use of this device. Most commonly the pressure
device, activated by tripping the safety release, is used.
Never under-emphasize the use of explosives and early warning
devices.
During the positioning of the perimeter, a unit is extremely
jvulnerable. Therefore, proper security must be established
during occupation of the defensive position. At each position
a minimum of one man on alert is maintained, one individual on
j guard, the other working to improve the position. All auto-
matic weapons are always manned. Remember, unless you supervise
the troops will drop their equipment and sit down with little
regard for security.I
Proper communications are vital to the success of the
defense. Visual or noise signals are used if radios or tele-
phones are not available in sufficient amount. Communications
must be established with parent and subordinate units, with
any outposts, and with each fighting position. Thus, when a
position becomes engaged, the leader can rapidly determine the
situation. This also eliminates the necessity to examine the
perimeter after darkness, a dangerous practice which may
compromise the positions. No movement should exist inside
the perimeter once darkness falls, except In an emergency.
Plan fires to secure avenues of approach into the perimeter
and safeguard dangerous flanks. Illumination fires must also
be planned.
Perhaps it is unnecessary to tell small unit leaders to
check each position before and after the perimeter is formed.
Howiever, be aware of the fact that failure to do so may mean
the difference between success and failure. The Individual
soldier will find little interest in his position or fields
of fire if the leader shows no interest in them. A leader's
presence does much to influence the situation by adding a
sense of urgency to an otherwise routine mission.

16
4 agement. The perimeter has been established and the
conduct of the night defense begins. The mission of the
defense is to repel and destroy the enemy. In order to
execute this mission successfully the individual soldier
must know what, when, and how to engage.

First, what does he engage? The soldier must overcome any

fear of darkness and gain confidence in his advantages as a
defender. He must learn that darkness can be his friend, if
properly used, or an enemy if improperly used. For example,
the soldier who engages a noise at other than close range
rarely destroys the enemy. He does, however, compromise
his own fighting position. Instead, the defender should
identify the sound as an enemy and not a "night noise," When
does he engage? The proper time is when he Is sure that he
can destroy his target. The appropriate trait here is self-
confidence.

How is the target to be engaged? What are the best

weapons with which to engage the enemy at night? Explosives
play a decisive role in the night defense. The large killing
radius of the claymore and grenade, for example, overcome the
difficulty of pinpointing a target. In addition, the friendly
perimeter is not compromised.

The effectiveness of the rifle is greatly decreased by

J poor visibility caused by darkness. Automatic rifles such
as the M-16 should be fired in three round bursts under such
conditions. Machine guns and M-79's prove very effective.

Illumination is planned in advance in the fire support

beforeis the
however, often misused.Is Leaders tend
to call Illumination,
plan. for this support situation developed.
For example, if an enemy is believed moving toward a unit's
perimeter or location, illuminating the area will alert the
enemy to the fact that he has been observed. He will know
that a unit is in the immediate area. Develop the situation.
Make contact and then illuminate and destroy.

Stand To. Stand to is the condition of having 100%

alertness during critical hours of the day. For example,
in some areas the enemy has repeatedly attacked between 0001
and 0200 hours. In other areas attacks may be likely at dusk
or dawn.

During stand to troops are required to be at their fighting

positions with weapons and equipment at the ready. Light and
noise discipline is enforced and no movement exists inside
the perimeter. Stand down is gradual and disciplined to avoid

) 17
 Ii

alerting the enemy to this condition by excessive talk,

movement, or fires.

Before and after stand to, the Australian Army sends

clearing patrols out and around their defensive perimeter
to locate hiding enemy and to check on possible movement during
the night. Some units practice the procedure of spraying the
entire area around the perimeter with all weapons. This,
however, is very ineffective since a prone enemy can avoid
detection. In addition, valuable ammunition is expended and
the extent of the defensive perimeter is compromised.

ENEMY DEFENSES AND DEVICES:

Usually only main force and NVA units in Vietnam are

supplied with good equipment and weapons. What the enemy
lacks in weapons, he makes up in the use of certain tactics
and devices.
Villages. An enemy controlled village usually differs in
its defense system from that of a government controlled or
loyal village. The defenses of the former are constructed to
avoid aerial detection as much as possible. A camouflaged
trench system usually ties together prepared foxholes, gun
emplacements, bunkers, and an avenue of escape around the
village perimeter.

Entrances into the village are blocked by felled trees

and thorny brush and barbed wire. Roads and trails are pocked
with holes and trenches or poles buried upright to waist
height. Bridges may be completely demolished or may have a
single span missing with the approaches blocked by large pits.
To provide protection for an enemy column caught by artillery
or aerial bombardment, trails inside the villages contain
staggered one man holes every five meters with overhead cover.
Roads and trails may also be mined or may contain mantraps.
Punji sticks are used to deny entrance to an enemy controlled
area by means other than obvious avenues.

Tunnels. Just west of the infamous Iron Triangle near

Ben Cat while operating with the 1st Battalion, Royal
Australian Regiment, I observed what has been described as
one of the most elaborate tuiinel and trench systems yet
encountered in the war to that date. This occurred during
Operation Crimp in January 1966. The extent of these defenses
demonstrates the high degree of patience of the enemy and his
workers, and the large human reservoir of labor at the enemy's
disposal.

18
 toVillages in the area are less built up than the tunnels
beneath them. Each hut contains an underground bunker able
to accommodate all occupants of the hut. The entrance may be
inside under the bed, for example, or on the outside near
the hut. Such bunkers also hide arms, ammunition, and
equipment caches on occasion. More often, however, such caches
are entered through other concealed entrances. Each system
of tunnels contains an escape exit at a distance from the en-
trance and in a concealed position, such as in the surrounding
jungle. Exits have been found with a concrete slab neatly
concealed away from any access route.

The surrounding jungle may contain large underground rooms

which may be located by finding the ventilation holes on the
surface. One such hole consisted of a large diameter, hollow
bamboo pcle, driven perpendicular to and level with the ground.

Tunnels have accommodations to allow the enemy to live

underground if it becomes necessary. Tables, beds, and even
wells were discovered in underground passageways three levels
deep.

An example will give a more accurate picture of the enrry's

ability to tunnel. In the area mentioned above, two machine
gun bunkers were found dug into well concealed positions,
commanding excellent fields of fire across an open field. A
.., gully cut the side of the otherwise flat area near the wood-
line leaving a small mound, 15 feet by 4 feet and shoulder
height, exposed where the gully divided.

One bunker was concealed at the edge of the woodline and

was connected by a tunnel to a second position five meters
away. This second position had been constructed in the small
mound by a connecting tunnel under the gully. Firing slits
too small to allow a grenade were cut into three sides of the
mound.

Effective? The platoon did not discover the positions

until the enemy fired on individuals walking between the two
positions. Light friendly casualties resulted but the advance
of the company was delayed for over an hour. Tht enemy was
able to escape through their tunnel network.

During a search and clear operation, tunnels and bunkers

should be searched if possible. Great caution must be
exercised, however, since booby traps, hiding enemy, and
narrow passages can make the tunnel a death trap. The use
of smoke and tear gas is one method to locate tunnel exits
and to drive the enemy from underground hideouts. Gas masks

19
are needed here. Dogs have also been found effective in os
locating enemy in the tunnels. When the tunnel search is
concluded, all entrances and junctions are blown by a demo-
lition team.

Tunnels can be located in jungle terrain near excessive

piles of dirt. This indicates an entrance nearby. Such refuse
dirt heaps are distinguishable from large ant hills, also
found in some areas. Since ant hills have been in existence
much longer, trees and bushes usually grow from their surfaces.
Refuse soil taken from tunnels partially buries the tree trunks.

Probing is another method of locating tunnel entrances and

caches. A pole or bayonet sounds out covered entrances and
buried cache barrels which have been dispersed throughout the
undergorwth around a built up area. This procedure is a must
if such an area is to be used for a friendly base of operations
for any length of stay. Failure to locate tunnels and spider
holes inside or near the friendly perimeter leads to enemy
infiltration.
Landing Zones. In terrain where open areas are scarce, the
enemy makes it practice to deny that area for use as landing
zones. In rice paddy -areas large mounds containing graves are
at times the only dry landing areas. Large punji stakes up
to three feet in length are utilized. Other open areas cleared
for crops contain tree stumps cut at chest level for anti-
helicopter poles. Such devices are capable of piercing the
hull of a helicopter.
In areas where enemy activity is greater, probable LZs are
protected in a more sophisticated manner. Here the entire
clear area may be encircled by a trench with frequent holes
in the trench walls to provide overhead cover. Another
sophisticated defense consists of scattered foxholes and in
some areas concrete bunkers. LZ perimeters have been found
cut by a small four inch deep trench for laying wire for
claymore type device. In addition, any woodline is usually
well booby trapped with trip wire grenades and mines.
Caution is most important in dismounting on all LZs.
Bunkers and foxholes provide excellent cover that cannot be
neutralized by anything less than a direct or near hit by
explosives. Even preparation with air strikes leaves much
to be desired. Napalm is the best LZ preparatory means and
will usually demoralize the enemy and drive him from the area.
Experience has proved that the first lift of an airmobile
assault must secure the adjacent teriain before the second
lift touches down.

20
 Mantraps. Mantraps are very difficult to detect and are
effective casuality producers. A variety of these devices
exists but the pit is more frequently encountered.

These pits, often a cubic yard in size, contain two foot

punji sticks protruding from the bottom. Along the sides are
shorter sticks canted toward the bottom of the pit. Over the
hole is placed a loosely woven mat of thin bamboo strips. On
this mat large leaves provide a base for dirt covering. This
dirt top will sometimes show foot prints to add concealment.
A heavy woven mat of thumb-sized poles is placed over the trap
to allow villagers and cattle to walk over it. This mat is
removed when dangerto the village exists.

A typical pattern for mantraps on a road or trail may

look like this:
_ _. ' -.

It is extraordinary how well concealed these mantraps are.

The most expert observation often cannot detect their presence.
One clue here is dirt taken from the hole. It may have been
thrown to the roadside nearby or scattered over the road. When
such danger exists, stay off roads and trails. Otherw-ise, the
point man should use a probing stick or movement should be made
to the side of the road with each ma± walking in the same path. j /

Punjli Sticks. The punji stick is a very simple but

dangerous device. The punji stick is made from bamboo cut •I
down to the desired length, sharpened, and burned on the tip j
for hardness. Often it is dipped in dung or human waste to
accelerate infection. Compared to the little time and effort
required to prepare this weapon, its casualty producing
rate makes it most effective.

Punji sticks are placed so as to defend approaches to a

village or camp. Stuck in the ground pointing away from the
village or wedged into a cut in a tree at waist or head
height, punji sticks are difficult to see. Night movement
in such an area is especially hazardous. Normal walking
speed will create sufficient force to run a punji stick through
the leg. Shin guards used in softball and soccer have proven
effective countermeasures.

21
 Booby Traps. Booby traps are used to a great extent. The '1
unsophisticated enemy uses spears and other pointed objects
given velocity by a bent tree or a counterweight. The more
sophisticated enemy uses explosives. Explosive booby traps
are commonly found along'trails and roads, on a door, or around
a gun emplacement.

A common explosive booby trap is the grenade with trip

wire activation. A vine, transparent fishing line, or wire
may be used to trip the grenade. The trip wire may be routed
across the mouth of a small concealed hole. The wire is drawn
tight and detonates the grenade when an intruder steps into
the hole. Such devices can be located if care in movement and
observation is utilized.

Enemy grenades and explosive devices vary in size, shape,

and purpc-se. Many approximate the old MKll, fragmentation
grenade, with its segmented casing. The fuse assembly is often
machined from aluminum. Another type resembles the white smoke
grenade. This grenade is smaller but has the cylindrical shape
and gray finish as does the white smoke grenade used by friendly
forces.

Two types of explosives exist with a heavy tar paper cover.

Both are cylindrical, one approximately three inches in diameter .
and eight inches long, the other five by twelve inches. The
former explosive contains wires protruding from the top for
electrical detonation.

The varying purposes for which enemy grenades and explosives

are employed make them dangerous to handle once set. On occasion
friendly troops have activated unfamiliar grenades in preparation
for throwing. Such a grenade could very well have an instan-
taneous fuse. For safety purposes, such devices should be left
untouched for a demolition team.

Mortar and artillery rounds either dug out of the ground

after failing to detonate or procured from raids and ambushes
are hung from trees. Detonation approximates an airburst.
Overhead observation, therefore, is required to detect these
devices.

Concussion booby traps are plentiful in certain areas. A

C-ration or beverage can, filled with an explosive, may be
activated in any number of ways. Such a device may be hidden
in tall grass or buried near the surface of the ground.

22
SBecause the enemy makes use of refuse, care is taken to
destroy any items of use to him. C-ration cans, for example,
should be opened at both ends and flattened or pierced with a
bayonet.

When detonating explosive devices left by the enemy care must

be utilized. Trip wire explosives may be activated by use of a
long cord. A grenaae leid beside an enemy device does not
insure sympathetic detonation. Instead, the explosive is made
more sensitive. C-4 composition wrapped around the enemy device
* works well.
Mines. Bombs and artillery and mortar
rounds are used as
electrically detonated mines. Such a mine is detonated by means
of a battery or other electricity producing device, activated
from a concealed position nearby. The mines are buried under a
rad, on the shoulder, or in a filled crater.

A means of sighting is required in order for the explosive

to occur precisely at the right point under a vehicle. A paddy
Idike or trail running perpendicular to the main roadway, or a
tree by the roadside, are typical sites.

Proper interval of 50-100 meters between vehicles in convoy,

is mandatory. Drivers should be further instructed to increase
speed when passing any probable sighting instrument along a danger-
ous route. Sand bagging the truck bed and requiring troops to sit
in the center of the bed, facing out, reduces casualties.

In the event a vehicle is hit by an explosive, every effort

should be made to keep the remainder of the convoy moving. A
small group is left to secure the vehicle and to effect evacua-
tion of casulaties. The area on both sides of the road is well
covered with fire, concentrating on likely and suspected enemy /
locations. Wires, if not buried, will pinpoint a hiding enemy.
Such an enemy position will often be covered by automatic
weapons to secure withdrawal.

FIRE SUPPORT:

The excellent fire support available to the infantry commander

finds varied use from unit to unit. Because such valuable support
is available it should be used to a maximum in almost any type
of situation,

The following comments pertain to weapons organic to infantry

units and their supporting units.

23j
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I
4, Mortars. Personal experience has .iown that many small unit
leaders consider the accuracy of the 81mm mortar erratic. This
holds true also for the 4.2 inch mortars whtch are organic to
the rifle battalion. Erratic firing end short rounds have
caused friendly casualties and endangered friendly troops on too
many occasions. In most cases, the fault cannot be placed on
forward observers. On the contrary, old ammunition appears to
be one problem area. The major problem, however, is the lack
of training of the mortar crews. The weapon platoon usually
receives the brunt of administrative details in areas other than
Vietnam. Mortar crews are thus denied adequate training, triin-
Ing which should rely heavily on live fire exercises.

Despite this shortcoming and to correct the problem, small

unit leaders must place reliance on the use of organic fire
support in lieu of organic mortars. The mortar crews cannot be j
expected to respect the capability and value of this weapon if
seldom use is made of the mortar. The frequency of use is
usually proportional to the capability of the mortar crews.

The 81mm mortar may be displaced over long distances by foot

with moderate difficulty. On operations this makes organic I
fire support available to the leader. Usually one mortar per
company-sized unit is sufficient during foot marches.
It is most desirable for the weapons platoon to carry the |
ammunition, so it will be readily available for use. It is
difficult for the rifleman to carry an 81mm mortar round and
its bulkcarried
rounds weight varies
decreases
with his
the effectiveness. The carried.
number of mortars number of

The 60mm mortar is an even better weapon in providing

organic fire support for the moving unit. This weapon is
li.ghter, thus allowing more mortars and rounds to be transported
1
greater distances with less effort.

When transported by foot the mortar is covered with some

type of material to prevent noise and glare. This is essential
for night moves.

Mortar crews should be capable of placing a round on target

within two minutes from a moving posture. Squad leaders must
commit charge numbers ai.- elevations to memory for ranges less
than 60c meters to allow rapid action.

25

! i
 Units may choose to use the 81mm mortar forward observer's
radio as a second radio within each rifle platoon. Fire
missions, therefore, are given over the company command net,
either by the platoon leader or the forward observer traveling
with the platoon leader. Of course, it is desirable for the
forward observers to be utilized since it frees the platoon
leader of an additional responsibility. The platoon leader that
learns to use the mortar effectively, has his own hip pocket
artillery.

Artillery. No better fire support exists than that providee

by artillery. Occasions do arise where the mortar is more useful
but these are infrequent.

A variety of artillery rounds and fuzes exist, each finding

special use. The HE round with PD fuze naturally finds the
greatest use. Its burst on impact will give an air burst in
primary jungle areas. To penetrate this canopy, delay fuze is
employed. The latter is especially useful in destroying a bunker
or trench system.

The VT fuze should be used sparingly. The flat, open terrain

common to rice paddies is excellent for use of this fuze. For
safety purposes VT fuze is never used in support closer than
200 meters to friendly troops, except in emergencies.

The White Phosphorus round is good for starting fires. Its

demoralizing effect is excellent too. The round is used for
laying a smoke screen and for observing fire support in heavily
vegetated areas.

Illumination rounds are adjusted vertically as well as in

rL.nge and deflection. This serves to give maximum illumination
at the proper altitude. The correction is given in 50 meter
increments by UP and DOWN displacements. Wind direction is
taken into consideration to compensate for drift. (See CONDUCT
OF THE NIGHT DEFENSE: Engagement.)

The inaccuracy of maps requires a safety margin In using

mortars and artillery. Giving coordinates several hundred
meters behind the target on the initial round provides this
margin. Another method utilizing SMOKE for the initial round
provides this margin. Anything other than a direct hit will
not injure personnel. Remember here, however, that an HE round
will travel farther than the SMOKE round for a given target.
Personal experience has been that this compensation has not
always been made by the Fire Direction Center.

A "marking" round may be called for at a point on the

map to check location of ground personnel. The round will

26
explode in the air, high above the point desired on the ground.

Calling and adjusting fire support properly and rapidly is

a must in any situation. Therefore, the individual soldier as
well as the leaders must know how to execute a fire mission.

Helicopters. The use of the various types of aerial fire

support available to ground units demands good communications.
This is especially true for helicopter fire support since no
forward air controller is provided. However, good communica-
tions alone is not the key. An understanding between ground and
air personnel is the necessary achievement.

Helicopter fire support is a most valuable and necessary arm

but frequent lack of understanding results in friendly casualties
or useless sorties. Utilizing radio, terrain features, magnetic
directions, smoke, and panel markers the ground soldier must
make the target known with reference to his own position. It
remains the task of the air soldier to determine these relative
positions and to deliver accurate fire in support of ground
operations. As with artillery fire support, allow a margin of
error in aerial support. Unless an emergency situation exists,
do not rely on helicopters for close in support.

This in no way should discourage the use of helicopter fire

support. On the contrary, respect the versatile capacity of
the helicopter but realize too its limitations. Understanding
is the ingredient to proper employment and accuracy of aerial
fire support.

JEAPONS:
I
The United States Army is equipped with the finest firearms
in the world's arsenal of weapons. It is one thing to make
this statement and another to see it qualified.

M-16 Rifle. Much publicity has been given the M-16 rifle.
Certainly, it 17s a very outstanding weapon. There are, however,
some misconceptions and faults about the weapon.

First, its good points. For airmobile and counter-

insurgency use, the M-16 can not be topped. Its combined
light wiight and firepower give the soldier what he needs in
situations peculiar to the war in Vietnam. The 460 meter
maximum effective range is sufficient for any situation, except
sniping. The maximum rate of fire on automatic gi-es fire-
power never before available to the rifle platoon. This fire-
power is especially useful in the ambush or counter-ambush
posture.

27
 (i

3--
To touch on the .. .......... and bad
...misinformation p
.aNpoints of th
4he weapon .
in no way overrides its excellence. Many troops, for instance,
believe the weapon to be rustproof. Southeast Asia contains
an accumulation of the worst conditions to which any weapon or
equipment can be subjected. The barrel, muzzle, dust cover,
modified bolt closer, and front and rear sight assemblies all
are rust catchers.

The protruding gas tube in the upper receiver catches much

carbon as does the bolt carrier key. The latter must be freed
of deposits after extensive firing. Built up carbon deposits
here will cause the weapon to malfunction.

The chamber catches much trash also and cleaning is somewhat

difficult. To correct many of these areas of difficulty, practice
good cleaning habits frequently. Oil the bolt and all moving
parts of the weapon thoroughly.

On occasion the M-16 experiences a ruptured cartridge or a

like malfunction, which results in an unextracted shell casing.
Immediate action for this situation requires the use of the rifle
rod to dislodge the round. A pointed object such as a bayonet
will not suffice since the shell rim is soft. Preventative
maintenance calls. for a copious amount of oil down the barrel
several times a day when the weapon is in constant use.

The above malfunction is so frequent in very dusty and sandy

areas that it presents a critical problem. Suppose, for
instance, this problem occurs during an engagement with the enemy,
as it has on occasion. The soldier must piece his rifle rod
together and push the spent round from the chamber. The solution
to this problem would be a special device that may be used through
the receiver to free the casing. Another solution, but less
effective, visualizes mounting the rifle rod in one piece on the
weapon.

The method of carrying the M-16 depends on the enemy situa-

tion and not on the weapon itself. The time involved to swing the
rifle into action may be vital. This is especially true in the
counter-ambush. To provide flank security for the file forma-
tion, for instance, those individuals assigned to right flank
security hold their weapons pointing to that flank. This
requires holding the pistol rip in the left hand with the
thumb controlling the seleivor. Since the M-16 rifle is usually
held pistol grip in the right hand, practice must be exercised
to increase proficiency in this carrying technique.

Another technique allows freedom of movement of one hand.

28
~ The rifle is carried vertically with the rifle butt resting
on the right ammunition pouch. This method is useful in deuse
vegetation with little overhang, or in rugged terrain.

The General Purpose (GP) strap may be used as a sling for

the M-16. This sling is routed over the left or right shoulder
which supports the weight of the weapon. The rifle is carried
in the horizontal position. Again, one hand is left free.

In conjunction with the various carrying techniques, practice

in using the selector on the M-16 is imperative. Personnel
must be able to switch from SAFE to SEMI automatic and from
SAFE to AUTOmatic with ease and speed since only those individuals
on point security should be allowed to carry their weapons with
the selector off SAFE.
A major problem, which results from the use of the M-16, is
the tendency to disregard use of semi-automatic fire. Although
the selector provides each soldier with maximum firepower for
emergency situations, control and supervision must be exercised
by leaders in its use. The unit which expends a basic load in
a brief insignificant encounter is ineffective. i

Magazines for the M-16 are never taped together to provide

speed in changing magazines. In this position, the spare
magazine is easily clogged with foreign matter.

The 5.56mm round is a very lethal projectile due to its

velocity. The round causes a very large hol_ leaving the body
if it strikes a bone. At great ranges, this effect also occurs
to some degree when the round strikes a fleshy portion of the
body. However, the round does not cut through undergrowth as
effectively as does the 7.62mm round.

M-79 Grenade Luncher. The most effective weapon produced

in recent years for use by infantry units is the M-79, grenade
launcher. I refer to it as the platoon leader's "artillery
battery" and in many respects it is just that. The six M-79's
organic to the rifle platoon deliver an explosive accurately
up to 375 meters. This is especially valuable in the many
situations peculiar to counter-guerrilla warfare. If you ever
have a situation where the squad is understrengthed, make sure
you fill the position of grenadier.

This weapon has proven to be useful against snipers which

cannot be pinpointed for the rifleman. Grenadiers fire into
the surrounding trees and effectively destroy the sniper.

29
 The grenade launcher is ineffective in dense undergrowth
due to the lack of fields of fire. Here it is wise also
for the weapon to be carried round-in-chamber and breech open
to avoid accidental discharge. The thumb holds the round in
the chamber.

The grenade launcher can provide indirect fire support

in dense undergrowth for ranges less than 100 meters by
marking foot positions on the sling as with the rifle grenade
launcher. A new shot round has recently been issued for the
M-79. This is excellent for use in close contact situations
and overcomes the weapon's inability to be used effectively in
dense vegetation.
Very often grenadiers are not convinced of the effectiveness
of their weapon and will, therefore, show little confidence
in its ability. In units which allow the grenadier to carry
the rifle as a secondary weapon, the grenade launcher is often
not used effectively.

As with the M-16 rifle, the basic load for the M-79 is
usually doubled by many units. The grenadier may, therefore,
carry a 36 round basic load.

M-72 LAW. The M-72, Light Anti-Tank Weapon (LAW), is a major

improvement over its predecessor, the 3.5 inch rocket launcher,
due to its light weight and the fact it can be discarded after
firing. This allows more men to carry the weapon, thus elimina-
ting the two rocket crews in the weapons squad, if so desired.
The M-72 is useful against lightly fortified positions.
Heavy bunkers and entrenchments will, however, withstand the
explosive projectile.

The rubber protective covers of the trigger and other parts

are easily torn away after repeated exposure to dense
undergrowth.
M-60 Light Machine Gun. The M-60, light machine gun, is
an excellent weapon. Much of the trouble experienced in blank
firing does not occur in live firing. In units armed with the
M-16, M-60 is the only weapon which will cut through the dense
undergrowth effectively.

Placement of the machine guns during movement is critical.

In the illustrations in FORMATIONS AND TACTICS the placement of
guns may be controversial. This, of course, may vary among
leaders. For example, two lines of reasoning are generally

30
 AntI
used in the deployment of the machine guns.

First, keep the guns together in a platoon to provide

maximum fire support for the maneuvering element. This is
the role for which the weapon was designed. The guns are used
in pair most advantageously in open terrain, terrain which
allows supporting fires. Fields of fire are prevalent in these
open areas and grazing fire is excellent.
On the other hand, a leader may elect to disperse the machine
guns in the platoon. He does so to lessen the possibility
of the destruction of both guns in a surprise engagement. An
environment in which ambush or sniper activity is expected or
encountered makes dispersion of the machine guns necessary.
Also fire support is distributed throughout the unit and fire-
power is brought to bear on the enemy more quickly. This
method finds use in densely vegetated terrain where the fire
support role is virtually impossible.
Ammunition belts are not carried "Poncho Villa" style with
bandoleers draped over the shoulders. Except for the belt
carried in the gun, ammunition is left in the waterproof can
to prevent foreign matter and corrosion from collecting on
exposed ammunition.
.45 cal Pistol. Due to carelessness, the .45 cal pistol
has proved to be a very dangerous weapon in that it has
accounted for a great percentage of accidents involving
weapons. Rigid control must be exercised by leaders in the
loading of this weapon. Unit SOPs should state that a round will
be chambered in the pibtol only as a last resort in action with
the enemy.

EXPLOSIVES:
M-26, Fragmentation Hand Grenade. The new model of the
hand grenade, the M-26, makes no snap and hissing noise as did
its predecessor, the MK 11, which is also used in Vietnam.
Use an explosive such as the grenade whenever possible in
lieu of small arms fire. In the night ambush, for instance,
the grenade is very effective since it has a large killing radius
and does not compromise the friendly position.
The primary weapon is not standard but rather depends on
the situation.

31
 II
Repeated carrying of the M-26 causes the safety release
to break, exposing the striker. The grenade is not dangerous
in this state but is difficult to carry. Proper securing of
the grenade to the LBE prevents exposing a dangerous dangling
blasting cap. The grenade should be checked periodically to
insure a tight fit of body and fuze assembly. Guard against
the tendency to rely on the rifle, rather let the situation
determine the weapon.
White Phosphorus Grenade. This grenade is not often used
in Training but it finds varied use in Vietnam. It is often
utilized to start fires and to signal in addition to the
demoralizing effect caused when used against personnel. As
a signal, it gives a large volume of white smoke in a very
short time. This proves effective in overcoming the Jungle
canopy.

Claymore Mine. The Claymore mine is another relatively

new weapon in our arsenal. Its use in the ambush and defense
demands no explanation here. A piece of luminous tape affixed
to the back of the mine will provide a visible guard against
the enemy's ability to turn the Claymore around or to take
it.

The Claymore is a special purpose explosive. Troops must

be cautioned and supervised in its employment. This is one
of those not-always-available items and thus should be used
only against massed enemy personnel.

EQUIPMENT:
No one can discount the fact that the American is the
best equipped fighting man in the world although such equip-
ment may not be best suited for the area in which he muLt
fight. The American soldier, however, relies heavily on
reissue and resupply. Supervision here is a must to prevent
unserviceability and loss of equipment. Proper accountability
and requiring good maintenance habits in the. field is the key.
Load Bearing Equipment. The LBE withstands the Vietnam
climate and terrain exceptionally well. Major rust catching
items are the entrenching tool and bayonet. The snap on
the grenade retaining straps on each side of the ammunition
pouch will also rust and prevent openi2r. These should be
cleaned and oiled periodicall .
To allow rapid retrieving of magazines from the ammunition
* pouch raise the center magazine slightly above the others.

32

* j
 done by placing a bottle of water purification tablets
LThisis
or a rock at the bottom of the pouch.

The combat pack is a poor means for the soldier to carry

his supplies. First, it cannot hold enough supplies to
sustain operations over a long period of time, a condition
cannot be detached from the soldier with ease. This means

he must take the pack with him when he maneuvers against the
enemy. Such action reduces agility and increases fatigue.
Third, when a soldier uses the prone position, the combat pack
presents a high silhouette as evidenced by the many hits it
jhas sustained in hostile action.

The problem is remedied by the use of the ruck sack, either

the older model or better still, the new type adopted by
Special Forces. The ruck sack is large and can be detached or
dropped easily. Supervision is required here, however, to
dissuade individuals from utilizing unnecessary carrying
capacity.

Clothing. Jungle fatigues as the name implies are designed

to wear in tropical terrain. The light weight material dries
rapidly by body heat and controls heat casualties caused by
high humidity. The material is easily torn in dense vegetation
and constant mending is required.

For field use fatigues should be stripped of conspicious

rank and insignia. Darken all name tapes if any are to be
worn. This procedure denies the sniper a select target.

The Jungle boot again as the name implies is designed

especially for terrain common to Southeast Asia and other I
like climates. Canvas sidings and drainage holes at the
arch allow fast drying. Some argue that this boot causes the
feet to get wet in shallow water while the standard combat boot
remains dry inside until boot-top water in encountered. Only
on rare occasions is shallow water encountered where deeper
water is not a step away.

The canvas siding will tear over the inside ankle bone after
extensive use. A small leather patch sewn over this area
eliminates the problem. In addition, the sole cracks in the
center exposing a metal plate. This, however, does not render
the boot useless. Another bad point is that the boot is not
well adapted to mountain operations because the ankle does not
receive adequate support.

e 33 .,
 Il

The jungle boot is not always readily available through fl

supply channels. Its substitute, the standard combat boot,
does not hold up well and dries slowly. After repeated
use the leather becomes hard and cracks.

COMMUNICATIONS%

Control is essential for the success of any mission.

Good communications is a necessary aid to good control. Do
not, however, over-estimate the range of communications
equipment. For each type of terrain, the range of equipment
may be more or less than that listed in the manuals.

AN/PRC-25. The new AN/PRC-25 radio features the new squelch in

the SQUELCH position, eliminating the constant annoying noise
experienced in the ON position at slight cost in range. This
is beneficial when silence is of paramount importance as in as
in tne coaduct of ambushes and night moves.

The handset is new also and cuts out much background noise.
The thin plastic membranes over the mouth and ear pieces are
easily broken. Moisture here leads to transmitting and receiving
difficulties. The cellophane or plastic protecting the C-ration
spoon is a field expedient. The plastic protective bag of the
BA 386, battery, provides a better means of protection. The
bag is placed over the entire handset and taped at the open end.

The handset is the most delicate part of the radio. Repair

is often slow and replacements are difficult to obtain. The
handset deserves primary care and maintenance.

The radio-telephone operator (RTO) is an important target

to the enemy. By directing fire at and around the radio
operator, the enemy expects to kill leaders as well as to destroy
the unit's communications.

A leader may choose to move with several personnel between

his RTO and himself. This does not eliminate the problem since
valuable men are still exposed. The solution is to conceal
the radio as much as possible. This may be done by fitting
the radio in the combat pack and routing the antenna through
the webbing. The ruck sack may also be used in the same manner.

AN/PRC-6. The AN/PRC-6 radio provides control needed at

platoon level. This radio experiences many difficulties and
is often non-operational. When the action is fast and heavy,
the PRC-6 proves the importance of radio communications at
platoon level. In the roar of a firefight, proper and
effective control of a unit, utilizing voice and hand and arm

34
 if'
L signals, is virtually impossible.

In the event PRC-6s are non-operative, a solution is to use

two PRC-25s, at platoon level, with the extra radio being
Oontrolled by the Platoon Sergeant. Additional PRC-25s
are made available from the weapons platoon at a cost of
forward observers.
Develop and maintain proper radio procedure and security.
Use brevity. This proves its worth when communication is
critical.
Antennas. Counterinsurgency operations frequently require
dispersion of units over a large area, often in rugged terrain.
Thus, communications becomes a major problem.

At small unit level, the field expedient antenna is helpful.

A 50 foot length of WD1, Coupled
telephone wire,
line-of-sight antenna.
antenna will give with a 600serves
even greater selectivity.
as a directional
ohm resistor, this

The RC 292 antenna provides greater range for the platoon

and company. It is good practice for an RC 292 to be used
at company level during operations. To lessen the load, the
mast sections may be taken out of the kit and the remaining
, parts of the kit distributed among several individuals. The
antenna head is mounted in a tree for use.

Smoke. Smoke grenades are used primarily in ground to air

signaling. For example, in directing an air strike, red smoke
may be used to identify the enemy and yellow smoke, the location
of friendly forces. For helicopter resupply, airmobile missions,
and medical evacuation, smoke identifies the landing zone and
gives wind direction to the pilot. In this situation, the
pilot tells the ground personnel the color of the smoke he
identifies. This serves to avoid the possibility of a heli-
copter landing for an enemy using smoke. The color of smoke
used must be changed often to avoid routine.
Because of the wide use of the smoke grenade, leaders should
always carry them on any mission.

Smoke from the grenades will not easily penetrate the jungle
canopy. To overcome this obstacle, the grenade is attached
to a tree Lop or to a sapling bent over and allowed to spring
to its upright position.
The White Phosphorus grenade is excellent in penetrating
the jungle canopy. The large volume of dense white smoke rises
quickly in comparison to the slow burning smoke grenade.

35
35
 A
Hand and Arm Signals. Use of hand and arm signals is -

essential if proper noise discipline is to be practiced. The

Australian Army uses this type of signaling to a maximum
during movement. Consequently, their patrols are conducted
with minimum noise as compared to American units. This is
not to Say that the US Army toes not have adequate signsLs.
Rather the situation is present because hand and arm signals
taught in basic training are not practiced in subsequent train-
ing and consequently are not present on the field of battle.
Platoon leaders should emphasize the use of hand and arm
signals as an integral part of control and stealth. Additional
signals can be developed to meet requirements.

ANIMALS, INSECTS, REPTILES., AND DISEASES:

The hot, humid climate of Southeast Asia fosters perfect

conditions for a teeming insect population and diseases. Basic
preventative measures must be exercised and supervised at small
unit level to reduce non-battle casualties.

Water Buffalo. The water buffalo is encountered often in

the rice lands. This animal is very tempermental and should
be avoided if possible. With no apparent reason, it may charge
personnel and inflict serious injury.
Mosquito. Malaria is perhaps the greatest non-battle
casualty producer in Vietnam. Certain areas of the country
are termed "malaria regions" due to the high casualty rate in
these areas.

Mosquito bites are easily infected by conditions present.

Sores often develop on the legs and feet causing the temporary
loss of personnel. Medical treatment is required as a
preventative measure. In rear areas, troops with foot problems
are allowed to wear shower shoes in order for sores and foot
infection to dry and heal readily.

Ants. Ants exist everywhere in country and are a nuisance.

The red ant is vicious although not poisonous. This insect is
usually found in dense brush and falls on the intruder causing
much discomfort.

Leeches. Two types of leech exist in Vietnam. The water

leech is found in standing water and to a lesser extent in
streams and rivers. The rice paddy is a common location for
the water leech which may grow to be six inches in length.

36

I,
I
The land or jungle leech presents a greater problem than
the water leech. It is so named because it is found in the
thick jungle undergrowth. Its movement and size resemble
the inch worm.

The leech and more especially the jungle leech is capable

of finding and entering the smallest opening. Once on the skin,
it leaves a hole which bleeds freely due to the leeches' anti-
coagulant saliva. These holes, if left unattended, will infect
Ieasily.
The solution to this problem is to prevent the leech from
I gaining access to the skin. For this reason, the proper
blousing of trouqo-s Jn the boots is important. The draw
string provided on vhe jungle fatigues proves inadequate
unless a tight union of trousers and boots is made.

The Australians have developed an effective method. The

boots are laced and the excess boot string is routed through
a hole out in the trousers at boot top level. The string is
then wrapped around the leg securing the troasers leg to the
top of the boot.
Scorpions. Scorpions are found In most areas of the country
but most frequently on dry high ground. The sting of this insect
is very painful but is not considered dangerous enough to warrant
extensive medical treatment.

Snakes. Snakes are numerous in Southeast Asia. Snakes as

a rule, however, will not often be encountered. The noise
of movement will usually drive them away. The light green
bamboo viper is encountered most frequently in the flatlands.
Other dangerous snakes include the krait and cobra.

Diseases. The platoon leader must be concerned with the

many diseases contracted in Vietnam. Diseases are capable of
rendering a unit inoperative. Supervision in personal hygiene
is the solution. Require medical aid
checks on unit personnel to prevent andmen to perform frequent
arrest diseases. Insure
that all personnel practice proper sanitation.

SUMMARY OF LESSONS LEARNED:

I would like to re-emphasize those points that I think
best illustrate the lessons that I learned as a platoon
leader in Vietnam. It has been said that the effectiveness
of a unit is measured by the quality of its leaders, and

371 II

ki
54 Ilk
 A

the aggressiveness of its men. I would like to think that

the quality of the leaders and the aggressiveness of the men
are interrelated and that both will be enhanced by the proper
application of lessons learned in actual combat operations.
One measure of leadership is the display of professionalism.
The reader may well note that much of this material is a review
of infantry fundamentals. If, however, the information has
served to stimulate thought and to confirm that past tactics
instruction are applicable in Vietnam, then-my purpose has been
accomplished. Each conflict of arms has had its peculiarities.
One of these peculiarities of the war in Vietnam it that it is
a small unit leaders war. Certainly, in such a war, the role of
the infantry leader is complex and demanding. The leader, however,
will never realize a comparable sakisfaction as that which is
derived from commanding Americans in combat at the small unit level.
tThis is a summation of my lessons learned:

1. TERRAIN.

a. Learn to use the terrain to your advantage.

b. In densely vegetated terrain, make use of the
excellent concealment. Use the compass and pace for maintain-
ing direction.

c. In the Central Highlands, use terrain features for

" '~ cross country navigation. Remember control is difficult in thick
vegetation. Use the file and column formation. This may often
mean emphasizing point and rear security.

d. In the flat coastal areas and river valleys, open

areas such as rice paddies are danger areas because of the
excellent observation and fields of fire available to the enemy.
The d.y plowed rice paddy is as difficult to move in as the wet /
rice paddy. Movement along dikes speeds the advance, but the
advance must not be confined to one trail. Look for mines, for
it is here the enemy most frequently uses them. In the open
areas, the wedge and echelon formations are most frequently used
because they provide dispersion and fire power to vulnerable
flanks.

2. NAVIGATION.

a. Be a professional when it comes to map reading.

b. You will need a thorough and comprehensive knowledge

of techniques of cross country navigation and amp and aerial
photograph reading.

3. FORMATIONS AND TACTICS.

a. Don't forget basic tactics. Apply former instructions
as a base for all action.

39
 b. Secure movement. Never move without providing V r
for all around security. You must be ready for immediate
action if you use roads and trails. Disperse critical
weapons to spread the fire power out in the unit. Avoid
the herd instinct. Carry weapons ever ready. Avoid over-
reaction to the situation involving the sniper, but be
aggressive.
c. Fire and maneuver is the immediate solution to
almost any combat situation.

d. During the search and clear/destroy mission,

be thorough but maintain contact and pursue when possible.
The use of the mine detector is an excellent way to locate
caches and hidden weapons during village search. Remember
the point that the absence of children in the village area
is a good indication of the presence of the enemy.
e. The difference between success and failure of
the ambush mission is often dependent upon the leader's
attitude and his thorough preparation and planning. Some
of the common errors that have been made during the ambush
are poor noise discipline, springing the ambush prematurely,
poor selection of the ambush site, and indifference to the
mission.
f. Ali'ays plan and use fire support when closing
with the enemy across an open area.
g. Avoid establishing patterns and practicing
routine in any tactical situation. Do the unexpected.
4. CONDUCT OF THE NIGHT DEFENSE.

a. Keep fighting positions close together at night

and in areas of limited visibility.
b. Dig deep. Check each hole verifying the assigned
sectors of fire and the correctness of positions.
c. Sleeping positions should be below the level of
the ground. Keep in mind that the more men at one single
position, the more rest each man will receive.
d. At night the enemy can be engaged effectively
only at close range.

40
 e. Plan to use grenades ana claymore mines to avola.
compromising your position.

f. Clear the area around the defensive perimeter

at dusk and first light.

5. ENEMY DEFENSES AND DEVICES.

a. Booby traps are the favorite devices of the enemy.
They are often found aiong trails, in moats, and entrances to
villages, in gaps and fences or thick bush, at fording sites,
and at bypasses to obstacles.
b. A camouflage trench system tieing together
prepared fox holes, gun emplacements, bunkers, and an avenue of
escape will normally be found in the enemy controlled villages.

c. In terrain suitable for landing zones, the enemy

frequently will utilize punji stakes up to three feet in
length and spike foot and man traps. The spike devices are
generally placed in camouflaged holes along routes of movement
from the LZ.
d. Don't attempt to defuze enemy explosive devices -
leave it to the experts.

6. FIRE SUPPORT.

a. Plan on it and use it. Never before has an infantry

platoon had so much fire support at its disposal.
b. Master the use of a mortar, and use it frequently.
Thti platoon leader that learns to use mortars effectively has
his own organic artillery.
c. A variety of artillery rounds and fuzes exist,
each designed for its own special use. Learn how to identify
the type of artillery needed and how to call for it. The VT
fuze should be used sparingly. For safety purposes, do not
call for VT fuze in situations where support is closer than
200 meters to friendly troops.

d. The key to success in the use of aerial fire support

is a mastery of communication and understanding of procedures
to be followed in requesting and directing fire support.

J 41

I$
I
 7 WEAPONS.
a. The combined light weight and fire power of the
M-16 rifle makes this weapon desirable for airmobile and
counterinsurgency use. The bore and magazine of t:e rifle
must be kept free of grit and mud. Weapons and magazines
must be checked frequently to prevent jamming and misfiring.
To allow freedom of movement of one hand, the rifle is carried
verically with the rifle butt resting on the right ammunition
pouch. This method is particularly useful in dense vegetation
and in rugged terrain.

b. In my opinion, the most effective weapon produced

in recent years, for the infantryman, is the M-79, grenade
launcher. If you ever have a situation where a squad is
understrengthed, make sure that you fill the position of
grenadier.

c. The M-72, LAW, has proven to be useful against

lightly fortified positions. Heavy bunkers and entrenchments
however, will withstand the explosive projectile.

d. The M-60 machine gun is an excellent weapon and

is the only weapon which will cut through undergrowth effectively.
Keep the guns together in the platoon to provide maximum fire
support for the maneuvering element but disperse during move-
ment. Ammunition belts should not be carried "poncho villa"
style with banaoleers draped over the shoulders.

8. EXPLOSIVES.

a. M-26 fragmentation hand grenade, makes no snap

and hissing noise and is excellent for use in the night ambush
since it has a large killing radius and does not compromise
the friendly position.

b. The white phosphorus grenade is often utilized

to start fires and as a signaling device as we±l as for the
demoralizing effect caused when used against personnel.

c. The claymore mine is a special purpose explosive.

A piece of luminious tape affixed to the back of the mine will
provide a visible guard against the enemies ability to turn the
claymore around or to take it.

9. EQUIPMENT:

a. Exercise strong supervision to prevent unserviceability

and loss of equipment.

42
 C!
b. Insist upon proper accountability In the

formation of good maintenance habits.

10. COMMUNICATIONS.

a. All members of the platoon must know the

company radio frequency, call signs, and must be familiar
with the AN/PRC-25 and its operation.
b. The radio telephone operator is an important
target to the enemy. Learn to conceal the radio as much as
possible.

c. Use of hand and arm signals or a system to

attract attention is essential if proper noise discipline
is to be practiced. There is a tendency for the leader
to yell, while moving through areas of limited visibility,
in an effort to control his command.

11. ANIMALS, REPTILES, INSECTS, AND DISEASES.

a. The hot humid climate of the jungle fosters

perfect conditions for a teaming insect population and diseases.
b. Preventative measures and maintenance of personal
health requires good habits of personal hygiene and strict
adherance to rules and regulations.

c. Avoid the water buffalo, it is very temperamental

and will charge personnel for no apparent reason./
d. Malaria caused by the bite of the mosquito
is perhaps the greatest non battle producer in VN. The
anti-malaria pill must be taken faithfully.

e. Ants exist everywhere and are a nuisance.

f. The water leech and the jungle leezh are common.
Bites from the leeches if left unattended will become infected.

g. The platoon leader must insist on preventative

measures being employed to avoid diseases which are capable of
rendering his unit inoperative.

43

I 43