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THE RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
LONDON • BOMBAY CALCUTTA
•
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON CHICAGO
•
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.

TORONTO
ML
THE RHYTHM OF
MODERN MUSIC
BY
C. F. ABDY WILLIAMS
MACMILLAN AND CO. LIMITED

ST. MARTIN'S STREET LONDON
T 9°]9
8WGHAM ubrarY
PROVO, utah
GLASGOW PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

:
BY ROBERT MACLEHCSE AND CO. LTD.

PREFACE
In this book I have endeavoured to deal with the
Rhythm of Modern Music in its aesthetic aspect,
rather than as an element of formal construction.

In the present highly developed condition of musical
art, the power of influencing the mind through an
infinite variety of rhythmical devices in combination
with melody is not perhaps generally recognised,
and the capabilities of Rhythm, although well known
to composers, are not invariably made full use of
by performers, except by those of the first rank, or
those who have paid special attention to this element
of music.
Musicians, professional and amateur, as well as
listeners, are apt to pay considerable attention to
the melody of a piece and little to its Rhythm, unless

the latter happens to be in some self-evident form.
A melody, however, is not merely an arbitrary
distribution of intervals over a portion of the scale,
but a distribution of intervals regulated by some
kind of rhythmical arrangement, through which it
becomes a living organism, capable of moving the

vi PREFACE
emotions. The rhythmical arrangement, moreover,
is not entirely in the hands of the composer, for,
however carefully he may down his ideas,

write it
is quite possible to have them made ineffective in
performance by faulty accentuation or phrasing.

Rhythm has been so little studied as a science
that it has not yet arrived at a generally recognised
nomenclature of its own. German theorists have
gone a good way towards the invention of special
names for the various parts of a rhythmical whole,
but we cannot conveniently use the technical terms

of their language while writing in our own.
English does not lend itself easily to the coinage
of scientific terms, for this requires a language which
allows of new words being compounded out of
materials already at hand. Hence we, perhaps more
than most nations, are driven back upon that
wonderful Hellenic language which is so well able
to express whole ideas by single words.
To those who have undergone the wholesome
discipline of " Compulsory Greek " at a Public
School, Greek rhythmical terms would offer little
difficulty. But I wish my book to be acceptable

to the general reader : hence I have avoided the
use of Greek technical terms as far as possible,
though some few, for which I have been unable to
find satisfactory equivalents, have been introduced.
But I hope that they will become sufficiently familiar,

PREFACE vii
in process of reading, to prevent them from

proving repellant. For the rest, I have been often
obliged to use combinations of words to express
what one Greek technical term would have expressed
more conveniently. In the effort to make my
meanings clear without the intervention of Greek,
I have made rather a free use of capital initial
letters. Whether I have succeeded in my effort
I must leave to the judgment of my readers.
C. F. ABDY WILLIAMS.
Milford-on-Sea, 'November, 1909.

—
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Introductory - - - - - -
pp. 1-18
CHAPTER II
Accent — Prose, Poetry and — Measurement of Time

Music
— The Measure and the Poetic Foot — The Period —
Functions of the two Rhythms a Period — Phrasing
in in
Song — Phrasing Instrumental Music — The Caesura

in
Tempo — Duple and Triple Rhythm-species — Masculine

and Feminine Endings — Time Signatures — The Bar —
Diaeresis ------- pp. 19-44
CHAPTER III
The Anacrusis — Preliminary Measures — The Overlap —

Rhythmless Music— The Four-bar Phrase — Accents, struck
or omitted — Rhythmical Accentuation —The Material of
which Rhythm formed — Different Rhythmical Schemes
is
used simultaneously — The three Kinds of Accentuation

Syllabicand Melismatic Song— Rhythms within Rhythms
pp. 45-78
—
CONTENTS
^CHAPTER IV
Effect of longer and shorter Notes on Accentuation

Ancient Theory and Modern Practice — Combined Rhythm-
species — Well-marked — Influence of Note-values
Rhythm
on the Êsthetic Character of Music — Repetition of Definite
Rhythmical Figures — Syncopation - - pp. 79-104
. CHAPTER V
Duple against Triple Time — Temporary Changes of
Species —Time Signatures — Change of the Accentuation
of a given Melody — Brahms' Mastery of Rhythm — Quin-
tuple and Septuple Time - pp. 105-132
CHAPTER VI
Importance of the — Schubert's

Four-measure Rhythm
Rhythms — Beethoven's Rhythms — Half-Rhythms — Three-
measure Rhythms — Five-measure Rhythms — Rhythms of
Seven Measures - - - - - - PP- ^S-^S
CHAPTER VII
Variations of Tempo — The Pause — Rests and Empty

Times — Haydn's humorous use of Rests — Rests in R.
Strauss' "Tod und Verklarung" —Examples of Diaeresis in
106 --------
Brahms and Grieg — Unbarred Music : Beethoven,
pp. 159-181
Op.
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER VIII
Staccato — Forte, Piano, Crescendo, and Diminuendo —The

Organ and Accent — Mechanical Instruments and Accent
— The Rhythmical Scheme of a Complete Composition
illustrated by Brahms' Rhapsody, Op. 117 - pp. 182-209
CHAPTER IX
Brahms' Symphony in D, Op. 73 —Tschai'kowsky, Sym-
phonic pathetique, Op. 74 - - - - pp. 210-255
CHAPTER X
Vincent D'Indy, Sonata in E for Piano, Op. 63 — Debussy,
Masques : Hommage a Rameau — Stanford, Quartet No. 2,
Op. 45 — Elgar, Symphony, Op. 55 - pp. 256-307
APPENDIX
The Agogic Accent - - - - - p. 308
Index - - - - - - ~P-3 I
5
-
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
Beethoven, Ex. Page
Sonata in D, op. 10, No. 3, Rondo, 46 l68
Anglican Chant taken from Sonata Patetique, op. 1 3, 12 52
Sonata, op. 14, No. 1, - App. 311
„ „ No. 2, - App. 312
„ in A flat, op. 26, Andante, - 16 60
„ in D, op. 28, First movement, 38 I40
Overture, Leonore, op. 72, No. 3, - 41 149
Sonata in B flat, op. 106, Largo, - 5i I 78
Quartet, op. 132, First movement, - 13 56
H 57
„ „ Second movement, 1
33
Piu allegro, -
„ 2 33
Brahms,
Ballade, "Edward," op. 10, No. 1, 45 156
Intermezzo, op. 10, No. 3, 47 170
Serenade, op. 1 1 , First movement, - 29 1 10
„ „ Menuetto I., 21 94
Variations on a Hungarian Air, op. 21, No. 2, 36 130
Pianoforte Quartet in G minor, op. 25, Rondo, 43 153
Quintet, op. 34, Scherzo, - 8 42
Song, "Agnes," op. 59, - 35 129
Symphony, No. 2, op. 73, First movement, 24 99
>> » 25 100
?J T> 57 210
11 >> 58 212
T> ">)
59 213
1
XIV MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

Brahms (continued), Ex. Page
>"> ?> >? » 6l 215
I")
>> J? » 62 2l6
•>> 79 » >> 63 217
?* •>•> » >> 64 218
Adagio, - 65 219
">y ??
>» >y ?>

- 66 221
- 223
» 9f ?? 67
» >) » - 68 224
- 225
>> 77 >> 69
Allegretto, - 227
»> » 70
» >> ?>
- 7i 228
-
>> ?> ?> 72 229
>> 5? ?>
- 22 98
Finale, -
» » 23 98
>' >J 7)
-
73 23O
- 232
>> ?> ?> 74
-
>? 77 ?» 75 232
76 234
77 235
Klavierstiicke, op. 76, No. 2, -
7 42
>> >? >> Andante, 27 IO7
>? » >> 30 I I I
Fantasien, op. 116, No. 1, 10 46

» „ No. 2, 9 43
?> ?> >? 17 72
Capriccio, op. 116, No. 3, 1 5o
Drei Intermezzi, op. 117, No. 1, 33 120
No. 2, 18 75
19 76
20 76
Intermezzo, op. 1
1 7, No. 3, 6 41
Klavierstiicke, op. 118, No. 2, 3 34
„ „ No. 4, 32 !?Q
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS xv
Brahms (continued), Ex. Page

Klavierstiicke, op. No. 118, 5, 49 175
op. 119, No. 2, 5 38
Rhapsody, op. 119, No. 4, 52 194
55 55 55 53 198
55 55 55 54 203
55 55 55 55 204
56 208
Clarinet Sonata, op. 120, No. 2, Second movement, 39 144
Chopin, op. 24, No.
Debussy, Masques,
55 >•>
______
2,
103
104
4 34
267
268
55 55 105 268
55 5' 106 269
17 55 107 269
55 Hommage
He>m a Rameau, 108 270
55 55 109 271
55 55 1 10 271
in 272
1 12 272
55 55 yy 113 273
D'Indy
Sonata, op • 6 3) First movement, 95 257
55 55 55 96 259
55 55 55 97 260
'5 55 55 98 261
55 55 55 99 262
55 55 Second movement, 99 A 263
55 55 5} 100 264
55 '5 Finale, IOI 265
102 266
Dvorak, Slavische Tanze, 40 148
Elgar,
Symphony, op. 55, First movement, 127 289
128 290
129 292
-
XVI MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

Elgar (continued). Ex. Pag
Symphony, op. 55, First movement, 130 293
131 293
132 294
133 295
Second movement, 134 296
it »> 135 297
?> J? 136 298
?5 » 137 298
?» >?
I38 299
>» Third 139 300
>? j» 140 302
if 19 ?> 141 302
» » >? 142 303
5?
Finale, H3 3°4
n I44 3o5
145 305
Grieg, Violin Sonata in F, op. 8, Finale, 50A 176
Haydn, Quartet in E flat, Finale, - 48 173
Kuhac,
Slanca from "Chansons Nationales des Slavs du Sud,' 37 131
Mozart, Sonata in C minor, First movement, l
5 59
Schumann, Pianoforte Concerto, Finale, 26 102
Stanford,
Quartet, op. 45, First movement, - 114 276
115 277
116 279
117 279
118 280
119 281
Second movement, 120 281
121 282
Third movement, 122 284
123 285
Finale, - 124 286
125 287
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS xvn
Stanford (continued), Ex. Page
Quartet, op. 45, Finale, - 126 288
Strauss, R.,
Violin Sonata, op. 18, First movement, 28 IO9
Ein Heldenleben, op. 40, -
44 155
Symphony, Aus Italien, Third movement, -
42 152
TsCHAIKOWSKY,
Romance in F minor, -
Symphonie Patetique, op. 74, First movement, 78 236

55 »> 55 55 79 2 37
55 55 55 55 80 238
55 55 55 55
81 240
55 55 55 55 82 241
55 55 55 55 83 244
55 > 55 55 5> 84 244
55 55 55 55 85 245
55 55
Second m ovem 86 246
55 55 55 5> 37 247
)) 55
Third mo veme 88 248
5> 5) 55 55 89 249
>J J) 55 '5 90 250
>» J> 55 55 91 250
55 55 55 55 92 251
55 55
Finale, 93 253
» 55 it 94 254
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
The power of expression that has been reached

in instrumental music, the power of the composer,
or, as the Germans more happily express it, of the
tone-poet, to move the emotions, and appeal to
the intellect through the agency of mere sound, is
one of the greatest achievements of modern civilisa-
tion.
The poet, the painter, the architect appeal to

much the same faculty as the musician, namely, that
which is vaguely known as the artistic sense but :
they work with more or less concrete material, and

they treat of things of which everyone has some
experience. The poet's work is to idealise objects
which we can see, or imagine we see, or emotions

which we can feel and describe. His art-material
is speech, arranged in certain ways that appeal to
our sense of beauty and order : but the material
itself is one of everyday use.
The painter cannot use his art without depicting
some concrete object ; however ideal may be his
2 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
conception or however lofty that ideal, he can only
express himself through representations of something
definite and tangible.
The art which most nearly approaches to that

of music in its power of moving us through some-
thing that is not a representation of natural objects,
is architecture : for the feelings that are experienced
when we contemplate a beautiful cathedral are not
moved by any association with a tangible object,

but by the arrangement of hewn stone in forms
that for some reason appeal to us. Yet the
material itself is in this case also found in nature,
for it is dug out of the earth, and brought to a
condition for use in art through the chisel of the

workman.
Instrumental music differs in certain respects from
all the three arts we have mentioned. It cannot
represent or idealise any natural object : and its
art-material is not found in nature. The nearest

natural approach to it, the song of birds, is as far
removed from it as is the mind of man from the

instinct of animals : and even the sound produced
by the wind, though it may sometimes actually re-
present a musical tone, is not like the sound that is
used by the musician.

Instead of taking any natural material, such as
speech, or stone, and working it into a form that

can be of service in art, the musician combines a
:
INTRODUCTORY 3
number of entirely artificially produced sounds in
such a way that not only are they pleasant to listen

to, just as a number of bright colours representing
nothing in nature may be pleasing to the eye, but
that they shall go further, and appeal to the mind
through the intellect and the emotions. For in-
strumental music is no longer merely pretty, or

charming ; it has arrived at a point in which it
expresses noble thoughts, and acts as a powerful

incentive to nobility of character. And this has to
be done, not with a lasting material, such as canvas
and paint, or stone, but with a material that vanishes
immediately the vibrations of string or pipe which

produce it cease.
A musical sound is pleasant or unpleasant, and

we say that its " tone " is good or bad, according
to whether it pleases us or not. A combination
of satisfactory sounds sustained in harmony is more
pleasant to the civilised ear than a single sound
but the pleasure such a combination gives, or even
a succession of such combinations, is only superficial,
and may be compared to the delight of a child in
the kaleidoscope. Before pleasant sounds can be

made to appeal to the mind, and not the ear only,
another element must enter, namely, time.
Pleasant sounds must not merely be drawn out
to an indefinite length, but must be regulated and
brought under control through the agency of time :
:

and by this made to appeal to a
means they are
feeling that exists in the human mind, and in no
other part of nature, namely, the sense of Rhythm.

The art of music consists, therefore, of combining
pleasant sounds in a way that appeals to the ear,
and regulating them through Rhythm in a way that
makes them appeal to the intellect. The pleasure
we derive from mere musical sound is elementary
and external it is a sensation only.
: The satis-
faction that is given us when musical sound is
allied to Rhythm is intellectual. Hence these two

elements in music are always combined ; and the
convenient term " Melos " is applicable to the sound
itself, while Rhythm applies to its time divisions.
It is through the combination of Melos with
Rhythm that purely instrumental music is possible
and Rhythm, from being merely an element of Form,

has become, in these latter days, a very powerful
means of expression. Melos without Rhythm may
be charming for a moment : but it requires Rhythm
if it is to have strength and solidarity.
The capacity for appreciating an abstract idea

without some kind of concrete presentment of it,
in other words, the ability to discard " graven
images" for ideas, implies a very high development

of a particular faculty, and on this account vocal
music will always make a wider appeal than purely
instrumental music, for, like poetry, it deals with

INTRODUCTORY 5
concrete ideas. The Sonata and the Symphony, on

the other hand, have to do with something that is
entirely impalpable, and can only speak to those

who by association or training have been initiated
into their mysteries. The body of the initiated
has grown very rapidly of late years : but the
abstract idea has always been too difficult for many

minds, who would yet fain obtain enjoyment and
profit from the art of music. Such minds require
something definite on which they can fasten, and
when they like a composition very much, they are
apt to give it a name, such as, for example, the
" Moonlight " Sonata. Many will also invent for
themselves some " programme " in connection with
their favourite compositions, and by this means will
obtain a pleasure which they might not otherwise

experience.
Composers themselves have recognised this diffi-
culty, and have often provided for it : as, for
instance, Kuhnau in his " Bible Sonatas " : Bach

in his "Capriccio iiber die Abreise eines Freundes" :
Beethoven in his " Pastoral " Symphony, and his

"
" Lebewohl " Sonata Brahms in his " Edvard
:
Ballade. Thus has arisen what is now known

as u Programme music," and, owing to the desire
to hear orchestral music having spread of late
years to so wide a circle of the public, and to the

fact that many of the general public still have the
difficulty to which we allude, Programme music
has increased to an extent that almost threatens tem-
porarily to overwhelm purely abstract music. But
it would be contrary to experience if mankind did
not eventually revert to the higher ideal, while
Programme music may be expected to take the place
it has in the past, of an occasional appearance, as
a concession to the weaker brethren.

In the days of purely vocal music, in what is called
the " Polyphonic " era, Rhythm was not a necessary

adjunct to Melos, though it was often used. The
voices moved about and intermingled with one another
in a " concord of sweet sounds," as it was called by
Shakespeare : the human element of the voice, and
the ideas expressed by the words, could appeal to
the highest emotions, without necessarily utilising the
element of Rhythm. In the church, Rhythm was
looked upon with disfavour, owing to its association
with worldly pleasures, especially with the dance : yet

people felt the want of it, for we constantly read of
edicts forbidding the playing of dance music on the
organ. But instrumental music, as an art for itself,
did not yet exist. If music was played on the viols,
these instruments merely performed the voice parts

of madrigals, and the pleasure in the music was
chiefly that of association, just as we derive pleasure
in playing on the piano what we have heard in the
opera. The solo instruments, such as the organ and

INTRODUCTORY 7
harpsichord, occupied themselves to a great extent

with arrangements of vocal music, and he who could
excite the admiration of his listeners by playing the
voice parts of a madrigal or motet with the greatest
amount of " colour/* that is, ornamentation, was con-
sidered the best musician. If a keyed instrument was
required to play other than the voice parts of vocal

music, the performer would strive to excite the
admiration of the audience by his skill in counter-
point, or his dexterity of finger, through the agency
of the Toccata, or the Fantasia. Expression in
instrumental music, as we understand it, was hardly

as yet thought of, and the instrumentalist was an
executant rather than a composer. Thus we find
long sets of variations on such dull material as the six
notes of the Hexachord played without Rhythm or

measure, as in the "Fantasia" quoted by Kircher, as
one of the best examples of the skill of Froberger ;
or we find intricate and impossible complications of

time, as in some of John Bull's harpsichord works.
Even in these early days there was a yearning for

some sort of expression ; musicians were not satisfied
with mere meaningless ornaments and vapid scale
passages, and with Frescobaldi, and some of the
English composers, a certain amount of real expres-
sion is arrived at. But not through Rhythm :
Rhythm had a long way to travel before it reached

the power of being used for emotional effects.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries instru-
ments were in an early stage of development. They
were weak of tone, and for the most part accentless.
Musicians had discovered that to make people dance

their tunes must fall into some kind of contrast of
the nature of accented and unaccented notes, and

the triple measure, with its natural alternations of
long and short notes, was the simplest means of
giving the required contrast on the accentless organ
and harpsichord. When they wanted to use Even
Measure, they still found that alternations of long
and short notes were useful, rather than long
successions of even notes. Moreover, it was begin-
ning to be felt that there was something in common
between poetry and music, and the madrigalists
began to bring their music into short regular phrases,
corresponding with the verses of poetry : they
discovered that these short passages might be con-
veniently distinguished by clausulas, or closes. The
instrumentalists were not behindhand in this matter,
at any rate for dance music, and about the beginning
of the seventeenth century they began to construct
phrases in something like verse form, and to find
out the importance of the tonic and dominant
harmonies in consolidating the rhythmical phrases.
It was a great gain when musicians began to cast
their instrumental music in forms that could make
it independent alike of vocal music and of mere
"
INTRODUCTORY 9
exhibition. For it could now begin to speak for it-
self and justify its existence as an independent art.

Then arose " thing sounded,
the " sonata, " the
which was not a dance or a "fantasia sopra un soggetto " :
the work was self-contained, and had no necessary

association with anything that had gone before it.
In the early days of purely instrumental music

Rhythm was of just as much importance as it is now,
as giving shape and comprehensibility to melody ;
but it was only used in the same manner as in the
dance or march of to-day, to mark accents with

regularity. The idea of using it in conjunction with
the Melos as a means of expression, as an appeal to

the imagination, was not yet thought of. All ex-
pression was made through harmony, melody and
counterpoint, which began to be cast in definite
rhythmical forms. For Rhythm itself was as yet

in an early stage, and continued to be so for another
century. With the eighteenth century came the
great Sebastian Bach. He put the crowning point
on the labours of his predecessors and inaugurated
the modern school in which instruments are made
to appeal to the emotions in a way that was im-
possible in their earlier days. With him Rhythm
is not merely a framework on which to build
harmonic and contrapuntal combinations, but he
makes it more or less a living thing, and greatly
adds thereby to the power of instrumental music.
:;
io RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

Thus, he starts a fugue subject, and suddenly breaks
it off, and the audience has to carry on the Rhythm in
imagination through a silence of several beats of the

bar, as, for instance, in the great Organ fugue in D
major and in some of his Clavichord fugues.
Buxtehude and others had done this kind of thing
before him, but he enlarges and makes more use of
it. In his violin music he writes in such a way that
accent and rhythm are driven home to the hearers
with him Rhythm begins to be a greater force than
before and to appeal to the intellect as well as the
sense of order : his instrumental music speaks to
the sense of mystery and romance, in human nature,
as in the Chromatic Fantasia, or the Prelude in B
flat minor of the first book of the " Forty-eight."
After Bach came Mozart and Haydn. Their
work was with courts, and their music reflects
the formality of courtly life. Their Rhythms are

straightforward and well balanced. Yet every now
and then they make daring excursions into unac-
customed territory, as, for instance, in the Minuetto
of Mozart's G Major Quartet, where he upsets
the accentuation by alternate loud and soft notes.
Haydn, indeed, sometimes plays rhythmical pranks

with his audience : life is not to be all serious
it must have its humorous side, even in such

solemn music as the quartet and symphony.
Then came Beethoven, who brought with him
INTRODUCTORY n
music that was to strike deeper into human con-
sciousness than any that had gone before. In
place of the well-polished periods of Mozart and
Haydn, he indulges in smashing and astonishing
discords, upsets the regular order of things by
unexpected sforzandos, by unlooked-for silences.
Bach had used the silent measures, but he could

not use sforzandos, because on the organ and harpsi-
chord they were impossible, and in the orchestra
they would not have been understood by his players.
Moreover, to Bach Music was an innocent recreation :
to Beethoven it was bound up with all the passions

and energies that found their outlet in the French
Revolution : the point of view had changed.
With the desire for greater powers of expression
there went a gradual improvement in instruments.

In response to the demand for a more expressive
keyed instrument, the pianoforte came into existence
during the eighteenth century, and its power of
light and shade, and more especially perhaps its
capability of accent, caused it to supersede the

harpsichord. The viol tribe, with their weak tone
and their frets which interfered with a perfect
intonation, had been gradually ousted by the far
more capable and vigorous violins. The clumsy

old cornet and shawm, with their faulty and un-
certain tuning, disappeared : and the clarinet, which
is practically coeval with the pianoforte, added a
:

new voice to the orchestra, of great expressive
value. Improvements went on in the remaining
instruments, and by the beginning of the nineteenth
century the increase of capacity for expression made
possible the music of a Beethoven and a Schubert.
With the improvements in the instruments came also
an advance in the intelligence of their players, and,

what was of more importance, the outlook on music
began to change. Music in its highest sense, was
no longer to be a pleasant pastime for the rich :
with its newly acquired power of crescendo and

diminuendo y
and more particularly of accent, it
became a powerful means of stirring the soul in a
way that had never been possible before. Only the

organ remained accentless, and must ever remain so
and for this reason the great composers neglected
it in favour of the pianoforte. 1
The new style, that of making music appeal as
a great art, as an expression of noble thoughts, was

shown by Beethoven and Schubert to be possible.
The composers before them were as lofty minded

and as devoted to ideals as they were, but the
ideals of art in their day were not so advanced.
1
To overcome this difficulty a double-bass is sometimes used
with the organ in French churches. Wind instruments share
to a certain extent the want of accent ; hence one some-
times sees a double-bass in a English Military Band, for
stringed instruments can give more accent and attack than any
others.
"
INTRODUCTORY 13
To Bach, as we have said, it was a pleasant re-

creation, to Mozart and Haydn it was a luxury
for courtly circles, and that they gave of their
best to supply this luxury is evidence that their
audiences desired the best thing of its kind that

existed. Beethoven took a different view of the
art of music. To him it was no longer a
pleasant recreation only, but a living force, a thing
that by penetrating deep down into the soul
will stir in it noble thoughts, and help us to dis-
like what is evil. Handel, on being congratulated
on the noble " entertainment " the people of
Dublin had enjoyed in his " Messiah," gave back
the answer, " I am sorry if I have only entertained
them : I hoped to do them good." What Handel
tried to do, aye, and has done, with his " Messiah,
by wedding fine music to an inspiring text, Beet-
hoven succeeded in doing through instruments alone :
and in so doing he raised music to a height that

it had never before attained in the world's history.
For never have instruments, however pleasing they

were in the past, been capable of stirring the inmost
feeling as they have done since the beginning of
the nineteenth century.
A very large part of this newly acquired power
is due to Rhythm. From being an element which
creates a desire to dance or to march, and from
being a mere means of formal construction, Rhythm
i
has now been brought to bear on the moral side
of our nature, and has taken its place as the equal
of Melody and Harmony, in expressive power.

Rhythm has two sides. The first, and most
obvious, is that in which the interest is centred on
the individual notes, which follow one another in
some noticeable manner, in some rhythmical figure,
which awakens in us feelings of energy, or pleasure

or excitement. This side of Rhythm has always
been in use, and is found in a more or less marked
degree in some part of every composition, for in-
stance, in the opening of the slow movement of
Beethoven's Seventh Symphony. In a case like
this the Rhythm is a more important element of

expression than the Melos. In the movement to
which we refer, the Melos consists largely of the
reiteration of a single note with various harmonies

below it : it is the rhythmical figure that gives the
passage its powerful expression.

The other side of Rhythm is the more intel-
lectual, the less obvious ; it is that in which the

phrases are of unexpected lengths, or are divided in
some particular way, so that it requires some mental
effort on the part of the listener to understand what
the composer is aiming at. But when the effort
has been made, the difficulty overcome, and the

music has become familiar, the listener not only
finds a delight in the artistic structure of such
5
INTRODUCTORY i
passages, but his intellect has been braced up and

refreshed by the effort that it has been called upon
to make. No music that aims at merely being a
pleasant easy pastime can make much use of this
side of Rhythm ; only those who are in earnest can
use or appreciate it. The greatest exponent of it
up to the present is Brahms, and hence we have

drawn upon him for our examples rather more
than on other composers. We believe that Brahms,
following the direction begun by Beethoven, and

Schubert, has advanced the art of Rhythm on its
intellectual side beyond the point at which they

arrived ; that he has, in fact, continued their work
in its natural course, and in this he is being followed
by some of the younger composers.
"
At present, and it may be always, the " four-bar
phrase, in its many varieties, must continue to be
the normal rhythmical structure, since it is the one

that requires the least mental effort, and therefore
allows the composer to appeal to his audience
through the Melos, and through the other side
of Rhythm, the note-arrangement. We always
expect music to fall into " four-bar " phrases, or,
what is practically the same thing, into pairs of

bars : and when this structure is departed from
the uncultured listener is puzzled, and the cultivated
is pleased with the novel effect.
The painter has the advantage over the musician
:
1 6 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

in that his work is self-contained, and needs no
collaboration with another artist to introduce it to
the public. This is not the case with the musician.
When he has conceived a work of art and written
it down on paper, it has to pass through the hands
of a second artist, or of several others, in order
to be represented. The painter speaks for himself
through himself, the musician has to speak through
the agency of other minds.
Is it possible for any executant or conductor to
give an exact reproduction of a composition as it
was conceived in the brain of a composer ? It is
a well-known fact that no two persons can describe

alike any event of which they have both been
witnesses, for no two persons see it alike, and each
describes it according to his personal experience.
The personal element of the conductor or execu-
tant must to some extent influence his interpretation
of what he conceives to be the composer's ideal
indeed he can sometimes even improve upon it. A
violin sonata, or concerto, for example, may be
much improved in its phrasing if submitted to a
skilled violinist, who brings expert knowledge of
his instrument to bear on the composer's work, and
conversely, a performer who has not the power of
putting himself into sympathy with the composer's
ideas, may ruin the effect of the work ; thus the
composer is always more or less at the mercy of his
7
INTRODUCTORY i
interpreters. Many composers cannot interpret their

own music satisfactorily. We were once present at
the rehearsal of a new and important work, which

was to be conducted by the composer. Things went
very badly: the orchestra and the composer, with
the best intentions in the world, could not under-
stand one another. At last a famous conductor, who
was amongst those invited to the rehearsal, offered
to take the baton, whereupon all difficulty vanished ;
everyone was pleased with the performance, and

most of all the composer himself, as one could see
by his smiling face.
The interpretation of a composition is the necessary

sequel to the work of composing it, and a genuine
understanding of the principles of rhythm, whether
natural or acquired, is of the greatest importance to
a conductor or executant. How often do we hear
executants of the highest degree of technical skill,
who play every note and every shade of expression

correctly, but who yet leave us with the feeling that
something is wanting? We say perhaps that the
touch is hard or unsympathetic, or there is no character
in the playing. The fault is often that the delicate
expression which a sensitive feeling for rhythm will
bring out, is wanting. Perhaps the accents are not
sufficiently marked : perhaps they are too much in
evidence : in either case the performance will not

give us quite the amount of pleasure that the com-
position is capable of giving. Perhaps the phrasing
is not sufficiently observed, or perhaps it is over-
done. Here again, we shall feel a certain monotony

in the one case, or an oversentimentalism in the
other. The sense of rhythm, which when uncul-
tivated is pleased with the reiterated banging of
a drum, is in the highly cultured amateur or
musician so delicate that it feels every nuance,
though probably not one amateur in ten can say
exactly why this conductor or this player pleases him

and that one does not.
The great interpreters of instrumental music are
those who can most nearly enter into the composer's
ideals, or can even improve upon them, and who
are able to give a delicacy or force of accentuation
and phrasing, which it is outside the possibility of

notation to express. This is what is meant by giving
a " reading " of a composition. The days of cold
" classical " performances of great works are practi-
cally over. The executant or conductor now seeks to

stir the deeper emotions of the audience : and to do
so he must pay homage to the artist who conceived
the work by interpreting it with enthusiasm and
warmth, tempered by an intellectual appreciation of
its rhythmical as well as its melodic possibilities.

—
CHAPTER II
Accent — Prose, Poetry —Measurement of Time—The

and Music
Measure and Foot — The Period — Functions of
the Poetic
the two Rhythms Period — Phrasing
in a Song — Phrasing in
in Instrumental Music —The —Tempo — Duple and

Caesura
Triple Rhythm-species — Masculine and Feminine endings
Time-Signatures —The Bar — Diaeresis
Speech and Music, in order to be intelligible,
must be subjected to the contrast which Accent.
arises through the alternation of accented and

unaccented factors, and these must, in their turn,
be disposed in short, easily recognisable groups, in

order that the mind may understand each idea as
it is presented.
In spoken language the individual words are made
intelligible by the stress or accent which singles out
certain syllables from the rest, and ideas are ex-
pressed by groups of words, called Sentences. A
Prose sentence becomes unintelligible if it is too
long, and the competent speaker or writer is he who
knows how to group his words into sentences which
clearly express his ideas, and at the same time have
a due sense of balance and proportion one to
another.
A well-proportioned grouping of the units by
Prose, Poetry, which ideas are expressed and connected
and Music together in a whole, is the foundation of
the Rhythmical Art, and Prose is much influenced
by a feeling for Rhythm on the part of the speaker
or writer. The proportion between its sentences
is not made by rule, but lies with the author, who
allots an approximately relative time to the indi-
vidual sentences. In Poetry, on the contrary, the
time occupied by each Verse is more nearly related
to that occupied by its neighbours than is the case
with prose sentences ; and in Music the time-
relations are theoretically exact, for upon this
depends the intelligibility of a series of sounds

which are uttered independently of ideas conveyed
by words. So subtle is the Art of Music, that the
undue lengthening or shortening of a single note will
sometimes alter the whole character of a phrase.

Time, like Space and Distance, only becomes
Measurement appreciable to our senses when brought
-
of Time. nto measure of some kind and Rhythm
;
may be defined as the measuring of the Time

occupied in the performance of certain of the
Fine Arts in such a manner as to render the
Art-material concerned intelligible and interesting
to our artistic sense.
Our powers of measuring Time without mechani-

cal assistance are exceedingly limited. No one, for
MEASUREMENT OF TIME 21
example, by single taps on a table could measure off

intervals of so short a duration as three seconds each,
unless he were to mentally divide up the space

between the taps by counting, or by imagining lesser
taps between those that are heard. Out of this
limitation of our sense of time measurement arises
the need for the alternation of accented and un-

accented sounds, whether produced by voices or
instruments. The accented sounds serve to divide
the time occupied by the Art-material into definite
portions, but the accented sounds themselves are

only rendered appreciable by being alternated with
the contrasting unaccented sounds. And since an
unbroken succession of alternately accented and un-
accented sounds in music would quickly become as
unintelligible as a lengthy prose sentence without
punctuation, it is necessary to arrange the divisions
of time formed by the combinations of accented and
unaccented sounds in groups, corresponding to the
Sentences of Prose, and the Verses of Poetry. Into
such groups, called Rhythms, or Phrases, all Music
is dividedand the words Rhythm and Phrase mean
;
exactly the same thing. For the sake of avoiding

constant repetition of either word, we use them
indifferently in this book.
Our ability to recognise the measurement of time

is not only limited in the direction of length. With
regard to brevity we are equally limited, and, as the
unaided eye cannot perceive the details in micro-
scopic objects, so there is a limit to the capacity of
the ear to distinguish the accentual details of notes

succeeding one another with extreme rapidity.
Hence, in the individual notes of the shake, the

tremolo of the violin or pianoforte, in acciacature^
and in extremely rapid scale or arpeggio passages of
an ornamental nature, the ear perceives no relation

of accent and non-accent, and such passages are, as
far as rhythm is concerned, in no way different from
sustained notes. If rhythm exists in connection
with them, as it almost invariably does, it is made
perceptible by something exterior, such as changes
of harmony, accompanying melodies, accents inten-

tionally given to single notes, or by other means ;
and the rhythmical effect of such passages would

remain precisely the same if we played them without
the ornaments.
Hence it will be seen that the art of rhythm
has to do with marking off short portions of time
into "Rhythms," and we divide the "Rhythm"
into units by alternations of accented and unaccented
notes.
The unit formed by a single accented note together

with its accompanying unaccented note or notes, is
called a Measure.
The Unit of Poetry, formed by the combination
of a single accented with one or more unaccented
THE MEASURE AND POETIC FOOT 23
syllables, is called a Foot or Measure. The Verse

consists of the union of several Feet, ™,
M
which are generally printed as a single and the Poetic
line. Two Verses combined make a
Couplet, and larger combinations form a Strophe

or Stanza. 1 When ideas are expressed in Verses
they are said to be brought into Metre.
The Foot of Poetry is limited to two or three
syllables, but the Measure of Music may be sub-
divided by notes of small time-value to an almost
unlimited extent, and with an infinite variety of
arrangement. - The capacity of the Musical Measure
for subdivision makes the study of Rhythm more
complicated than that of Metre, and at the same time
opens up for the composer an unlimited source of
expression, apart from the resources of Harmony,
Counterpoint, and other technical details.
Music has a construction analogous in many ways

to that of Poetry. Thus, two or more The Period.
Rhythms, like two or more Verses, form a Period,

and a complete composition consists of a number of
Periods. The Period consists normally of an even
balance of two Rhythms, but it is by no means con-

fined to this form ; on the contrary, in large works
there is more variety, perhaps, in the Periods than in
the Rhythms of which they are composed, and it is
1
In Hymnology, both in England and Germany, the Strophe
is usually wrongly called a " Verse."
sometimes almost impossible to say that a Period
ends here, or here, so much do they melt into one
another by ways that will be duly explained.
Attempts have been made to carry the analogy
further, by dividing compositions into Strophes, like
those of Poetry, but with this view we do not agree.

The construction of Rhythms, and, to a lesser extent,
that of the Periods is all that is required for an
intelligent understanding of the aims of the com-
poser, and further analogy with the sister art of
Poetry only renders more complicated a subject
already sufficiently intricate. It will be our en-
deavour to explain the theory of modern Rhythm
in as simple a manner as possible, avoiding the use
of special technical terms except in so far as they

are absolutely necessary. It will have been noticed
that the word Rhythm has to be applied in two
senses, first to the group of Measures corresponding
to the Verse, and secondly in a general sense,
corresponding to the term Metre of the sister art.
The context will generally show in which sense we

use the word, but to avoid ambiguity, we shall,
wherever possible, refer to the group as a Rhythm,

with a capital R, and use the word in the other
sense without the capital letter.
The function of the first Rhythm of a normal
Period is to enunciate an idea ; that of the second,
to complete, to confirm, to enlarge upon, or to
TWO RHYTHMS IN A PERIOD 25
comment on the idea expressed in the first.
This fundamental form of Period, in two Functions of
portions, is one of the oldest art-forms rÎis in
known. The whole of Hebrew Poetry, a Period.
as well as that of the Egyptians, is founded on

it, and grammarians have in all ages recognised
it as a fundamental form for Prose sentences.
Hence the modern Musical Period, of two equal

portions, satisfies a feeling that is evidently deeply
seated in the human mind, and the more simply
and definitely it is constructed, the more easy
is it to understand, and the more "popular" is the
music likely to be.
Though the two-rhythm Period, and the four-
measure Rhythm, must ever be the prevailing form,
a composer of a high degree of cultivation often
requires to express his ideas in more subtle forms,
both of Period and Rhythm ; and the more music
advances, and the higher the intellectual capacity of
the audiences, the more complicated will be these
forms. It is more especially with the elaboration
of the Period and Rhythm, as practised by modern
musicians, that we shall endeavour to deal in the
course of our work, and we shall hope to show that
these elaborations and complications are not due to
a desire to do something out of the common, but
are the genuine art expressions in a highly civilised
and complicated condition of society.

A singer is compelled by the necessity of taking
Thrash? in
breath, to break up his melody into shorter
SonS- or longer sections, and in this matter he is
assisted by certain rules that have arisen as the result
of experience. The single verse of poetry is looked

upon as the normal amount that can be comfortably
recited or sung in a single breath, and it has been
thought that the need for renewing the breath first
suggested the arrangement of words in verse form.

In the simplest form of song the Verses coincide with
the Rhythms of the melody, and the breath will
therefore be taken between the Rhythms. If for
any reason breath must be taken within the Verse or

Rhythm, the singer will avoid doing it in the middle
of a word, for that would make nonsense : he will
likewise avoid doing it at the beginning of a bar,
according to an empirical rule, having its origin in
aesthetic reasons. 1 He will choose, if possible, a
punctuation sign in the text as a place for renewing
his breath, and will, if he is intelligent, make a virtue
of the necessity imposed on him by nature, by using
it as a very powerful means of rendering his song
interesting and attractive. And all this applies not
only to the singer of high-class music, but also to
the performer of the most trivial of songs : in order
to attract the attention of his audience, the music-
1
Because of the weakness associated with the extreme form
of the Feminine Ending.
PHRASING 27
hall singer finds it equally necessary with the singer

of classical music to study the most effective arrange-
ment of his breathing-places.
To the instrumentalist the Caesura, or cutting
off of the melody, is equivalent to the Phrasing in

t r 1 „i A .1 •
j Instrumental
renewal or breath to the singer, and,
Muslc
equally with the singer, he can render The Casura.
his music intelligible or unintelligible, artistic
or inartistic, feeble or vigorous, according to the

manner in which he manages his Caesuras. Not
that a brilliant and correct execution, or a beautiful
touch, or a sympathetic expression of the notes, will
not attract ; but if to all these there is added an
intellectual phrasing, the performance will gain in
expression to an extent that can hardly be realised
by those who have not thought of the matter.
What is it that compels us to listen to one artist,
that makes his performance go through us, as it were,

while another, playing the same composition, with
perhaps better mechanical skill, will scarcely move
us, or will even weary us? The difference lies
chiefly in the power of giving effect to the rhythm

through the phrasing ; and this power arises either
from the innate rhythmical feeling of the performer,

or from a carefully cultivated insight into the secrets
of how rhythmical effects are brought about.
What we have said refers more especially to
performers on keyed instruments. Nature imposes
:

on them no necessity for cutting their music up into
phrases. They can play a piece from beginning to
end without a break if they are so disposed, and
their listeners, finding no ''resting places for the
mind," as a quaint old German writer expresses it,
are wearied with the strain, or cease to be interested.
With violinists, and with the whole tribe of wind

instruments, the case is the same as with the voice
the limitations of the bow force the violinist to adopt
some kind of phrasing, and when we speak of his
"bowing" we really refer to his phrasing. Wind

players are, of course, under the same necessity for
renewing their breath as vocalists, and the conductor

of an orchestra sees that they make the best use of
this necessity.
Musical Rhythm is founded on the division of

%. Tempo. Time into groups of Measures, there
being generally four Measures in each group.
But, it may be said, music varies very much
in the pace at which these Measures are taken :
a group of four such units played largo, for example,

may occupy six or eight times the amount of time
that is taken to perform a similar group in a
prestissimo movement. How can both equally
satisfy the rhythmical sense?
It is undoubtedly possible to perform a properly

constructed melody so slowly as to eliminate the
sense of rhythm, or, even if it is maintained, to
TEMPO 29
produce insupportable weariness. Now it will be

observed that in very slow movements there is
always one or both of two things present : either
the normal four-measure Rhythms are broken by

Caesuras, or by their harmonic construction, into
groups of two, or even of one Measure, or
the Measures themselves are in some way divided
up into small notes. In many cases these sub-
divisions form interesting little rhythmical figures
of their own, as for instance in the slow movement
of Beethoven's Fourth Symphony. Here the
melody is in very slow notes, which, taken by them-
selves, and without mentally dividing them, would
be almost impossible to play in equal lengths : but
the accompaniment is made up of a characteristic
little rhythmical figure, by which not only is our
demand for small time-dimensions satisfied, but the
interest of the music is very greatly increased.

The opposite extreme, rapidity in place of slow-
ness, by shortening the time occupied in arriving at
the end of the rhythm, produces the same kind of

mental exhilaration as we feel when passing over the
ground at a very rapid pace, as on a galloping horse,
for example.
Music makes use of two species of Measure
only, namely, 1. That in which the Duple and
time occupied by the accented portion -Jl 1

of the Measure is equal to that occupied species.
by the unaccented portion. This is called Duple
Measure, or Even Measure, and may be repre-
sented by any pair of notes of equal value, it
being understood that the accented note may be

either the first or the second.
& d; & d: J J; «J : etc -
2. That ill which the relation of the accented to

the unaccented portion of the Measure is as two
to one, e.g.,
J '
'
J I
! J !. I I
J. I
!
I.
etc
This is called Triple, or Uneven Measure, and the

accent may occur on the first or second, or on the
third, when the Measure is divided into three equal
parts.
For convenience we have here used the word

note," to describe the accented and unaccented
portions of Measures : but it must be understood
that any portion of a Measure may be represented
by a rest, or by a number of notes, in place of the
one here given. It will also sometimes be convenient
to allude to the Measure-portions as "Times," or
"Values" instead of "Notes."
It is of the utmost importance to be able to refer
in general terms to the fundamental "Time" which
gives thename Duple or Triple respectively to the
Measure, and from now onwards we shall dis-
DUPLE AND TRIPLE SPECIES 31
tinguish between Primary and Subsidiary Times,

or Notes, or Values. The Primary Time of any
Measure is the value of that note of which two go
to make up a Duple, and three to make up a Triple
Measure respectively ; if a Duple Measure contains

the value, for example, of two crotchets, its Primary
Time will be the crotchet : if a Triple Measure con-
tains that of three crotchets, its Primary Time will
likewise be the crotchet : and the same applies to
every other note-value, so that the minim, quaver,

etc., can equally be Primary Times.
Where the Primary Times of a Measure are divided
into smaller values of any kind we shall give these
values the general name of Subsidiary notes, or Sub-

sidiary values. For we base our Phrasing on the
Primary values of the Measures, while the Subsidiary
notes have a function of their own, which will be ex-
plained in due course. As an example in Duple Time.
J J are Primary Notes.
1 are Subsidiary Notes.

m m 9 m m
I ! 1 I
' '.
Our statement that there are only two kinds of

Rhythm-species is not, we know, the orthodox view.
Theorists usually distinguish between Two-time,
Three-time, Four-time, Five-time and Six-time
rhythm, explaining each in their turn. For purely
scientific purposes this classification undoubtedly has
many advantages : but by going so much into detail
it seems to us that there is a danger not only of
wearying the reader, but of to some extent losing
sight of the aesthetic value of the various forms of
Rhythm. We hope, by reducing its theory to two
classes only, and by looking on Four, Five and Six-
time Rhythms as modifications of these two classes,
to keep the attention more on the aesthetic than on

the mathematical side of the question.
Measures are distinguishable by their accents.
Rhythms are in the first instance made evident by

their harmonic closes, in the second place by Caesuras,
and in the third by some feature of melodic or
harmonic construction.
The character of a Rhythm or Period is much
affected by the nature of the Closes
M ,.
and Feminine or Cadences which mark the conclusion

of the phrase. A Masculine Close
is one in which the concluding chord of the
cadence is heard on the accented portion of the
final or the penultimate Measure of the phrase.
This chord may be repeated or extended into the
weaker part of the Measure, but it makes no differ-
ence in the aesthetic effect : the essence of a
Masculine ending is that the final chord is struck

on the accent, whether it is repeated or not. Such
a Close gives force and strength to the phrase, and
this is probably why it is called a Masculine Close,
or Masculine Ending.
— —
MASCULINE AND FEMININE ENDINGS 33
Ex. 1.
Beethoven (Quartet Op. 132 Second Movement).
Allegro. ,£.
0L -*. -PL
fe*
E ILjLjr p—4=-
^ ?=c ?2I ?="-
Masc. ending.
^
M#=*a £ £
P -s <r-
H
'
1
I
f-
I
£
u^^-J^_p -p- ipiji
i £
?=:
-/i v_ -• !
^
Masc. ending extended. Masc. ending.
"N /"
Ar^P
f^H- I
1-
0-
t:
\ M I
=-+- -1—
etc.
A Feminine Close or Ending is one in which the

concluding chord of the cadence is delayed by a
suspension or other means, so that it is not heard
until after the accent, as in Ex. 2.
Ex. 2.
Beethoven (Op. 132).

Piu allegro.
Feminine ending.
—

It is supposed to give an effect of tenderness or
sentiment, or of less vigour than the Masculine
Ending ; and the difference in ethos in the two forms
of ending holds good of every kind of cadence,
whether perfect, half, deceptive, etc.
Ex. 3.
Brahms (Op. 118, No. 2).
Andante teneramente.
Wm a -Gh-
n ^r:p_
y.
I
y3*=j:
5^
Ft r :r
p
p Caesura. <&/.
a Mr n
&M
life tPFt
Masculine ending. Feminine ending.
The movement from which Ex. 3 is quoted is
headed Andante teneramente ^ and its frequent use of

the Feminine Ending after the Masculine produces a
particularly tender effect.
Ex. 4.
Chopin (Op. 24, No. 2).
Allegro non troppo.
a
1 1 1 1
3;
£
r * *
-^ j
•—
EÊ £ •T-
-=•
1
Feminine close.
© nn *J
MASCULINE AND FEMININE ENDINGS 35
A rarer form of Feminine Close, producing, as
a rule, a special effect of languor, is that in which
the concluding chord is first heard on the final beat

of a Triple bar, as in Ex. 4. Here the Rhythm
is divided into two portions by the incomplete Full
Close in Bar 2, and ends with a Full Close in Bar 4 ;
but in both cases the concluding chord falls on the

final beat of a bar. Chopin uses this form of cadence
in all the repetitions of the phrase quoted, but in
the other phrases of the composition he employs
the more usual forms, though he concludes the whole
with the extreme Feminine Ending.
A peculiarity of the Polonaise form is that its
Periods for the most part end with the extreme form
of feminine cadence. A Polonaise is not, as a rule,
a languorous yearning kind of composition, and it
may well be asked how it can make use of the

extreme form of Feminine Close, which is usually
associated with this effect, and which is frequently
forbidden to young composers for this reason.
Music delights in occasional paradoxes : and just
as a composer will often please us by dissonances
that seem to contravene all our preconceived ideas
of what is proper, so we shall find that rhythmical
forms are often effective in proportion as they are
unexpected.
The question of whether a piece of music is
fundamentally in Duple or Triple Measure must

;

not be entirely decided by the Time Signature, but
Time rather by the position of the Closes which

Signatures.
m ark the ends of Phrases and Periods
for on the construction of the Phrase and Period is
based the art of Rhythm. The normal Phrase is
that which contains four Measures. A Phrase may,

however, contain three, or five, or six Measures.
The number of six is only exceeded in isolated
cases, where, for instance, a Cadence is extended

beyond its ordinary proportions, or the Rhythm
is purposely made indefinite, or there is a long
succession of repetitions of a very short motive,
whose definite figure has the effect of breaking
up such a length of phrase into small and easily
understood portions. But the normal four-measure
Phrase is frequently divided by a Caesura or a Close
into two equal portions : this division takes a very
important place in most classical music, and where
it occurs we shall allude to the two-measure groups
as Half-rhythms.
We must then base our conception of Duple or
Triple Rhythm-species on the Phrase, without re-
garding number of
the notes in the individual
Measure, or the manner in which they are dis-
tributed. The relation of the Species to the Time

Signatures may be explained as follows :
The Signatures C, -|, -§-, are always used in
connection with Duple Measure.

'
TIME SIGNATURES 37
A Bar may contain the value of one such Measure,

Rhythm of 4 Measures.
Measure. 1
1 1 2 3 4 1
1 1 i
Ijjjl'j
1 1
c 1 1
J 1 1
'J \m m m m el •
Close
marking end of Rhythm.
In this case we call the Bars Simple. It will be

observed that in numbering the Measures, we place
the number over the accented note of the individual
Measure, whether the Measure begins with an
accented or unaccented note.
A Bar may contain two Duple Measures, as
1st Rhythm. 2nd Rhythm.
|
Measure.
1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
,11 ,ii
,'J m mm |
|,
m\ m
,11
mm |
,1 1
J! J
1
m m
1 ,1
hi
ml mi» mm i i'
Close. Close.
End of Rhythm. End of Period.
In this case we call it a Compound Bar.

Or more rarely the single Bar may contain as
many as four Measures, as in the Andante of
Beethoven's Quartet in B flat, Op. 130, in which all
the Full Closes occur on the fourth crotchet of the
bar.

1 1 ~^ 3 4 i
i 2 3 4 I
Close. Close. End of Period.

— — — : -
:

The Signatures having 3 as their Numerator are
generally used in connection with Triple Measure
but occasionally, as in Ex. 5, with Duple.
Ex. 5.
**&
12345
Andantino un poco
-m-m
m m— m m g
agitato.
— • * r F "y—§-»f—
1st Rhythm.
sost. 6
2nd Rhythm.
^— g f^*—j£jr »ff*y^f— * *%*— fen—£, K*—

—I -I
^-
r~d u. '
' l
».
'
T
3
J0#0 zw£ « dfc/ig. */
@jggjg;5^:9=|feil|f3^£^=^^ p
-
Half close.
Signatures having 6 as their Numerator are used

equally for Duple and Triple Measure. Thus
123
Measure.
4
||
12 3 4
|
ft
'r> rnn
li II
1
1
II
m4 II
n
*
rn
i!
1
I
Close. Close.
End of Rhythi n. Eirid of Period.
shows two Rhythms of Triple Measure, the Bars

being compound.
But
Rhythm.
2 3 4
m
1 1 |
I-
it *I. •
I
1
J. '
1.* i
rrn
\mm00mmm' i. j.* i
\
i
Close.
TIME SIGNATURES 39
shows one Rhythm of Duple Measure, in which

the accented and unaccented halves of the measures
are each sub-divided into three portions, and the
Bars are simple. Such a rhythmical scheme is often
indicated by the signature -|, and each half measure
is then written as a triplet. See Ex. 32, page 120.
This will appear more when we come to the
clear
explanation of Primary and Subsidiary Rhythm.

Signatures with 9 as their Numerator are always
connected with Triple, and those having 12, will
indicate Duple or Triple, according to the position
of the Closes.
H It is customary to look upon the Bar as the unit
of Rhythm, as the equivalent of the Foot The Bar.
of Poetry ; but this is misleading, for although the

Bar is often of the same value as the Measure, the
two things rarely actually coincide. An indis-
criminate reference to the Bar as if it were a

Measure, an unit of Rhythm, leads to certain mis-
understandings. Thus, owing to the prominence in
print of the Bar-line, it is often convenient to refer

to a short section of a composition as beginning or
ending with such and such bars. But a Rhythm,
or Phrase, rarely begins and still more rarely ends
at a Bar-line, and unless a young musician is gifted
with a strong rhythmical instinct, or has been well
trained in the art of Phrasing^, a constant reference
to the Bar rather than the Phrase may lead him to
4o RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
look upon groups of Bars as rhythmical sections, to
the detriment of intelligent phrasing. That music
gains enormously in significance by recognition of
its Phrases as distinguished from groups of Bars,
we shall hope to show in the course of this work.
It is possible that much of the misunderstanding
that leads to hostility towards new and unfamiliar
works of great merit, is in no small degree due to
an inadequate appreciation of the unconventional

rhythmical forms frequently made use of by modern
composers. On the development of rhythm in
this direction we believe the music of the next

few generations is destined to advance, quite as
much as on the development of its other artistic
resources.
''The Bar is a short section of music contained

between two Bar-lines^ The function of the Bar-
lines is to show where the accents are to be placed,
not to mark rhythmical units. These are shown by
slurs, rests, harmonic or melodic construction, and
also by Closes. A well-trained ear finds no difficulty
in the matter, and the intelligence of a performer

is shown by his treatment of the ''phrasing." In
these latter days composers are far more careful than
their predecessors to indicate as exactly as is possible
in print, how they wish their music to be phrased.

The older composers left their music more or less
to the mercy of editors and performers, with some-

THE BAR 41
times almost ludicrous results in the hands of

inexperienced amateurs.
The Bar differs from the Measure in several
ways : 1 . While the Bar must begin with its accented

portion, the Measure may begin with its accented,
or its unaccented portion, or with any part of either

portion.
Ex. 6.
Measure. Measure.
molto p t
e sotto Bar. Bar.
voce sempre.
In Ex. 6 the composer has carefully slurred the

single Measures in such a way as to make one
quarter of each come before the Bar-line, and three
quarters after it. The quarter that precedes the
Bar-line forms the Anacrusis (a word which will be
presently explained), and the Measures, though equal
to the Bars as to their Time-value, do not coincide
with them, since each Measure occupies portions of
two successive Bars.
2/ The Measure, though commencing with the
accent, may be, as we have already seen, of less
value than the Bar.M
a

Ex. 7.
Brahms (Op. j6, No. 2).
Measure. Measure. Measure. Measure.
I II II II na
*
=** v. 1 ; r'f r n-Tra,- p f im
w —-* -1
fc^^Lfc -t=±=t I
P Bar. Bar. Feminine Ending.
In Ex. 7, the Feminine Ending in the second Bar

shows the end of the first Rhythm, whose four
Measures only occupy two Bars.
3. A single Measure may be of greater value
than the single Bar, though this is rarely the case.
Ex. 8.
Brahms (Quintet Op. 34).
Measure. Measure. Measure. Measure.
*. .^^0. *- *- -S-
:fe
Bzgn*- BE^ £ Y ttH*-

^4*
gss
TV
Measure.
-Q. f,
!l
B
——^
-* _^^q_,_ p-
—
1
7f
fm "K
™ h
p « ^"tfii
J * J
'
"1 1
J
1 j
J
1
i
J
1
VT
«»- _,
#— — 4f- •*
J *
In Ex. 8, a Period of f-
time Measures is suc-
ceeded by a Period of -| Measures, though for
the sake of its proper accentuation the composer

writes -| time Bars. The single Measure is here
therefore of the value of two Bars of \ time.
The Measures may absolutely coincide with the
THE BAR 43
bars in every respect, but this is rare, and is, as a
rule, only used for specially languid effects, as in
Ex. 9. It generally involves the use of feminine

closes, and this kind of
Ex. 9.
Andante.
- I
*^m
I
=t
AzlEl z£
it
tEi &-
^
V
WW -GK-
z±
-*f3-
«: St
a 4st
3 i-
coincidence of Bar and Measure is the only case
to which the expression '
' Four-bar Rhythm " or
'
Three-bar Rhythm," and so on, is strictly appli-
cable.
2£^> '''The idea that the Bar and the Measure are the
same thing is, however, very prevalent : the tyranny
of the Bar having made itself felt more or less ever
since its introduction from the Tablatures into the
Staff Notation some three centuries ago. Hence
the word Anacrusis, to be treated in the next chapter,
is convenient in connection with the construction of
the Measure.
In f (or f) time, the accentuation of the notes
is sometimes temporarily changed, so that Diuresis.
J
instead of J J J J '"
'"
j we have J"j J~j J™j for a
time, followed by a return to the normal accentua-

tion. This most useful device, which is constantly
applied in modern music, may be conveniently
alluded to as a " Change of Diaeresis, " the word
Diaeresis meaning the distribution of notes according
to their accentuation, the arrangement of the notes,
in a given passage of melody or harmony.
—
CHAPTER III
The — Preliminary Measures —The Overlap — Rhythm-

Anacrusis
Music — The Four-bar Phrase — Accents,
less omitted struck or
Rhythmical Accentuation — The Material of which Rhythm is
formed — Rhythmical Schemes used simultaneously

Different
The Three Kinds of Accentuation — and Melismatic
Syllabic
Song— Rhythms within Rhythms
A Rhythm may commence, as we have seen, with
an accented note, or with an unaccented 7^

Anacrusis.
note, or with a group of unaccented
notes. When it commences with an unaccented, or
with a group of unaccented notes, the note or group
that precedes the first accent has been given the
name of Anacrusis by modern Rhythmicists, from
avaicpovo-is, a term used in ancient Greek poetry ;
and as this very useful word is rapidly becoming

familiar to students of Rhythm, we have no hesi-
tation in using it in this work.

The Anacrusis gives to the Measure what has
been called a " Rising Accentuation " : that is to
say, the material rises to its accent, instead of falling
from it. Such an arrangement helps to make the

phrase vigorous, and compels the attention of the
— —

auditor. It is of great aesthetic value, and will
rarely be found absent in classical compositions,

unless they are distinctly intended to be of a very
reposeful, soothing, nature. The Anacrusis does
not necessarily make its first appearance with the
opening of the movement thus, in Ex. 10 : the
first measure has no Anacrusis, but in the first
bar the anacrusic form of measure commences,

being indicated by the slur which joins the last
note of this bar to the first of the next. The

last note of the first bar therefore forms an integral
part of the second measure, being its Anacrusis,
and this construction of the measures continues to
the last bar of the period. It recommences with
the second measure of the second period, and will
be found to predominate throughout the piece : and
in some places the composer impresses it forcibly
by the sforzando.
Ex. 10.
Brahms (Op. 116, No. i).
1st Rhythm.
Presto i
«m—
|
energico. I i
»- -I 7
z&t—w-
-a.
-I H m —* m-
—w — .teE
i—
f
/ Anac. Anac. Anac. Anac.
^ 5
t-
"
THE ANACRUSIS 47
2nd Rhythm.
The second piece in the same collection (Op. 1 16),

the Intermezzo in A minor, from which Ex. 9 is
quoted, has no Anacrusis throughout its course.

The movement is of a reposeful character, and
its measures are accordingly of the " Falling
order.
A due appreciation of the value of the Anacrusis

is of the greatest importance for a good rendering
of classical music. By its means not only do many
well-known passages gain very greatly in effect, but
others that may seem obscure will often become clear
and interesting, if they can be played with an obser-
vance of the Anacrusis. It is remarkable, for in-
stance, how few pianists understand the significance

of the first half-bar of the Finale of the Funeral
March Sonata.The passage is nearly always played
as if it commenced with an accent, thus :
But the first half-bar is an Anacrusis, which gives

rising accentuation instead of falling, and if the
phrase is played thus
Measure. Measure.
iWw=p
fc
u r
Anacrusis.
the closes will fall in their right places, and the

passage will sound rhythmically correct : in the other
case it sounds meaningless, more especially as it is
in Rhythms of three measures each, which require

special care to become effective.
In the same movement the phrase
¥ ^
r#^ 3- -1- m t
1
is nearly always accented wrongly, as above : the
Anacrusis should be made effective by an accent
on the second D natural, thus :
&* % 4 £=*
#2=3: *e * Anacrusis.
%
so that rising, instead of falling accentuation is im-

parted to the passage. In other words, the chief
accent should not be on the highest note of the
melody, as is more usually the case, but on the
first note of the measure, which must be brought
PRELIMINARY MEASURES 49
into special prominence owing to the shape of the
melody.
It must not be supposed that when a piece
commences with a full bar its measures Preliminary

Measures.
will necessarily coincide with the bars,
or that the Anacrusis will be wanting. On the

contrary, in many cases the first bar, or the first
two bars, or even the accent only of the first bar,
are merely introductory, to call attention as it
were, to the Rhythms that are about to follow.
They are outside the Rhythm proper, and are

equivalent to the few words that precede a speech,
such as "Ladies and Gentlemen, " which have no
connection with what follows further than to call
attention to the fact that something is about to be

said. There is this difference, however, between
the Notes or Measures we speak of and the
opening of a speech, that in the case of music
the introductory material is often repeated, either
at the end of the first Rhythm, or later in the
movement, since, though at first used as an ex-
clamation, it is frequently of sufficient interest to
make part of the tone material of the piece later
on.
When there is an Introductory Measure, such
as we are contemplating, the Rhythm proper com-
mences with the second Measure (or third, as the
case may be), and is usually provided with the

Anacrusis. The matter depends on the position
of the Closes or Caesuras.

Let us examine an example from Brahms. His
Capriccio Op. 116, No. 3, opens with a complete
Bar, and looks as if its Measures must coincide
with its Bars. But this is far from being the case.
Ex. 11.
Brahms (Op. 116, No. 3). Capriccio.
Allegro appassionato.
Half-measure. Measure. Measure.
4--id^jr|j
^*^
I
* Anacrusis. __ I f
s
Half-rhythm. End of Half-
rhythm.
The first half-bar is extraneous to the rhythm : it
is a development of the idea of an introductory chord

or note, as a kind of exclamation, to call attention.
In place of the introductory chord, Brahms here
anticipates the figure with which he is going to
end his half-rhythms, and presupposes an imaginary
phrase, whose last half-measure only is heard, as an
introduction to what is to come, and the Measures,
as shown in Ex. 11, commence on their unaccented
portions, therefore, with the Anacrusis, while a
turbulent character is given by the sforzandos on
the unaccented portions.
.
McCDNE SCHOOL OF MUSIC & ART

PRELIMINARY MEASURES 51
The" same device is used by him in his D major

Symphony, where it will be noticed that the opening
bar, played by the basses alone, recurs at the close
of each of the Rhythms. See Ex. 5 7 5 8 pp. 2 1 0-2

, ,
1 1
We shall frequently have to allude to similar
cases in which movements commence with a full
bar : the device is freely used by every composer,

and it will be convenient to refer to the introductory
note or notes as the "Preliminary Measure."
The chaining together, as it were, of Rhythms and
Periods by causing their final accent to pie
coincide with, or in other words, to over- Overlap.
lap, the first accent, of the succeeding phrase is another

of the resources known to the older composers,
but more in evidence with the moderns. It arises
when the final accent of a phrase coincides with

the first accent of the succeeding phrase. It is
one of the most useful devices at the command of

the composer for the avoidance of too definite a
cutting up of his music into sections, whereby a
mechanical precision would be produced, which
would make the melodies easy to understand, but
would be apt to produce monotony if continued
too long. See Ex. 44, page 155.
By means of the Overlap a continuity of Melos
can be carried on while the regularity of the rhyth-
mical phrases is maintained, without the too frequent
use of the Deceptive Cadence. To us English one
of the most familiar of Overlaps, though we do not
recognise it as such, is that which occurs in the
middle of the Anglican Chant, and which eliminates
the monotony which would ensue if the Psalms
were sung to constant repetitions of a pair of equal
Rhythms. It is this Overlap that results in the
seven-measure Period, which has sometimes puzzled
foreign observers of our Chant. It may be ex-
emplified by a comparison of a well-known chant,
borrowed from a melody by Beethoven, with its
original form, the two examples being quoted in

the same key for easier comparison.
Ex. 12.
Beethoven Sonata Pathetique. Transposed.
s
Adagio. 1st Rhythm. 2nd Rhythm.
I 2
:2=a
3 25
1
Chant.
;e
:
-&-
x± ^
-&- -& &~ i
-<s>-
-<s>-
i
Overlap.

3~~ ~i
I 2 4 I
2 3 4
i
22:
-o-
-c^—Oh
-e>- ZZ •**-
-&- -&- -&-
1
Overlap.
THE OVERLAP 53
It will be seen that the eight measures of the

Beethoven Period are reduced to seven in the
Chant, by causing the final note of the first Rhythm

to coincide with, or overlap the first note of the
second Rhythm.
This is an instance in which the Overlap fore-
stalls the end of the Rhythm the more usual form
:
is that in which the first Rhythm is extended to

five Measures, so that its Close does not fall in the
fourth, but in the fifth Measure, and the first note

of the next Rhythm enters thus within the con-
cluding Rhythm.
In such a case it often results in producing a
Period of, say eight Measures, without any per-
ceptible break between its two Rhythms ; but it is
not often used within a Period in this manner.

Far more frequently it occurs at the end of the
Period, so as to join the Period to the next Period,
rather than the Rhythm to its companion. When
the second Rhythm of a Period is extended to five
Measures or six Measures in such a way as to cause
the final note to coincide with the first note of the

next Rhythm, the object is to carry on the Melos
without a break. When, on the contrary, the second
Period anticipates the close of the first, entering
too soon, as it were, as we have seen in the two
Rhythms of the Anglican Chant, the object is to
arouse attention. The apparent seven-measure
Rhythms of the Waltz in Act III. Scene 5 of the
Meistersinger are the result of overlapping on the
same principle as that of the Anglican Chant. The
Periods are of eight bars in length, but each Period
after the first enters a bar sooner than it is expected.
The effect is wonderfully sprightly and bright,
but that the Periods are really normally of eight
Bars can easily be proved by playing the figure
t
i
twice over each time it occurs, when a regular
orthodox "four-bar" Rhythm will result.
The seven-measure Period here causes us no

sense of a want of balance, for Wagner is sufficiently
master of his craft to be able to employ it with

effect, but if an unskilful or inexperienced com-
poser endeavours to use an Overlap in this way,
without having previously well established his
fundamental rhythmical basis, or without a suitable

harmonic basis, he will be apt to produce an un-
comfortable feeling of want of balance, and we shall
feel that the music is somehow weak in its Rhythm.

Overlaps can be very effective in the orchestra,
where a new set of instruments can be made to
enter unexpectedly, or in a double chorus, where
the second chorus can enter as the first finishes its
phrase. But the chief use of the Overlap in modern

THE OVERLAP 55
music is to produce that continuity of Melos of

which Richard Wagner was the first great exponent
in our days. For by delaying the end of a phrase
that would naturally be of four Measures, but is
extended to five so as to overlap its successor, the
periods are made to melt imperceptibly into one

another, and thus to carry the mind ever onwards
on the stream of musical sound, without an apparent
break.
To compare the older method with the new, let
us imagine a traveller, advancing through beautiful

country on a road provided with prominent mile-
stones, which, while they make him aware of his
progress, do not in the least interfere with his
enjoyment of the scenery. So is it with him who

listens to the older classical music, with its well-
punctuated Rhythms and Periods. And the same

traveller, walking through equally beautiful scenery,
in which the milestones are also there, but are
concealed under luxuriant foliage, is like him who
listens to the continuous Melos of much of the best
modern music. To construct music that is funda-
mentally rhythmical, and yet has its "milestones"
artistically concealed, demands technical ability of
the highest order.
Another kind of Overlap, made familiar to us by
Bach, is exemplified in the following quotation from
Beethoven's Quartet in A minor, Op. 132 :
$6 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
Ex. 13.
Beethoven (Quartet Op. 132).

Allegro.\
1st.
—Vn.
T5 '
~
2i
l — 1 i g I bJ-
Anac.
P Cello. Overlap.
Anac. 2nd Vn.
fl^l
a £ t=
Viola.
4=5-
pgp £^ *^t
.Q. A
@ 221 S3.
fs
Here the rhythmical movement begun by the
violoncello, is completed by the first violin, and the
triplet leads us to expect the phrase to end with the
note A on the first beat of the bar. But the A is
delayed by suspension to form a feminine ending,

and this causes it to coincide with the Anacrusis of
the second Rhythm. Thus the first Rhythm is
extended half a Measure beyond what is due to it,
and overlaps the second Rhythm, the same note

serving to end one and begin the other.
Yet another form of Overlap is exemplified in
Ex. 14, and this is even more familiar to us through
the Fugue form.
^
THE OVERLAP 57
Ex. 14.
Beethoven (Quartet Op. 132).

1st Rhythm.
Overlap.
W *==
j <s>
If 1
2nd Rhythm.
^ "T
NÊf—
J. *LJ-J-
^ Fî
The four-measure Rhythm here contains two dis-

tinct figures, one founded on crotchets, the other
on quavers, and the phrase is caused to overlap
itself in such a manner that the contrasting figures
are heard at the same time. This is merely another
case of one rhythmical figure supplementing another,
a device which gives so much delight to all, whether
learned or unlearned.
Music that is composed in modern tonality and
harmony, but is devoid of intelligible rhythmical
structure, is apt to be characterless and insipid,
unless the composer is strong enough to express,
Rhythmless deliberately and consciously, a feeling of

Music,
mystery by Melos alone. The Polyphonic
church composers had this ability, and Richard
Wagner has pointed out that the mystical beauty
of the music of Palestrina and his contemporaries
is due to the absence of definite rhythm therefrom.
The modern great masters are beginning to recog-
nise that an occasional absence of rhythmical form
is capable of being intensely emotional. Richard
Strauss has seen this, and has used the device in
several places in his Italian Symphony, with mar-
vellous effect. In the first movement, entitled
"On the Campagna," the opening passage, with its
massive pianissimo chords, in which there is an

occasional change of harmony, but no apparent
rhythmical form, reflects the feelings that must arise
in most persons when they first gaze upon certain
aspects of the vast, silent, and mysterious Campagna.
And when rhythmical figures begin to be heard,
they come at first spasmodically, as if the thoughts
only gradually began to collect themselves and take
shape ; eventually the rhythmical form becomes
definite.
And again, in the same work, the dazzling maze

of pianissimo sound with which the third movement
opens, "On the shore at Sorrento," is quite without
recognisable rhythmical form. It seems to reflect
RHYTHMLESS MUSIC 59
the almost unbearable brilliance of the rippling sea

under the influence of an Italian sun. Such passages
of rhythmless music are very daring, but they are
justified by the result, for they appeal intensely to the
emotions in connection with the "programme" to

which they are joined.
'
Owing to its predominance, the ' Four-bar

Phrase " (with its divisions into two The Four-bar
Phrase.
and two), is generally looked upon as
the one and only practicable form of Rhythm,

any departures from it being attributed to caprice
on the part of the composer. That this, however,
is not the right view, we shall hope to show ; for
the use of other than " four-bar " phrases is not

due to caprice, or seeking after novelty, but to a
growing appreciation of the aesthetic value of
various forms of phrase other than the normal.
The ordinary construction of a Four-measure
Rhythm is shown in Duple time in Ex. 15.
Ex. 15.
Mozart Sonata.
Allegro molto. 1st Rhythm.
'XL
FjPK
p== p r^g
3=S
P4=-
tr.
m m m m £z
»VH
/
J.
m
3I
E
Cses. V
£ £
Half-close.
f^
Cses.
2nd Rhythm.
mm & W+ "-=):
f
3±E
Caesura.
p
tr.
% ?=?=¥--
Full close.
^5fc
m 4s
i im *
£ £:
Here we have a Period of two Rhythms, each

divided into half-rhythms by a Caesura. The first
Rhythm ends with the orthodox half-close in the

masculine form, the second with the (incomplete)
full close, also in the masculine form. The bars,
each containing one Measure, are simple.
Ex. 1 6.
Beethoven (Op. 26).
Rhythm.
B«^##M
1st
Andante.
jl^
n**=*
gggya
dgnOT
e H" £:
r
Half-close.
2nd Rhythm.
i Z=*
1
j lw m d q-l
^ ^r<?j-.
£ ttg- jjg-
m^ fcfc
Half-close.
THE FOUR-BAR PHRASE 61
Exs 1 6 shows a Period of two Rhythms in
Triple Measure. Here, again, the bars are simple,

but it will be observed that the passage commences
with an unaccented note, that is, with the Anacrusis.
As the signature is §, the measures must consist
of three quavers each, and since this unaccented

note is an integral portion of the melody, it follows
that each Measure commences with an unaccented
note, and overlaps its bar-line, as shown by the short
perpendicular lines in our example. This is what

we mean when we say that the Measure and the
Bar, although they are frequently, and in modern
music nearly always, equal in time-value, do not
often coincide with each other. On the recognition
of this principle depends to a large extent an in-
telligent method of phrasing.
The space of time occupied by a Rhythm is, as
a rule, filled with sound, except for the I
Caesuras that may occur in it : and its struck or

omitted.
j
melodyi
may ube more î_
prominent than
its rhythmical structure, or the rhythm may be
more noticeable than the melody, or, what is more
usual, both are of equal importance, as in the two
examples quoted here.
When the accentuation is made prominent, so
that it attracts attention more than the melody, we
feel a pleasant exhilaration, which is the result of
the accents acting on the mind in such a way
:

as to stir the physical rather than the emotional
faculties.
If, on the contrary, melody and harmony are used

without the support of an adequate rhythmical basis,
the music is apt to be weakly and sentimental.

But it must not be considered that such music is
without its value. Human nature is so infinitely

varied that it requires an infinity of different
materials to express its emotions : and music can

perhaps adapt itself more than any other art to the
infinite varieties of human temperament.

But Rhythms, and more especially those of four
Measures, are not necessarily completely filled with

sound, nor are all the accents necessarily heard.
Though a hard and fast line cannot be drawn, it
may be said in a general way that when Rhythms

begin to omit any of their accents, they begin to
appeal to the imagination and the intellect more
than to the physical faculties. For it requires a
higher degree of culture to recognise a thing that
is only hinted at than a thing that is plainly set
before one. The omission of accents is not neces-
sarily made by means of rests : a cadence can occur,
for instance, on the third accent, and its chord
sustained over the fourth. In this case, though the
Rhythm is filled with sound, the last accent has to
be imagined. But here again may be a difference
for the closing chord on the third accent is often
ACCENTS 62
repeated in some way on the fourth : and in this
case the appeal is to the physical side of us, and it
is the more pleasing in that it is unexpected.

But with our power of using two or more rhyth-
mical schemes at once we do not often leave the
final accent entirely unheard : for though it may be
omitted in the Primary accentuation, it is generally
heard in the Subsidiary : and thus the two rhythms
react on one another, the Subsidiary supporting and
supplementing the Primary, and making it easier to
understand : the imagination is appealed to by the

Primary, the physical nature by the Subsidiary.
Some Rhythms have each alternate Measure more
strongly accented than the rest. This Rhythmical
dccentuatten,
feature, which is not present in all
Rhythms, is so delicate that its existence has been
contested by some theorists, yet we have, after
due consideration, come to believe that it throws

light on many passages in classical music, and
that some composers, at any rate, are aware of
it, and that this is what leads them to express
their compound rather than simple bars.
ideas in
For the essence of the compound bar is that the

first of its two measures is more strongly accented
than the second, in however slight a degree. The

opponents of the view we take can point to the fact
that composers, especially Bach, will frequently place
the first note of a given subject in the first or second

half of a compound bar indiscriminately, but there
is no evidence that they do not do this with the
express intention of altering the order of accentuation
in the pairs of Measures.
Be this as it may, we propose to allude to this
alternation of stronger and weaker Measures, where

Rhythmical Accentuation "
'
we believe it to exist, as '
to distinguish it from the accentuation of the single

Measures ; and we shall speak of " Rhythmical
Accentuation " as being of the

'
' Rising " or ' *

Fall-
ing" order, according to whether the stronger

Measure comes after or before the weaker.
In Ex. 1 6 it will be noticed that there are
discords on each alternate accented note, i.e. in
Measures and 4 2 in each Rhythm, and that our

inclination will be to strike these discords rather
more strongly than the concords on the intervening
accents. In addition to this, the composer has in
three places marked a crescendo to lead up to these
discords, one of which has, in addition, the sign sf.
It seems to us then that he has distinctly singled

out the alternate measures for special accentuation,
and that the example gives an instance of " Rising
Rhythmical Accentuation."
A more striking case occurs in the Fifth Sym-
phony, in the passage quoted below, where the
composer has indicated nothing, but conductors are
beginning to find out the value of giving it Rising
:
RHYTHMICAL ACCENTUATION 65
Accentuation. It was formerly the custom to play
this subject with equal accent on each bar. But by

a Rising Accentuation it gains in effect to an
incredible degree : let the reader try it on the piano,
x
first without special accent, then as follows :
$m F
i :je
£ 1= 1
Still more does a certain passage in the Scherzo

of the same symphony gain by this treatment, and
we have seen a conductor, in order to intensify the
Rising Accentuation, beat thus
up down up down
& -&•
f
3^5
I »» — ••-
& r r
ff Ft r
The effect was electrical : the passage is energetic,

however it is taken, but the above beat gave it a
force and fire that would have rejoiced the heart of
the composer. Other cases will appear from time
to time in the course of our work.
We must now speak of the material out of which
Periods, with their two or more Rhythms, The Material
are constructed. As an experiment, let j>j*ZJ*
•
us tap on the table a series of crotchets, firmed.
giving an accent to each alternate tap, thus :
1
It must be remembered that the orchestra gives far more effect
to such nuances than the piano can possibly give.

E
J J J J J J J J. J J J J J J J J.
While tapping, let us mentally form a melody of

sixteen notes, one to each crotchet, with a Caesura
after the fourth accent. We shall then have imagined

a Period of two Rhythms in Duple Measure, com-
mencing with the Anacrusis, and ending with a
Masculine Close.
But to a listener the taps will represent nothing
more than a meaningless series of sounds, akin to
the ticking of a clock.

Now let us make a second series of sixteen taps,
but instead of their being all equal, let two out of

the series (one in the first and one in the second
Rhythm) be longer than the rest, and its successor
shorter, so as to form a dotted crotchet followed by
a quaver, thus :
9I
91. 9 9 M J
9 J
9 9I
J
&•> 9
I
J.
9 9 9
M 9
I 'l
9 9
I
9
'l
•>
The listener will now immediately perceive that

it is Rhythm we are tapping, for the greater relative
value of the dotted crotchets singles them out from

their neighbours, and gives them a special accent,
or special importance, which clearly indicates the

rhythmical form of the whole series of taps.
In the first instance we tapped the fundamental or
Primary values of a series of eight Duple Measures.
The fact of all the taps being of equal duration,
THE MATERIAL OF RHYTHM 67
though we accented each pair, gave the listener no

1
point on which his mind could rest. In the second
instance we caused our sixteen taps to form an

intelligible rhythmical whole merely by making two
out of the series more prominent than the rest, and
thereby giving the listener a point in each set of
eight on which his mind could rest.
To continue our experiment. Let us write out

and harmonise a simple melody of sixteen crotchets,
using no other kind of note. We shall be able to
make the form of the Period quite clear now, by
placing harmonic cadences at the eighth and six-
teenth crotchets. Thus we shall call Harmony to
our aid in making our rhythm clear, for the harmonic

closes will give the mind places on which it can rest.
Let us alter the melody by lengthening two of

its notes in the manner suggested for our second
series of taps, and we shall find that it at once
becomes more striking and vigorous. This is
because, by bringing two of the notes of the melody

into greater prominence than the rest, we have made
1
The eye, equally with the ear, is incapable of enumerating a
number of similar articles placed close to one another at equal
distances, without external assistance. This can easily be proved

by placing a number of pins in an unbroken row and trying to
count them from a short distance. Unless the eye can find
definite resting places, such as objects near the pins, or the person
counting is near enough to point at individual pins, he will

find it impossible to count more than four or five.
the rhythm speak for itself, in addition to the
assistance it has from the harmonic construction.
We have made a contrast in the relative values of
the notes. This kind of contrast is one of the

most valuable elements that the composer has at
hand in the material out of which he constructs his
Periods and Rhythms, and the elementary principle

of varying the relative values of notes is capable
of infinite extension, so that the possibilities of
variety in the treatment of the ordinary eight-
measure Period are inexhaustible.
On this principle is founded the sub-division of
the Primary value of the Measure into notes of
smaller value ; and such sub-divisions will group
themselves naturally into accented and unaccented
notes, just as is the case with the Primary values.
Thus, for example, the time value of two minims
forming a single Duple Measure, might be sub-
divided in some such way as this,
rm'm 44 n
i
in which case the upper notes will still form a single

Measure, while the smaller notes will at the same
time group themselves in pairs or triplets, as shown,
each of which has its own proper accentuation. To
distinguish the accentuation of the minims in the
% THE MATERIAL OF RHYTHM 69
above example from that of the smaller notes, we

refer to it as Primary Accentuation, and the other
as Subsidiary Accentuation.
The composer has yet another rhythmical resource

at his disposal. He can divide his Different
Rhythmical
Measures in one manner for his melody,
Schemes
and in a totally different manner for the used simul-
taneously.
accompaniment, so that two or more
arrangements of the rhythmical material are heard
at the same time. The simultaneous use of two
or more different rhythmical motives, familiar though
it is to us, is, one of the most remarkable character-
istics of music. Metre is to Poetry what Rhythm
is to music : yet it is impossible to conceive of two
reciters uttering simultaneously two metrical schemes
differing from one another in all except the position
of their accents. The result would be utter non-

sense ; and yet in Music some of the sublimest
effects are due to the simultaneous use of several
different rhythmical arrangements, such as would
produce senseless confusion if applied to spoken
Poetry.
Rhythmical figures, however ingenious, can never
have their full aesthetic value apart from melody of
some kind. drummer were to beat a given
If a
figure, and another drummer played another figure

at the same time on a second drum tuned to
the same note as the first, the effect of the two
:
yo RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

drums would be to the listener, not two simul-
taneous figures, but one only. Thus
ist drum. J JJ J J rs.n J J"l

2nd drum. J
1
1
m '
=1
a ji
r
v j"^rj J
Resultant. J JJ J JJ J73j"j3 .taje c)
But if one of the above rhythmical schemes were

played on a drum, and the other in a melody on a
fife, for example, the resultant, instead of a mono-
tonous succession of similar Measures, would be
a spirited march. Hence it follows that to produce
that combination of rhythms which is so essential
a part of modern music, we require two contrasting
voices or melodies or instruments : mere rhythm
without melody does not suffice.
Different rhythmical schemes must generally agree

in having their chief accents at the beginning of a
bar, or of a chief portion of a bar. This unwritten
rule is sometimes broken, however, by modern com-
posers, with excellent effect, as in Ex. 28, page 109,
and the art of Rhythm seems likely to develop in
this and other directions hitherto unthought of.
Putting exceptions aside, most of the charm of

modern music consists of the combination of two
rhythmical schemes, one of which enhances or com-
pletes the other, as we saw in the example of the
two drums. One of the simplest applications of
COMBINED RHYTHMICAL SCHEMES 71
the principle is when a song containing, for example,
a succession of crotchets in its melody, is accom-

panied on the piano by quavers. The rhythmical
schemes of all polyphonic music are a more or less
highly developed application of the principle here

exemplified.
From what has been said, it will be seen that
there are three kinds of accentuation, — T , ,
each of which fulfils its own special Kinds of

r . Accentuation.
function.
The first is the Primary accentuation, which affects
one note of the two or the three that go to make
up the Duple or Triple Primary Measure. It
forms the foundation of rhythm in general, in the

sense that rhythm primarily arises out of the
arrangement of alternately accented and unaccented
factors.
But a single Measure, although it is a rhythmical

unit, cannot be recognised as such by itself. Two
measures at least are required to be heard before
we can know what species is intended. And as one
of the two Measures that are required to satisfy our
sense of rhythm is frequently of more importance
than the other, there arises the second kind of
accentuation, which we have named the Rhythmical
Accentuation. Its function is to group the Measures
together in pairs, in a " Rising" or " Falling"
order, so as to produce energy or tranquillity, as
4

required by the composer. But it is only present
in certain cases.
The third, or Subsidiary Accentuation, has as its
office, the enforcing of the other two. A very

common means of enhancing the interest of a given
melody is to add Subsidiary rhythm to it on its
repetition, or to increase that which has already

been present with it, as shown by a comparison of
Ex. 17 with Ex. 9.
Ex. 17.
4-4—
gztJ^J^PJj
V?
3
?= r- 1-*-
3
-0- — -
Ex. 9, page 43, shows a Rhythm whose accented

portions of measures are marked by Subsidiary
Accentuation, while the unaccented are not thus
divided.
In Ex. 17, from the same composition, there is
an increase of Subsidiary Accentuation over that

shown in Ex. 9, in both melody and accompani-
ment, by which all chance of the somewhat unusual
rhythmical form of the opening bars becoming
wearisome through repetition is avoided, and the
interest is increased.
*
ACCENTUATION 73
Subsidiary rhythm plays a large part in vocal as

well as in instrumental music. It is generally what
'
is alluded to when the ' rhythm " of a piece is
specially mentioned. The normal four-measure

phrase is so taken for granted that it is often looked
upon as having nothing to do with rhythm, and
only when measures are sub-divided in some special
manner does the ordinary listener notice that there
is anything remarkable about the " rhythm."

Verse can be set to music in two ways, but is
usually
J
set in a mixture of both. The p *, ,.
syllabic
,
and
first way is what the Gregorianists call Melismatic
°™'
"Syllabic," in which each syllable has a
single note, so that the Rhythms of music corre-
spond more or less closely with the Verses of
the Poetry. The second manner is the " Melis-
matic," in which single syllables are given to
more than one note, or they are even spread
out, so that they extend beyond the single portion,
accented or unaccented, of the musical Measure.

The first way is equivalent to the Primary, the
second to the Subsidiary rhythm of instrumental
music.
In purely syllabic melody the musical rhythm
corresponds to the metre of the words, each syllable
1
We noticed lately an article in which the writer advocated
the disuse of the word Rhythm altogether as applied to the
four-measure phrase !
having a single Primary note. 1 In Melismatic
melody, subsidiary rhythm plays a part. Melis-
matic song seems to belong to an earlier stage in
the development of any particular style of music
than Syllabic, for the earliest Gregorian melodies
we possess, and the ancient Greek and Armenian
church music are extremely florid, whereas in later
times they became more syllabic, as, for example, in
the " Proses " of the Roman Church. Another

instance occurs to us in Italian opera, which became
remarkable for the florid character of its melodies,
and only in recent years have the fioriture so familiar
to an older generation of opera-goers begun to
disappear under a more highly developed condition

of the art.
The reason for this seems to lie in human nature.

The average man can appreciate skill in performance
more easily than the expression of deep emotion ;
hence his attention is more attracted by brilliance
of execution than by earnestness of expression. As

the vocal art advances its auditors become more
cultivated, the externals are toned down, and a
deeper expression becomes possible to the composer

without fear of being misunderstood. If we com-
pare the Melos of Wagner and his successors with
that of the pre- Wagner composers we shall be
1
As, for instance, in " God save the King," and in most
church hymns.
SYLLABIC AND MELISMATIC SONG 75
struck with its more syllabic character : the fioriture of
Mozart, for example, find no place in Wagner's music.

But while vocal melodies become more simple
and expressive in the matter of rhythm, the accom-
paniments become more elaborate. Instrumental
music has developed later than vocal, and becomes
more and more important and expressive. The
power that has been added to instrumental music
by the development of Subsidiary rhythm is very
great. It can form an outward and non-essential
ornamentation : it can be a means of display : it
can increase the attraction of a melody which has

been previously heard in a simpler form, and finally
it can be a means of intense emotional expression.

In the last way it is used by Brahms in his
Intermezzo, Op. 117, No. 2, of which Ex. 18
shows the opening four-measure Rhythm, whose
phrasing, as given by the composer, is quite Greek
in its dignity and mastery of rhythmical effect.
Ex. 18.
Andante tion troppo, e con molto espressione.
Col Ped. * -4- *** ^* V

r *
Sfe£-
£=F=S
H^
In Ex. 19 we give the melody alone, deprived of
its Subsidiary rhythm. It is in severe Iambics,
Ex. 19.
S >
2,S 4i\
N— ,
3f>
-N-
-E3=-5
3 i
-h — ^— 4:
-r ? r P" "P"
like the Scherzo of Beethoven's so-called "Moon-

light " Sonata, and the composer intensifies the
phrasing by causing the last beat of each bar to be
connected to the succeeding bar as an Anacrusis.
Ex. 20.
as—»3 ^=&A^
3H
&$&& ^grsM
,_
jife^^^^fe= *-
-#-
'
w- :&:
^k^^—
r^tzzN:
SYLLABIC AND MELISMATIC SONG 77
Ex. 20 shows that the Subsidiary rhythm naturally

divides itself into four phrases of three Duple
(Subsidiary) Measures each, and these Subsidiary
Measures are further divided into Subsidiary Accen-
tuation of their own. Moreover, each Subsidiary
Measure has its own Anacrusis, so that in Ex. 1 8 the
Anacrusis of each bar is intensified by a Subsidiary

Anacrusis. We have, therefore, in this piece, a
combination of Rhythm within Rhythm, ~, ,
which gives a wonderful resource for within
expression, unknown to the Greeks, and y '
yet following the laws found in their theory.

They would have perforce been content with the
pure Iambics of Ex. 19. We are able to go further,
and to make a subordinate rhythm accompany the

Iambics, on principles that the Greeks themselves
would have acknowledged to be in accordance with
their artistic theory.
It will be noticed that in setting out the Sub-

sidiary rhythm in Ex. 20 we give the complete
Rhythms as of three Measures each, instead of the
usual four. This brings us to one of the most
important of modern rhythmical developments,
namely, the grouping of Measures by threes, or
fives, or in some other number than four. Such
groupings were occasionally employed in isolated
Periods by Mozart and Haydn, and by Beethoven
in his Ninth Symphony, in the Funeral March
Sonata (last movement), as well as in his Quartet
Op. 101. But the older composers seemed to
look upon this as a departure from the rule, that

might be misunderstood, so they carefully made
the matter very evident by their harmonic con-
struction, while Beethoven sometimes labelled the
passage in the score.
Modern composers have arrived at a fuller mastery
over these Rhythms, or perhaps it is more correct
to say that modern audiences are more able to
assimilate them, and instead of a tentative Period

here and there, we now find whole sections, nay
whole compositions, in which the three- or five-
measure rhythm prevails, and the four-measure is
the exception, and a peculiar piquancy and charm

is thus produced. We shall go further into this
question in another chapter.

—
CHAPTER IV
Effect of Longer and Shorter Notes on Accentuation — Ancient

Theory and Modern — Combined Rhythm-species
Practice
Well-marked Rhythm — Influence of Note-values on the
ÊstheticCharacter of Music — Repetition of Definite Rhyth-
mical Figures— Syncopation
In any melodic figure containing notes of unequal

value there will be a tendency to feel
Effectof
the longer notes as having more weight, Longer and
&
, i , «,, Shorter Notes
more accent, than the shorter. Thus, on jCcentua-
if we write without bars tton '
O I
& !
I
<3
Ill <J J
G <3
we shall feel that the natural accentuation of the

notes is
J I
J J J J 'l I
J
that of the last three minims being established by

that of the first two Measures : for when once a
rhythmical figure or scheme has made itself felt, the
mind desires its accents to continue in their course,

even if the note- values change.
The above division of the Duple Measure into
one long, followed by two short notes produces the
form known to the Greek musicians as the Dactyl.
If we place the two shorter notes before the accented

long note we obtain the Anapaest,
J J J J J J
which, owing to its Anacrusis, is of a more exciting
character than the Dactyl. The Greek dramatists
frequently used Anapaestic rhythm at the end of
their choruses as a climax.
The transition from the Dactyl to J J J J and
from the Anapaest to J J J J is very simple : it
is merely the division of both measure-portions,

instead of one, into two equal notes. In the case
of the Dactyl it lessens the accent on the first note
by taking away from its value. The same result is
obtained in the Anapaest, whose accent is not so

strong when the accented note is divided, as when
it is undivided.
The other forms of four-note Measure are both
anacrusic,J J J J and J J J J ; so that it will be

seen that out of all the above forms of a four-note
Measure, three have Rising, and only one has
Falling Accentuation.
The division of the Duple Measure into four
:
NOTE-VALUES AND ACCENT 81
notes is one of the commonest forms in both modern

and ancient music, and is known as the four-time
Measure. If it is desired to divide both portions

of the Measure into two notes each, and yet retain
the strength of the accent, we can use the figure
M or II ! . J\in which the longer note

obtains the feeling of a stronger accent on account
of its greater prominence.
In Triple Time the most natural form, the one
that we most quickly feel, is that known to the
Greeks as the Trochee, <J J, or its inversion the
Iambus, J J, in which the accented note is in the

proportion of two to one of the unaccented. So
strongly is this felt by us that when we divide the
long into two equal short notes differing in pitch,
we not infrequently join them by a slur, so as to
strengthen the impression of accent, thus
w^?=*
When all three notes are joined by a slur a smooth
effect is produced : and the opposite is the result when
the accented note is detached, and the other two
are slurred, for in this case a disturbance of accent
takes place which will be discussed under Synco-

pation.
p
:

By dividing the accented portion of a Triple
Measure into two unequal notes, of which the first
is greater than the second, we enhance the weight of
the first, and thus give it additional accent, as we

have already shown with regard to Duple Measure,
thus s If we give two subsidiary notes to

:
J j J .
the second half of the accented portion, thus :
I fl
000 we I to some extent weaken the accent :
and in this case, we wish to retain the

if relative
force of the accented note, we must make a slight
sforzando on it.
We can give subsidiary notes to the unaccented
portion, thus :
<J JH and the accented note will
stand out more strongly than if the unaccented
portion were undivided.
We can divide the accented and unaccented por-
tions into equal subsidiary notes, thus: J JJ jjj

This gives a smooth and flowing effect to the
music, and is much used in accompaniments to
Primary-note melodies to produce movement with-

out special emphasis. Thus, for example, the
accompaniment of the opening trochaic subject of
the Eroica Symphony is in equal subsidiary notes
the Andante con mo to of Brahms' Pianoforte

Quartet in G minor, and the passage from his D
major Symphony quoted in Ex. 6o show similar
NOTE- VALUES AND ACCENT 83
treatment, and other instances will easily occur to

the reader.
When used in slow tempo, the division of the
Triple Measure into six subsidiary notes is often
connected with Rhythms of two Measures each,
and the Periods are of four, not eight Measures.

We shall discuss this form of Period later.
In all that we have said in this chapter, we have

referred only to the accentuation that is felt instinc-
tively in connection with the various arrangements

of long and short notes alluded to. What we may
call the natural accentuation of a given passage can
be, and very frequently is, entirely reversed through
sforzandos, for specially emotional or dramatic
effects ; for the element of the unexpected plays a
very large part in musical composition.
We have alluded to the Greeks. It might at
first sight seem as if the rhythm of

,
modern music can have
.
vi«in
little common
Ancient
Theory and
with the dactyls and spondees and iambics Modern
. .
Practice.
of this ancient people, and if we expect
to find compositions entirely written in these simple
forms we shall have to confine our attention to the

Hymn tunes of the Anglican, or the mediaeval
'Proses " of the Roman Church. But the simplicity
of the ancient forms is occasionally met with in short
passages of classical music : thus the allegretto of
Beethoven's Seventh Symphony is founded on an
alternation of dactyls and spondees : the minuet of
the same composer's so-called " Moonlight" Sonata

is in Iambuses. Schubert uses dactyls as the foun-
dation of the melody of the slow movement of his
posthumous D minor quartet, and anapaestic rhythm

occurs (accompanied by subsidiary accentuation) in
the finale of Schumann's piano quintet, and in the
finale of Beethoven's first sonata.
Our rhythmical structures are, as a rule, far more

complicated, and in this respect they reflect the
complicated conditions of modern life : but funda-
mentally they follow the same principles as those
of the Greeks, who developed the art and science
of Rhythm to the furthest point it could attain so
long as only unison melody existed. In rhythmical
theory they were in advance of us, and there is
much in their teaching that can be of the highest

aesthetic value if applied to modern art. But the
power, peculiar to modern European civilisation, of
combining various melodies in counterpoint, and
of using independent accompaniments to a given
melody, has resulted in a command of rhythmical
resources unknown to unison melody.
Since about the year 1880 much attention has
been given on the continent to ancient Greek rhyth-
mical theory in its application to the conditions of
modern musical art, and editions of classical works
have been issued in which the phrasing is arranged
ANCIENT THEORY 85
in accordance with Greek theory. But this, we

think, is going too The performer is, after all,
far.
an individual, and however much he may admire

a given theory, he should only use it to develop
and train his individuality, not to swamp it. The

application of Greek theory to classical works, in
print, involves the use of sundry strange and for-
bidding-looking signs, and it is better for the
student to use his judgment (after duly studying

theory) than to slavishly follow a stereotyped edition,
which may or may not be in accordance with his
own feeling in every respect. An edition of a
familiar and cherished work, full of strange and

novel signs, is apt to prove repellent. The more
strongly the phrasing is indicated, the more is the
performer of small experience likely to overdo it,
and to acquire a hard unsympathetic method.

Theory cannot do everything : it can only guide.
The human element of feeling, with its imperfec-
tions, must be present to move the emotions. The
conventional existing signs, which are familiar
to all, if used with knowledge and discretion,
are sufficient for nearly all purposes, and he who

plays without understanding, will do so, however
strongly the phrasing may be indicated by new
signs.
This applies more particularly to the older classical
music, to which the composers have, as a rule, given

few indications of phrasing. Brahms and most of
the moderns are careful to show the renderings they
wish for, and it will generally be found that aesthetic
reasons for their indications can be deduced to a

large extent from Greek theory : in other words,
our composers instinctively feel rhythmical effects
in much the same way as the Greeks felt and
described them. It has been observed also that our
great executants feel the rhythmical structure of the
older classics in very much the Greek way, and their
power of expressing it contributes in no small

degree to make their performances appeal more than
do those of the musician who relies solely on
brilliance of technique.
The possibility of our being able to listen to two

„ j. , or more melodies at once makes equally
n
Combined '
Rhythm- possible, as we have shown, the apprecia-

™ c s
'
tion of two or more rhythmical forms
simultaneously. As a rule one supplements the
other, as we have explained in reference to the
accompaniment to a song, which is the simplest of
the rhythmical combinations as a rule. More com-
plicated, and non-supplementary, are combinations
of triplets against duplets, or against quadruplets
and so on. A further development of this kind of
opposition of species is where one part has Primary
triple and the other has Primary duple time, so that
the whole Measure is involved, rather than a portion
"
COMBINED RHYTHM-SPECIES 87
of it, as in the Soldiers' Chorus in Berlioz' ' La

Damnation de Faust."
/V Another well-known instance of conflicting
rhythms is that of the passage in " Don Giovanni,

where the confusion in the minds of Zerlina and
Masetto is graphically shown by a confusion of
rhythms, combined into a homogeneous whole, in
ân artistic manner only possible for a genius of the
highest order to conceive and carry out\ The

minuet forms the rhythmical basis. It is in slow
triple time, its Primary accents being marked by
relatively longer notes. Masetto divides the indi-
vidual beats of the Measures into three-time Sub-
sidiary rhythm : in other words, he sings in triplets,
and so far the rhythm would not appear unusual

were it not for the notation employed.
^But Don Giovanni sings in duple time in such a
way as to bring his Primary accents on all three

beats of the minuet bar in turn, and thus adds to
the confusion of the lovers. vv The principle involved
is the same as that of the passage in R. Strauss'
Violin Sonata, quoted in Ex. 28, page 109.
Great ingenuity was exhibited in complications
such as this in the sixteenth century. The difference
between them and modern examples is that they
were usually puzzles or jokes of no artistic value,
while our composers use them for highly dramatic

or emotional purposes.
,

When we say of a composition that it has
'
' well
Well-marked marked" or " striking" rhythm, we

Rhythm. mean, as a rule, that the notes within
its Measures are so arranged as to produce a
strong accentuation. The word rhythm is here used

in its general sense, for if we wish to call attention
to a well-defined punctuation of the individual

Rhythms, we should probably use some expression
indicative of clearness of phrasing : it is not generally
recognised as yet that Phrasing and rhythmical con-
struction are the same thing.
Let us imagine a Period of 4+4 Measures
containing only notes of Primary value, and having
no accentuation beyond that given by the position
of the notes in the bars. If it is in slow tempo
the effect will be solemn, dignified, stately, or tran-
quil, reposeful, languishing, according to the harmony
employed. In any case the rhythmical form of
itself will not produce energy and emotion, though
these may arise from the employment of special
dynamic force, or special orchestration and harmony.

If we add a second Period, likewise only in notes
of Primary value, we shall be apt to produce heavi-
ness and monotony, unless we can invent some
specially striking harmony.
If our Period is in faster tempo ^ as Allegretto
or Allegro^ it will still be of a more or less tranquil
character, though with more movement : and the

WELL-MARKED RHYTHM . 89
addition of a second similarly constructed Period

would still be apt to produce monotony.
If the tempo is very fast, presto, for example,
there will be a feeling of pleasant exhilaration, with-

out excitement, such as one would experience in a
ship sailing with the tide and wind on an absolutely
smooth sea : but even a presto movement consisting
only of Primary notes would soon become mono-

tonous if continued long.
Such a Period would become modified in its
effect if we were to single out for stronger accen-
tuation any one note, either by special stress, or
still more, by making it longer than its neighbours.

The "Rhythm" would become more or less
'
Marked "
' the : passage, that is to say, would
become more energetic, and make more impression
than in its original condition.
The application of the principle of singling out
notes for special accentuation, or, what amounts
practically to the same thing, for special relative
length, impresses a phrase on us more forcibly than
harmonic variety : for the function of harmony in
its relation to Rhythm is to define the boundaries
of the phrases rather than to influence their internal

rhythmical effect. If the notes are all Primary,
certain of them can be singled out for special accen-
tuation by sforzando. Even if only one note in

a Rhythm is made shorter or longer than the
Primary note the ethos of the passage differs from
that of a similar passage containing only Primary notes.
For contrast is produced, and contrast within the
measure affects accentuation, and this attracts atten-
tion by breaking the monotony of a succession of

equal notes.
But though it is rare to find a Period containing
only equal notes of Primary value, it is almost as

rare to find a Period in which only one note is
lengthened as described. The two portions of a

Measure are capable of an infinite variety of treat-
ment, by being broken into subsidiary notes, by

being joined together, and by being given special
accentuation, all of which means the composer uses
to produce variety and interest. If he wishes for
rhythm "
'
a specially marked ' in the usually accepted

sense, he constructs a Measure, or a pair of Measures,
with a certain definite distribution of longer and
shorter notes, a certain rhythmical " figure " or
"motive," and repeats this distribution in successive
Measures until it becomes well impressed on the

mind. Triple measure seems to lend itself to this
treatment more readily than duple, owing perhaps to

the fact that its natural arrangement of long and short
notes gives a foundation for well marked accentuation.
Hence the frequent use of a repetition of a definite
figure of one or two bars in length, in scherzos and
other three-time movements of rapid tempo.
WELL-MARKED RHYTHM 91
Some kinds of Subsidiary figures seem to be

associated to a certain extent with particular musical
forms, though not confined to them. Thus, what
we may for convenience call Dotted-note rhythm,"
in which there is a frequent repetition of dotted
notes alternating with relatively shorter notes, is
often a feature of the March form, and it is also
met with in slow movements, in which a strong

impression of solemnity or dignity is required.
We have already noticed that a longer note will
give a greater sense of accent by contrast with
an adjacent shorter note than would be felt in a
succession of two equal notes. This holds good

whether the longer note is sustained, or is cut off
by a rest : it is the division of time that here gives
the sense of accent, and hence of rhythm. Thus,
the drum, which cannot sustain a note, and the
organ, which has no power of stress, can produce
" Dotted-note rhythm" just as forcibly as any other
instrument.
The March form is that it should
essence of the
have some strongly marked Subsidiary Accentuation
applied to Rhythms in well-defined four-measure
form. We require to appeal in a certain sense
through the ear to a real or imaginary exercise of
the muscles, as the drums excite soldiers to march.
One of the most convenient ways of strongly
marking Subsidiary Accentuation is through the
"

alternation of longand short notes, and Marches
that are entirely without " Dotted-note rhythm
form the exception. Handel's " Dead March -

in "Saul" is one of the exceptions: the rhythm of
the slow solemn major chords, in Primary Time,
is here punctuated by the equally slow beats of the
drum. In Schubert's well-known pianoforte march
in D major, the rhythm is made prominent, not by
dotted notes, but by dactyls, both in the Primary
and Subsidiary notes ; dactyls within dactyls. But
the principle is practically the same as that of dotted
notes, for it is the alternation of long and short
notes in the dactyl that gives it rhythmical force.
But here again we meet with another paradox.
For while "Dotted-note rhythm" can "mark the
time" in a March, and can impress us with dignity
and solemnity in a slow movement (the opening
passages of the Sonata Pathetique, for example), it is
also capable of expressing light-hearted jollity, as in
the Finale of Schubert's Sonata in D, Op. 53, and

in that of his great D Minor Quartet, which,
although in |- time, has exactly the same effect as
"Dotted-note rhythm." This kind of accentuation

can also be capable of irritating frivolity and empti-
ness if carelessly used.
Are these differences of ethos due to the rhythm
alone ? We think not we believe they are due to
:
the insight of the composer who knows how to fit the

WELL-MARKED RHYTHM 93
right harmonies and melodies to the rhythms to ex-
press what he requires. And in its ability to express
different feelings by the similar figures, Rhythm does

not differ from tonality, for the Minor key, usually
supposed to be associated with melancholy feelings,
can, equally with the major, be used for brightness
and pleasure. No one could call the Finale of the

Schubert quartet a melancholy movement : it is
more suggestive of the fun of the pantomime than

anything else.
When there are successions of even Subsidiary

notes whose normal accentuation is not _ -
influence of
interfered with by external means, such as Note-va/ues
e
sforzando or syncopation, in place of the ^L . .
excitement or energy that is suggested Character of
by the unequal arrangement of notes,

the even distribution gives a character of tranquillity
and repose, or of languor. Especially is this the
case when the tempo is moderate or slow : when the
pace is fast there will almost always be a tendency
to mark the natural accents strongly, and thus to
give an energetic character to the music.
The tranquil character that arises from even Sub-
sidiary notes is exemplified in Brahms' Intermezzo,
Op. 118, No. 2. See Ex. 3. In the Romance,
No. 5 of the same set, there are Subsidiary crotchets,
quavers, and semiquavers, all of which in their turn
contribute to the quietly flowing character of the
T N

piece. This does not, however, hold good when
equal notes are phrased in such a way as to bring
the accents into prominence : for example, the

Scherzo of the Serenade, Op. n, has crotchets as the
accompaniment to the melody, but their phrasing,
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produces an accentuation equivalent to
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and the movement is of a vigorous character. It is
in contrast to both Menuettos, in which the even

flow of the quaver accompaniment is not disturbed
by any special accents produced by phrasing, e.g.,
Ex. 2 1.
Brahms (Serenade Op. n. Menuetto I.).
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INFLUENCE OF NOTE-VALUES 95
With a Subsidiary rhythm of equal notes the

general effect is frequently modified, or even entirely
reversed by a strong Primary accentuation, as in
Ex. 11. In cases like this the character of the
music, whether agitato, appassionato, etc., is given
by the more strongly marked rhythm, whether it
occurs as Primary or Subsidiary, and the equal notes

form a background which welds the whole together.
What we say about the reposeful character of
even Subsidiary rhythm applies more especially to
movements of a moderate tempo. With great
rapidity and with special accent on the first note of
each group, equal notes can be given great energy,
as, for instance, in Schumann's Toccata in C.
In the majority of cases the notes of a Rhythm

are distributed unequally, so that variety is imparted
to the various parts of the Period and interest is
aroused. A melody which would be of no particular

interest with equal notes may be made beautiful by
an unequal distribution, whereby the longer notes
form a contrast to the shorter : and we have already
alluded to the importance of a Subsidiary accentua-
tion in the accompaniment, whereby the charm of
a melody of Primary notes may be greatly increased.
A very favourite device in the construction of a
Rhythm is to form some definite figure in the
first Measure, repeat it (rhythmically, not necessarily
melodically), in the second and then introduce new
figures for the third and fourth Measures : or to
form a pair of measures and repeat
Repetition of ....
rhythmical
r
figure. By this
.
'
means the
its
.
"Definite
Rhythmical species of rhythm is at once estab-
Figures.
lished, for the listener can more easily
grasp it when the first two Measures or the first two

pairs are alike than when they differ. Hence it will
be found that this construction is met with in almost
every composition, especially in its opening subject. 1

Beethoven sometimes constructed Periods in which
nearly every measure differed from every other, a
difficult form of composition, but one which, when
successful, generally gives a feeling of deep thought
and introspection. Thus is constructed, for example,
the opening Period of the slow movement of the
Sonata Pathetique, whose rhythmical scheme is as
follows :
1st Rhythm. 2nd. 3rd. 4th.

12 3 4 I
1 2 3 4 1
I 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1
IS
00
1 1
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A B
The bars marked A and B are alike, but since they
occur in different parts of their respective Rhythms,
they give no feeling of a repetition.
A temporary disturbance of the regular flow of
Syncopation, accents is an important and much used
means of expression. It is produced either by a
1
There is no necessity to give an example : the construction
alluded to will be found in the greater number of our quotations.
SYNCOPATION 97
sforzando, by which a single unaccented note is
made prominent, so that the attention is attracted
away from the normal accent, or by what is known as

Syncopation, a word which means "a cutting off."
Syncopation can occur in both Primary and Subsidiary
accentuation. It is brought about in the following way.
An accented note is cut short, or is represented by
a short rest, and the succeeding note, entering before

its expected time, is made longer than the shortened
accented note or rest : hence it receives an accent
by its relative value, not by its position in the
measure. It may be followed by other notes, of

equal value to itself, so that the disturbance of accent
is continued, sometimes through many Measures

(Primary or Subsidiary) in succession. To produce
a continuous syncopation the notes must be struck
on the weaker, and sustained into the stronger por-
tions of measures, and if an Anacrusis occurs, it
must be tied to its accented note. If it is necessary

to strike a note on any strong portion of the measure,
and yet to continue the effect of Syncopation, there
must be a fresh cutting off, and the Syncopation
starts anew. When applied to Primary accentua-
tion, Syncopation can be a means of kindling the
strongest emotion, as in a well-known passage in
the Eroica Symphony, where the accented portion
of the Measure is represented by a rest and the full
orchestra bursts in with a tremendous chord on its
weaker portion. Everyone has felt the intense
effect of this passage.

Another way of producing Syncopation is not by
a cutting off, but by tying an unaccented note to the
succeeding accented note. The long note thus arising

receives the accent that would fall on its second portion
if the two notes were not bound into one.
Ex. 22.
Brahms (Symphony No. 2, Op. 73).
Presto ma non assai.
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Ex. 22 shows syncopation in the Primary rhythm :
the first note of each measure is cut off, and the

succeeding note, being of double its length, and
being brought into the accented portion of the
measure, causes a fresh accent to occur within the
measure.
Ex. 23.
Brahms (Symphony No. 2).
Allegro largamente.
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SYNCOPATION 99
The melody of Ex. 23 shows the same treatment

in duple measure. The bass is syncopated in the
second way described above, namely, not by a cutting
off, but by tying the unaccented note to the succeed-
ing accented note. It therefore receives an accent,
not by position, but by value.
Ex. 24.
Tranquillo.
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Ex. 24 shows syncopation of the Subsidiary

rhythm. The disturbance of the regular accentua-
tion here produces an undercurrent of movement in
the accompaniment, in contrast to the regularity of

the Primary rhythm in the melody. We have,
therefore, simultaneous rhythmical figures differing
in ethos, a most expressive device.
ioo RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
Ex. 25.
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In Ex. 25, the disturbance of accent is more

pronounced, and it is probable that Brahms was the
first to use syncopation in exactly this way. The
melody continues its even course in Primary notes ;
the accompaniment is in Subsidiary dactyls. The

dactyl, as we have seen, has an accentual significance
of its own on its first note; but Brahms here, with a

wonderful fineness of rhythmical perception, disturbs
its natural order, and places an accent on the last note
of each dactyl by syncopation. Other composers
have doubtless done the same kind of thing, but as far
as we know, their dactyls have been in the Primary

notes, while Brahms syncopates them in the Sub-
sidiary rhythm against a Sustained Primary rhythm.
Syncopation can give to music a far away, dreamy
character. In the Adagio of Beethoven's Sonata in
B Flat, Op. 106, five bars after the change of key
to D major, the melody, first in the' bass then
repeated in the treble, contains for about sixteen
measures, only the three notes of the tonic triad,
SYNCOPATION 101
while the accompaniment is merely in tonic and

dominant harmonies, with the addition of a few
ornamental notes. There is Subsidiary rhythm in
the accompaniment, increasing in movement from
duple to triple, the Primary rhythm of three quavers
in a measure being represented by the melody.
To reiterate the three notes of the tonic triad
through sixteen bars, and accompany them by simple
tonic and dominant harmony, would seem to be
commonplace : its effect therefore all depends on
how it is used in connection with rhythm. We
could, by altering this passage very slightly, reduce
it to absurdity : so delicate is Beethoven's handling
of it, that, like a fine piece of filigree work, a rough
hand could instantly destroy it. The beautiful,
etherial, far away effect of the melody is produced

entirely by the syncopation of the first note of each
Rhythm, together with the contrast effected by the
composer's resisting the temptation to repeat the
syncopation in the corresponding place on the note A.
Such a passage as this would prove, if proof were
wanting, how much the greatest masterpieces of
music depend on an extreme delicacy of handling
in regard to rhythm, to which the executant, if he
wishes to realise them in their full grandeur, must
give at least as much attention as to the correctness
and tone quality of the actual notes. This is not
always recognised, even by some eminent per-
io2 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
formers, and it is not infrequent to hear a perform-
ance in which brilliancy of technique is relied on to
evoke applause, rather than careful and intelligent
accentuation and phrasing.

Where a lengthy syncopated passage occurs the
normal accent is generally heard, either in the syn-
copated passage itself, or in some other part : but
there are cases, especially in Schumann's music, in
which the syncopation is carried on without this
support, so that the hearer, unless he is familiar with
the passage, is apt to become bewildered, and to
lose sight of the normal accent altogether, in which

case he no longer feels the syncopation as such. In
the well-known passage in his Pianoforte Concerto,
Schumann omits every alternate normal accent, thus :
12
Ex. 26.
Schumann, Pianoforte Concerto.
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SYNCOPATION 103
The listener who does not see the conductor, may

easily imagine that the time is Duple, and the phrase
one of six Measures, thus,
C '
J r Jr U-i Jilr IJ r J-J* lir-Jr- U -i/J r Jr ji

I
until he is undeceived by the repetition of the

passage, in which all the normal accents are heard.
The rhythmical scheme is that of the so-called
Deuxtemps Valse " in which Falling accentuation
takes place, and the steps of the dancers are guided
by the accents on each alternate bar, rather than by
those of the single bars.
Hungarian and Bohemian music is noticeable by
its well-defined rhythms. This is due to the con-
stant use of Syncopation, which involves a strong

increase of accentuation on the naturally accented
notes of the individual Measures or portions thereof.
The kind of Syncopation specially peculiar to this
music differs from that usually found in classical
music, in that the lengthened note completes the

Measure or Half-measure, and a fresh Syncopation
is begun after each long note. Our meaning will
be made clear by the following comparison :
Characteristic Hungarian Syncopation ^Pj |

. JH"1 . |
Ordinary Classical Syncopation

\J\F* ^^ \
The result is that the performer instinctively

makes a strong stress on the short note, and through
io 4 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
this means the music becomes intensely vigorous
and exciting. Syncopation in all its forms seems
peculiarly to suit the temperament of these peoples,
and it abounds in their melodies as well as in the
accompaniments. It is this peculiarity that distin-
guishes their music from ours, for their use of

harmony is simple enough. With them Syncopation
is the rule ; with us it is the exception. The natural
vigour of the music itself, and still more, the intense
fervour with which it is executed by native per-
formers gives it a peculiar charm to us : there is a
spontaneity, an enthusiasm that carries us away. It
is good for us to play it and to hear it sometimes,

for it kindles in us a feeling for the importance of
accent more than, perhaps, any other music ; and
accent is of great importance in most music.
In the early part of the seventeenth century,
when as yet Folk-music was looked upon as un-
worthy of the attention of serious musicians, the
attraction of syncopation was felt, and composers
would sometimes deliberately use it and call it the
"Lombardic" style of composition. It was sup-
1
posed to have been invented by Vivaldi.
êe Spitta's "Bach," English Edition, Vol. I., p. 414.

—
CHAPTER V
Duple against Triple Time —Temporary Changes of Species
Time Signatures — Change of the Accentuation of a given
Melody — Brahms' Mastery of Rhythm — Quintuple and
Septuple Time
The ability to make simultaneous use of Duple

and Triple Measure introduces an element j) upie against
of contrast and variety which especially Tripk Time.
appeals to the intellectual side of our artistic feeling.

Bach employs this device rarely ; Mozart makes
more use of it, and Beethoven still more. These
composers apply it for the most part in the familiar
form of a triplet accompaniment against an even-

time melody, and the accompaniment frequently
consists of the repetition of some simple arpeggio
figure. In this form it is a development of the
so-called Alberti Bass, which consists of keeping
up an undercurrent of Subsidiary rhythm by means
of broken chords.
It goes without saying that modern composers
have not neglected the possibilities of a combination
of so intellectual a character ; and in place of the
occasional triplet arpeggios of Beethoven, we find
whole pieces, by Brahms, for example, in which the

melody is Duple and the accompaniment Triple
throughout ; and the triple-measure, whether Primary
or Subsidiary, is not confined to simple arpeggios,
but often forms a definite and beautiful figure, as
interesting as the melody itself.
The use of two opposing species of rhythm at

the same time is one of the paradoxes in which music
delights. It is also another instance of the remarkable
stage of development to which the musical brain
has advanced. In ordinary life it is supposed that
he who tries to do two things at once is liable to
fail in each. No two things- could be more opposed

to one another than the division of a given space
of time into two equal parts and into three equal
parts : yet musicians are able to do the one with
their right hand and the other with the left, and not
only to find intellectual pleasure in the task, but to
give pleasure to their listeners through the refinement
of artistic sense that such work demands.
The feature we allude to is familiar to all who
have to do with classical music. It is, as we have
said, very much more used now than formerly, and
in place of the triplets being merely an accompani-
ment to the melody, they sometimes take their place

as a double counterpoint to it. A particularly
beautiful example is that in Brahms' F Major Sym-
DUPLE AGAINST TRIPLE TIME 107
phony which we quote in Ex. 27. The triplets are
here syncopated into one another as are the dactyls

in his D Major Symphony, quoted in Ex. 25 : but
the triplets form a double counterpoint to the
melody, while the dactyls are merely an accompani-
ment.
Ex. 27.
Brahms (Symphony No. 3, F. Op. 90).
Andante.
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In this Andante the chief melody is at first heard

simply, without Subsidiary rhythm. Since the effect
of a particular passage is mostly due to its con-
nection with what has gone before the composer
will, as a rule, seek to enhance the interest, when
he repeats a melody, by some change ; and one of
the most potent means at his disposal is the addition
to it of subsidiary rhythm which has not previously

been heard. In the present case Brahms adds orna-
mental passages of Subsidiary rhythm in even
semiquavers at the first repetition of the melody.
At its second repetition he gives it the syncopated
triplets of Ex. 27 : and whether our readers agree
or not with our contention that the use of triple
against duple subsidiary measures is of more intel-
lectual than emotional significance, those who are
familiar with this symphony will probably feel with
us that the slow triplets above the melody make a

strong appeal to the intellect, and that the passage
is of deeper import than its predecessor with duple
ornamentation.
In the first movement of Richard Strauss 5 Violin
Sonata, Op. 18, the intermingling of duple with
triple measures is used in a striking manner. The
normal rhythm is duple, and each bar contains two
Primary Measures.
The first chord of Ex. 28 is the final note of the
preceding Rhythm. The new Rhythm commences
with the D, which is an Anacrusis, and is tied to
its accented note, receiving something of its accent,

the second and third Measures being contracted into
one triple Measure. At this point the violin enters
with the Anacrusis of the third Measure of its
Rhythm, whose two previous Measures are repre-

—
DUPLE AGAINST TRIPLE TIME 109
sented by rests. But since the piano has contracted
its second and third Measures into one, and has
Ex. 28.
R. Strauss (Violin Sonata Op. 18 First Movement).
I 1
Violin .
m if:
^£g=^j^^gj
End of Rhythm
Piano. J f i 2 and 3
fc=t
f Anacrusis.
W i H s—*—*
^
Anacrusis.
fefarftoM
2 and 3
^ :£ s
3^
te
e:
3 T
Anacrusis.
*T» P
wj L b,
fct*
iN a E
"#*
-4
=t=t
-# "#
ra
s
•""IF
changed its rhythm-species from duple to triple, the
last note of the violin's Rhythm falls on the first of
the piano's new Rhythm, forming on Overlap. And
the Overlap occurs both with the two instru-
—
no RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

ments together, and with the piano alone ; for the
latter's three-time bar is a kind of telescoping

together of two Rhythms, as indicated by the
numerals in our example. This seeming confusion
results in a novel and delightful combination of
duple with triple rhythm, which gives both players
and audience a pleasurable exercise of the intelligence.
Moreover, it is by no means a dry experiment : it
has an aesthetic significance in the tumultuous feeling

with which it introduces the succeeding appassionato
melody.
A temporary change from duple to triple species,
Temtorar
or vice versa > m tne principal melody, is
Changes of much used in modern music, and often

produces a delightfully fresh and unex-
pected effect. The change can take place in the
Primary values, as in Ex. 29, but it more fre-
quently affects the Subsidiary Measures, as shown in
Ex. 29.
Brahms (Serenade Op. 1 1 First Movement).
1st Rhythm.
t*
Pei
-o-*
^
m
espress.
-s 1
-<s>- r<SH
d:
nips
TEMPORARY CHANGES OF SPECIES Ill
2nd Rhythm.
r-
£m
3
m iGt -& ^r-

&
&m.
a.
$
L&UdA -©
:z2
«=ft 1
r I FH^ P-P- |
r r t=
Ex. 30, where the fourth bar leads the mind to

expect a series of triplets, and a surprise is experi-
Ex. 30.
Andante.
SEE
^ espress.
JBJ - J U S
&EE £zScg a:
»
!©
£ 22: i ô: I
_
P" -rjr *
r rr
r f f
enced on the last beat of that bar by the sudden
return to the duplet form of Subsidiary Measure.
-
ii2 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

The various combinations of five notes against
four, seven against six, and so on, are extensions of
the principle of duple against triple. They are
rarely used as yet for lengthy passages, and are most
frequently found where a scale or arpeggio requires
one or two extra notes to arrive at its destination,
while the accompanying passage can get there with

its normal number of notes. Sometimes, however,
such mixtures of notes can be used to produce a
highly agitated effect, as in the " Storm " in Beet-
hoven's Pastoral Symphony, where the disturbance
of nature is expressed by the violoncellos and double
basses playing quadruplets and quintuplets simul-
taneously ; and for such purposes they are coming
more into usenow than formerly.
In Chapter II. we referred to the relations between
Tjme the Time Signatures and the Measure and

Signatures.
t ie j>ar.
j The reader will by this time
have become well accustomed to the idea there
expressed, and we must now discuss the subject
further. It will be noticed in Exs. 27, 29, and
30, that although the Time Signature is the same in
each, we give two minims to the Measure in
Ex. 29, and two crotchets in Exs. 27 and 30.

In other words, the Measure equals the Bar in the
first instance, and the half-bar in the other two cases.
The methods of indicating the Time or Rhythm

species in our system of Notation have been allowed
TIME SIGNATURES 113
to grow up more or less at random, and much has

always been, and still is, left to the insight and
experience of the performer. This is only natural,
for no system of notation can possibly be devised
that will meet all the requirements of so subtle an
art as music ; and unless there is sympathy between
composer and performer, a composition must fail of
its due effect, even if everything that can be intimated
by notation is conscientiously observed to the letter.
The performer must feel what he plays : no amount
of printed signs can supply the want of understanding
the composer's intention.
We do not mean by this to imply that an
absolutely correct performance will be entirely with-
out value ; such an idea would be dispelled at once
directly we think of the delight given to thousands
by the many mechanical musical instruments that
have for the last three centuries been playing music
with an exactness that is unapproachable by human
fingers. mean We that, good as a purely correct
performance may be, it can never represent the spirit
of the music in the sense of mind speaking to mind :
hence it is that a piece played by a human being who

understands what he is about will give more satisfac-
tion, even if it is mechanically less perfect than the

same piece played without understanding by a
machine, or a mechanically perfect human being.
As a guide to the construction of the Rhythms
H
1
1
the Time Signatures are still vague and undecided,
though with the rapid increase that is taking place in
the means of expression this difficulty is gradually dis-
appearing, and composers are becoming more careful
to indicate their rhythmical wishes by their signatures.
The so-called Common-time Bar is of two kinds.

In the first, the bar is equal to the value of two
minims, the minim being the Primary value, and the
Rhythm and Period occupy the same number of
Bars as Measures. Properly speaking, when this
is the case, the Signature ought to be (f ; and

though the perpendicular line through the C is still
frequently omitted, yet modern composers show a
tendency to be more careful in this matter than

their predecessors. The two-minim bar with the
proper signature will be found in Ex. i i ,
page
50, and with the signature C in Exs. 15, page 59, and
29, page no. In such cases as these, the performer

must discover for himself that the Bar and the
Measure are of equal value ; but the careful modern
composer usually indicates the fact by his legato
signs. In Exs. n and 23 all ambiguity is obviated.
The signature (p indicates what is technically
known as Alia breve time. It signifies that the breve
is to be divided into two minims instead of four

crotchets, or, according to our theory, that the minim
is the Primary, and the crotchet the Subsidiary
value. The conductor is at liberty to make four
TIME SIGNATURES ii5
beats in the bar if he wishes, in what ought to be

Alia breve time, whether marked by £ or by C ; but
in that case he will be counting the Subsidiary and
not the Primary rhythm : he will require sixteen
instead of eight beats for the four-measure phrase,

and as a result he will probably take the movement
at a slower pace than the composer intended.
In the second kind of Common Time, in which
the signature is properly C, the bar is really com-
pound, since it contains the value of two Measures.
The crotchet is here the Primary note, and many
composers now indicate this fact by using the signa-
ture -J
instead of C.
Ex. 31.
TSCHAIKOWSKY ROMANCE.
Andante Cantabile. 1st Rhythm.
êra
3
-4- 3,
**
EffiE £=3: :btt:
©-
V I
dolce. \
f
f-^—&- rv H- -dfLJk
SWee * 3
2nd Rhythm.
4-4
.** * * ;*
zbe±r *^^+zX±j&
End of Period.
m^> a =j±at=z<fcp£
1
I
n6 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
In Ex. 31 the first Period commences at
bar 2, the first bar being occupied by two Pre-

liminary Measures. The Full Close on the sub-
dominant at bar 3 clearly indicates the end of the
first Rhythm, and the full close in the principal key
at bar 5 shows the completion of the first Period.
The Bars are evidently therefore of two Measures
each : the Primary note is the crotchet, and the
quavers give Subsidiary rhythm.
The use of the C signature, as in Ex. 31, for
compound bars, that is, in its right sense, gives rise
to the question of Rising and Falling Accentuation,

whose existence is denied by some theorists. When
a bar contains what is usually known as Quadruple
time, it is generally accepted that the first and third
crotchets are accented, and the second and fourth are
unaccented, and that the first is slightly more
accented than the third. We are ready to admit
that the difference of accentuation is so slight in
most cases as to be almost imperceptible, but that it
does exist will hardly be denied, even if in so small a
degree as to be ignored in practice. Assuming that
it exists, the phrase, if its first accent occurs at the
Bar-line, will fall into pairs of measures, in each of
which the first will be slightly more accented than

the second. Hence a Falling Rhythmical Accentua-
tion will take place. If, on the other hand, the first
accent occurs on the third crotchet of the first bar,

TIME SIGNATURES 117
Rising Rhythmical Accentuation will occur. There

are isolated cases in which a composer seems to wish
to specially point out the Rising Accentuation by
writing in Common time instead off, and beginning
with a half bar. For instance, the last movement of
Mendelssohn's Pianoforte Trio in D minor com-
mences in this way. Did he arrange it thus in order
to bring the closes on the first note of their bars
according to rule, or did he feel the difference
between Rising and Falling Accentuation ?
Where there are two measures in a bar, the con-

cluding chord of a Period will fall either on the first
or the second accent, according to whether the

Accentuation is Rising or Falling. In Ex. 33,
page 120, the Period ends on the secondary accent :
in Ex. 7, page 42, the suspension in the

Feminine Close comes on the same place. In
Ex. 3 1 the closes fall on the third measure, and are
sustained into the fourth to complete the Rhythm,
which has Falling Accentuation.
All that we have said regarding the Signatures (p
and C is applicable to the other Even-time signatures,

the only difference being that the others have no
means of distinguishing whether there are to be one
or two measures in the bar, so that the performer
must rely on the Closes and Caesuras. In Ex. 6,
page 41, the phrasing is distinctly shown by the

composer to consist of one measure to a bar. In
n8 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
Ex. 7, page 42, the Feminine Cadence, occur-
ring as it does at the second half of the bar, equally
clearly shows that there are two measures in the bar.
In Ex. 52, page 194, the dactylic form of the

bars leaves no doubt that they contain one measure
each.
The Signatures ^ and -| in the majority of cases

indicate bars containing one measure each, the
Primary Time of which is the crotchet and the
quaver respectively. The bars are simple, and
the Periods will contain the same number of bars as
measures. This form is shown in many of our

examples.
But the Signature \ (or -|) can sometimes be used
with compound bars for duple measures, in which
case the bar contains three measures, and the
Rhythms consist of three, six, or nine measures.
Ex. 5 page 38, shows an instance of this.
j
It will
be seen that the first Rhythm, here quoted, contains

six duple measures in the form of anapaests. The
succeeding Rhythm (not quoted) contains nine such
measures. The duple give way to triple measures in
the form of triplets at bar 13. In the second section
of the piece, where the key changes to A major, the
\ signature is repeated, but the bars are simple, as

indicated by the legato signs. Thus in the course of
a short composition the signature \ is used both for
compound and simple bars.
TIME SIGNATURES 119
No doubt the idea that this signature can be used

for duple measures will come as a surprise to those
who are accustomed to the orthodox view that the

bar is equivalent to a measure. But if we take it as
such in the piece from which Ex. 5 is quoted, the

result will be a phrase of unmanageable length, and
we shall not only ignore the composer's intention, as
distinctly indicated by the legato signs, as well as by
the half-closes in bars 2 and 5 (showing that the first
two Rhythms are to consist respectively of two and

three bars), but shall leave unnoticed the fact that
the succession of anapaests gives the impression of
duple rather than triple measure.
With the Signature § or ^ the Primary Measures
are either duple or triple. When they are duple the
two portions of each measure are divided into Sub-
sidiary Measures of the triple species, as in Ex. 8,
page 42. This arrangement of § time is more con-

venient for quick than for slow movements, and the
bar is simple.
In his Intermezzo, Op. 118, No. 4, Ex. 32,
Brahms shows this kind of barring not by -|, but by
-|, with quaver triplets as the Subsidiary rhythm.
f would probably have been the signature here with

the majority of composers, but Brahms seems to have
chosen f to enforce the fact that the Primary duple
is divided into triple Subsidiary, and the four
measures of the complete Rhythm occupy the space
:

of four bars, not two, as might be inferred by the use
of f signature. The most general use off in slow
a
movements is with bars containing the value of two
Ex. 32.
Brahms (Intermezzo Op. 118, No. 4).
Allegretto un poco agitato.
measures each, as in Ex. 33. The mind cannot

appreciate large intervals of time, and it is necessary
to keep the groups of measures which constitute a
complete Rhythm within a measurable space of time

hence arises the different use of -| in slow and quick
movements.
Ex. 33.
Brahms (Three Intermezzi Op. 117, No. 1).
Andante moderate. 1st Rhythm.
P dolce.
f^f T=F^
-T=fc=fi
fefc=ifc
w
TIME SIGNATURES 121
2nd Rhythm. End of 1st Period.
/
3 4 I
N
^ 1 si
±* *"ii«^—*-h* ^==j:
££
Masculine ending.
S J f '
I f
r .
But there is another and more subtle reason

for this difference. Ex. 33 might have been
written with bars of three quavers each, i.e. with
the signature -§ : but it would have lost in that
case its rhythm-accentuation, or this feature would
have been at the mercy of the player. By giving two
Measures to the bar we obtain a stronger accent on
the first of each pair of measures ; the full close at
the end of the period falls on the weaker of the
pairs of measures, and hence we have Falling
accentuation, in keeping with the cradle-song
character of the movement, while an inward strength
is given by the Anacrusis and the masculine
closes.
The f time are either equivalent to

bars in -| or
three Primary Measures each, or to one Primary
Measure. In both cases the rhythm, whether
Primary or Subsidiary, is of the Triple species. Ex.
34 shows a peculiarly beautiful use of -| bars for six-
measure Rhythms. The first accent is Preliminary,
Ex. 34.
1st Rhythm.
Grazioso.
P-
4
7>
i^ mezza voce
32
Caesura.
=d=
32
3d
4
^
3
3
3=t
:
2nd Rhythm.
&#
i
Feminine close. End of Period.
2* at
32t 3d:
~=± =t 3 I * i 5
and the rhythm proper begins with the Anacrusis E,
F sharp. Since each Rhythm and half Rhythm
begins on the unaccented portions of bars, and ends
with the bar-accent, the accentuation is of the rising
order. The character of the music is indicated by
the word grazioso, to which the feminine close at the
end of the first Rhythm gives effect, while the
second Rhythm commences without the Anacrusis.

The end of the Period is decisively shown by the
complete full close.
CHANGE OF ACCENTUATION 123
A peculiar charm is given to the second Rhythm

by a device made familiar by Beethoven,
. .
r .
r r
Change of the
consisting of the repetition of a few notes Accentuation
a ven
of melody and harmony with a new dis- °-L P,
tribution of the accents on them : i.e. the
first four notes of the first Rhythm, E, F sharp,
G sharp, A, are repeated in the second Rhythm, but

not only is the accent here on F sharp instead of
C sharp, but the E is cut off by the bowing, and
given to the preceding Rhythm. This nuance may
be conveniently called " Diaeresis of Melody." It
may seem unnecessary to go into such minute

details, but it is these details which, in their collective
whole, go to make up the character of a composi-
tion.
An example of §• Signature, in which the Bar is
simple, will be found in Brahms' Pianoforte quartet

in G minor, Op. 23, in which the first Period of the
Intermezzo, ending with a full close on the domi-
nant, contains three four-measure Rhythms, and
each Rhythm occupies four bars.
Whether the bars of any particular signature are
to be considered as compound or simple must be
decided, as we have shown, by the closes and
cassuras, and the tempo will also have to be con-
sidered,when no indications are given for it must :
always be remembered that too long a phrase without

a break conduces to a sense of weariness, owing to
i2 4 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
its want ofgrasped rhythmical divisions.
easily It is
probable that the " dryness " formerly associated in

the public mind with Bach's wonderful organ fugues,
so full of rhythmical interest, was chiefly due to the
idea which seems to have prevailed in the minds of

many organists that these works must be played
in one long wearisome legato from beginning to
end.
Before leaving this subject we cannot refrain from
„ , , noticing one more of the many cases in
Mastery of which Brahms shows his peculiar grasp
'
"
of the science of rhythm and its most
effective method of notation. In his Second Rhap-
sody, Op. 79, Molto passionato, ma non troppo allegro ,
the Subsidiary Measures are triple throughout, and
are written as quaver triplets. Many composers
would have been tempted to use the -ig2- sig-
nature here; but Brahms' unerring instinct caused

him to use the C signature, and make each bar
contain two Primary Measures, while it is the
Subsidiary Rhythm that is triple. No doubt the
same general effect could have been obtained by
the J 2- signature and the avoidance of triplets, but
g
the notation would in this case have suggested triple
Primary instead of Subsidiary Measures, whereas
the C makes it clear that the Primary Measures
are duple.
We have now to speak of a method of combining
QUINTUPLE AND SEPTUPLE 125
the two species of Rhythm which is gradually

being more and more used, as composers q . .
are beginning to realise its opportunities and Septuple
for fresh means of expression. We allude

to what is called Five-time Rhythm, represented by
the signature f \ or by
, alternate bars of triple and
duple time.
Quintuple time was much in favour with the
ancient Greeks, and is found in the folk-songs of
the Finns, Turks, Negroes, Basques, and in Bavarian
and Bohemian dances. It can therefore hardly be
said to be an unnatural kind of rhythm ; in fact it
was, perhaps, too much connected with the people's

music to find favour when our classical instrumental
music began to rise. Whatever the cause, Quin-
tuple rhythm is so rare with us that it is not
familiar to the musical public, or even to musicians,
and it is therefore apt to be looked upon as
something of an eccentricity.
There is nothing unnatural in a succession of five-
measure Rhythms : Brahms has shown us this, and

our English poetry makes use of verses of five feet
in blank verse. If the mind can easily appreciate a
Rhythm or a verse of five measures, there seems no

reason why it should not grasp a bar of five portions :
it is only because such rhythm has fallen into disuse

that our appreciation of it has become atrophied,
while we can enjoy the far more complicated triplets
:

against duplets, with which the great masters have
made us familiar.
We have explained in Chapter II. that the mind

does not accept a group of more than three notes
without imagining a secondary accent : that directly
we have four equal notes in succession, we in-
stinctively place an accent on the first and a secondary

accent on the third. In the bar of five beats the
same instinct leads us to place an accent on the first,
and a secondary accent on the third or fourth beat

if we attempt to imagine the bar with only one
accent, and the rest of the beats all equally
unaccented, as some have suggested, we shall find
five-time rhythm repulsive and peculiar, if not

impossible. The only question is as to which beat
is to receive the secondary accent, whether the bar is
to be divided in the order Triple-Duple, or Duple-

Triple ; and in many cases the composer arranges
the matter for us, either by placing a dotted barline
before the secondary accent, or by writing Triple and
Duple bars alternately. If he adopts neither of these
ways, we must be guided by the harmonic construc-

tion, or by the phrase-indications ; and if these give
no clue, we shall have to trust to an arbitrary
distinction in whichever way we feel it to be best.
Moreover, the order of the grouping will be some-

times changed, either by the composer or by our
feeling. That a group of five equal notes with only
;
one accent is possible, we do not believe ; and if it
is attempted it can only lead to an unsatisfactory

vagueness of effect.
Five-time rhythm is used for the portrayal of

intense agitation of mind in the second scene of the
third act of Wagner's " Tristan," and in Handel's
opera " Orlando," of which passage Burney, steeped
as he was in Italian methods, remarks that it is "a
division of time which can only be borne in such a

x
situation."
Chopin uses ^ rhythm in the slow movement of

his sonata in G minor. The first two bars are in
crotchets, the third and fourth of which are joined by

a legato sign, the rest being staccato : moreover, the
third crotchet is a chord of the diminished seventh
it is thus singled out from the other crotchets, which

are tonic triads : hence everything combines to place
the secondary accent on the third crotchet, and the
bar therefore consists of a Duple followed by a
Triple Measure. Since we maintain that a composer

nearly always indicates his general rhythmical idea in
the first two or three measures, we must take this as
the prevailing accentuation of the succeeding bars.

Paderewski makes use of J time in the second
section of his " Chants des Voyageurs," No. 4. The
movement is headed Andantino mistico, and there is a

further direction, misterioso^ in the first bar. The
1
Burney, History, Vol. IV., p. 364.
character thus indicated in the heading is supported
by the rhythmical scheme, the accents in the first
section (in §- time) being displaced by various means,

and the accentuation of the beautiful chord-successions
of the second section, in ^ time, being arranged in
a sort of orderly disorder, with the intention of
mystifying the hearer. The whole of this section
consists of repetitions in various keys of a single

Period of four bars in length, whose unusual
accentuation becomes gradually impressed on the
mind. The first two bars, owing to the construction
of their melody, give the impression of being divided

into Triple-Duple Measures; and by the same means
the second pair of bars give the opposite impression,
viz. of Duple-Triple. Hence we get a mixture of §,
|, and J, f, within a single Period.

The phrasing of Quintuple time is, like all
others, generally by four-measure Rhythms, the four

Measures consisting of alternate three and two-times.
Thus, for example, in the passage of " Tristan f
referred to, the orthodox form is retained, in spite of
the agitato character of the music. The harmonic

structure, in which the closes are artfully concealed,
so as not to check the onward flow of the music,

makes Rhythms of four Measures each, the measures
being alternately triple and duple, and the five-time

bars contain two measures each.
In the Paderewski example exactly the same
F
relations obtain between the Bars, Measures, and

Rhythms ; but here there is no attempt to conceal
the closes. The Chopin movement is like that of

Paderewski : the first Period, of two four-measure
Rhythms, ends with a full close in the fourth bar,
hence each bar contains two Primary Measures.

The second Period, of 4 + 5 Measures, ends with a
full close in bar 9.
In song "Agnes," Ex. 35, which is funda-

his
mentally in J time, Brahms shows how expressive
Ex. 35.
Brahms ("Agnes" Op. 59).
1st Half-Rhythm.
Con moto. |
1 poco f P 3
fczfe
— s=& 3
-H5 \
Je:z1E£-;l£
Ro-senzeit, wie schnell vorbei, schnell vorbei
2nd Half- Rhythm.

I
I poco f
*=t=
i IF
bist du doch ge - gan - gen.
music can be made through phrase-construction

alone. By an exquisite delicacy of touch, he con-
trives throughout the song to give intense pathos
to certain salient ideas by echoing them in a
repetition of the second measure of the first Half-
Rhythm, while retaining the normal form in the
second Half-Rhythm.
Tschaikowsky uses § rhythm in his Sixth Sym-
phony in the order ^, J, each bar having its secondary
accent on its third crotchet throughout the move-
ment.
Seven-time rhythm is either a combination of a
triple with a measure of four Primary values, or it
forms a seven-measure Period.

The first is exemplified in Brahms' Variations on a
Hungarian Song, Ex. 36, in which the crotchet is
Ex. 36.
Brahms Variations on a Hungarian Song (Op. 21, No. 2).
1st Rhythm.
feiigSfE
f
^2nd Rhythm.
0—0-
J.
*S
PS rF
the Primary note and the measures succeed one
another in the order f ^. The ,
Theme consists of a
Period of eight Measures, and its first Rhythm is
divided by the harmonic construction into Half-

Rhythms, shown by our analysis. In the first
as
Rhythm each group of seven Primary notes forms a
Half-Rhythm, clearly defined by the half and full
closes. In the second Rhythm the four measures

are continuous, and the result of the whole is
delightful.
Ex. 37.
Slanca from " Chansons Nationales des Slavs du Sud."

F. Z. Kuhac.
1st Rhythm.
^fl ft* j*P I

i I ^fe *
Ne-coj bo pa slanca pad -la na-ze-
mmnmi4m 2nd Rhythm. ist

r
t~
Rhythm.
:;,:,! —j-t
234567M1 234^ S 6 7 ||i
4 • *
I 5-+vT*#-5
13^ S •1
gs
ra- *B£B5
le-ne travnike bo za gvisno po-mo-ri - la vsete
End of 1st Period.
£L
2nd Rhythm.
^sîpi drobne ro - zi - ce.

End of 2nd Period.
1 r—P-
^f
The other method is shown in Ex. 37. The
words are in ordinary verses of four feet each, but,
as frequently happens in vocal music, the single feet
of the words do not correspond to the single
measures of the music. In the present case the

verse of four feet covers seven Measures, and the
ends of the Rhythms are carefully defined by closes.
The result is that the four verses are applied to four

Rhythms of seven Measures each, making two
Periods.
Saint-Saens, in his Etude, Op. 52, No. 4, changes
the Diaeresis 1 of two sets of notes having exactly the
same appearance on paper, by altering the signature
from f to -§-, thus, f SJ2S2 Decomes § Jjjjj

In \ the crotchet is the Primary note : the first
crotchet is divided into a triplet, the second into

a duplet, In -| the quaver is the Primary note,
and a triple time measure is succeeded by a duple,

making a compound 5 time bar.
J
See page 43.
CHAPTER VI
Importance of the Four- Measure — Schubert's Rhythms

Rhythm
— Beethoven's Rhythms — Half- Rhythms — Three Measure -
Rhythms — Five-Measure Rhythms — Rhythms of Seven

Measures
Up to the present we have confined our attention

to the four-measure Rhythm, with an
....
occasional allusion to
.
its
,. .
division
. .
into
Importance of
t^ e pour_
Half-rhythms. Upon this form of phrase Measure

r Rhythm.
.
,
is built, and must always be built, by far
the largest portion of all music, whether classical or

otherwise. For the balance of 2 + 2, whether applied
to the bar or the Rhythm is undoubtedly the easiest
rhythmical structure for the mind to grasp, and

therefore the one that gives the satisfaction to the
greatest number. Moreover, an easily grasped
rhythm leaves the mind free to appreciate the subtle-
ties of the Melos with which it is clothed. The

essence of rhythm is balance and due proportion,
and by dividing time into four equal parts we obtain
the most satisfactory balance.
Our readers will have noticed that in some of our
examples the close which ends a phrase falls on the
third measure instead of the fourth, but that by
extension or repetition of the final chord or note, the
due proportion of four measures of time is preserved.
The same result would obtain if the final measure
were represented by a rest, for the balance of time
would still be kept, though the Rhythm would not
be entirely filled with sound ; and time, after all, is
the essential substance out of which rhythm is
made.
A composer will sometimes, however, place his
concluding chord on the third measure, and cut off
the fourth altogether; and the Rhythm will then
consist of three measures only. This brings us to
the important subject of the divisions of the Rhythm
into other than four measures, more especially into
uneven numbers, such as three and £ve. These

divisions, which are well known in certain folk
music, were occasionally used by the older com-

posers, but are becoming more in evidence in the
present day, because audiences are becoming more

cultivated; and with increasing cultivation they
enjoy departures from the beaten track. Thus,
where we find in Mozart or Beethoven an occasional
Period with two or more three-measure Rhythms,

Brahms and his successors base whole sections of
compositions on Rhythms of other than four

measures. And these composers, greatly daring,
often obscure the endings of such phrases, so that it

IMPORTANCE OF FOUR-MEASURE 135
is difficult to say where one ends and the next begins,

and a keen intellectual pleasure is experienced.
In the classical music of the eighteenth century
(apart from that of Bach) the Rhythms are very
precisely shown by cadences, so that the most
unlearned or careless listener cannot fail to perceive
them. Into the formal moulds which resulted, the

great composers poured the inspirations of their
genius, giving expression to the highest aspirations

of their time with marvellous skill. The courtly
grace, the formal etiquettes and manners of the
century are reflected in the music of Handel, Mozart,
and Haydn, and their contemporaries, who used
well-defined forms for their own purposes, and pro-
duced through them music that, like the ancient
Greek drama, will continue to make appeal to
generations yet unborn, in spite of a simplicity of

construction that is no longer in keeping with the
spirit of the age.
The human feeling that is expressed in the highest
efforts of artistic genius makes its appeal to all ages,
for human nature never changes : only the methods

of expression vary with the different generations, and
for a modern composer to try and give expression to
his emotions with the formality of a Mozart, would
be much the same as if he were to appear in public in
a powdered wig and knee breeches.
But Mozart and Haydn sometimes tried experi-
ments with new forms of Period. For instance, they
would construct one of three-measure Rhythms,

or they would extend the orthodox form by one or
more measures ; but they never failed to indicate
clearly what they intended. Thus they obtained

variety in their rhythmical schemes, without offend-
ing the tastes of their day.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century man-
kind was beginning to weary of formality, and the
courtly order of things began to change for more
freedom of manners, and a greater liberality of
outlook. Democracy commenced that ascendancy
which has been growing ever since, and of which the
first great external evidence was seen in the French
Revolution. The feeling naturally began to be re-
flected in art ; for art is the expression of the emotions
of those for whom and by whom it is produced.
Democracy is not concerned with forms, and styles,
and etiquettes. What it requires is to give free expres-
sion to its feelings, and under the older regime the

enjoyment of art was a privilege of the upper classes,
so that artists expressed the promptings of their genius

in a style that was congenial to the only audiences
that they had. When Beethoven came to the fore
new ideas had begun to obtain. Though he was
one of the people, the new power that was making
itself felt had advanced to such a point that he could
dare to set at nought the etiquettes and formalities of
s ;
IMPORTANCE OF FOUR-MEASURE 137
the aristocracy on whom he depended for his living,
and to go own way with impunity. While

his
adhering to the four-measure Rhythm more closely

than his predecessors, he made it less evident by
rounding off its edges, and thus he laid the founda-
tions of the continuous Melos which takes so large a
place in modern music.

The formality which is so marked a feature in the
music of Mozart and Haydn, is tempered down by

Beethoven ; and with him came that remarkable man
Schubert, who forestalled modern methods in
another way, to be shortly referred to. After them

came Mendelssohn and Schumann, both of whom,
especially the former, returned to some of the ancient
formality in phrase construction. The influence of
Mendelssohn was paramount for many years, and
while this was the case critics, while admiring the
wonderful melodies of Schubert, found fault with
him because his phrases do not always conform to
the orthodox four-measure construction. But Schu-
bert was in advance of his age; and the Schubert
irregularity, far from being a fault, con- Rhythms.
stitutes one of the chief charms of his delightful

music. He had as keen a sense of rhythm as any of
the great composers, and well knew how to use it
and his unexpected phrases, startling as they must

have been before they became familiar, were, like
Beethoven's novel use of discords, merely a com-
pliance with the demand that was making itself felt
for freedom from the strict formality of a previous

generation.
Thus, for example, in the Scherzo of his A minor
Sonata, Op. 42, we find carefully constructed
Rhythms of five and seven measures in large
numbers, which are evidently not the result of

chance, though they must have puzzled early
listeners. In the Sonata in B major. Op. 147, a
large portion of the Allegro giusto consists of delight-
fully fresh six-measure Rhythms. In the first move-
ment of the Sonata in B flat, five-measure Rhythms
are intermingled with those of four and three
measures in a way that gives a contemplative and
mystical feeling to the music. Other instances might
be found of Schubert's intentional departure from
the four-measure phrase, not in the formal and
conscious manner of his predecessors, or from want
of mastery of his materials, but with a design to
excite the imagination by not allowing the rhythmical
scheme to be too obvious.
Beethoven's strong and novel effects are produced

more by telling harmonies and syncopations than by
variations in the length of his Rhythms, and when he
departs from the four-measure construction he some-
times labels the passage, so that the performer may
make no mistake as to what he means. Thus, in the
Scherzo of the Ninth Symphony, a passage is marked,

SCHUBERTS RHYTHMS 139
1
" Ritmo di tre battute," i.e. " Rhythm of three bars,"
and later, when he returns to the four-measure, he

marks it " Ritmo di quattro battute." To intensify
the excitement of the movement, he shortens his
Rhythms without marking them by closes ; on the

contrary, the conductor is expected to feel this
most delicate nuance of accentuation, and to com-

municate it to his audience, and the composer here
seems to have anticipated the advent of those
famous modern musicians who have raised the
art of conducting to a special branch of their
profession.
Beethoven began the modern practice of trusting

to the intelligence of his audience in Beethoven's
rhythmical matters. In his Quartet, Op. Rhythms.
131, he constantly uses the expressions, "Ritmo di
quattro battute," " Ritmo di tre battute," and

" Ritmo di due battute " : in this case there is no
conductor's beat to assist the audience. But the
appeal to the intelligence of the listeners began far
before this late work ; for in the Piano Sonata, Op.
28, the first Period of the opening subject contains
ten bars undivided by anything equivalent to a close,
and the sound is carried on at the end of the Period
without a break, by the repetition of the bass notes
in bar 10. This Period is of an unusual construc-
tion : it demands Falling Accentuation to produce its
1
Battuta, literally a beat, means a bar in music.
— f
i
quiet pastoral effect : the first Rhythmical accent will
fall on the first D in the bass, and the alternate bars

must be slightly more accented than the rest. It is
one of the few exceptions from the four-measure

structure found in Beethoven's works. The com-
poser himself indicates Falling Accentuation later on
by the sforzandos ; thus, Ex. 38.
Ex. 38.
Beethoven (Op. 28 First Movement).
:t
Us:
r r
:
^:
-&>-
m
sfp
25fc
-<S>- ^g^
-j— p— 21-
-S-.
f
fc& If £H|
#
The practice of obscuring the ends of the Rhythms,

instead of sharply defining them, has been developed
in our own time by Wagner, Brahms, and others.
By its means the intelligence is called into play, and
the imagination of the audience is stirred, and the
effort required forms no small portion of the pleasure
of listening to music. The more intelligent the
public becomes, the greater is the freedom available
to the composer to express himself in a manner that
would have seemed abstruse and impossible to an
earlier generation. But in this matter the nineteenth

HALF-RHYTHMS 141
century composers were anticipated by Bach, whose

Rhythms and Periods are not so sharply defined as
those of Mozart and Haydn.
Let us now examine how composers use Rhythms
of other than the normal number of measures,
commencing with the two-measure, or Half-rhythm,
since this, next to the four-measure, is the one most
in evidence. It may be said, indeed, that the Half-
rhythm takes a place equal to the four-measure in
importance, since the greater number of Rhythms

show some sort of division into 2 +2 measures.
A Rhythm of instrumental music is the equivalent
to the single verse of poetry, which is
Half-
rhythms.
fundamentally such a sentence as can be
comfortably uttered in a single breath. But both
the Verses of poetry and the Rhythms of music
may be for dramatic purposes divided into shorter
than the normal lengths, so that they become
verses of two feet, for instance, or Rhythms of two
measures.
A succession of verses of two feet is possible : e.g.
in the " Midsummer Night's Dream,"

1 2
On the ground
1 2
Sleep sound,
1 2
I'll apply
1 2
To your eye
i
Gentle lover remedy

23 4
When thou wakst

Thou takst
True delight
In the sight
Of thy former lady's eye.
Short phrases analogous to these are much more

frequent in music than in Poetry. By some theorists
they are called two-measure Rhythms, by others

Half-rhythms, or Portions of rhythms. The nomen-
clature is not of great importance : what is of
importance is to understand that such short phrases
are rhythmical sections, which must be made evident
by the performer whether we call them two-measure
rhythms or half-rhythms. In our view the most
convenient way is to look upon them as half-rhythms,
except when the complete Period consists of four
instead of eight measures, as is often the case in
slow movements.
If we write Shakespeare's lines as four-feet verses
the rhymes will divide them into half-verses, and the
effect when reading them aloud is the same as before :
On the ground, Sleep sound,

I'll apply to your eye,
Gentle lover, remedy. 1
1
tn Greek rhythmical theory a verse or a Rhythm is called a
" Colon. " Two or more colons form a " Period." Half-verses
or half-rhythms, such as the above lines, are called Semicolons,
and any portion of a verse or rhythm smaller than this is a
:
HALF-RHYTHMS 143
It will be noticed that the final verse of each

stanza is not divided into half-verses, but contains
the normal number of four feet.
Shakespeare could scarcely have known anything

of the Greek rhythmical theory on which so much
light has been thrown of late years ; but he, like all
great poets and musicians, instinctively constructed

his periods in forms that can be best explained by
reference to Greek theory. The Greeks noticed
that when the verses of poetry, or the Rhythms of
music (which with them were identical), are divided
into half-verses or half-rhythms, the rhythmical

instinct seems to demand that the final verse or
Rhythm of the Period shall be complete and
unbroken. This instinct led Shakespeare to give
the full number of four feet to the last verse of each
period, and it is remarkable how frequently instinct
leads our musicians to treat such periods as begin
with half-rhythms in the same way. Many instances

might be adduced but for considerations of space
we illustrate it by a passage from Brahms' Clarinet
Sonata, Ex. 39.
" Comma." The grammarians of the Roman Empire marked

these divisions by certain signs, and in course of time the names
were transferred from the divisions of poetry to the signs that
marked these divisions, and the signs were used for prose as well
as poetry. They are now known as punctuation signs ; there
is as yet nothing exactly equivalent to them in Musical
notation.
— —
i
Ex. 39.
Brahms (Clarinet Sonata Op. 120, No. 1 Second Movement).

Allegro appassionato.
Clarinet.
^~
<s»-
Z2I
t=
S^ J 1^:
f '\\ -&- • Caesura.
10 1-
Caesura.
m&3h¥=%
y^y aîj
I M zp*:
-q-
r r |S>".
r * .
In this example there are two well-defined Half-

rhythms of two measures each, followed by a com-
plete Rhythm of four undivided measures, which
concludes the Period. A further example will be
found in the Andante con moto of the same sonata.
The Rhythms are in the latter case divided by the
phrasing signs into single Measures, each bar contain-
ing two Measures. The first Period concludes at
the fourth bar with two undivided measures. Every

one knows that similar short phrases are very
common in all classical music ; but it is perhaps not
HALF-RHYTHMS 145
generally noticed that a succession of such phrases is
almost always succeeded by an unbroken phrase of

double the length of the shorter phrases. It is
probably our sense of balance that demands this
treatment : the rhythmical faculty is not satisfied
with small doles of accents, but requires a complete

rhythm to succeed and counterbalance them. 1
1
For a confirmation of what is here adduced a volume of
Beethoven's Sonatas forms an easy means of reference. We refer
only to the opening Periods : the reader can investigate the

further course of movements for himself.
Sonata No. I. Adagio. The first four measures are definitely

divided by half-closes into half-rhythms at bars 2 and 4 : the
concluding rhythm of the period is of four unbroken measures,
ending with the full close at bar 8.
Menuetto. The melody opens with 1 + 1 measures, followed by

an unbroken phrase of two measures.
Prestissimo. The melody of the first rhythm is broken into
1 + + +
I 1 1 measures : the two succeeding rhythms are of four
connected measures.
Sonata No. 2. Largo appassionato. The first period consists of
2 + 2 measures followed by four undivided measures.
Scherzo. 1 + 1 followed by 2.
Sonata No. 3. Allegro con brio. 2 + 2 followed by 4.

Adagio. The
compound, and the fundamental Phrases
bars are
are here two- not four-measure Rhythms. In bar 7 there are two
half-rhythms, followed immediately by the fundamental two-
measure rhythm. (In the E minor portion there is a radical
change of rhythmical construction into which we cannot enter
here.)
Sonata No. 4. Largo. 1 + + + 1 1 1 followed by 4.

Sonata No. 5 in C minor. Allegro molto con brio. The opening
bar is introductory. The rhythm proper commences with an
K
The principle may be briefly stated thus : when a
Period commences with a series of short detached

phrases, it will usually conclude with an unbroken
phrase of double the length of the single detached
phrases with which it commenced. 1
Anacrusis of three notes in this bar, and its first accent is in the
second bar. The phrasing should be 2 + + 2 2 down to the

thirteenth bar, in which the concluding four-measure rhythm of
the first period should commence with Anacrusis. But this con-
struction is not shown in the ordinary editions. The G in bars
9, and 13 should form the end, not the beginning of the

11,
phrases, and the F, E flat, of these bars should form the Anacrusis.
Let the reader play the passage thus, and he will probably agree
with us that it gains greatly in brilliance and energy, in keeping
with the "con brio" of the composer.
Adagio molto. 2 + 2 followed by 4.
Finale. 1 + 1 followed by 2.
Sonata No. 6. Allegro. 1 + + +

1 1 1 followed by 4. It
seems superfluous to pursue the references further ; but amongst

the later sonatas we find
Sonata No. 27, Op. 90, E minor. First movement. 2 + 2 +

2 + 2, followed by a phrase of eight measures unbroken by rests.
Sonata No. 29, Op. 106, in B flat. Allegro. 2 + 2 followed by

4 without rests. In the scherzo of this sonata the single measure
phrases continue for an unusual time, and not till the eighteenth
bar does the complementary four-measure rhythm enter.
1
Choirmasters may think the following experiment worth trying.
In any hymn which contains four equal verses to each stanza, let
there be a slight pause for breath, making a momentary break in
the continuity of equal bars, a Caesura, at the end of the first and
the second verses ; then let third and fourth verses be sung without
a Caesura. (By verse we mean, of course, the single line of the
poetry.) This will be in accordance with the Greek aesthetic
law that two detached phrases should be followed by a single

HALF-RHYTHMS 147
In symphonies long successions of Half-rhythms

are often found, more especially in the working out
section, for such passages have the effect of carrying
on an unbroken Melos, while the Half-rhythms are
not indicated by any Caesuras or closes, but by the
melodic construction. A two-measure figure repeats
itself over and over again before it comes to any
conclusion, so that an unbroken phrase of more
than ordinary length is produced. This would seem
to militate against our contention on page 21 that
the mind cannot grasp a large section of time ; but
we quickly seize the two-measure nature of the
melody, and this satisfies our rhythmical sense, while
the Melos continues an unbroken course. Any
number of such passages are to be met with
in symphonies, and not always in the " working
out " section only. Let the reader listen care-
fully to the middle part of the first movement of

almost any symphony, and he will notice how
much of it falls into two-measure fractions of the

Melos.
unbroken phrase equal to the two previous ones combined ; and

we think that the choirmaster will probably find that such a
treatment will give a vigour and significance to the
rhythm which
will quickly be seized and appreciated by the congregation, and
which will be more satisfactory than a mechanically strict adhesion
to the value of the notes "as written," producing a breathless
effect, or a pause after each line, which is apt to give a heavy and
wearisome result.
i
In Ex. 40 we quote the first two Rhythms of a
composition in which the two-measure phrasing is
carried out through a whole section.
Ex. 40.
Dvorak (Slavische Tanze).

1st Rhythm.
Preliminary. ^
A i
beSe
-4^*
£*Lk -e=
11
IeeI
i
m ff
si
1—
-et-
i
Pi
0-
a
2nd Rhythm.
This is rare. It is folk-music, and the perpetual
flow of well-marked half-rhythms gives the effect of

restless activity. Such a construction can be very
effective for a short composition, but it would soon
weary us by its restlessness. To give repose, Dvorak
constructs his Trio of unbroken four-measure
Rhythms, as a contrast to the half-rhythms that
'
HALF-RHYTHMS 149
precede and succeed them. It is remarkable that

the Anacrusis does not occur throughout this dance.
In very slow movements of Triple time it is not
rare to find Periods whose Rhythms are complete in
two Measures ; and in this case the phrase is really a
two-measure Rhythm, while the half-rhythms consist

of one measure only. The reason of this lies in the
limitation of our power of time measurement, which,
at the outset of the book, we have shown to be the
fundamental cause which necessitates the division of

music into short phrases.
Ex. 41.
Beethoven (Overture Leonore No. 3).
1st Rhythm.
A
%=*^>
*& =sm -4-,
m^-
l*q^
w^=\^=*
T
(Anacrusis.
sf Anac.
~N
i&- I
d ~^-
^fcfcp:
fSE r
2nd Rhythm.
_ etc.
Jr r>» ^
r*-i 1
— -*-
Full Close.
dim:
\>t 70 r -
-*»-
£
my End*-*
ft
of Period.
It will be seen that in Ex. 41 the Period is strictly
made up of two Rhythms, the first of which ends

with a half-close, the second with a full close in the
tonic : nothing could be more definite. But the
Rhythms are of two Measures only in length. Such
passages often contain quavers, which make an even
Subsidiary accentuation, so that the long-drawn notes
do not weary and the \ bar in this form is alluded
;
to by the Greeks under the name of a Six-time
Measure, of which the quaver is the Primary value.

Following Greek rule, some modern theorists have
explained that in music having six Primary Times in
a measure (with the Diasresis JJ J~2 J"j) the
normal phrases are always of two and the normal

Periods of four measures. But we do not think
it necessary to complicate our theory by reference
to a six-time measure : we think there is no
difficulty in accepting such measures as containing
three Primary values, each of which is divided for
rhythmical purposes into two Subsidiary values.
Moreover, a composer can, if he wishes, construct
Rhythms in slow Triple time of four measures,
by the repetition of some striking subsidiary figure,
as in the slow movement of the Fourth Symphony

of Beethoven already alluded to on page 29, and
in so doing he applies the principle of making a
lengthy phrase intelligible by repetitions of a short

HALF-RHYTHMS 151
figure. The aesthetic value of the three-time

Measure in slow tempo with Periods of 2 +2
Rhythms, is very great ; for while solemnity and
depth of feeling is more usually expressed in even
slow time, the possibility of using triple measure

for the same purpose gives opportunities for contrast
and variety. It is perhaps worthy of remark that

this kind of movement is less often found in very
modern music than in that of the older masters,
owing perhaps to the greater strenuousness of
modern life, which is reflected in our music ; we
have less necessity than our forefathers for variety
in slow movements.
The Rhythm of three Measures is used in several
ways. A normal Period may be unex- T T
* ,
pectedly curtailed by the cutting off of Measure
one of its measures, usually the last, so ^
that the succeeding Period compels attention by

entering before its due time. An example of this
effect occurs at the very outset of Elgar's Symphony,

Op. 55. See Ex. 127, page 289. This example,
however, shows a somewhat novel use of the three-
measure Rhythm to curtail the Period, for it is
combined with an apparent Overlap, as explained on

page 290.
A more usual use of the isolated three-measure
Rhythm is found in Ex. 42.
— — — *

Ex. 42.
Strauss "Italy" Symphony —Third Movement.
Clarinet.
i
M=±
#
F
r-
w i
^r
An
pp
E flJ TS
ml>
J- IV U-I
t_jL
^gpp n^— g_^zzg1
Feminine ending
~^~» of 4 Measure
(
Rhythm.
^
Feminine ending of I
3 Measure Rhythm.
3
I IS
= K J.
:fr"M
-/v t w —g
g —
•—TT\L
» W glflg
w- -#i
-^F-===
• P
* **
-j 1-
The three-measure Rhythm here occurs in the
midst of a Period, between two normal Rhythms.

: —
THREE-MEASURE RHYTHMS 153
The clarinet ends its phrase on the B, and the violin

enters with a new phrase, whose commencing chord
shows that here there is no kind of Overlap. Isolated
three-measure phrases like this are very common in
modern music, and we shall meet with them when we

come to the analysis of compositions. They are found
in the older music, but more rarely. Their aesthetic
value is that they keep the movement going with un-

flagging energy, for no monotony is possible with an
intermingling of three- and four-measure Phrases.
We have noticed that Mozart, Haydn, and Beet-
hoven occasionally employ short successions of three-
measure Rhythms. Brahms goes more boldly into
the matter, and makes the three-measure the funda-

mental Rhythm of a whole section of a movement,
as, for example, in his G minor Pianoforte Quartet,
of which Ex. 43 shows the opening bars
Ex. 43.
Brahms Pianoforte Quartet in G Minor (Op. 25) Rondo

ALLA ZlNGARESE.
IS/
9 ^-*-m+
j
*-+-T-^
*t
Half-close
^g» E
SE?Pt r
It is headed "
Rondo alia Zingarese," and its
three-measure Rhythms are suggestive of wild gipsy
life. A contrast is produced by the strictly four-
measure structure of the second section, and of part
of the meno presto, but the prevailing Rhythm
throughout is that of three measures.
1 2 3 5
*
" Most potent, grave, and reverent Signiors, -
Masc. ending.
1 2 3 4 5
My very noble and approved good masters,
Fern.
1 2 3 4 5
That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter,
_
It
-J
is most true
2
;
3
true, I have married her
4.5 Fern.
12
;
Caes. Masc.
3 4 s
The very head and front of my offending
Fern,
i 2 3
Hath this extent, no more."
Caes.
from u Othello
1S
The above lines will serve as an
_,.
_ analogy in verse for the rhythmical struc-
T/
Measure ture we are about to describe, the use of
•* '
which on an extended scale has been

attempted by Brahms alone amongst the great
masters, so far as we are aware.
The Rhythm of five measures has always been

recognised, and is described by H. C. Koch in his
" Anleitung zur musikalische Composition, " 1787.
He gives it the technical term of " Fiinfer," and says
that it can arise in several ways. It can be an exten-
sion of the " Vierer " (four-measure), by a repetition
of its final chord, with or without ornamentation.

Or one of the internal measures of a Vierer can be
repeated ; but in both these cases he considers that it
is not a true Fiinfer, but merely an extended Vierer.

FIVE-MEASURE RHYTHMS l
SS
The real Fiinfer, which is rare, he says, is one in
which there is no extension or repetition, but the

phrase comes to its natural ending, masculine or
feminine, on its fifth measure.
The above kinds of five-measure phrases can be
found in almost any classical work, but they are
used as a rule in such a manner that they do not
disturb the even flow of four or two measures, since
they overlap the succeeding Rhythm, so that their

last accent coincides with the first of the next phrase.
Hence the 5 +4 measures only make a Period of
eight measures between them.
Ex. 44.
R. Strauss, Ein Heldenleben (Op. 40).
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Overlap.
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This construction is so common as a means of
carrying on an unbroken Melos that we need not go
further into it. But Brahms, ever expressing himself
by means of new rhythmical forms, utilises the five-
measure Rhythms without Overlaps as the basis of
whole sections of compositions, so that a musical
equivalent to the lines of Shakespeare quoted above
results. Thus the piquant effect of the Trio in the
G minor Pianoforte Quartet is largely due to the fact
that, after the two introductory triplets, it is entirely
built on Rhythms of five measures each. A contrast

to the Trio is formed by the Intermezzo, which is in
very regular four-measure Rhythms.

He saw the value of five-measure rhythms early in
his career. In Ex. 45, from his Ballade, Op. 10,

No. 1, " Nach der schottischen Ballade Edward,"
the five-measure Rhythms, with their alternately rising
and falling accentuation, seem to reflect the horror

of the story, in which a son murders his father at his
mother's instigation.
Ex. 45.
Brahms, Ballade "Edward" (Op. 10, No 1). ,
p . ,
n r N
:fc it&t
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is :«Ei§3 "*"
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f Falling ace. Rising ace. Falling ace.
In his song, "Am Sonntag Morgen," Op. 49,

No. 1, the five feet of the verses are wedded to
five-measure Rhythms with charming effect.
SIX-MEASURE RHYTHMS 157
Next to Rhythms of four and of two measures

those of six are the most used. As a rule
Th s
-
they are made by adding a Half-rhythm to Measure

y
an ordinary four-measure phrase, and this
is frequently done in such a way that the whole

Rhythm is distinctly divided from the half which
follows it, so that we can speak of the six-measure
as having a Caesura at its fourth measure.
But there are cases of Six-measure Rhythms
without perceptible Caesura, such as the second
of the two in Ex. 34, page 122; and they are
very beautiful. Six-measure can also be divided
into 3 + 3, as in the first of Ex. 34, or 2 + 2 + 2,
by Caesuras.
A very common use of the Six-measure Rhythm is
shown in Ex. 52, page 194, from Brahms' Rhapsody,

Op. 1
1 9, No. 4, where it overlaps the next Period,
in the same way, and for the same reason as we
described in connection with the five-measure on
page 155. In this example the overlap does not
disturb the flow of five-measures upon which the
composer builds this Rhapsody ; but where there is
a six-measure with overlap in the midst of four-

measures, the result is a Period of nine measures
instead of eight, and an intentional slight disturbance
of the regular flow of normal phrases.
In Ex. 5, page 38, we have shown six-measure
Rhythms produced by Duple Subsidiary, in combina-
tion with Triple Primary Measure ; but such cases
are rare.
Rhythms of seven measures are only met with in
,
f
isolated cases, their most usual place being
Seven at the end of a series of Periods, where
they are formed by several repetitions of
the concluding chord of the full close. They are,
however, sometimes used with an Overlap, so that

the impression of several six-measure Phrases is
given ; but a Phrase of so considerable a length as

seven Measures almost always repeats some definite
short figure, which, as we have already explained,
satisfies our sense of rhythm.
—
CHAPTER VII
Variations of Tempo—The Pause — Rests and Empty Times

Haydn's humorous of
use — Rests Rests in R. Strauss' "Tod
und Verklarung" — Examples of Diaeresis in Brahms and
Grieg — Unbarred Music Beethoven,
: Op. 106.
Since the fundamental element of rhythm consists

in the division of time by definite groups Variations of
of accents, it would seem to follow that Tempo.
the more precisely we can measure off these intervals
of time, the more satisfactory will the rhythm be.
But this is by no means always the case, and a
performer who plays with absolutely mechanical

precision of time is apt to weary his listeners.
Our artistic feeling resents the presentation of
anything connected with the emotions with rigid
mathematical exactness of detail ; and in all per-

formances in which the feelings as well as the fingers
take part, there will inevitably be slight variations of
tempo y almost imperceptible perhaps, due to the
" personal equation " of the player. Such variations
from mechanical precision give a performance a living,
human expression, which is absent from the most

perfect of mechanical efforts, whether carried out by
the fingers on a keyboard or by the revolutions of a
wheel.
The principle involved in the slight variations of
tempo due to the varying emotions of the artistic

player is enlarged upon by composers to enhance the
effect of certain passages by a deliberate and gradual
quickening or retarding of the general speed of the
music. In an accellerando passage the interval of
time between the successive accents is gradually
reduced : more effort is called for, and an increase of
vivacity is the result. The accellerando of music may
perhaps be compared to the action of two persons
walking together, and engaged in a friendly argu-
ment, or an exciting conversation. It will be found

that the pace of the walk increases in rapidity with
the increasing heat of the argument, or the greater

excitement of the conversation. The increase of
excitement produces an increase of rapidity of
motion, an increase of effort, and in the music the
excitement and effort is purposely augmented by the
accellerando of the composer or performer.
The ritardando, the gradual increase of the intervals
of time between the accents, has the effect of giving a
more weighty utterance to the rhythm, if the force

of tone is sustained, or, as frequently with Beethoven,
augmented. If the ritardando is accompanied, as is
more often the case, with a diminuendo, it results in a

VARIATIONS OF TEMPO 161
relaxation ot effort, to prepare for a fresh start, a
renewal of effort when the original tempo is again

taken up ; or it impresses the passage more forcibly
by calling attention to it ; or it has a contemplative,
languorous effect.
To produce a true accellerando or ritardando de-

mands a certain artistic capacity. Those who have
not this capacity, whether instinctive or acquired,
will be apt, instead of making a gradual increase or
decrease of pace, to suddenly change the tempo from,
say, andante to allegro^ or vice versa, and will thus do
away with the intended effect. For a sudden change
alters the character of the music, while a gradual
change only slightly modifies it, and serves to
impress a given passage more forcibly on the
hearer.
In dramatic music great use is made of accellerando
and ritardando for expressions of joy, grief, and other

emotions : the music, following the ever-varying
feelings of the actor, quickens or slows down in
accordance with the sentiment to be expressed.

Beethoven, ever alive to the importance of moving
the mind rather than merely pleasing the ear, made
great use of the accellerando and ritardando. Thus,
in his sonata in E flat, Op. 31, No. 3, the rhythm is
established by the pair of measures which we have

shown to be the smallest number that can produce a
sense of rhythm. The accentuation of these two
measures is driven home to us by strong discords :
we are meant to feel the rhythm to be this, and no

other. And no sooner is it established in our brain
than the composer relaxes the movement by a
rttardando combined with a crescendo (a paradox

which seems to have been invented by him), leading
us, we do not know whither, in key or rhythm, until
we suddenly find ourselves happily launched into the
principal key, with the original tempo of the two

opening measures re-established.
It is said that when playing his own works Beet-
hoven sometimes adopted a tempo rubato, in which his
ever-varying moods had free play. This delicate

nuance^ which consists of here and there slightly
altering the tempo within the measures, while the

Rhythms retain their normal relative time, is un-
doubtedly a powerful means of expression in the
hands of a competent executant. It is of course
absolutely opposed to a mechanically exact time-
division ; and the personality of the player comes
perhaps more into evidence by it than by most other
means. On the orchestra it would scarcely seem
possible : yet such is the growing discipline and
sympathy between orchestras and their conductors,
that we never know what developments may take

place, and it is quite possible that the tempo rubato
will be attained, if it has not been already.
Rhythmical movement may, for dramatic and
THE PAUSE 163
expressive effects, be interrupted by sustaining a
note or rest beyond its relative value. Tie Pause.
The Fermate^ or Pause, causes us to concentrate

our attention on the single note, or on the passage
that immediately preceded it, or, in the case of a
rest, on that which follows. The succession of
time-intervals which has been established in our
mind ceases ; the rhythm is deliberately broken, and
we are compelled to take notice of what is happening.
The Pause attracts our attention if it occupies the
last note of a Period : more if it is on the last note
of a Rhythm, and still more if it is within a Rhythm.
Beethoven, in his Fifth Symphony, and elsewhere,
has shown that pauses can be effectively employed
before the establishment of the rhythm, with very
dramatic results. In our Ex. 40 the movement
opens with a pause. This, however, is not for
dramatic effect, but merely to strengthen the im-
pression of the preliminary or exclamation note.
The Pause, like the ritardando and accellerando,
can be made to fail of its due effect. The con-

scientious unimaginative player, or choirmaster, who
carefully gives a pause a definite value with relation
to the preceding rhythm, entirely misunderstands the
nature and object of the pause. The result of this
proceeding is merely to prolong the Rhythm in

which it occurs, so that, say, a four-measure Rhythm
becomes one of four and a half, or five measures, as
r

the case may be. Ex. 53 shows two Rhythms, in
each of which a single note is dwelt on for the space
of two definite measures. The dwelling on these
notes does not constitute a Pause, for there is no
break in the continuity of the rhythmical flow : the
sustained notes have a definite relation to what has
gone before, and we feel the accents though they
are not yet expressed.
A Pause consists, on the other hand, of an inten-

tional rupture in the even flow of accents. It is in
its very nature indefinite, and, whether it is held for

a longer or shorter period, this does not affect its
nature, so long as the time allotted to it has no

1
definite relation to the preceding measures.
A Pause is sometimes introduced by unintelligent

or uncultured singers on the penultimate note of a
full close, especially at the conclusion of a song.
1
Modern composers sometimes, however, add a half-measure at
the end of a Rhythm, so as to make a definite extension in place

of the indefinite extension indicated by the Pause, as, for
example, Brahms' Trio for Horn, Violin, and Piano, Op. 40, in
the Adagio,
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THE PAUSE 165
This note is frequently a high one, and the final

cadence, as its name implies, falls from it to the
tonic. There is, as a rule, no dramatic or ex-
pressional reason for breaking the rhythm here; on
the contrary, there is usually every reason against it.
The introduction of an unwritten pause in this place

is due entirely to the vanity of the singer, and it
generally results in a large amount of applause from

an uncritical audience, who are pleased with the
mere sound of the powerful high note, without
noticing that it is ridiculous from every point of view
other than the personal display of the performer.
If a public speaker were to make nonsense of his
sentences by dwelling for an indefinite time on some
single syllable of a word merely because he found
that it suited his mouth, the same audience that
applauds the senseless Pause of the singer would
laugh at him. In the older display pieces, in bravura
songs, in instrumental concertos, and similar com-
positions, there is usually a Pause, indicated by the
composer, on the antepenultimate note of the final
cadence, that is, on the f chord that precedes the

dominant. This pause is of an entirely different
nature from that to which we have alluded, though it
is introduced for the express purpose of giving an

opportunity for display. It is not the result of
caprice or vanity : the preceding Period is so con-
structed as to lead up to it, and the audience expects
a break in the rhythm at this point. The display
does not take the form of a senseless prolongation of
a single high note as long as the breath will last.
On the contrary, the performer is expected to
embellish the Pause with passages in which he

exhibits his own individuality, and these passages, in
the hand of a first-rate artist, frequently take the

form of a masterly development of the themes of
the composition. The composer, in fact, here gives
place to the performer, who, to do his subject justice,
must be more or less on the same artistic level as
the composer whose work he is interpreting.
Mendelssohn opens the Midsummer Night's

Dream Overture with a series of long held Pauses,
in which there is no attempt at establishing a
Rhythm. These Pauses are on a series of Pre-

liminary chords, and serve to keep the mind on the
alert with expectation : they are an extension of the
principle involved in the Preliminary Pause seen in
our Ex. 40.

That the whole of a Rhythm, whatever its number
Restsand °f Measures, is not necessarily entirely
Empty Times, occupied with sound needs not to be
mentioned, for everyone is familiar with passages in
which numerous rests occur. Such rests also
occurred in ancient Greek music, under the pic-
turesque name of " Empty, times." They are not

the places where a melody ceases for a moment and
RESTS AND EMPTY TIMES 167
the accompaniment continues its course ; the

" Empty times " of which we have to speak are
those in which sound entirely ceases, and the rhythm
continues to exist, though it is no longer heard.
After a rhythmical form has been established, rests,
or cessations of sound, on the unaccented portions of
measures, whether primary or subsidiary, are natural
enough ; we hear the accents, and that is all we
require in order to appreciate the rhythm, and such
rests are, as a rule, of the nature of Caesuras. But
cessations of sound on accented places make a con-
siderable demand on the intelligence, and this is
more especially the case if they occur early in the
piece, before the rhythm has had time to become

established.
To the cultured musician they give little effort :
his musical faculties are trained to seize on and enjoy

every rhythmical feature without conscious effort.
But a fairly high degree of intelligence in an audience

must be presumed before a composer would venture
to write such a passage as the opening bars of the
Rondo of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 10, No. 3,
Ex. 46 (see next page).
Were it not so familiar to us it would prove
bewildering if we heard it without seeing the notes,
and this is evidently the intention of the composer.
The first Period ends with a full close in the
dominant, the two chords forming the close being
—

both paused upon, and embellished with ad libitum
grace notes, so that the rhythm is broken up almost
as soon as it is established. It is in the beginning of
the Period that the strange cessations of sound occur.
Ex. 46.
Beethoven Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3) Rondo.

l£feft4
End of
v first Period.
S7\
pHr f
The bars contain two measures each : this is evident
from the full close, ending the Period in the fourth
instead of the eighth bar. The second and fourth
measures of the first Rhythm are left entirely to the
imagination of the listener. They exist, for the per-
former carefully counts them, but they are unheard.
To appreciate the existence of a thing that is in our

presence yet is unheard and unseen makes a great
call on our faculties, and presupposes a cultivated

mind. If we had the music before us when first
hearing this passage the matter would be plain
enough ; but Beethoven could not have supplied

copies to his audience.
The strain on the imagination is relieved, or, we
may perhaps say, the puzzle is solved for us, with
the second Rhythm, which is full of notes. Other
startling silences occur in this well-known movement,
and similar instances of the use of rests in place of
accents will occur to the reader. 1
In the Adagio of the Waldstein sonata the im-
pressive effect caused by the silence on the first beat
of the second and fourth bars is familiar to all. The
bars contain two measures each, the Rhythms four
measures. A silence on the last measure of a Period
is not at alluncommon, but a silence on the third
accent of a Rhythm is rare, and in this case produces
a profound effect of earnestness.
So delicate a rhythmical device must be treated
J
An amusing example of the difficulty the ordinary listener
has in appreciating rests occurred at Cambridge many years ago.
An undergraduate orchestra played Beethoven's First Symphony,
and the local reporter, hearing the curious introduction to the
last movement for the first time, and being entirely unable to
appreciate the rests, remarked that " the band had some difficulty
in starting the last movement " !

very carefully ; it could easily become commonplace
if repeated too often. Hence, when Beethoven re-
peats the same phrase later in the movement, the

silence is filled up, and to make it clear that this is
deliberate, attention is called to the fact by the

somewhat elaborate Anacrusis in the bass.
In the Intermezzo, Op. 10, No. 3, Ex. 47, Brahms

carries the principle of " Empty Times " to an
Ex. 47.
Brahms Intermezzo (Op. 10, No. 3).
1st Rhythm.
1st introductory 2nd introductory I ,—
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Allegro. measure. measure. p™

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extreme point, for he allows only the Anacrusis of

the two Preliminary Measures to be heard without
the accents that would make them intelligible. It is
impossible for a person listening to this piece for the

first time, and not seeing the music, to know that

the first two chords are the Anacrusis of two
measures whose accented notes are omitted. The
player cannot, short of visibly beating the time, make
them sound otherwise than as accented notes. For
the whole of our experience leads us to expect single
introductory chords to occur on the first, and
certainly not on the last note of a bar (e.g. Beet-
hoven's " Eroica," Mozart's " Jupiter," etc.). Not
till the unexpected entry of the C sharp in the third
bar are we aware that the introductory chords are
unaccented ; and the sudden apparent change of
rhythm thus early in the movement causes a shock
and astonishment, and has all the elements of energy
and alertness of which Brahms gives so many
examples.
At the end of the first section of this piece, after
the orthodox full close in the dominant, the Intro-
ductory Measures are repeated in rhythmically the
same form as at first, but we are now aware of their
significance, and are not taken by surprise. Their

molivo is developed at the end of the second section,
before the return of the principal subject ; but here,
as there is no longer any rhythmical novelty about it,
the composer takes advantage of the fact to introduce

pianissimo chords on each accent, which are sustained
until the Anacrusis is heard low down in the bass.
And since the peculiar rhythmical structure of the

Preliminary Measures is now quite apparent to the
listener, the composer is able to linger on it, repeating
it many times, as if he was particularly pleased with
it. The thing is treated with such consummate art
and such inward delicacy of feeling as only Brahms

is capable of.
A favourite orchestral device with the older com-

posers is the silence for one or more measures known
in Germany under the name of the " Generalpause."
A movement is suddenly interrupted by a total
cessation of sound just where the listener would
expect the rhythmical figure to be carried on. It
generally occurs at the end of a Rhythm, and usually,
though not always, towards the end of the movement

itself. Mozart makes use of this device in his three
great symphonies, and it is not infrequent in those of
, , Haydn. The latter composer makes a
Humorous Use humorous use of it in the finale of his

of Rests.
£ flat Q uartetj No# 38) hy i eav i n g not
only the end of a rhythm, but the beginning of the
next entirely to the imagination, after having, how-
ever, prepared his audience by several " General
Pauses" in the preceding periods. Ex. 48.

The humour consists in this : a full close has
already occurred several times, and always in the
wrong place, namely, at the first half of a rhythm,

the second half being occupied by a half-close. A
few bars of adagio have followed one of the full
—
HUMOROUS USE OF RESTS 173
closes, and subsequent repetitions of both full and

half-closes have been followed by general pauses.
The joke is complete when three whole measures are
Ex. 48.
Haydn, Quartet in E Flat —Finale — (Last Eight Bars).
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End
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given in silence, after which the full close at last
appears in its proper place, namely, at the end of a

Rhythm.
But, in contrast to this, Rests can be used for the
most tragic expression. The opening The Rests in
S d
bars of Richard Strauss' -Tod und una
'Tr "J°
y erkla-
Verklarung" consist of the pianissimo rung."
repetition of a single chord on the unaccented parts
of each measure, the accented parts being represented
by "Empty Times," or by rests against sustained
notes. The soft reiteration of a single minor chord,
in a rhythmical figure which it is impossible to seize
owing to the absence of accents, depicts in a vivid
and ghastly manner the scene described in the first
stanza of the poem prefixed to the symphony. The

unearthly Death motive, rhythmical and yet without
accent, the rare changes of harmony, the occasional
intervention of a melody of four measures in length,
only one of whose normal accents is struck, the
sigh of the two-measure phrase
all help to complete the weird picture. Then,

again, in the Allegro molto agitato, the tragic tone of
the fortissimo opening phrases is enhanced, if not
altogether produced, by the same device, the Rest in
place of accent ; and although the full orchestra
is at work, yet the normal accent is everywhere

obscured by syncopation if not by rests. And
yet again, in thestormy motive that starts at
Alia breve^ there are " Empty times " in place of
accents ; for silence is often more expressive than
sound.
EXAMPLES OF DIURESIS 175
A favourite change of Diaeresis with Brahms,

already alluded to on page 123, is that of Examples of
. Diuresis in
which Ex. 49 shows the construction. Brahms and
Grieg.
Ex. 49.
Brahms Romance (Op. 118, No. 5).
2 rit. 3
End of Period.
^3
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Although not written so, the change is really due
to Syncopation. The latter bar is equivalent to
Ex. 50.
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The effect can only be introduced at or near the
end of a Rhythm, after the accentuation has been
established. Grieg makes use of it in Subsidiary
notes in the last movement of his Violin Sonata

in F, Op. 8.
—
Ex. 50 #.
Grieg (Violin Sonata in F, Op. 8 Last Movement).
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Equivalent to
The passage looks difficult to read at sight, but if

it is imagined as a change of Diaeresis from -f
Primary to -§ Subsidiary accentuation, as shown in

our example, all difficulty vanishes.
The Largo of Beethoven's Sonata in B flat. Op.

Unbarred 106, is unbarred. It is preceded by a
Music;
j Q ° contemplative
r Adagio,
e>
of a character
Beethoven, >
Op. 106. so noble, so elevated, so dignified, that it
could only have been written by a composer who

was completely out of touch with the everyday
world, whose thoughts were entirely occupied with
the highest expression that music is capable of.
That such a movement as the adagio sostenuto of

this sonata could ever have been produced, even by
the genius of Beethoven, if the composer had not
been cut off by his deafness from the trivialities of

life, is inconceivable. It is the expression of a lofty
soul, communing with itself, wandering in a region
of sound that existed in his brain, and made acces-

UNBARRED MUSIC 177
sible to ordinary mortals by a genius so transcendent,

so grand, as occurs only once in many centuries.
The Largo is the logical outcome of the Adagio.

The rhythm of the Adagio is continuous throughout.
In spite of its length, there is no change of tempo or
of rhythm-species ; there are no pauses to break the
flow, and only two ritardandos. The massive wealth
of sound pours forth in a never-failing stream, and
in a continual regularity of triple rhythm. A great
tension has been placed on the faculties in sustaining
so lofty a height : there must be a temporary break
before encountering a new rhythmical movement.
To subject such a movement as the Largo to the
dissecting knife seems almost like sacrilege. Yet we
venture to do it, in the hope that our readers, when once
they have followed our analysis, will forget all about
it, and give themselves up to enjoying the emotional
effect of the music, without thinking too much of the
technical skill exhibited in it, great though it is.
Beethoven gives the direction, " Per la misura si
conta nel Largo sempre quattro semicrome^ cio h
^fe^^fe^." "For the bars in the Largo, four

semiquavers must always be counted." The move-
ment is a Recitative. The composer talks to his
audience, but not in regular rhythm. He wishes

to make a contrast to the long-sustained rhythm
of the previous movement. He keeps to his key,
only enharmonically changing the notation.

M
:

The signature -^ is not in use: hence, for the
purpose of analysis, we have in Ex. 51 changed the
semiquavers to crotchets.
Ex. 51.
Beethoven Sonata (Op. 106).

Largo. 1st Rhythm.
ST\
=f
Largo.
{Con moto).
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Preliminary
P Anac. Measure. Anac. Anacrusis.
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Anacrusis. Anacrusis. Anacrusis.
££z£r=£ JEEEE f :
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2nd Rhythm.
1
ifczd:
^ TJ-TLMi LEX iLLU Beethoven's

Barline.
sê g ^CT*^ J:
—
UNBARRED MUSIC 179
Additional Half-rhythm.
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etc.
/T\
fw;
*£=£
L i>
4 :E £ £
* 3 J
Beethoven himself gives a barline in the place we

have indicated. There is a full close here in the key
of G flat major, which shows that this, at least, is the
end of a Rhythm. In order to get at the underlying
rhythmical scheme, we must work backwards from
the barline in measures of four semiquavers (in our
example they will be four crotchets). We shall then
obtain the following results. The first accent in the
movement occurs on the pause on the high F. This
is the accent of a Preliminary Measure, and to it is
joined an Anacrusis of three-quarters of a measure,

divided into triplets, whose final note is tied to the
accented preliminary note : hence the Preliminary

accent is not struck, but imagined, since it is
incorporated into the Anacrusis.

The Pause on this unstruck Preliminary accented
note breaks up the expected phrase. A new Ana-
crusis opens the four-measure Rhythm, but instead
of its first accent being heard, or even tied to the
Anacrusis, the sound ceases altogether, the accent
being represented by a rest. This is the case with
all the remaining measures, and the Rhythm itself
ends with the pause on the high G flat. The

composer makes a strong appeal to the imagination.
He allows us to perceive no rhythmical accent ;
nothing but the unaccented portions of the measures

are heard, and even these are made more incom-
prehensible by the pauses ; we are in a realm of
mystery.
In the second Rhythm he is more explicit. Com-
mencing with an Anacrusis, almost a whole measure
in length, he lets each accent be heard, and the
Period of two Rhythms ends with the full close in
G flat, already alluded to. It is succeeded by an

additional Half-rhythm, which also ends, like the
first Rhythm and the Preliminary Measure, with a
Pause, and the movement then goes, by easily
understood rhythmical phrases into the key of F

sharp major.
To return to the opening Anacrusis. We are led
to the conclusion that the first three triplets on the

note F are Anacrusis notes, and that the movement
does not commence with an accent, by working
backwards from Beethoven's barline ; and this is
confirmed when later on the same passage occurs in
another key, preceded by an additional note and

triplet which undoubtedly form the accented portion
of the measure of which the three triplets on F at the
commencement form the unaccented three-quarters.

UNBARRED MUSIC 181
This contemplative and intensely suggestive move-

ment is divided into two portions by a short fugato
passage, which suddenly breaks off in the midst of
its course, and leads back to a repetition of the
opening Anacrusis in a new key. The distribution
of the subsidiary rhythm between the two hands
after the final pause is very striking ; it gradually
quickens to a prestissimo^ and leads into a vigorous
fugue.
;
CHAPTER VIII
Staccato — Forte, Piano, Crescendo, and Diminuendo —The Organ

and Accent — Mechanical Instruments and Accent — The
Rhythmical Scheme of a Complete Composition Illustrated
by Brahms' Rhapsody, Op. 117
A series of sounds may be closely connected

Staccato. together in a legato style, or they may be
played staccato, i.e. detached from one another
or, as with every other musical feature, the two
styles may be intermixed.
The principle of detachment is the same, whether
indicated by rests between the notes, or dots over

them, or a combination of dots or slurs : it is only
a question of degree. To explain what we believe
to be the principle involved in the staccato style, we

will again have recourse to poetry.
Except for certain dramatic effects, each verse of
poetry is recited in what may be compared to the
legato style in music ; the verse is only broken if a
punctuation sign, a Caesura, occurs in its midst.

Single words may be occasionally detached from
others, but we can hardly imagine single syllables
STACCATO 183
being separated by a distinct break in the sound,

unless, perhaps, for a humorous object.
But instrumental music, on the contrary, obtains

some of its most striking effects by the detachment
of its notes in the staccato, and, again, we have a
feature in which poetry and music, so like in the

fundamental principles of their rhythm, are very far
apart in its details.
But a verse can be divided by rhymes or Caesuras

into half-verses, just as a Rhythm can be divided into
half-rhythms and single measures, by rests, Caesuras,
and closes. -
In our view, staccato is simply the principle of

division carried a step further, and applied to single
notes instead of single measures. This separation of
musical sounds, whether of the measures composing
the Rhythm or of notes forming the measure, has no
effect on the fundamental rhythmical structure, and
whether we play a passage staccato or legato, the
grouping of the music into Rhythms and Periods
will not necessarily be obscured.
But a staccato rendering will produce a totally
different aesthetic effect from the legato. If a melody
which has been conceived and constructed to be
played in the legato manner is performed staccato, it
will sound either ridiculous or meaningless; and if,
on the other hand, what was intended for staccato is
played legato, it will have a heavy and dull effect, or,

at any rate, will lose the vivacity which the composer
intended. In either case the aesthetic character of
the passage would be damaged just as much as if we
arbitrarily omitted Rests where they are written, or
made Caesuras where they were not intended to be.
Let us take, for example, one of the most beautiful
of Beethoven's early movements, the well-known
Andante with Variations in the Sonata, Op. 14, No. 2,
whose whole ethos depends on the contrasting inter-
change of staccato with legato passages : play it legato
throughout, but with strict observance of its phrases,

and what do we get? A mere study in harmony.
Or play it staccato throughout : we get a tiresome
succession of detached chords.
No doubt this will appear a mere platitude to the
experienced musician, but how often do we hear
enthusiastic amateurs completely ruining master-
pieces, for which they have the greatest admiration,
by their want of insight into the important difference
between staccato and legato ; by their cutting a legato
melody to pieces with unwritten Caesuras, or joining

together what ought to be played staccato^ or a
mixture of both styles.
The staccato has, in instrumental music, as impor-

tant an aesthetic value as legato. We have already
seen (page 81) how the slurring of two notes at the
beginning of a measure intensifies their accentuation,
and a similar treatment of two notes, the first of

STACCATO 185
which is in an unaccented place, will produce the

effect of syncopation. The detaching of the notes
on either side of the slurred notes adds additional
force to the passage : e.g.
is more forcible than "7k j

m »-iH
When all the notes are to be played staccato,
the intelligent performer instinctively gives the
proper accentuation just as he does in a legato
phrase.
It makes little difference in the rhythm whether a
phrase is played loudly or softly, as long Forte and
as the passage in question is sustained at

^Tescendo and
an equal degree of force from beginning Diminuendo.
to end. But the Crescendo and Diminuendo have a
good deal of influence on rhythm. By gradually

increasing the power we at the same time increase
the force of the accentuation. Each successive
measure is slightly more accented than its pre-
decessor, and hence we get a Rising Accentuation
carried through several measures, instead of being
confined to pairs of measures, as we have hitherto

explained it. We believe that to the increase of
accentuation is due in no small degree the tre-
mendous emotional effect of many well-known

passages in orchestral music ; and the conductor who
has his band well under control can utilise this means
:

of expression more powerfully than can be done on
any solo instrument.
The Diminuendo has, of course, the reverse effect
of the Crescendo. It consists of a lessening of the

successive accents, of a gradual relaxation of effort
a Falling Accentuation is produced on a large scale,
and from energy we are brought to tranquillity, or
to a less demonstrative expression.
A Crescendo usually leads to a Forte or Fortissimo.

As long as this is sustained, the rhythm is not
affected by the loudness of the music, but by the
arrangements of its long and short notes, its sforzandos
and accents, etc. And exactly the same effects are
available for enforcing the rhythm in a Piano or
Pianissimo passage, so that mere loudness does not

give strength, nor softness weakness. Power of
expression in both depends on whether the rhyth-
mical construction is conceived and carried out in a
way that appeals to us. The tremendous effect of
the first movement of the Fifth Symphony is due
more to the intensity of its accentuation than to its
harmony or its loudness : frequently several measures

consist of the repetition of a single chord, which, if
played without a vigorous accent would be more or

less meaningless. A certain pianissimo passage towards
the end of the Scherzo consists of rhythm alone,
with unchanging harmony. It is not weak ; on

the contrary, its emotional effect is just as great
FORTE AND PIANO 187
as that of the forte parts. It is said that at the

first performance of this work in London the
audience gradually melted away. Can it be that
the conductor failed to appreciate the importance
of accent and rhythm, or was it that the audience,
accustomed to look upon the sweets of Italian
Opera as the highest form of musical art, were

unprepared for " music that strikes fire in the human
breast " ?
If rhythm depends so much upon Accent, with

all its fine shades of Rising, Falling, 7^ Organ
sforzando, Syncopation, etc., how can it
and 4ccen&
exist on the Organ, and on the whole tribe of

mechanical instruments, which are incapable of
placing a stress on individual notes ? For no one
will deny that rhythm can exist on these instruments,
in spite of this limitation.
In this matter there comes to our aid one of the

most subtle and mysterious parts of our nature,
namely, the faculty for imagining that we feel or
hear a thing which does not exist, and yet which we
wish to exist. The organ and the machine-made
music have the same means of making their phrases
intelligible by harmonic structure, and by Caesuras,
as are available elsewhere : accent only is absent, and
this is supplied by our imagination. The harmonic
structure, and the combination of longer with shorter
notes leads us to expect and desire accent, and we
instinctively feel that what we want is there, though
not in tangible form.
And the organist who feels the accents, but who
has not the power of expressing them through his
instrument, is very careful to give every note its
exact value, and especially to take advantage of

every longer note in " Dotted-note " rhythm. He
will never yield to the temptation of breaking up the
time by holding on a note beyond its due length in
order to change his stops, and he never indulges in a

trick of holding a meaningless, rhythmless note at
the beginning and end of his piece. For he knows

that, owing to its accentless nature, the organ punishes
any defects of time and note value more than does

any other instrument. On other instruments, if the
time is accidentally lost, the rhythm can be quickly
recovered by marking the accents; on the organ it
cannot. The organist knows that a rhythmless and

undecided manner of playing produces insupportable
weariness in the listeners, who are at his mercy in
this respect if they are in a church. In a concert

room they have at any rate the opportunity of
getting up and leaving, as we once saw done in
Germany during a rhythmless performance of some
very fine music on a first-rate organ. In this case
the technique was faultless, the tone of the organ
irreproachable. Only the rhythm was wanting, and
the performance was ruined thereby.
MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 189
Everyone who has listened to the machine known

as the Piano-organ,
b must have noticed „. , . ,
' Mechanical
that, when it plays a properly constructed Instruments
Waltz, it entirely satisfies our rhythmical

feeling, in spite of its inability to produce accent.
One reason seems to be that the single bass note at

the beginning of each bar is more prominent than
the rest, for a bass string has more powerful
vibrations than strings of the higher pitches. This
prominence of the single bass note, coming in the
expected places, in addition to the harmonic structure

of the tune, acts to all intents and purposes like a
single stroke on a drum, and thus satisfies our

demand for an accent. And what we have said of
the waltz applies also to other music in which the
construction is very simple, and the accents would
be, on a musical instrument, somewhat marked.
But if the music is not very simple in its harmonic
construction, or if it is not already familiar to us,
a piece played by mechanical means may be incompre-
hensible. We remember hearing a modern com-
position which was unfamiliar to us played on a
pianola many times over, but we never succeeded in
making out where its accents should come, and

from being at first meaningless it became with
repetition an irritation to us.
While investigating the question of rhythm in
connection with mechanical instruments, we had an

opportunity of visiting the fine collection of musical
instruments at the Deutsches Museum der Natur-
wissenschaft und Technik at Munich. Two mechanical
organs were set in motion for us, one being an
ancient specimen, the other containing all the most
modern improvements. We found that both instru-
ments had been prepared to play the same piece,

namely, Weber's Overture to " Oberon." As a
coincidence, we remembered that some thirty years
ago a gentleman, wishing to exhibit the powers of

his newly-acquired Orchestrion, had selected the
same piece as the first on his programme. Why is
the Overture to Oberon so especially favoured by

the owners of mechanical instruments ?
The reason struck us at once, on hearing it at
Munich. The frequent repetition of the figure
TTTj
in various melodic shapes, gives this piece a specially
marked accentuation apart from stress, so that it is
found to suit mechanical instruments particularly well.

In England and France it is the custom to play
marches on the organ, in spite of the fact that
the march requires to be specially accented, and the

organ has no accent of its own. Here, again, the
simple harmonic form of the march, and the juxta-
position of longs and shorts come to our assistance.
The ease with which an " Organ March " can be

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 191
composed and executed has led to its abuse in the
hands of incompetent organists, who have not

sufficient intellectual development to discern that the
cold calm accentless organ is relentless in its exposure
of anything approaching poverty of invention or

want of intelligence on the part of composer or
player. The " Organ March " can only be really
effective when written by a composer of high intel-
lectual power, and played by an executant of con-

siderable intelligence ; otherwise it will sound either
trivial or vulgar, both of which qualities are parti-
cularly out of place on so noble an instrument.
Space forbids us to enter into a discussion of the
rhythmical structure of contrapuntal and other music
more closely associated with the organ. Our only
reason for alluding to the instrument at all is to
show how large a place our imagination takes in
listening to or performing instrumental music.
All compositions that are conceived and carried

out at a reasonably high level of art will
^
be found more or less interesting from a Rhythmical
, . . , .
r ' r i-i Scheme of a
rhythmical point or view; for, while Complete
melody and harmony produce grace and Composition:
beauty, rhythm gives force and dignity to Rhapsody,
the music. °P- IJ 7-
From the big drum of the Salvation Army to the

dignified accents of a Beethoven or Brahms is a far
cry. Yet the big drum, which drives the accent home
into the heads of those for whom it is intended, has
the same function as the rhythmical features of
classical music, namely, to give character to the
melody. The difference is that the big drum,
hammering at the accents incessantly, leaves nothing
to the imagination, while the classical composer often
suggests more ideas than he allows to be heard, as,
for instance, when frequent rests occur. The big

drum makes its appeal to those that cannot think
for themselves. The rhythm of classical music is
intended for cultured and sensitive brains, and the

more the rhythmical sense is cultivated, the greater
pleasure does an imaginative rhythmical structure

give. Both methods of appeal have their place in
the world ; but each method would annoy rather

than stimulate if offered to an audience for which
it is not intended. We propose to examine how
rhythm, which in its most elementary form is repre-
sented by the Salvationist's drum, affects the ethos
of artistic compositions when used in its most
highly developed form.
To analyse a number of compositions would swell
this work to too large dimensions. We must

therefore be content with a few only, leaving to the
reader the fascinating task of examining others, and
he will find that there is no lack of material. So
enormous is the mass of rhythmically interesting
music that it is embarrassing to have to make a
SCHEME OF A COMPOSITION 193
selection, but we will take Brahms' Rhapsody in
E flat. Op. 119, No. 4, as an example of dignity and

strength, combined with a delicacy and an imaginative
rhythmical structure of the highest order.
The tempo is Allegro risoluto. The general form
is a modern development of the old Rondo, in which
a chief subject recurs several times, with contrasting
subjects between its recurrences.

The principal subject is followed by a second
subject in the dominant, after which it is repeated.
Then comes a third subject, in the relative minor, a
fourth, in the subdominant, and a return through

the second to the first. The piece ends with a coda,
of fresh material.
The Rhythms of the principal subject are of five
Measures each, a form of which Brahms makes con-

siderable use in his shorter pianoforte works. Its
appeal to the imagination, its freedom from conven-

tion, and its broad outline, give such pieces as it
occurs in a peculiar charm, which, while it makes

them particularly attractive to the cultured musician,
is found a little difficult, perhaps, by those who are

only accustomed to simpler forms. We have already
alluded to it on page 154, where we compared it to
the " Heroic Verse " of English Poetry.
Opening with strong masculine dactyls, in which
the accented notes made more forcible by
are
sforzandos, the first Rhythm ends with a solemn

N
3 —
i
spondee, whose two notes are likewise impressed on
us by sforzandoSy and, as if to strengthen the effect of
the spondee, the unaccented note which precedes it
is also given a sfoi%ando.
Ex. 52.
Brahms Rhapsody (Op. 119, No. 4).
Allegro Risoluto.
Period 1.
1 2 3
isp? s p ±=t
* I
/
sfc^ 8 it s 3=
Period 2.
p
rnTTjriisf ggE
pp ,p
1?'
r
a -t=J
it
£ £g ^
iEEtefr to* — ~
-ff
Period 3. First Rhythm.
1
I
BE t=t
Overlap.
Overlap.
Third Rhythm.
Overlap.
Period 4.
Fourth Rhythm.
3 4
W £U£ -*-£:
m P t I-
-ML
E
Overlap.
In the dactyls, the contrast between the sustained

sforzando crotchet and the quavers shortened by
staccato enhances the accents, which in the first three
measures are marked as strongly as possible. Then
there is a lessening of accent, the fourth measure
having on its strong portion two quavers, and a
crotchet on its weak place. This change of accentua-
tion has the effect of keeping the attention on the
alert.
The fourth measure leads us to expect a feminine

full close and a four-measure Rhythm ; but we get
instead an unexpected chord, a fresh form of
accentuation, and an additional unexpected measure
in the Rhythm.
The same features are found in the second Rhythm,
except that here the fourth measure ends with no
chord at all, only the bare octave. We are left in
the air, as it were, and the first Period ends with

nothing approaching a close of any kind.
For we have a big work before us, in which the
expectation must be kept alive, and not checked by
conventional formality.
The second Period opens with a repetition of the
first Rhythm of the piece. But in the fourth measure
there is an important change. Instead of the chord
on its second half, showing plainly that there is to be
no full close, there is again a bare octave. We are
again left in suspense for a moment, and an unex-

pected modulation occurs, leading to the dominant
of the principal key.
The second Rhythm of this Period has six mea-
sures, and ends on the low B flat marked fp. There
is an Overlap here, for with this note commences the
new Period. The f refers to the Period which has
just concluded, and the p to the new Period which
commences at the same moment on the same note.
The fourth measure of this Rhythm, instead of
having its natural accent weakened, as in the pre-
ceding Rhythms, has it strengthened by a sforzando ;
and the weight of the spondee, which is heard in the

bass, is lightened by the subsidiary semiquaver
accompaniment of the right hand. Let us play the
second Period apart from its context, and we shall
find that it seems to demand a masculine close on

the fp note, thus producing a six-measure instead of
a five-measure Rhythm. The structure of the
harmony and melody are sufficient to account for

this demand, and it is strengthened by the fact that
we are here completing an important section of the
piece, and embarking on a new key. In a cor-
responding passage, later in the movement, the entry

of the semiquaver motive is so arranged that it leads
to a crotchet^ on the fifth, not the sixth measure of

the Rhythm. See Ex. 55. This is absolutely
logical. The first entrance of the dominant key is an
important event, and the previous Rhythm seems to
demand a masculine close, which it would not get if
we adhered rigidly to the five-measure form. In the

seventeenth period, Ex. 55, a masculine close is pro-
duced without altering the flow of the five-measure
rhythms ; the modulation there is merely transient.
The third Period has four Rhythms, three of
which are alike, consisting of solemn spondees,
followed by two more in the bass, which are, how-
ever, lightened by an accompaniment of semiquavers
in the right hand. In the fourth Rhythm of this
Period the spondees are continued to the end in the
right hand, the semiquaver accompaniment of the last
three is in the bass, and there is a crescendo to ff. The

reiteration of a single chord in the last two measures
h

of each Rhythm here gives way to a reiteration of a
single note, accompanied by various harmonies which
lead back to the original key of E flat ; and we may
look upon this Rhythm as containing six measures,
the last overlapping the first of Period No. 4.
Period Nos. 4 and 5 are rhythmically a repetition

of Nos. 1 and 2. No. 5 leads to a deceptive cadence
which introduces an independent single Rhythm of
four measures, Ex. 53, forming no part of a Period,
Ex. 53.
Period 6.
Independent Rhythm.
fcfc
-,—I — Ufct
£
-o ^ X -G> *-^S>
Biâ
Period 7.
HH33=^*= S fe
^^g 1
3- *t
m
0-m
t-b=fa*f£m r r ffftj r .S^g *
t:
= —F
Period 8.
3 4 I
2
ft.
l&E 13===^ - JgL;_L

1
3 4
/— V ^fc-—,£=
EEEp
f
V, ?2I
i
p t:
Period 9.
E& /* grazioso.
fa *"i~r * *lv
f
»-
C2I
zpz^zp:
E^
Period 10.
4 6 2
1 3
^- 5
#^=*Jti — =i=^3z i—
!-•-
1_
1— -*-*- n
== z
y=#^= *#*=
3 I
s
fc*
-01 as
|£3î=j
Period 11.
m -=\
* IT
^=fc
'-J*
-«s>-
M
k—rF-
b* — *-
iS
-»
E
but serving as a kind of bridge by which we pass
"
over to the new subject in C minor. This "bridge
is made use of again later on.
The five-measure Rhythms are now given up, and
the C minor section is in orthodox four-measure. It
contains two Periods only, the first of which (Period

6) has two, and the second (Period 7) three Rhythms.
The general character is still spondaic, as indicated
by the sforzando on each half-bar. This gives
it dignity, while the division of the accented
half of each spondee into a triplet gives movement
and life to a form of rhythm which, if continued too
long, would be apt to become heavy.
Since the frequent repetition of the single triplet,
combined with the spondaic character of the music,
would make for monotony, it is varied in the second
Rhythm of each Period by two successive triplets in
a single spondee, while in the Rhythm of
final
Period 7 three successive measures are made up

entirely of triplets.
The whole of this section is practically built on

simple tonic and dominant harmonies, the greater
portion being on a tonic pedal. The melody is
simple in the extreme ;

yet so carefully is the
rhythmical scheme thought out that the result is a
movement in which dignity and vigour combine in
an appeal to the highest imagination and the noblest

musical emotions.
Did Brahms argue the matter out in any such way

as that which we have indicated ? Did he deliberately
set to work to put a few simple chords together and

then clothe them with a rhythm that should satisfy
the conditions we have described ? We prefer to
think not. We prefer to believe that it was the

instinct of his great genius, combined with a highly
cultivated brain, that prompted him to write this
passage without seeking for aesthetic reasons why it
should be thus or thus. The work of genius is to
create : it is the work of the analyst to find out, if h.4.
can, the aesthetic reasons why the genius constructed

his work in such a way and no other. J
Our C minor section ends with an orthodox full
close in its tonic, in the feminine form, perhaps in
order that the transition to the next passage should

not be too abrupt. What we, for convenience, have
called a "bridge" now recurs, but this time its single
Rhythm is followed by a complementary Rhythm, the

two together forming the eighth Period. The com-
poser is not content to make the second Rhythm here
exactly like the first. On the contrary, he increases
the interest by making the first two measures move
twice as quickly as the corresponding measures
of the previous Rhythm, and then rouses our
expectation by dwelling for two whole measures
on a f chord of the new key that is about to
enter.
The rhythmical scheme of the section in A flat,
Periods 9 and 10, is peculiarly delightful, even for

Brahms, whose music so abounds in delightful
rhythmical expression. If we count the bars, we

shall find that the ninth and tenth Periods contain
the orthodox number of eight measures each. It is
when we examine the arrangement, the Diaeresis, of

the Period, that the fascination begins. In addition
to the effect produced by the delicate and original
form of the accompaniment, we find that there is an
equally delicate and carefully thought out rhythmical
scheme. First we have a Rhythm of three measures,
then one of six measures. But the six-measure
Rhythm is divided by means of the slurs into a
phrase of two followed by one of four-measures, which

overlaps and sounds like a three-measure Rhythm.
Hence our eight-measure Periods are arranged in the
unusual form of 3 4- 2 + 3, in place of the orthodox

4 + 4. This melody is quite Greek in its rhythmical
charm. The Greeks attached great importance to

the Diaeresis, the way in which any rhythmical
section was divided ; and Brahms has applied a
novel Diaeresis, all his own, to this melody.

The eleventh Period is also of eight measures, but
its Diaeresis is orthodox. Its first Rhythm is divided
into two pairs of measures, while its second, accord-
ing to the principle explained on page 146, contains
four undivided measures.
The twelfth Period is rhythmically a repetition of

the ninth.
The thirteenth Period, Ex. 54, consists entirely of
two-measure phrases, which, contrary to the general
rule, are not followed in the same Period by a four-
measure Rhythm. The feeling for the rule is not,
however, injured, since this Period is succeeded by a
Ex. 54.
Period 13.
>=$
SÊi
+ « =F
**
p dim.
series of unbroken four-measure Rhythms, in the

fourteenth and fifteenth Periods. Being a repetition
of the scheme of the sixth and seventh (enhanced

by additional triplets) these two Periods require no
special comment.
We now return to five-measure Rhythms. The
sixteenth and seventeenth Periods are an elaboration
of the first and second. The dactyl and spondee
forms are retained in the bass, while the right hand
divides the longer notes of these forms so that there
are four quavers in each bar. In the sixteenth
Period the principal melody, uttered with the extra
2o 4 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
notes, combined with the staccato and pianissimo pro- ,
duces a mysterious and agitated effect, and in the

seventeenth this new motive is heard again, but in
strict legato. The contrast between the staccato of
the sixteenth and the legato of the seventeenth
periods is fascinating. The Rhythms adhere to the
five-measure form : the music continues pianissimo :
Ex. 55
Period 16.
» 3 w M& JM--
fct
-*PF
s
3»
=p
*=*
f
fe ê
WA
ry-fW^ i
Period 17.
ay
~ 1-
l! > .
" r r -f- -H^P:
^
-*=?.--
t ^
1 8 2 8.
§£i
m&
Efc m
1 QP P -P-
—
ItZIjZJL r^r
IS-
r* „:p:
If \ ia
g^ Îgl
Period 18.
fM
^S^^^ Id
tete :p=*
Overlap.
ip=M
4 8 5 6
Overlap.
=t
Spa ^fe
i 3=N
1* «»
•H?rt
Overlap.
4 &!
Se
4 u
^rv J
^r-f ^
Period 19.
mm
3
b.-
m Pt=:
Anacrusis.
2
-^ fet -
E
s
F -
tq
HE Sg= as£
±:
m
Anacrusis.
£:
Anacrusis.
gglfc^g
jj
^gEJ=Ejg=@E^g fete^
Anacrusis.
3 4
—
I I
*MM
^s S3 l*
ftt fi :p=zrpi fc=J^K
a£
Overlap.
each new Rhythm brings the motivo at a higher pitch

than the last, producing a delicate example of that
effect which isknown to the Germans as " Steige-
rung," for which we have no technical equivalent.
The seventeenth Period ends with the same

melodic figure as the second, but with the difference
already explained on page 197. The second and
third Rhythms are here carefully slurred by the
composer in such a way as to enforce the fact that
they are of five measures, while the last Rhythm is

divided into two-measure phrases by the same

means.
The eighteenth Period forms a new " Steigerung."
It has four Rhythms, of which the last has four

measures, and makes a crescendo from pp to f.
The movement now becomes very stormy. Tre-

mendous chords alternate with the great arpeggios.
The rhythm changes. Attention is to be centred for
a time on the grandeur of the harmonies rather than

on rhythmical refinements. The first Rhythm of
the nineteenth period contains eight measures,
divided into pairs, or we may say that there are four
Half-rhythms in succession, and each rhythm is
anacrusic. The Half-rhythms are sharply defined

by masculine closes, the final one increasing the
breathless excitement by being cut into two single
measures. The series of two-measure phrases is
followed by an undivided four-measure Rhythm

which completes the Period, and leads to the reprise
of the chief subject in Periods 20 and 21.

With the twenty-second Period, Ex. $6, com-
mences the coda. It introduces a new figure, and is
anacrusic. It begins with a five-measure Rhythm,

but the second Rhythm is broken into three single
measures, succeeded by a group of four. The rest-
less excitement is increased by sforzandos on the
unaccented detached semiquavers of the right hand,
and fresh ardour is aroused in the twenty-third, the
— F — £
2o8 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
Ex. 56.
Coda. Period 22.
2
r"3
Yfe— M-£
E]Ei±
3-^£— fe
S^=*Mfcri
?ESEi;
7
J^ Anacrusis.
*==&
*•
g—
EfcS Anacrusis.
Period 23.
•
i==
^
— — -(ft)| —
6 I -P
j§>
j^
Overlap.
-^ m-J
\
-
£T£.r.
I-
Jr '~Tmm*-^
SE
-a*-»-
s£e^
toi»-# ?*-,-
*f
tf
Period 24. One Rhythm only.
3 4
* -p-
S j . J ^
Jtf.
,*
-P-
» V v
f="
l
last Period, for the semiquavers here give way to
staccato triplets, and the Period, which commences

piano works up to fortissimo, while the melody
gradually rises in pitch through a space of two

octaves. The final cadence is occupied by a single
rhythm of four measures in ponderous chords, com-
mencing with an Anacrusis.
This composition is only one amongst the many
examples Brahms has given us of his mastery over
rhythmical possibilities. He pushed forward the
modern development of the art of music in many
directions ; but we believe that in no direction was
his work more important than in the impetus he
gave to the cultivation of a high, artistic, emotional,
and intellectual sense of rhythm.
CHAPTER IX
Brahms, Symphony in —
D, Op. 73 Tschaikowsky, Symphonie
Pathetique, Op. 74
Allegro non troppo, Key D, Time Signature £.
The bars are simple, hence the down beat of the

conductor marks the accent of each
Rhythmical
Analysis of Measure, and the Anacrusis, when it
Brahms'
Symphony
occurs, is easy enough to distinguish.
No 2 in D, The Primary note is the crotchet.
op. 73.
The movement opens with a Pre-
liminary Measure, which is succeeded by a dignified
Period containing only Primary accentuation. The
first Rhythm is allotted to the horns and bassoons,
the second to the clarinets and bassoons.
Ex. 57.
Brahms' Symphony (Op. 73).
1st Rhythm.
i H¥ =t
*e-
rn Preliminary -G>- r-
' Measure. r
rJ-
mÊE %
-Gfr
#:
its*
3>
m
'3-
bZBt
3
v..
BRAHMS' SYMPHONY 21 I
2nd Rhythm.
a -0- &- A.
-&-
# E E
E|r
/> aW.
"~N I
*^
fiStl! -s -ei- -Gh
fr t:
T* M-
r
The second Period, while rhythmically the counter-
part of the first, and allotted to the same sets of
instruments, differs from it melodically, for it closes
in A, and the close is prolonged through seven
measures. During the cadence the strings enter,
almost imperceptibly at first, then becoming gradu-

ally more audible, and finally, after the wind has
ceased to be heard, they carry on an arpeggio figure
alone, always in Primary notes, through the space of
nine bars. Rhythmical phrasing seems to cease, and
give way to a vague wandering up and down in
unison on a triad and dominant seventh. But this
vagueness is only apparent : in reality the change

from the triad to the chord of the seventh marks
the four-measure construction of the passage with
such skill that, while it seems to be formless, it is
really in conventional form, and it is left to the

cultivated hearer to discover and appreciate the art
with which the underlying convention is hidden.

The unison passage ceases. The roll of the drum
2i2 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
is heard on the tonic for a whole measure pianissimo,
unaccompanied. We must listen carefully here, for
the drum-measure is the first of a new Rhythm, which

is completed by the trombones in three bars of
harmony.
Ex. 58.
4
Fl.
Ob. Tt=-
i%-
Trombones.
PP
tr.
m-% %?o-
pp 1p= :&z
The final measure of this Rhythm is taken up by the

flutes and oboes, in a reminiscence of the Preliminary
Measure with which movement opens. The four-
the
measure Rhythm allotted to the drum and trombones
is repeated with new harmonies and then, with a :
single tap of the drum, it enters again for the third
time, with modifications, and leads to the new subject
in the key of D, shown Ex. 59.

in
Down to this point we have heard nothing but

Primary Rhythm, and there has been an effect of solemn
dignity and grandeur, of solidity and earnestness of
purpose befitting a great and important work of art.
We now experience a lighter vein : Subsidiary Rhythm

enters, and for the rest of the movement it plays an
important part. It is, of course, a commonplace of

—
BRAHMS SYMPHONY 1
213
musical composition that the interest can be enhanced

by the gradual introduction of notes quicker than
those of the opening subject, and Brahms is here
only using an effect well known to every composer.
But there are two ways of using it. The increase of
movement may be introduced in such a way as to

make the listener feel that it is only there because
the composer has come to the end of his resources
Ex. 59.
I,
I
^m =r
_C2_.
-*- -J
etc.
' ' Wind sustain.
Hi be +H* J*
n
F f*
K* I I I I I I II II I
Overlap.
in Primary Rhythm. The other way is to

introduce it in such a manner that the listener is
surprised and pleased at its appearance. The first
method is due to the skill of the highly trained work-

man : the second is that of the great artist.
In the present instance we are not given a repeti-
tion of the first subject enhanced by Subsidiary
Rhythm, though we perhaps feel that the time has
come for an increase of movement. Brahms seizes

the opportunity of introducing an entirely new subject
h
2i 4 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

at the point where the Subsidiary Rhythm enters,
thus attracting our attention away from the formal

detail of construction, and charming us with new and
beautiful melody.
This melody, beginning with subsidiary notes, and
accompanied by them, rises to a sustained high note
and then descends. It contains a Period of 5 + 5
measures with an Overlap, which makes the Period
nine measures in length. It is followed by several
pairs of measures, ending, according to rule, with an
unbroken Rhythm of four measures. We now have
a succession of two-measure phrases, which end with
a legato four-measure Rhythm on strings and
bassoons.
A new and dignified subject, commencing thus,
Ex. 60.
1 2 3 4 |
1 1 1 J -111
1.
Cello, f
l
t H—
r m
Mt r
4
etc.
\ "I I I
I I
Viola. _<A_
tim
Bass.
t- m
Fizz. T rr rr
is in well denned four-measure Rhythms (with
occasional Half-rhythms) throughout its course, and
its closes are for the most part feminine. It is "can-

tando" " singing;" the chief melody is allotted to the
s
BRAHMS' SYMPHONY 215
first string of the violoncellos, and there is something

particularly fitting in the way with which tone-colour
and melody seem to suit one another absolutely. The
violas play below the violoncellos, and the double
basses mark the rhythm by their pizzicato notes on
the accents.
It is succeeded by a contrasting new subject in
u dotted-note " rhythm, Ex. 61.
Ex. 61.
^S^S
I
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£
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quasi ritenente.
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Overlap.
A nine-measure Period, 5 +5 with Overlap, whose

vigorous character is due equally to the rhythm and
the large melodic intervals, is succeeded by a Period
4 + 6 of strong staccato Subsidiary dactyls, which give
way to the remarkable syncopated dactyls shown in
Ex. 25, page 100.
The syncopated Subsidiary dactyls are the accom-
paniment to a sustained anacrusic melody in Primary
notes, distributed between the basses and violins. It
is in Half-rhythms, defined by the bowing.

The motive of Ex. 60 re-enters, with Anacrusis, in
A Major, and the flute plays a beautiful accompani-

ment to it in Subsidiary triplets, thus :
Ex. 62.
jjM^ÂJUl -On
Flute.
The triplets occur again beneath the melody in

double counterpoint. A series of four five-measure
Rhythms, which, owing to their Overlaps, do not
disturb the four-measure form, conclude the first
portion of the movement, leading to a double bar

and Da Capo.
The " working out " section commences with the
first five bars of Ex. 57, embellished with Subsidiary

notes, and arranged at some length in very definite
four-measure phrases. The second Rhythm of this
— 1
subject (Ex. 57, last four bars) is provided with two

new Subsidiary motives, giving a fine example of
triple counterpoint.
Ex. 63.
I 1 marc. 3
U
±=&-
JM—^^g F?—^^ft*
Trt v
'
/ ff rr rf ff tr
as! ^=&
—
Ûfepfe-fe*: H—
f- §e e e
We quote the subject with its two counterpoints

only, omitting the filling-in parts. It is cut short by
the omission of its last measure, an alteration which is
adhered to in all the inversions of the counterpoints.
The first counterpoint, on the violas, starts with

the longest possible Anacrusis, for it occupies a whole
measure except the accent. This counterpoint keeps
up an unbroken flow of staccato Subsidiary notes.
The second counterpoint, on the second violins,
begins on the last Primary note of the measure,
which is made sforzando to enforce the Anacrusis of
the new motive. This motive, it will be noticed,
throws its accents anywhere but in the normal places.
Its eccentric conduct in this respect makes its presence

felt, and adds much to the interest of the passage.
Some of the wind instruments fill in the harmonies,
and at the same time aid the second counterpoint in
marking its accents. When the triple counterpoint

has had its Measure of Ex. 57
say, the Preliminary is
heard on the trombones, and is now worked up in
pairs of measures with Diaeresis of melody, and in
diminution, by various wind instruments, to a tremolo

accompaniment on the strings, till it gives way to a
favourite device with Brahms, of changing the Diaeresis
of the \ bar to that of the § bar : see page 43.
After a fortissimo in which, amongst other things,

,
a change of Diaeresis of the first measure of the

opening subject occurs, Ex. 64,
Ex. 64.
fc=fe=
* fez i
% zx.
(Full orchestra.) Change
f
of Diaeresis.
ff
^Plpj^ *--
*e¥
\? 3
¥~ -JÂ *
l
the orchestra softens to piano and Ex. 57 re-enters,

accompanied by Ex. 59 as Subsidiary work, and the
third section of the movement runs its normal
course. From a rhythmical point of view it is
naturally more or less a repetition of the first
section, with slight differences of detail. The four-

measure Rhythm preponderates, and where a five-
measure occurs, it is usually concealed by an Overlap,

so that the general effect is that of easily understood

•
four-measure groups.
Adagio non troppo. Key B. Signature C.
It is impossible to describe the rhythmical subtleties

of the opening passage of this beautiful movement
without a full quotation. Ex. 65 shows the first
two Periods, with the composer's phrasing. In order

that the underlying rhythmical construction may not
be obscured, we have omitted some of the wind parts
which merely double those given.
Ex. 65.

Adagio non troppo. 1st Rhythm.
2nd Rhythm.
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End of 1st Period. 1st Rhythm.
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i *
2nd Rhythm. 3rd Rhythm.
"I!
0m^m p atzM
I I
1
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—h^= h=-ti i
I
—
V?
ifcH
mg§. * fe^ ipZ aa

si -P-
fc -ei-
* r *? r
End of 2nd Period.
-fe**
^M- afcafc
etc.
^14
1-
li$E?
r
The bars are compound, each containing two
Measures, and the crotchet is the Primary note.
The melody is given to the violoncellos. The first
Rhythm consists of four Measures, whose melody is
carefully divided by the bowing into two similarly
constructed Half-rhythms, each of which begins with
the Anacrusis.
The horns and double basses sound a solemn

syncopation in notes of the value of one Measure
each, on the dominant pedal. The first Anacrusis
of the violoncello is accompanied by a dotted Ana-
crusis on the bassoon. In the second Half-rhythm
the bassoon has no dotted note in its Anacrusis, but
calls attention to itself, and slightly modifies the
general rhythm, by the rapid little scale of demi-
semiquavers, the effect of which is to bring into
prominence the unaccented note on which the scale
ends.
The first Rhythm concludes with a Full Close,
but it is obscured by the dominant pedal below the
tonic triad, by which the composer rounds off the
edge of the phrase.
So far we have had the following combination of
rhythms :
Ex. 66.
Melody !l
Accompaniment 72 J
Pedal J
The second Rhythm introduces new material.

Like the first it is divided into pairs of Measures ;
but the second pair is unexpectedly repeated with

an altered melody. This at once attracts attention :
what will it lead to ? Naturally a full close on the

tonic triad is expected, after the dominant seventh
has been twice so prominently heard in a single
Rhythm. But we are again surprised. The tonic
triad is hinted at: the seventh, E, falls to its orthodox
note, D#, but instead of the other parts of the chord
leading to their regular resolution, they pause for a

single beat, and then enter on an entirely unexpected
chord, so that the end of the Period, like the end
of the first Rhythm, is concealed by the avoidance
of what, in the conventional and orthodox style,
should occur here.

By this deceptive cadence the first Period is welded
to the second, and we are carried on without a
strongly defined punctuation to the next sentence.

The thing probably seems formless and meaningless
to many, especially to those who like to have every-
thing clearly marked and easily understood. But to
those who can appreciate it, this avoidance of well-

marked closes, this subtle concealment of a form
which underlies the whole as strictly as that of a
Haydn quartet, is particularly refreshing and attrac-
tive.
The second Period contains three Rhythms, of

which the first is divided by the bowing into two
similar pairs of Measures, each beginning with a
quaver as Anacrusis. In the second Rhythm a
phrase of two Measures divided into i + i, is followed

by a phrase of three Measures. The third Rhythm
has four Measures, commencing with the Anacrusis

of three quavers, the largest Anacrusis we have yet
had in this movement. It is divided by the bowing
into 2 +2 Measures.
Here the second Period ends. It contains, like
the first, several unexpected harmonies which conceal
the ends of phrases, and make a demand on the

intelligence of the listener, so that the whole is
welded together in a continuous Melos.

After a curtailed repetition of these two Periods,
the horn enters in a solo passage, making a contem-
plative melody as follows :
Ex. 67.
Oboe 1
r~
-Q
%k :
^ :
— I I I I I '
I I-
:& -&
-G>-
"P-
^«-
HORN.
JiliHJ
m*#ry
i
ii'u,1f;t
n
This motive is taken up in turn by other wind
instruments and the strings. It will be noticed that
it is anacrusic and has Rising accentuation, but its
second accent is omitted, and this gives more force
to the accent on the final Measure.

There is a change of signature to -^-, the new
material being indicated as " L'istesso tempo." In
other words, the Primary rhythm continues to be
duple, while each Measure is divided into Subsidiary
triplets. The J 2- bars
g contain two Measures each :
hence we must look upon this part of the movement,

for rhythmical purposes, as if it were still in Common
Time. In fact, later on, the ^ is actually combined
with the C signature.
Ex. 68.
Uistesso tempo ma grazioso.
Wood wind..
J N \A
j!|p^p^S
J*l
p
r± -#^
»l; m
Cello.
3:
Pizz.
12
s
ff
32
-Hf-^- -33=3
3-=
=rhEz=1zp=i1z^==1
The first two Rhythms, allotted to the wood-wind

instruments, are of four measures each. Both begin
with Anacrusis, and conclude with a feminine close.
We notice that the obscurity of rhythm involved in
the syncopations and sustained notes of the wind

instruments is made clear by the pizzicato Primary
notes of the violoncellos.
Another melody, Anacrusic, and with Rising Ac-
centuation, appears, being preceded by an " Empty
L
Time " on an accent. It occurs at first simply :
on its re-appearance it is accompanied by a double

counterpoint in semiquavers, whose commencement
is shown in Ex. 69.
Ex. 69.
— n
i &2
IS P \ 1
-I
j
¥*
t^± ijaki ^*^ 1^
Anacrusis.
It is afterwards accompanied by demisemiquavers,

which add very much to the increasing excitement.
Its chief motive is then used as a counterpoint to

the opening melody, Ex. 65, with a combination
of the ^ and C signatures. This arrangement is
developed at some length, and the Rhythms are

easily recognised.
The final Period of the movement is worth

observing, as containing an effect of which Brahms
makes use in his Requiem, and perhaps elsewhere.
The drum beats soft triplets on the weak portions
of measures, being silent on the accented portions.
In this final Period use is also made of the demi-
semiquaver figure of bar two, Ex. 65 : its persis-
tent recurrence here is very effective.
Allegretto grazioso {Quasi Andantino). Signature &.
If in the Adagio a mysterious effect has been

produced by carefully obscuring the divisions be-
tween Rhythms and Periods, in the Allegretto the
exact opposite is the case. Here everything is as
clear and clean cut as in a Mozart Sonata, and
instead of a movement full of deep thought and

profound sentiment, we have a Scherzo which, while
not a whit behind the Adagio in its intellectual
aspects, charms us with its lightness and delicacy of

touch.
Its bars are simple, the crotchet being the Primary
note. One of its characteristics is the persistent
flow of Subsidiary rhythm, chiefly in the accompani-

ment, which is played on the violoncellos pizzicato
in quavers ; and where the quavers cease on the
violoncellos, the motion is maintained by syncopa-
tion in other instruments, so that there is no break
in its continuity. This refers to the principal sub-
ject, but in the other subjects the same features will
be found, and the Subsidiary rhythm rarely ceases.
The melody of the principal subject consists of
Primary notes for its first two measures, com-
mencing with the accent.
Played simply and without expression, there

would be nothing remarkable about the rhythm of
these two bars, merely three ordinary cotchets in a
bar. But by a little nuance Brahms alters the whole

character of the tune, and gives it a spring and life
that make it irresistible. He places a sforzando on

the last crotchet of each bar ; he accompanies
Ex. 70.
Allegretto grazioso.
this crotchet by an unexpected chord, and still
further marks it by an acciacatura. The result is
that the note becomes an Anacrusis, and this gives a
special character to the simple melody.

On the last crotchet of the fourth bar there is a
triplet, which forms the Anacrusis of the second

rhythm, though joined to the end of the first by a
slur. This connects the two Rhythms together with

excellent effect.
The second Rhythm is of four measures, extended
by two repetitions of its closing measure to six
measures.
The second Period contains a Rhythm of four
measures followed by one of six, and ending with
a Half-rhythm ; and here there is a slight pause,
Ex. 71.
Half-rhythm.
i
-*—Wt
/>N
£i
^1:
A.
H _*_ 4.
Pizz, tP
rf>
c£^
gd
shown in Ex. 71, which seems to call attention to
this half-rhythm, while at the same time it marks
the re-entry of the opening theme. The use of
half-rhythms in unexpected places is a feature of
this movement, and they are introduced, like the

other rhythmical divisions, so clearly and decidedly,
that there can be no mistake as to what the com-
poser means. We shall have more to say about
the kind of pause here used, in Chapter X. The
third Period is of 4 + 6, arranged in a way that calls
for no special description.
This ends the first section of the movement. It
is followed by a change from f to f rhythm, the

—
subsidiary rhythm running more or less through all
the parts, and not only in the accompaniment. The

melody is that of the opening subject reduced from
triple to duple measure. Its four-measure Rhythms
are easily recognisable, till it comes to a half-rhythm
after the second period, which prepares the way for

a new subject in dotted rhythm, with a most in-
teresting construction. The Period consists of two

complete and two half-rhythms, arranged in the
order 4 + 2, 4+ 2. The division is very clearly
marked by the difference in the internal structure of
the whole and half-rhythms.
Ex. 72.
feSd=aSi Eta
i *f ft*
r
f 1 1 1
J=l s
1
4 — «-
r r 2 *
5 X 3
j_rj to
r r t l£
This ingenious device makes for great brilliancy
and energy, and, as there is a sforzando on each
Primary Time, the energy is increased to the highest
pitch. After this exciting passage the movement
pursues its way pianissimo^ and leads to a return of
Ex. 70.
Six measures of Presto -| introduce the motive
of our last example in syncopation ; it is quoted on
page 98, in Ex. 22. The rest of the movement is
for the most part a development of the subjects

whose opening bars we have given. The time is
broken by a pause on the Anacrusis of the final
Rhythm.
Allegro con Spirito. D Major. Signature C.
The bars are simple, the minim being the

Primary note. The movement starts with a
peculiarly Brahms-like phrase. A single D is struck

in octaves, accompanied by fifths on the strings and
Ex. 73.
Allegro con spirito.
iiiU
m-mEi3££S m
P Sotto voce,
-4
gpE^ i^
mmmmWf I
1
BRAHMS' SYMPHONY 23
brass, sotto voce, on the first accent. It is followed

by a quaver rest, and then a melody starts off on the
strings alone, in unison, with an Anacrusis. We
naturally expect the single D, with its special orches-
tration, to be a Preliminary note, and the melody

proper to commence with the Anacrusis. But the
composer does not intend anything of the sort,
anything so obvious. He has placed a slur over the

first four bars, and included the opening D in it,
showing that these four bars are to constitute the

first Rhythm, and the D is not a Preliminary note,
but part of the first Rhythm, separated from its com-
panion measures by a Caesura.
The second Rhythm contains Hve measures, and
a five-measure Rhythm is often made by repeat-
ing the last measure of a four-measure phrase.
Brahms here does just the contrary ; he repeats his
first and not his last measure. The mystery of the
opening of the movement is enhanced by the sotto
voce, by the unison of the first two measures, by three-

part writing doubled through several octaves. The
first Rhythm ends with a feminine close ; there is no
Anacrusis to the second, and the whole of the first
Period, except where interrupted by the rest after

the quasi-preliminary note, flows on without per-
ceptible division into Rhythms.
The second Period opens with a succession of
two-measure phrases, each of which has an Anacrusis
of three crotchets. The whole of this Period, which
ends with a six-measure Rhythm, is in only two-
part writing down to its last three measures, when
four-part enters for the first time.
To this point everything has been sotto voce.
Then there is a rest on the first accent, and the

full orchestra bursts in with an Anacrusis of seven
quavers, leading to a repetition of the opening
period in a simplified form, with full harmony and
counterpoint, and with quaver rhythm throughout
every measure.
Ex. 74.
Anacrusis.
The Rhythms now continue for some time to be

four-measure, until we come to a brilliant passage
Ex. 75.
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ending with a full close in the tonic. This

seven -measure Rhythm, whose commencement is
shown in Ex. 75, is very telling ; while the strings

are fully occupied with quavers, the wind and
drums mark the accents with the following ana-
crusic figure :
j
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All is now life and fire in four-measure Rhythms,

which are strongly punctuated by full closes, the
whole orchestra being employed. Then there comes
a diminuendo to pianissimo. Two great arpeggios on
the clarinets are heard in the midst of the busy
quaver movement that is perpetually going on in
the strings, against sustained syncopated notes of
primary value in the wind. The violoncellos begin
to mark the time with crotchets ; the quavers of

the other strings give way to crotchets, and finally
the second subject enters ; it is quoted in Ex. 23,

page 98.
It begins with a Rhythm of 2 + 2, followed by a
five-measure Rhythm, but as the new Period enters
by Overlap on the fifth measure of this last rhythm,
the 4 + 4 is maintained.
balance Throughout the
movement, wherever a five-measure Rhythm occurs,
it almost invariably overlaps the succeeding period,
as it does here.
The second subject is a strong one owing to the
syncopation in its first measure. The melody is
for the most part accompanied by quavers in each
accented portion, and finally also in the unaccented

portion of its measures. It is repeated several times
with modifications of its subsidiary rhythm, until
it is heard in unison, forte, with quaver triplets, and
a sforzando on the final crotchet of the measure.
The triplets do not continue long ; a return is
made to the quadruplets in quavers, and fresh

material grows out of what has gone before.
A particularly attractive effect is the following, in

which the wind instruments keep up a flow of
quavers and the strings punctuate it with pizzicato
crotchets.
Ex. 76.
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It is one of those many passages in which rhythm

makes its appeal in the simplest possible manner,
by notes which are evenly distributed throughout the
Period. The charm of this particular example lies
in the contrasting tone-quality of the instruments

which carry out the two rhythmical schemes.
— .
BRAHMS' SYMPHONY *3S
During the course of the development the follow-

ing tumultuous syncopation occurs :
Ex. yy.
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The first four bars contain the most powerful

form of syncopation, that in which the accent is
represented by silence. In the last two bars the

second subject (Ex. 23) is represented by the bass
through rhythm alone — a favourite device with
Beethoven —and is accompanied by syncopated Sub-
sidiary work.
The whole movement is a masterpiece of strength
and energy. The Rhythms are straightforward and
easily understood no special demand is made by
;
them on the intellectual faculties. No pauses or
ritardandos occur to break its course, which is carried
on with an earnest and dignified impetus that is
irresistible.
Tschaikowsky. Symphonie Pathetique. Op. 74.
While many of Brahms' works appeal to our

rhythmical faculties through the grouping of Mea-
sures in Phrases of various kinds, Tschaikowsky
generally relies more on the grouping of the notes
within the Measures than on variety of Phrase. In
other words, Brahms makes more use of the Primary
and Tschaikowsky of the Subsidiary Rhythms. In
Brahms' music we more often meet with unexpected
Overlaps and Deceptive Cadences, which influence
the lengths of Phrases, or mystify us by obscuring
their limits, while with Tschaikowsky the four-
measure and the Half-rhythm are the more prevalent,
and they are generally clearly defined.
The introduction of this Symphony opens with

the following Period, the crotchet being the Primary
note :
Ex. 78.
Tschaikowsky (Op. 74).

Adagio. Prel. | Bassoon.
T>'Y<&V^ cres.
f*
TSCHAIKOWSKY 237
Feminine close."
The Motive is anacrusic, and two measures in

length. The accent of the second measure is dis-
placed by Syncopation. But, through a crescendo
and diminuendo in each measure, through slurs and

through changes of harmony, the normal accent is
enforced in such a manner that we are confronted

with a phrase of great emotional significance, which
at once gives the symphony the right to its title of
Pathetic.
At the end of the Period there is a slight climax;

the accented note occupies a whole measure, and is
reinforced by the telling harmony and the sforzando ;
moreover, the final measure is silent, as if the music

paused to take breath before continuing its sad
message.
After a repetition of the opening passage, with
slight alterations, and a few bars of very expressive
Recitative, the Allegro non troppo, (Ex. 79), com-

mences. It has the same motive as the introduction,
but with a different treatment.
Here the second accent of each pair of measures
is represented by a rest, in place of the syncopation
and change of harmony we heard in the intro-
duction. The silence compels attention, and the
succeeding four-measure Phrase, with its slurred
Ex. 79.
Allegro non troppo.
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semiquavers on the accent, answered by the notes on
the half measures in the bass, has an agitated
and energetic effect.
Soon afterwards there comes a five-measure Phrase,

TSCHAIKOWSKY 239
which is brought about by the interposition of a bar

of \ time, i.e. of a single measure. By this means
the falling accentuation is maintained, which it would
not be, if the five-measure Phrase were ended within
a bar of Common Time. Compare Brahms, Op. 10,
No. Ex. 45, page 156.

1,
After the \ bar, the opening motive recommences,

with additional Subsidiary rhythm. An anapaestic
figure is announced loudly on the horns, but its
actual motive enters pianissimo on the strings,
(Ex. 80), accompanied by a descending scale in
double counterpoint.
Ex. 80.
(Outer parts only.)
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Anacrusis. Anacrusis. Anacrusis.
This passage is extremely expressive : the com-

poser insists on the Anacrusis being made evident
by the bowing, in every measure, and in all the
parts. The combination of the smooth scales with
the staccato anapaests, while the whole is played

pianissimo^ has an emotional effect of deep signifi-
cance.
2 4o RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
We come now to Ex. 81. In Chapter III. we
explained that two drums beating two different
rhythmical figures simultaneously would be heard

by the listener as only one figure ; but that when
Ex. 81.
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different instruments or voices took part in different
rhythmical figures simultaneously, the effect of both

could be heard, not as a single figure necessarily,
but as a scheme in which two or more figures
combined with each other, and yet were distinct.
It is of this invaluable resource that Tschaikowsky

here avails himself, and the movement under
—
TSCHAIKOWSKY 241
consideration contains a number of beautiful com-

binations of Subsidiary figures.
In Ex. 8 1 the different figures are allotted to in-
struments of contrasting tone, and are easily distin-
guished. The violin marks its accents by the slurs,
the bassoon and flute have a noticeable crescendo
arpeggio, the horn stands out through its " Dotted -
note " figure. It will be noticed that the phrasing

is in Half-rhythms. The semiquaver motive is
worked up at considerable length in Half-rhythms,

with changes of detail too numerous to quote, and it
forms the Subsidiary material to several striking
figures in the wind instruments. Then comes a
diminuendo and ritardando, in which the rhythm dies

down, until it ceases altogether in a pause on a rest,
preparatory to the entrance of the second subject,
Ex. 82.
Ex. 82.
Andante. Prelim. 1st Rhythm.
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The pause is not the only thing that breaks the
rhythmical flow. The new subject is preceded by an
" Empty Time " of two measures, expectation is on
the alert during this long silence, and the music

re-enters softly, with an Anacrusis. It makes a
crescendo from its first to its second accent, and by

this means the composer gets the effect of a Rising
Accentuation, which coincides with the rise of the
melody. The Masculine endings of the Rhythms
fall on the third accent, and the melody is sustained
to the fourth. The long note is accompanied by a
pianissimo syncopation in both places, but in the

second it has a crescendo^ and the succeeding Rhythm
enters by an Overlap before it is expected. The
crescendo, combined with the Overlap, has a strongly
emotional effect.
The decrease of movement at the ends of these two

Rhythms enhances the melancholy effect of the
harmony and melody.
Decrease of movement.
The Andante is only a few bars in length. It
gives way to a moderate mosso, in which a continuous

anapaestic rhythm in the strings accompanies a four-
measure triplet-rhythm phrase, the various wind
instruments imitating and overlapping one another
in a very effective manner. Together with the
TSCHAIKOWSKY 243
anapaests and triplets, two other figures are heard,

one in crotchets, the other in syncopation, so that
there are the following four figures in combination,
each of which can be distinguished, owing to the

orchestration.
UfU LffLT C-CTLT LCTCJ

The substratum of anapaests against an entirely
different superstructure is very beautiful.
The Andante recurs, with triplet accompaniment,
with powerful crescendos and much change of tempo :
the music here is exceedingly emotional. After a

pause an allegro vivo sets in, fortissimo , with a new
figure, Ex. 83, whose six-measure Phrase, broken
by Caesuras, is very expressive. It leads to a fugato
on the first two motives of the movement, in staccato
notes, uttered with terrific force, and a furious semi-

quaver countersubject is added, each entry being
Ex. 83.
Allegro brio.
Prelim. \
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The wind instruments bring
in anacrusic interjections, which add strongly to the
accentuation, and then they join in the semiquaver
passage, whilst the trumpets thunder in octaves
against them, Ex. 84. The vigour of this motive is
Ex. 84.
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TSCHAIKOWSKY 245
increased at the end by the addition of crotchets

where there were minims in the beginning.
Tlie fortissimo gives way to a diminuendo and piano

and a new motive enters, which rises quickly to
fortissimo, and as quickly dies down to pianissimo in a
gentle mixture of triplets and duplets, syncopated

into one another and played on the horns, while the
violins hint at the opening subject, before bringing
it in again. In a short time the full orchestra is
working this subject up to fortissimo in an interchange
of Half-rhythms, with a particularly grand effect.
After a stormy interchange of triplets and rests,
the Minim becomes the Primary note in the follow-

ing motive, with a solemn effect :
Ex. 85.
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The re-entry of the Andante, with an undercurrent
of Subsidiary rhythm played tremolo, pp, brings back
the crotchet as the Primary note. This subject,
whether played fortissimo or pianissimo, with or with-
out subsidiary rhythm, always has a plaintive feeling,

owing to the long notes at the end of the phrase.
The movement ends with a fresh reading of the
opening subject (Ex. 78), punctuated by Primary
notes played pizzicato on the strings.
Second Movement.
Allegro con grazia. The Signature is

f. The
Primary note is the crotchet.
This well-known and very graceful movement
takes the place of the Minuet, and accordingly it has
a Trio, followed by a repetition of the opening
section.
The compound f Bars contain two measures each,

in the order Duple-Triple. The Rhythms are
throughout of four-measure form.
Ex. 86.
Allegro con grazia.
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There is a swing and ease that fully accounts for

the popularity of the movement, and that Quintuple
Time can produce so facile and readily-grasped
TSCHAIKOWSKY 247
music, supports our contention on page 125, that

there is nothing unnatural in this division of time.
The occasional intervention of a single measure in
" Dotted-note " form gives a light and dancing
feeling to the " Minuet/' as also does, though to a
lesser extent, the single triplet seen in Ex. 86.
The Trio forms a strong contrast. It is in the
minor mode each : pair of its Measures has Rising

Accentuation, each second accent coincides with a
discord and a long note. Underneath all lies a
constant reiteration of the note D as a pedal- point.
Ex. 87.
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The effect of this combination, the persistence of
the bass note, the dwelling on the discord twice in
each Rhythm, is one of deep melancholy, which
is only dispelled by the gradual return of the
" Minuet."
Third Movement.
Allegro molto vivace. The Signature varies be-

tween C and J^-. The Primary note is the crotchet
or the dotted crotchet, according to the signature.
There are two Measures in the Bar.
The movement, for a considerable part of its
course, is of the nature of a March, whose Primary

rhythm is constantly accompanied by a busy Sub-
sidiary rhythm of staccato triplets. There are eight
bars of Introduction in triplets, which continue their
course in the strings, while the regular movement

begins with the following motive :
Ex. 88.
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In the midst of the accompanying triplets we hear
occasional duplets, which are played pizzicato, so that
they stand out amongst the restless triplets. The
strings here divide into no less than ten parts,
giving another instance of the composer's use of

orchestration to serve the purpose of his rhythmical
effects.
The march-like figure in Ex. 88 is repeated many

times in different keys and with various modifica-
tions of melody. It practically forms the ground-

work on which the whole movement is built. After
a development of this motive a new figure enters.
TSCHAIKOWSKY 249
Ex. 89.
Fizz.
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It is also accompanied, like the first, by unceasing
triplets. The reader will observe that in this Ex-
ample the final accents are struck, instead of being
left to the imagination, as in Ex. 88. The harmonic
and melodic structure of the Rhythm-endings
give a kind of arch assertiveness, such as we meet
with in hornpipe tunes, and in some of Bach's dance
music.
— — 1

Ex. 89 is immediately followed by Ex. 90,
which is also accompanied by staccato triplets.
Ex. 90.
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Ex. 88 now re-enters, and is developed, and after-
wards a new complex of figures is heard, such as
Tscha'ikowsky loves :
Ex. 91.
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Masculine close.
It is followed by a fanfare in triplets, which ends

in a full close.
A new subject enters, which we need not quote.

Its first Rhythm has sustained fortissimo chords, its
second is soft, and consists of light groups of

semiquavers moving downwards against a rising
TSCHAIKOWSKY 251
chromatic scale in the bass, played pizzicato. After

the new Period of eight Measures has been repeated
several times, the original subject, Ex. 88, returns,
and is again worked out.
The Introduction and the whole of the first
section is now repeated, and leads to a climax, in
which Ex. 88 is worked up with full orchestra on

the note A as a pedal-point. An interlude of
descending scales in semiquavers, fff, occurs. Each
scale occupies two Measures, and is preceded by an
ascending Anacrusis of demisemiquavers. After
this tremendous whirlwind, Ex. 88 re-appears in
the full orchestra, also fff, like the scale inter-
lude, while the drums and brass instruments

punctuate the Primary notes by staccato chords, and
the side drums, cymbals, and bass drum join in the
fray. The excitement continues for a long time, till
we get a repetition of Ex. 91, whose dotted notes

are now repeated in a succession of one-measure
phrases.
Ex. 92.
The climax of this passage is here reached, in a
figure of four quavers to the Measure, punctuated by-
dotted crotchets in the bass, the whole being

marked fffff
Ex. 88 re-enters softly, rises to a fortissimo, and is
worked out again to the end of the movement.

What is the significance of this movement ? In
its early part the staccato triplets seem to buzz round
the march-like figure like bees hard at work round
their hive on a bright summer's day. There is a
pleasant sunny atmosphere about it ; but we soon

begin to find that in spite of the boldness of its
treatment, and its variety of orchestration, the figure

represented by Ex. 88, with its very strongly marked
rhythm, undoubtedly palls, and the movement
becomes to all intents and purposes a march. Per-
haps this is what the composer intended it to be ;
but a march does not stir the deeper emotions, and
we miss the stimulus of the first and second move-

ments. For this constant reiteration of a " dotted-
note " figure makes no call on the imagination ; it
stamps itself upon us, forces its way into us, and,
fine as it we cannot call it great music. Its

is,
appeal is more to the physical, the muscular, than

the spiritual side of our nature, and the varia-
tions of power from pp to fffff do not make up

for the want of appeal to the imagination. But, on
the other hand, there is no doubt about its popularity
TSCHAIKOWSKY 253
with an audience, and its existence would be justified
if its chief function were to act as an attraction that

could draw people to hear the more imaginative
music of the other movements.
Finale.
Adagio lamentoso. The Signature is

f , the crotchet
being the Primary note. The normal Rhythms are
at first of two-measures, well divided by Caesuras.

In the opening subject use is again made of the
decrease of movement towards the end of the
Rhythm, to which we have referred on page 242.
This time it is connected with the minor mode, and
has an almost tragic efFect.
Ex. 93.
Adagio lamentoso.
Largamente. Decrease of movement.
The play of emotion is enhanced by constant

changes of tempo and power. The figure
which, with its

n
descending melody and
t
its Caesura, gives

so pathetic a feeling, constantly recurs in the adagio ;
and though the Caesura is frequently filled up by
instruments which take no part in the chief motive,
they are of contrasting tone, so that the effect of the
melody is enhanced by their company.
The Adagio leads to the Andante, in which synco-
pated pianissimo triplets on the horns usher in a
Primary-note melody in the major mode, and con-

tinue to accompany it. The new melody works up
to a fortissimo, with frequent change of tempo ; finally,
each pair of Measures is broken off by a rest with a
pause, and then an important Anacrusis brings in a

resumption of Ex. 93. It is worked out, and rises
Ex. 94.
Anacrusis.
to a climax in the moderato assai, in which two figures
are given simultaneously to the wind and strings.

Then it down to piano. There is an episode in
sinks
syncopated minim chords on the trombone, which
begins ppp and dies away to ppppp. The andante
melody is resumed, with its Primary accents tre-
mendously reinforced ; it is accompanied by a tonic

pedal in triplets, which continues to the end of
the movement. The last Measures die away in
pianissimo chords on the lowest parts of the violon-
cellos and double basses, the last dying accents being

TSCHA'l'KOWSKY 255
uttered by sforzando discords. The whole of this
movement is intensely emotional, an effect to which

the frequent Caesuras and the rhythmical features we
have noticed contribute quite as much as the har-
monies ; and it forms a fitting conclusion to a great

" Pathetic Symphony." It is said that the work is a
kind of epitome of the composer's life, which, on

account of his excessive sensitiveness, was a sad one.
T :
CHAPTER X
Vincent D'Indy, Sonata in E for Piano, Op. 63 — Debussy,
Masques : Hommage a Rameau — Stanford, Quartet No 2,
Op. 45 — Elgar Symphony, Op. 55
D'Indy, Sonata in E.
Movement I. ModSre -J.
There are three foot-notes, two of which have an
Sonata in E important bearing on the rhythm. The

for Piano, first is :
" L' auteur se fie a V intelligence de Texi-

Vincent
y
T> lndy. cutant pour comprendre et interpreter sans
heurts les combinations de rythmes binaires et tern aires
de ces trois pieces
The second note says

" Le signe ~\ signifie un leger point d 'arret moins im-
portant que le /tn."
The movement opens with a Rhythm of five duple

Measures, the last of which forms a feminine ending
to the phrase, and is succeeded by a pause on a
single Primary " Empty Time."
The triple measure is only apparent, not real, for
the pause makes an indefinite break in the rhythmi-

D'INDY, SONATA IN E 257
cal flow. A pause on a minim would have been too

long: the composer wishes to renew the rhythmical
Ex. 95.
Vincent D'Indy (Sonata, Op. 63).

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movement as soon as possible after breaking it off,
for the feeling of the passage demands only a short

pause here.
The phrase itself begins with a vigorous triplet on
the first accent : the second accent is not struck.
The third Measure is anacrusic, the fourth accent
is struck in the bass only, and the fifth Measure is
anacrusic, like the third. The energetic triplets
give way to duplets, the pace is slackened and

the phrase ends softly with a gentle feminine close.
R
It is a very striking passage for the opening of a
work. It is repeated, with modifications, for the
second Rhythm, and extended to six Measures,
instead of five. At its end is a short pause in which
everything is silent except the bass note, which is
sustained through the pause, and thus carries on the

sound into the next phrase.
A pair of new Periods now occurs. They are
divided from one another by the sign |T|, a slight
lengthening of the final note, not amounting to a
pause, and not sufficient to break the regular flow of

rhythmical accents. This effect is not unknown to
great pianists. The late Hans von Bulow employed

it in Beethoven's sonatas, and he would sometimes
make a similar slight delay on an accented note to
1
bring it into prominence. It is interesting to notice
that this kind of pause is very ancient. It is
described much detail by the Greek

in theorists
under the name of " Chronos alogos," " Unpro-

portional Time," that is, a " Time " that is out of
proportion to the other " Times," and yet does not
extend to the value of two " Times." It seems to
have been chiefly used by the Greeks as D'Indy
uses it mark the end of a Rhythm.
here, namely, to
It is sometimes used by Brahms in the form

/T\
1
See Appendix.
See Ex. 71, page 228. It occurs also in Brahms*

Pianoforte Intermezzo, Op. 116, No. 6. R. Strauss
uses the sign
for the same purpose in " Tod und Verklarung."

We quote the second of the Periods in which it
occurs, for there is here an interesting combination

of figures, accompanied by triplets.
The effect of the somewhat agitated right-hand

part, against the solid determination of the bass
"
progression, is very fine ; and the " Chronos alogos
on the feminine ending of the Period makes a kind
of climax before the first motive (Ex. 95) re-enters,

on a totally unexpected chord. If the sign jTj, or
some similar sign, comes into general use, as
appears likely to be the case, some convenient term

will have to be invented for it.
Ex. 96.
I
1
IsJ-
JL I
j ts Ty
fe
taa
$^#=1^
;
/
0Br.
&*-r—ii
¥ W Z y»
f
1

I en animant. 2
¥- i'
I:
t:
S^S
£« atipmenfant.
-|» •-! ffl
Ip^ps^
Ftr—*44-
£
if-'
ff
fe=d!=i|
T~ fgf a £:
t)*
HSSfeg^p fcr
tj — is*
*/
@£ S p
^-
j» # :
i t?tjt*r
The Introduction leads to a " Theme" in regular
four-measure Rhythms. Ex. 97 shows its first
Period.
Ex. 97.
Thema.
u 'rffflB: -
4 !-
-<s>-
=t
1-*^--
f Simplement. cr Anacrusis.
Half- close.
J-
IPie -<s>-
-«s>-
—
3
-N f~
fc
1
*N
Ê
S»-
f *Fr*r*V& Full close. etc.
^tiLnd: £ :
52=H
#=p
-GH :£
*r
It will be seen that the melody ends with a
full close on the third Measure, the fourth being
filled in by subsidiary matter, and this construction
is repeated in some of the succeeding Periods. The

Theme is followed by a set of variations, the fourth
of which introduces a new melody, with Rising
Accentuation. It opens thus :
Ex. 98.
^=100. Prelim, j _$l.

f.
fe t
t$=w-
£
vv bien he et soutenu.
3=^4*=E3^
3
SfaM
E
Me^==H- £ :
#F
Anacrusis. etc.
m^ '
;
+*?$$&&+ .-• v—
—

and afterwards changes to Falling Accentuation.
Later on this motive is used as a counterpoint to the
Theme, accompanied by subsidiary work.
Ex. 99.
£:
±,
doux mats intense.
* J J
* :=f:
ft
^
K azt
-_#
>
^^ ±==-
Le Thhme seul doit fore en dehors^ le reste, tres estompi.
Falling Accentuation is here established by the

Theme, to which the counter-subject is entirely
subordinate, as is indicated by the composer's direc-
tion. The effect of the three rhythmical schemes

together has here nothing novel about it, but it is
nevertheless very pleasantly connected with the
Melos.
Movement II. I'res anime.

The signature is
f . The Measures are for the
most part in the order triple-duple, but there are
several daring changes of Diaeresis. It is evident
from this movement (the work is dated 1907) that
musicians and audiences are becoming more familiar
with quintuple Measure, and that composers are
able, as it were, to play with more freely than
it,
formerly. Quite early in the movement we find the

following example of freedom :
Ex. 990.
Tres anime.
1
The metrical Diaeresis triple-duple has already been
well established, when it is apparently broken at the
fourth and fifth Measures by a change of melodic
Diaeresis, of the nature alluded to on page 123. This
device iscommon enough in modern classical music,
but we do not know of any other case in which
it is used in quintuple measure. In most of the
examples of this species of rhythm that we have
hitherto met with the composer has seemed more
anxious to impress the five-fold nature of the bars
on the audience, than to mystify them. The use
of the sign [7] is here very bold and effective.
There is a highly suggestive change at the first
double bar. The triple-duple Diaeresis is main-

tained, but is made mysterious by the omission of
the fourth accents of the Rhythms :
Ex. 100.
Un peu moins vite. Expressif.
and a truly " inward " feeling results.
The movement is of considerable length, and

contains many effective changes of Diaeresis, both
metrical and melodic, and it is probably the boldest

piece of quintuple music that has yet been composed.
Movement III. Modere.
This movement opens with a repetition of the first
introductory Rhythm, Ex. 95. It then changes to

triple Measure, in which a new theme is given out,
of which the following example shows the opening
Rhythm.
Ex. 101.
n
I *t
i doux et tres express.
-^ *~
SUi 3b^=db ^=S=A=r £: 3: tt±±
It is worked up in various ways. In one place it
is diminished in |- time, but certain of its notes are

extended, so as to bring it into four-measure
Rhythms. Later on, great use is made of the
:

following somewhat noticeable subsidiary rhythmical
figure :
which obtains its importance from the Melos to

which it is joined. A new theme occurs, whose
melodic notes enter in a syncopated form, thus
Ex. 102.
^T'^d ^^2j
Jar "^ ** &c * ia
i t^^^r^^n CESS gMgO'iM-PJ
^2^SS
fcs
It has a somewhat agitated effect : it soon gives way

to the -| form of Ex. ioi.
After a working out of these and other themes,
the theme of the first movement, Ex. 97, is recapitu-
lated, with various changes of time, and the piece

ends.
The sonata is thoroughly modern in its rhythmical
design, and presumes an advanced stage of cultiva-
tion on the part of the audience.
Debussy ', Masques.
This -| presto movement, in which the Primary

value is the dotted crotchet, is of striking rhythmical
DEBUSSY, MASQUES 267
significance. Much of the effect has been pro-

duced by distributing the materials as if Debussy,
Mas? ues
f Measures, and accenting them as
-
for
for -§. The player must mark the proper accentu-

ation very decidedly, when he will feel and enjoy
the "fantasque" character indicated by the composer.
The following is the opening Rhythm :
Ex. 103.
Debussy, Masques.
Tres vif et fantasque.
1 2
LI m -m l
m m \—0 L m dB-Mfc—
ditachi et ryihmS.
In the third and fourth Measures the left-hand

quavers must be felt as syncopation, the normal
accentuation being maintained in the right hand.
This kind of combination is not uncommon,
especially in French music. Like all rhythmical
figures, its attraction is not due to the accentuation
itself, but to the manner in which the Melos is dis-
tributed over the accents. For the scheme, apart

from its Melos, is the very ordinary figure
s
ij w J7iu jvtjU $rn\mrn\
French composers have a peculiar facility in com-
bining simple rhythmical figures with simple Melos,
in a spontaneous and original manner.
:

We soon get a passage in which the Diaeresis
apparently changes to that of \ :
Ex. 104.
_ 2 3
aft
?
P expressif
S34
^ 3 1 =fc
ft
p-p- R? P
but the accentuation |- has been by this time firmly
established, and must continue to be felt in spite of
the notation employed. Hence a double syncopa-
tion arises : in the right hand it is continuous, in the
left it affects the second half of the Measures, which
must be felt as if written thus
Ex. 105.
Nr^
gi-SizH^ *
£ ?v
fc£S* * s k=;
m
But if the composer had written it in this way,
there would have been a danger of the extreme
delicacy of the accentuation being overdone, and
thus, to some extent, marred. The passage is
highly imaginative, and must be handled with the

utmost gentleness. The whole piece depends for
its effect on this and similar combinations of deli-
cate accentuation with a very suggestive Melos.

DEBUSSY, MASQUES 269
Amongst other devices the unexpected omission of

an accent here and there is very telling, e.g.
Ex. 106.
Ce"dez un pen.
1 2 3 4
^N k"
%&$m
sp^S£
"m.
&0~-~± o —fcrl- 23t
5-^-
-f
Accent
flP omitted.
^ tep 3 TZ-
"l^
as is also the Beethovenish effect of repeating four

successive Measures without change of Melos, so
that the Rhythm alone is heard, with its accents
made very prominent :
Ex. 107.
1 2 3 4
-P—m p r*— f-
sempre pp
The movement is long, and there is no change of

rhythm-species throughout, yet so attractive is it,
that the constant reiteration of the same rhythmical

figure never palls, but carries us along with ever-
increasing interest. Towards the end the figures
give way to sustained pianissimo chords in strict
tempo, but on the final chord is reiterated, for the last
time, the opening rhythmical figure, Ex. 103.

1
Debussy, Hommage a Rameau.
This interesting movement is remarkable for the
Debussy
great use it makes of the Anacrusis, on
Hommage a which it largely depends for its due
effect ; and although in many cases the
slurs fail to indicate the Anacrusis, yet in playing the
piece we can hardly help feeling that it is there, in
spite of the printed phrasing. It is in slow tempo,

the minim being the Primary value, and the phrases,
after the first few bars, are, for the most part, of one
Measure in duration. It opens with a Period of
two Rhythms, of two Measures each, entirely in
unison.
Ex. 108.
Debussy, Hommage a Rameau.

Lent et grave {dans le style d'une Sarabande mats sans rigueur).
m* ##3
r
Z± ki±± ~3Zt =t
jEfc
TV
Unisono. Expressif et doucement soutenu.
u.n t-
1
n m
1
The division of the notes in the first Rhythm
is so vague that we can scarcely perceive any
definite rhythmical figure : the composer wishes to
mystify us. The second Rhythm, by repeating the
DEBUSSY, HOMMAGE A RAMEAU 271
triplets and the D sharp in the same part of two

successive Measures, gives a more definite impres-
sion, and this is confirmed by the construction of

the succeeding Period in 1 -f 1 +3 Measures. A
very delicate nuance occurs in the repetition of the
opening Rhythm : the phrase is extended by a
single Primary Time, thus :
Ex. 109.
Additional
Primary
Time.
This additional Primary Time is not placed at the

end of the phrase as is usual, but in its midst, and it
has a delightfully fresh effect. Shortly afterwards

we have an important Anacrusis, brought about by
the interpolation of a bar of \ time, i.e. of an addi-
tional Primary Time, thus :
Ex. no.
Anacrusis.
=t
2*
Anacrusis.
^ 3=3
We give the slurring as it is printed, but surely
the three last crotchets of each bar are, in reality,

the Anacrusis of the succeeding bar ? We have the
less hesitation in making this suggestion, since, a
few bars further on, the slurring of a similar passage

agrees with our contention.
Later in the movement, the bass takes an anacrusic
form in three crotchets.
Ex. in.
^ iPi:
*J|E|
t-
-G>-
Anacrusis.
Afterwards the same figure occurs in another part of

the Measure, not as an Anacrusis, but as an inde-
pendent subsidiary motive :
Ex. 112.
nigsvwnfr up v&-
and a new Anacrusis occurs in both hands together,

STANFORD, QUARTET 273
Ex. 113.
A tempo i°.
which is here indicated by the printed slur.

The opening Rhythm recurs, with harmony, and
with a Subsidiary punctuation in the bass. Towards
the end, the independent Subsidiary motive of Ex.
in recurs in the right hand, and is the last figure
heard. The movement is highly imaginative, and
its rhythmical form is well adapted to its strange
Melos.
Stanford, Qjuartet No. 2.
British composers of the first rank are not behind

their Continental brethren in rhythmical Stanford,
developments. All nations, in fact, seem Uuartet

to be working together in raising instru- Op. 45.
mental music to ever higher degrees of emotional

significance, and our native musicians are taking
their place in this movement, as they did during the
famous Elizabethan period.
A great change, moreover, has come over the
British public during the last quarter of a century.
Formerly orchestral concerts were for the most part
carried on at a loss, unless so-called " popular
music," consisting of waltzes and well-worn Italian

overtures, formed a large part of the programme.
Chamber music was heard regularly at one place
only, St. James's Hall ; and even there the audiences
demanded constant repetitions of their " old
favourites," so that there was little opportunity

for a new composer of foreign nationality to be
heard, and practically none at all for one of British
birth.
Conditions have now entirely altered. London

can support several first-class orchestras, and many
chamber music societies. " Popular " audiences
are ready to listen to and applaud masterpieces
of classical art, where they formerly demanded
waltzes, played by " combined massed bands and the
grand organ " ; and our composers now get a hearing,
where twenty-five years ago they could get none.
A great deal of this change is undoubtedly due
to those excellent conductors amongst us, both
foreign and native, who, by the exercise of a highly
cultivated imagination, have raised the art of per-
forming orchestral music from a correct and spiritless
playing of the printed notes and expression signs to

a performance full of life and fire and emotion.
The cold " classical " manner of beating time, while a
band played the notes with mechanical correctness, is
a thing of the past, and with it has passed away the

indifference of British audiences to high-class music.
For music, to move the great public, must be

emotional (if it rises above the level of that which

appeals to the muscular rather than the intellectual
faculties), and by boldly giving emotional significance
to the great classics, musicians have made them
appeal to the " man in the street." This is all as
it should be : the elevating and refining influence

of musical art can be of more real value to the
nation when it is thus spread over a larger area of
receptivity than when it is confined to the cultured
few.
As to Chamber music, the famous " Saturday and
Monday Popular Concerts " were the chief element
in training audiences in this branch ; and although
from the nature of things Chamber music can never
make its appeal to so large a public as orchestral
music, yet, owing to the beneficent effect of the
above-mentioned undertaking, there are now to be
found audiences who can fully appreciate the intellectual
performance of chamber music by our own musicians,

as well as by foreigners. Our native performers
have given up the coldly correct and unsympathetic
style of playing : hence the British composer has
now better opportunities of exercising his art than at
any former time, and he is showing that he can well

hold his own. This is beginning to be recognised
abroad, for the names of British composers, as well
as executants, occur more frequently in foreign
programmes than they formerly did.
i :

The quartet we propose to analyse opens with a
freefugato introduction, as follows
Ex. 1 1 4.
Stanford, Quartet (Op. 45)

1ST
Violin. 3
PP
2nd Violin.
fe
1
3 4 2 3 4
_fr
v. > v v etc.
Overlap.
^^
i pp
It will be noticed that the theme, as is often the
case in fugues, enters with the full bar at its first
appearance, and with the half bar at its second.

Hence it has Falling Accentuation followed by
Rising Accentuation. This device has two results:
firstly, it gives contrast, and secondly, the theme

enters one Measure before it is expected, by means
of an Overlap. The second and third accents are
omitted in the first Rhythm, so that there is a slight

feeling of mystery, but when the second violin enters,
all the accents are heard in the counter-subject.
The short fugato introduction leads to a Piu moto

subject, whose melody is accompanied by two sub-
sidiary figures, so that there are three rhythmical
schemes in combination, each of which has its own
particular character.
Ex. 115.
Pik moto. Preliminary.
IS "fa rnp ,
=£:
m Q3j3
3:
~ £E
J~m~p
'
f
Pizz. Marcato.
1st Rhythm.
f -s
ii J^=w
X
i=±
n Jrm JTO -CTj
r
2nd Rhythm.
a
i -f**
*
mgni.i =t
-j
p^^
Xf J
m
-*-
a=
±
3s
1 * P2
P5 Jill ,
H ;J:
:r.
J.
2
Feminine Close.
8=*
STLnns
The melody, beginning with dactyls, leads, in two
places, to a high note, whose accent is prominent
through the relative length of the note. The viola
accompanies in flowing semiquavers, and the violon-

cello punctuates the whole by its pizzicato quavers.
The Melos of the passage is very attractive, and

the rhythm has plenty of energy.
It will be observed that the Period begins with a
four-measure Rhythm, and, contrary to the general
rule, the melody of the second Rhythm falls into two
half-rhythms. The next motive opens with the
rhythmical reiteration ot a single chord, accompanied

by a subsidiary figure :
' : :

Ex. 1 1 6.
1
i -
9 ES^tE^*
p âg 5
Tr f
The /#£»/<? returns, and leads to a fine combination
of four different rhythmical figures
Ex. 117.
Tl
r
r— '
» ' r r
The first violin has even notes, four in a Measure
the inner parts have each their own scheme of
triplets, and the whole is supported by the bold
anacrusic Primary notes of the violoncello. The
passage is an example of the complicated rhythms
through which the cultivated modern audience finds
its art aspirations satisfied.
Three Measures, in two of which the accents are

represented by rests, introduce an appassionato motive
with Rising Accentuation, and an important Anacrusis.
;

Ex. 1 1 8.
Preliminary.
«L Appassionato. *T
^4W=W+—^—g= F :»=:*:
[J J jT Anacrusis.
if
4W-
==#a 3=3-
-I— ^ SiiiCa tifcr
*c
at* =E
i 3f
£3J3
Mi^sE^ F=^ :
=f!=^ F=
The Preliminary figure of this example is almost

immediately used again, extended to four Measures,
as an introduction to an appassionato re-entry of Ex.
1
1
5 in the key of D minor, with the semiquavers in
double counterpoint above the melody. After this
it does not reappear. Ex. 1 1 6 is repeated in one
place without its Subsidiary matter, reversing the
usual order, in which Subsidiary rhythm is increased
rather than reduced, on the repetition of a motive
but to augment the interest, the motive is used

here with Rising Accentuation instead of Falling,
as at its first appearance, thus :
—
Ex. 119.
V— % -.0-
-^ 0^
s 3s: 33E
r etc.
_t --£
m*t -jt=£:
&-
r r
It will be seen that it is here anacrusic : in fact,
the first three crotchets give the impression of being

an Anacrusis on a large scale, and one could hardly
expect to find a more striking example of the
difference of effect between Rising and Falling
Accentuation.
Second Movement. Prestissimo.
The movement opens with a Period of two six-

measure Rhythms, the first ending with the orthodox
half-close, the second with a tonic full close, so that
there can be no mistake as to the composer's

intentions :
Ex. 120.
Prestissimo.
uW=\
m
I
3±E
:e±x G>---
St
Stacc. I '
r
The six-measure Rhythms fall melodically into
groups of two Measures, and these seem, from
their harmonic construction, to demand Rising
Accentuation, such as would result if the signature
was f and the movement opened with a half bar.
,
This impression, moreover, is confirmed after the

double bar, for here each of the two- or four-
measure Rhythms has a sforzando on the second
accent, which gives it a Rising Accentuation.
The Trio opens with a very interesting com-

bination of rhythms. A characteristic anacrusic
figure, which has been already hinted at in the
Prestissimo^ runs through the whole of the Trio,
without ceasing for a moment. It is given out by
an introductory four-measure Rhythm, preceded by
a Preliminary Measure. The melodic material
begins thus :
Ex. 121.
Cantabile. 1st Rhythm.
s>-
r^^=rrrr
i
<~
±4
-m m-
—

2nd Rhythm.
4
tr.
-&• J J- Jl
m
<s>-
#=** ifF
##»-»*
'#f
LLP t_r f
^
jf
: '# —g
—
fac
i
z±
^RPI EZ
^
^
3rd Rhythm.
m U
-f -g:
U fcr
The construction is very noticeable. The first
Rhythm, beginning in the tonic, rises to a high note

on its second accent, and ends with an orthodox
half-close on the dominant seventh. In the second
Rhythm the high note of the melody is reached in one
bound on the first accent, instead of on the second,
making a subtle Diaeresis of melody, of a kind we
have not yet met with : for the melodic construction
of the first Rhythm leads us to expect an analogous

construction in the second. The melody note of
the second Rhythm is carried over into the third
—
without a break, so that these two Rhythms are
welded together. The Period ends with a full close
in the key of E, the melody being silent on the

concluding chord. A similarly constructed Period
succeeds the one here quoted. In the second part
of the Trio the melody is taken up by the violoncello,
with considerable use of duple measure against the
triple accompanying figure, and the duple measure
work, being mostly on the first string, is very
telling, owing to the clear and penetrating quality of
the tone employed for it.
'Third Movement. Andante espressivo.
The first Period is of seven Measures, not the

result of overlapping, but of a distinct cutting off,
Ex. 122.
Andante espressivo.
mp,
Si 4 *—*
1 *=f St
9 r
f±
i
rate -iS>-
f
Cello, v^
Viola. -<s>-
m (S>-± -©"- iS> —
*f
:i
±s :3:
f f t fT -<s>-
Csesura.
J__:fr ft. <S>-

9 h-H Ym +G>—\-
t--
-^ :c2:
through the feminine half-close, from the succeeding

Period.
A " General-pause " introduces a new rhythmical
figure, which, with slight modifications, becomes an
important feature in the course of the movement,
being combined both with new motives, and with
the motives that have been already heard. It enters
alone, on the viola :
Ex. 123.
Viola.
The new motive in this example begins with forte

" Dotted-note " rhythm, and suddenly softens down
in its second Measure to a piano passage in even
notes. Space does not allow us to quote further
examples from this interesting movement, which has
many other effective rhythmical features.
Finale. Allegro molto.
This movement is distinguished by the constant

recurrence of three-measure Rhythms, made evident
both by the melodic and harmonic construction.
The opening Period shows the fundamental principle
on which the rhythmical scheme of the whole is
founded ; but there are many contrasting mixtures

of two-, four-, and five-measure phrases with those of
three.
Ex. 124.
Allegro molto.
m v
1
*3
r
1 It '
1
-firm
-n-
M- =f
W
i *i ^-P-srl i
^4-IP :3r
s 3:
g —EEj -3- *= *f
K*aS
i^=-1
j-
S^z-p
4 -3-
£ST £T "P"
It will be noticed that the accompaniment marks

the unaccented portions of the measures strongly :
this has the effect of imparting great vigour to the

material. The phrasing is very distinct. There is a
half-close at the end of the third, and a full close
at the end of the sixth Measure, but the concluding

chord, coming in each case on the weak beat, carries
on the flow of the Melos without a break in its
continuity.
The next Period consists of 2 +2+4 Measures,
and the third Period returns to the three-measure
construction, which predominates throughout the

movement.
A strongly marked anacrusic motive occupies
two Measures, and its Rhythm is marked by
Ex. I2C.
PP (Cello and Viola in octaves below.)
throwing the accent on the third quaver of the

Measure, by means of the longer note in this
place.
Two Rhythms are run into one in Ex. 126

by the bowing of the first violin, which joins the
final note of the first to the second Rhythm, a device
often met with in modern music.

Ex. 126.
Cantabile. 1st Rhythm.
3 4 1 / n
1 rtJ. ^ It" !
J3
Tsr dirW ttrr fir

flK/l
:, J fUi
£3=
/Yzs. /
The first Rhythm concludes with the tonic full
close on its fourth accent ; but the composer has, by

his bowing, indicated that there is to be no Caesura
here, and the Melos runs on without a break. It
will be noticed that the Accentuation of the un-

accented quavers, which is a feature in the opening
Period, is carried on here by the violoncello.
The motive of Ex. 124 is brought into four-

measure in a sort of quasi-recitative passage, molto
moderate, and it leads to a momentary resumption of

the opening passage of the quartet, Ex. 114.
A Coda, Presto assai, begins with an anacrusic
dotted-note figure, accompanied by subsidiary matter.
The motive of Ex. 124 is hinted at in triple measure,
and the movement ends with a plagal close, extended
to seven Measures.
—
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 289
Elgar, Symphony Op. 55.
This is another of the many fine works of British
Elgar, origin, whose reception by the public has
'ÂlPt become possible through the influences to

Op. 55. which we have alluded. It is boldly
modern in feeling, and shows an emotional power
fully on a level with the best latter-day works of its
class produced on the continent.

The first movement has an introductory Andante,
which opens with two Preliminary Measures, uttered
pianissimo on the drums and basses. Ex. 127 shows
Ex. 127.
Elgar, Symphony (Op. 55).

Andante. Nobilimente e semplice.
1st Rhythm.
m^
-"N V-
:p:
-1
=t
fJ I ? i -&-*-
P dolce. Half-close.
0i~ir
Wtt 4 j *
mzr^-:^
2nd Rhythm.
-N
m*$=* *=j i 55 =p:

Cses.
PPP
^fc
-m g^^fe 5}
E 2E
f
I
Dominant 7th. Resolution.
the opening Period. Its second Rhythm is curtailed
to three Measures, and is combined with an ap-
parent Overlap, for the dominant seventh, with its
resolution, would in the ordinary course form the

conclusion of a four-measure Rhythm here, over-
lapping the next Period. But the composer
evidently intends that this phrase shall sound like
one of three Measures, in spite of its harmonic form,
for he has placed a decided Caesura between the
dominant chord and its resolution. Those who have
heard the symphony will probably have been struck
with this feature (even if they cannot analyse it),
occurring, as it does, at the beginning of the work,

just as the rhythmical scheme of four-measure
phrases seems to have become well established.
The Period here quoted is repeated several times
with varying orchestration, and leads to the Allegro,
whose first Period is given in Ex. 128.
Ex. 128.
Andante. Allegro appassionato.
!E ¥' *~
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 291
w m W=^^^: m
WP
&GL
fS>-
r^r *=*
:p:
4
3±
m2
-4-
ipd
P3 £ T -
P
In this passage, which begins with a very short
anacrusis, the melody of the first Measure rises to
the secondary accent, and, by dwelling on it, brings

it into prominence. The high note is approached
with a crescendo, and is sounded with a sforzando
on a discord, and the phrase has thus all the

elements of rhythmical energy, while dignity is
imparted to it by the harmony and instrumentation

employed.
In six out of the eight Measures the arrangement
of the material is the same ; the third crotchet is the
most prominent note in the Measure, and vigour
results from the repetition of this figure.
It will be noticed that the first Rhythm falls
melodically into 2 +2 Measures, and the second

Rhythm is undivided, according to the rule so often
referred to. It will also be noticed that the various
portions of the Period are welded together by the
sturdy march of the bass, which keeps up the
Primary accentuation in bars two and four, where
the melody is divided.
The next passage we quote has dactyls, with
ever-increasing vigour of accent.
Ex. 129.
•«e =t U^-A4 Jfe

Sfe=#==E£
fe&: P E33 i £: £-uL—
ta
*n
— ^^ E fetl»F
<rm".
-fc fe
*=£=*=* £:
:
f- f
In the first two bars the accentuation is made by the
dactyls alone ; in the second, powerful chords
punctuate the weak portions of the Measure, bring-
ing all four crotchets into equal prominence. In the
next bar the accentuation of the dactyls is further
increased by the slurred quavers and sforzandos.

There is a change to \ signature, the dotted minim
being here the Primary note, and this introduces a
syncopated passage of as deep a pathos as can be
found in modern music. It is one Measure in
length, is repeated several times, and the repetition

helps to give it its pathetic impression. The
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 293
rhythmical scheme consists merely of a strong

Primary accent, followed by a syncopation in the
melody and bass, while the secondary accent is heard

in subsidiary work in the inner parts.
Ex. 130.
*=#
S -s>-
f
-o-
The syncopation is here an element of intense

emotion. In the next example, syncopation is used,
in combination with the anacrusis, for the contrary
effect, namely, of energy.
Ex. 131.
A
§
* %m f:
£
1
-o-
# etc.
e*h
e
^ J:
@
-P-
£:
sf
is fM
The passage culminates in a broad § measure phrase,
in which the accentuation d . J j predominates,

and the smaller notes have little or no effect on the
rhythm, though their position, high up on the first
string of the double basses, intensifies the emotional
feeling of the whole by their penetrating tone.

Ex. 132.
-?
i
-I-
:z2
s-
[-.&m -
» * g
Tutta lafarza.
t
^jgjj <S>-
-<s>-
J.
Si
HB *22 IZ± -<s>-
This Rhythm is repeated with subsidiary triplets,
and then, softening down, it leads to a repetition of
the opening subject, Ex. 127, page 289, played

pianissimo on muted horns, with the violas in unison
and tremolando. It is accompanied by staccato notes

on the basses and violoncellos. There follows a
pianissimo teneramente passage in duplets against
triplets : the tempo is quickened, and intensity
is given by the accentuation of the duple, against

syncopation in the triple material. The triplets
conquer, and Ex. 130 again enters, pianissimo.

In contrast, and as a relief to the intensity
which permeates the movement as a whole, a
gentle melodic passage recurs from time to time,

ELGAR, SYMPHONY 295
its first appearance having been after Ex. 130.

It is shown in Ex. 133. Wherever this graceful
Ex. 133.
/"""
-s
7 I I
1 : 1 1 1 1 1
'1 1
I
1 1 1 1 1
P espress.
-&-*-
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Fiat. PP
little melody appears, its rhythm is gently marked
by the pianissimo pizzicato Primary notes on the
double basses.
The movement is of great length, and its many
rhythmical beauties will become more apparent as the
work grows more familiar. We have pointed out
a few that have occurred to us from a study of the
score ; to go into greater detail would involve longer
quotations.
Second Movement. Allegro molto.
The signature is ^, i.e. one minim in a bar, a very

unusual arrangement ; for although a conductor often
beats one stroke in a bar, a Measure cannot exist
without an unaccented as well as an accented portion.

In the present case the crotchet is the Primary
value, and the Measures are duple. The movement
opens with a Preliminary and four introductory
Measures, in which the basses have a striking ana-
crusic figure of one Measure in length. This
figure afterwards becomes a basso ostinato during
certain parts of the movement. The first subject is
in busy pianissimo semiquavers, accompanied by the

basso ostinato.
Ex. 134.
Allegro molto. cJ=6g.

Introductory Rhythm.
^Preliminary.
3g5SE £ J±
Pizz.
f V
Anacrusis.
Overlap.
After a passage in quavers, a new and striking
figure occurs, which, however, owing to the extreme

rapidity of the tempo^ seems to consist of accents
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 297
only, the notes between them being practically lost
to the ear, though the eye sees the bows moving with
lightning speed. The figure is :
Ex. 135.
sf
\
1
1 H P==*: ¥
&i f +%
&^¥&^
Ul
<m^ %*=^=d=:
-ff
*fcJ
I—L-UJ I l-LlJ
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3^ U-Zfi
4 J~j: 3 if
'j^gEElS^g^
1
r r T j
i **^sa
J q H^R*bJ^|*-*-
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A very sprightly melody follows on the violas and
clarinets, accompanied by detached chords ; it begins
thus,
— —

Ex. 136.
mf marcato.
m fe#
i
eeieee § ~^&&
mt- £ J#3= J:
-H-
pp ^
Several Overlaps occur, by which the motive is
made to enter a bar sooner than it is expected. The

rhythmical effects in this movement are of great
variety ; amongst them is the following exciting
motive :
Ex. 137.
isM i
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a
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——» — ^ jJ.
^:
^ i
#
^n#
t e r^
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m
j-.
*#y p * «£d fc
is
# Cymbal Cymbal.
etc.
b* y-fr
pife
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[Imp.
5^ '/ TlMP.
^-^
=*=£
]/
This example is only given in outline ; the full

orchestra is engaged in it, the basses marking the
—
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 299
Primary Times with the drums and cymbals and

triangle.
A melodious middle section, or Trio, commences

thus with Anacrusis :
Ex. 138.
2 3
Flutes.
-O — te —^ m \ wi ^f v^1 — m-
PP Anacrusis. etc.
t=db
rfcfe •SK
-ef
Oboe and English Horn.
/
«:
-^- v-
-ei
=a^c — ;
ei -
-3:
-<s
The rapidity of the tempo never relaxes. The

alternation of dotted and even notes is very effective.
This subject, it will be seen, although full of energy,
is in absolute contrast to everything that has gone
before. When it is finished, the opening motive,
Ex. 134 (page 296), re-enters, accompanied by a
counterpoint, which has been previously heard as
one of the chief motives. The Trio is repeated with
fresh orchestration, and with new rhythmical effects,
and then the basso ostinato returns, and is heard

beneath legato Primary-note melodic passages.
Rhythmical energy gradually dies away against a
long pianissimo holding note, which leads without a
break into the slow movement.
Adagio.
This beautiful movement opens with the following
classically-constructed Periods :
Ex. 139.
Adagio. Period I. 1st Rhythm. 2nd Rhythm.
^^mmmm
4 11
Anacrusis.
^
1
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mmmmmmmmm
cres. i^—^
a^T2Jh_T Wl
1
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tste
.
2nd Rhythm.
? !
Pizz.
3rd Rhythm.
©
:
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 301
The first Period ends at the six-four chord in the

middle of the fourth bar, but it is welded into the
next by an unexpected change of harmony. Notice
the Under effect of the two inverted dactyls in the
accompaniment at the end of the second Rhythm,

thus
I
I mmm ^n
51 mmm
which give an unexpected turn to the rhythm.
The second Period commences with the three-note
Anacrusis, in place of the gentle inverted dactyls.
Its first two measures are marked by the pizzicato
Primary notes on the double basses. The first
Rhythm is here divided into two half-rhythms. The

third is anacrusic, and its ending melts into the
succeeding Period by similar harmonic progression to
that which joins the first Period to the second.
Hence a continuous Melos results, such as we have
seen in the slow movement of the Brahms Symphony.
A very attractive passage, in which the figure
-
s
I.. R alternates with JT1, leads to a novel and

delicate form of syncopation, akin to that of Ex. 25,
page 100. As in the former case, Brahms syncopates
subsidiary dactyls, so here Elgar syncopates sub-
sidiary triplets on the same principle.
But though the principle is the same, the effect is
entirely different. The Brahms quotation is part of

a quick movement, and it is played forte ; it is full
—
of energy and fire. The present example is pianissimo
and belongs to a slow movement it gives a gentle
;
Ex. 140.
Overlap.
I P I dim. PPP3
I.
*
*fk ¥ =t
w
at -• ^=^ ^=-* —#— —m— \-jk-i y=M h—
undulation which is hardly heard, and only just

supports the longer notes of the melody. Moreover,
the difference in the rhythm-species makes a differ-
ence of ethos, for a succession of dactyls is more

vigorous than a succession of trochees.
Ex. 141.
Cantabile. ^
J
"'.
Flutes.. '.
T
Violas.
Ex. 141 shows a somewhat novel combination

of strings and wind. As a rule, in such a passage,
the strings would play the triplets, and the wind

the legato accompaniment to the melody. But the
composer, by reversing the usual order, makes the
:
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 303
staccato triplets of the two flutes stand out pro-

minently, as an essential part of the rhythmical
scheme. The same passage is repeated, with the
strings also in triplets ; they are to be played very
legato while the flutes mark the triplets as before,
and are aided in this by the harps.
The last feature to which we can draw attention in

the movement is the Pause
Ex. 142.
S7\
h 3
-m-
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PP
& -HU-
-5^Hi
w
"0 b.
u
& t
which occurs on the first note of an Anacrusis,

arousing expectation by its unwonted position.
The movement ends pianissimo as it began, the

last phrase containing some triplets at the ends of
Measures, in the manner alluded to on page 225.
Finale.
The Finale commences with a slow introduction,
which, by referring to the opening theme of the work

(Ex. 127), and anticipating the most striking theme
of the last movement, forms an important connecting
: :
3o 4 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

link binding the work into a homogeneous whole.
The introduction is for the most part pianissimo : it
ends with a pause on a rest, and then the allegro
starts off with a full Anacrusis, as follows
Ex. 143.
Allegro. £j — 84. risohtto.
ElE#E S ^ £.
PP
y Anacrusis.
j=^ -3-
tl u
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— — r?
-
- n - z r m .— - n i-^k
i£
> sf
EaESÊfees^ÊEli 555
Here two rhythmical figures are at work, one

completing the other. The Primary value is the
minim ; each Primary Time is very strongly
accented by the relative length of its notes and by
the sforzandos ; and the lower parts equally strongly
accentuate the subsidiary rhythm. The Melos as a
whole is therefore accented thus

Anacrusis. :r==a »^ »
= :;>:>
SRJTR\rmrm
ELGAR, SYMPHONY 305
making a powerful impression ; but the accents are

distributed between the outer parts, so that in
reality two separate rhythmical figures are distinctly
heard. After this vigorous opening has run its course,
a more gentle melody sets in, the inward strength

of which is maintained by the steady march of the
staccato bass notes :
Ex. 144.
Wa A
+*±fc a*Eyg& i 1
P Cantabile.
<**= e 9frU3E-l ! J
ir
The motive that will probably always make most

impression, however, is that shown in Ex. 145.
Ex. 145.
4
Horn, ff
~~N /"" tr.
:q^:
"*" TT
as
"St
SEEH 4
Ji^'-J- J-- v.
:=T
22:
^JFr^j S^ P5
zazjfc
rqoM 1 i
It is simple in the extreme, and this gives it its
attraction in contrast to its surroundings. If it

TT
3 o6 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
were played legato it would have no special signi-
ficance ; but the punctuation in staccato of the succes-

sion of even notes, by appealing directly to our
rhythmical sense, gives us satisfaction without mental

effort. At the same time the intellectual side is
interested by the sustained pianissimo of the horn,

and still more by the persistency of the bass figure,
so that the passage is redeemed from any suspicion
of being commonplace, in spite of the simplicity of
its rhythm.
This motive recurs again continually in every
degree of dynamic force, and is in contrast to
the two others which we quoted in Ex. 143

and 144.
Besides these three examples there are other
important motives in the movement, and a return
is made to the opening subject, Ex. 127, which
is worked up with various subsidiary rhythms ;
the symphony, in fact, is full of fine rhythmical

effects.
Though not yet twelve months old, this work

has leaped into popularity in a way that no similar
production of an Englishman has yet done. It is
evident, therefore, that it expresses contemporary

art-feeling. Whether it is destined to become a
classic, time only can show. If its popularity were

with audiences of the past, who demanded waltzes
and marches as an aid to swallowing a symphony, we

ELGAR, SYMPHONY 307
should consider that it had taken no permanent

place. But its attraction is for audiences who
demand the symphonies of Beethoven and Brahms, as
well as the best works of contemporary composers,

so that it is not unlikely that public taste is not
wrong in applauding the latest British composition
as a masterpiece.
u 2
APPENDIX
THE AGOGIC ACCENT
The slight delay by which the late Hans von Balow

gave prominence to accented notes, as mentioned
on page 258, is called by Dr. Hugo Riemann the
" Agogic Accent " {ayooy^ movement, hence tempo).
The effect has always been known, and is an element

in tempo rubato. For the most part it has been con-
fined to " dotted-note rhythm " when a weighty or
impressive effect is desired. Leopold Mozart alludes

to it in his Violinschule (1756) in a way that may
be paraphrased as follows :
" In a group such as this,
m' mm' m
to be played with detached bows, and in an impres-
sive style, the dotted notes must be given more than

their relative length, and the short notes less."
Lengthening the dotted notes gives them fuller
emphasis. Von Billow made a special feature of

this nuance, not only in Dotted-note rhythm but
elsewhere, and was adversely criticised for his playing
of Beethoven's sonatas, the critics attacking this
THE AGOGIC ACCENT 309
particular point. But though he gave it prominence,

he was not the only performer of his day to employ
it : we read in Grove's Dictionary », New Edition,
vol. i. page 18, that the late Sir Charles Halle,
Joachim, and many others used it.
1
Perhaps they
did not make so marked a feature of it as did von
Bttlow. At any rate, it seems to have been he who
brought about the recognition of its importance in
other than dotted notes, for Dr. Riemann informs
us that von Billow's readings of Beethoven's Sonatas
inspired him to develop the remarkable theory
1
brought forward in his Dynamik una Agogik, pub-
lished at Leipsic in 1884.
According to this theory, the musical phrase is
built up of short Motives^ which are Duple or

Triple, according to the time-signature, and the
Motive corresponds to what we, in this book, have
called Measure. But instead of the Motive being
divided into accented and unaccented portions, it
increases or diminishes in power {Ivvaixii)^ so that

what we represent thus :
J J
is represented in Dynamik und Agogik, thus :
1
The present writer distinctly remembers it in Sir Charles Halle's
playing, as well as in that of von Bulow. In the latter it was
very prominent in the first movement of the so-called " Moon-
light" Sonata.
"

This explains the title of the book : Dynamik
refers to the degree of force, crescendo, diminuendo,
with which a Motive or Phrase is expressed, in
distinction from the Agogik, the relative time
occupied by its portions.
It must be borne in mind that the crotchets here
represent what in this book we have called the

Primary Time, and a motive may be formed of
smaller notes than its Primary Times, or several
Primary Times may be joined in one note.
A Duple Motive is of two kinds :
===
" Anbetont "
J J
" Ab-betont " (equivalent to our Ana-
I
J
crusic form).
The Triple Motive has three forms :
" Anbetont
" Ab-betont " j (anacrusic).

J J
" Inbetont " (anacrusic).

J J J
Of the above forms only the Ab-betont and
Inbetont are recognised, or, in our nomenclature,
all Motives are anacrusic. In phrases which un-
doubtedly begin with a full bar, in other words,
with the An-betonung, such as the opening subjects
of innumerable sonata and symphony movements, the
first note is merely a fixed starting point for the
)
rhythmical feeling. Immediately after it has been

struck the Ab-betont form of Motive must commence.
Accent, in the usually accepted sense, the author
does not recognise, and he adduces long arguments
to show its impossibility for artistic purposes. The
rhythm is to be made evident, not by alterations
of accented and unaccented notes, but by Dynamic
variation, that is, by crescendo and diminuendo.
When notes smaller than what we call Primary
are used, the Motive is said to be untergetheilt, and
in this case the dynamic variations are more easy
to perform, especially on the pianoforte, where a
crescendo is not possible on a single note.

A Motive, whether untergetheilt or not, moves in
crescendo to its Schwerpunkt (our accent), and then

diminishes : the Schwerpunkt being generally shown
by the Bar-line. In other words, the Bar-line does
not show accent, but the culminating point of the
Motive, thus:
Ex. 1.
Beethoven (Op. 14, No. 2).

(
Vide Riemann, Dynamik und Agogik, p. 244.
i=?
i g iX P=PP
The dynamic rise and fall applies in a larger
degree to the Phrase, which is a combination of two

or more Motives ; so that unless a composer, by
3i2 RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC
special signs, indicates the contrary, all Phrases must
gradually increase in force till they reach their central
dynamic point, and then diminish. The central
dynamic point of the Phrase is distinguished from
those of the Motives by an almost imperceptible
dwelling upon it, namely, by the application of the
Agogic Accent.
To carry the theory out to a practical conclusion,
Dr. Riemann has published special editions of
many classical and modern works. He makes use
of two new notation signs, the Lesezeichen (Punctua-
tion sign), a minute upright stroke '
(or the same,
doubled, ") to indicate the ends of Motives, and
a flattened circumflex /\ to show the note on
which the Agogic Accent is to fall. We quote
a passage (Dyn. und Ag., p. 258), in which both
occur :
Ex. 2.
Beethoven (Op. 14, No. 1).
y\
tt
:::*: #*==f=r &
V dim. P non dim.
y\
m fa, ; : ; ;
£
3
# sf
v pp
In this Example the harmony is omitted, and it
looks strange that the motives should end with the

quavers. The reason is, however, that the Dynamic
centres occur on discords which cannot be separated

from their resolutions, and the quavers are the
resolutions : hence the new motive begins with
the second half of the bar. In the Accent theory
the third crotchet would have more force than the
second and fourth ; but in the Dynamic theory

there is diminuendo from the first to the second
crotchet, and a crescendo from the third crotchet to
the first of the next bar.

Phrases are shown by the legato strokes. The first
and second Phrases in the above quotation contain

two Motives each, the last has four, so that the
example shows a Period of 2 +2+4 Motives. The
Lesezeichen is, of course, unnecessary at the end of
the Phrase, since its place is taken by the end of
the legato stroke.
The above explanation gives only the barest out-
line of the theory : for its details we must refer our
readers to the book.
In his first chapter Dr. Riemann writes a
melodic succession of quavers in § time, and,

repeating it in J time, he discusses the question
of how the grouping of three and three in the
f is to be distinguished from that of two and

two in the |-, on the organ, which is incapable
of accent, or of crescendo and diminuendo. He
explains that it can be made clear by placing the
Agogic Accent on the first of each group of
:
3H RHYTHM OF MODERN MUSIC

three quavers in the one case, and on the first
of each pair in the other, thus
#8 'Vri 1n
m m m m m m and #± ^H
/
* * m*M
m 'H
m m
There is no doubt that organists who feel rhythm
strongly are able to make their audiences appreciate
it in a way that is denied to many of their fellows.
Can it be that they instinctively and unconsciously

bring it out by means of the Agogic Accent, applied
in so small a degree that neither they nor their audi-
ences are aware of any alteration in the tempo ?
INDEX
AccellerandOy 160-163. Bach, J. S., rarely êmploys

Accent, 18-21. Duple against Triple Time,
— Omission of, 62, 63. 105.
— and note value, 79. — Organ Fugues, 124.
Accentuation, Rising, 4.5 ; Fall- — Anticipates modern methods,
ing, 47- 141.
— and Melody, 61. Bar, Compound, 38.
— The three
kinds of, 71, 72. — and Measure, 37, 39, 41,42.
Acciacatura, 22. — Simple, 39.
Agogic Accent, 308. — and Poetic foot, 39.
Alberti Bass, 105. Bar-line, 39.
Alia breve, 1 1 4. — Function of, 40.
Anacrusis, 41-47. Beethoven, Pastoral Symphony,
— Subsidiary, Example of, in 5-
Brahms, 77. — Lebewohl Sonata, 5.
— Brahms'
in Capriccio, op. — Influence on music, 10, II.
116, No. 3, 50. — Slow movement of 7 th
— 80.
effect of, Symphony, 14; Slow move-
Anapaest, 80. ment of 4th Symphony, 29.
Anapaestic rhythm, Examples — Barring of Andante in op.
of, 84. 13°, 37-.
— in Tschaikowsky's Pathetic — Anacrusis in Funeral March
Symphony, 239. Sonata, 47, 48.
— Sonata Pathetique, 52, 96.
Bach, J. S., Capriccio tiber die — Quartet, op. 132, 55-57.
Abreise eines Freundes, 5. — Rising Accentuation in 5 th
— Inaugurated the modern Symphony, 64, 65.
school, 9. — Various kinds of Period, 77.
— and Rhythm, 10. — Eroica Symphony, 171. 82,
— Measures,
Silent 10, 11. — Allegretto of 7 th Symphony,
— Attitude towards music,
•
1 1, 83.
13- — Moonlight Sonata, 84.
316 INDEX
Beethoven, His Periods, 96. Brahms, Serenade, op. 11,
— Duple against Triple Time, Scherzo, 94.
105. — Duple Triple Time,
against
— " Storm " Pastoral Sym-
in 106.
phony, 112. — Intermezzo, No.
op. 1 18, 4,
— His use of Three-Measure 120.
Rhythms, 134. — Intermezzo, 117, No. op. 1,
— His novel 138.
effects, 120, 121.
— 9th Symphony, 138, 139. — Symphony 122.in F,
— Quartet, op. 131, 139. — Rhapsody, No.
op. 79, 2,
— Sonata, 28, 139, 140.
op. 124.
— Overture Leonora, No. 3,
— "Agnes," 129.
149. — Variations on Hungarian a
— Sonata in E flat, op. 31, Song, 130, 131.
161. — Rhythms of other than four
— Sonata, op.No. 10, 167, 3, measures, 134.
3". — Clarinet Sonata, op. 120,
— Waldstein Sonata, 169. No.
— " Am 144.
1,
— Sonata, op. 106, 176. Sonntag Morgen,"
— Sonata, op.No. 14, 184, 156.2,
— Rhapsody, 119, No. op. 4,
— Intensity of accentuation in
157, 193-209.
5th Symphony, 186, 187. — Intermezzo, No. op. 10, 3,
Bowing of stringed instruments, 170.
28. British composers and audiences,
Bowing joins two Rhythms to- 273-275.
gether in Stanford's Quartet, Bull's, John, harpsichord works,
op. 45, 287. 7-
Berlioz, " La Damnation de Biilow, Hans von, 258, 308,
Faust," 87. 3°9-
Brahms, Ballade, op. 10, No. 1, Buxtehude, 10.
~— and Rhythm, 15. Cadences, 32.

— Symphony D, in 51, 82, Caesura, 27, 29, 167.
210-236. — and Rhythms, 32.
— Pianoforte Quartet G Change of
in Temporary, Species,
minor, 123, 153, 156.
82, no, III.
— Careful Chopin Sonata
to indicate phrasing, C minor, in 1 27,
86. 129.
— Romance, 118, No. op. Chronos 258.
5, alogos,
175-
93, of conducting,
Classical style
— Intermezzo, 118, No.op. 274. 2,
93- Clausulas, 8.
INDEX 3i7
Closes, 32. Elgar Symphony, op. 55, 151,

Combination of rhythms in ^
289-307.
Brahms' Symphony in D, Empty Times, 166, 167, 174.
221. — in Brahms' Symphony in D,
Combined rhythm-species, 86. 224, 225.
Common time, 114, 115. Equal subsidiary notes, 82.
Composers and phrase-indica- Even Measure, 8, 30.
tions, 40, 41. Executants and conductors, 16.
Couplet, 23.
Crescendo, effect of, on rhythm, Falling Accentuation, 64.
185, 186. Fantasia, 7.
Feminine Ending, 26 note,
Dactyl, 80. 33-35-
Dactyls, syncopated in Brahms' Fermate, 163.
Symphony No. 2, 100. Fioriture,Reasons of disappear-
Dance music, 8. ance of, 74, 75.
Debussy, Masques, 266-269. Five notes against four, etc.,
— Hommagea Rameau, 270- 112.
273- Five-measure Rhythms, 154-
Democracy, Influence of, on 156.
music, 136. Foot in Poetry, 23.
Diaeresis,
43, 44. Forte and rhythm, 185, 186.
— of Melody, 123, 175. Four-bar phrase, 15.
— Debussy, Masques, 268. — Ordinary construction
in of,
— Quintuple D'Indy's Sonata
in 59-61.
in E, 263, 264. Four-measure Rhythm, Import-
Diminuendo, 160. ance of, 133.
— Effect of, on rhythm, 18 c, Four-time Measure, 81.
186. Frescobaldi, 7.
D'Indy, Sonata in E, 256-266. Froberger Fantasia, 7.
Dotted-note rhythm, 91, 92. Fiinfer, 154, 155.
— in Tschaikowsky's Pathetic
Symphony, 241. General Pause, 172.
— and Leopold Mozart, 308. — in Stanford's Quartet, op. 45,
Duple Measure, 29-31. 285.
Duple against Triple Time, 105- Greek rhythmical theory, 83-86.
108. — terms, 142 note.
Dvorak, Slavische Tanze, 148. Grieg Violin Sonata in F, op. 8,
Dynamik und Agogik (Rie- 175, 176.
mann's), 309-314.
Half-rhythms, 141-151.
Eighteenth Century, Music of, — in Beethoven's Sonata, 145
135- note.
3*8 INDEX
Half-measure, Lengthening of a Measure, Two species only,.
Rhythm by, 164 note. 29.
Halle, Sir Charles, 309. — and Bar, 41-43, 61.
Handel, attitude towards music, — Four-time, 81.
13. Measurement and accent, 21.
— Dead March, 92. Mechanical instruments and
— Orlando, 127. accent, 189.
Haydn, 10. Meistersinger, Waltz in, 54.
— Attitude towards music, 13. Melismatic, see Song.
— Various kinds of period in, Melos, 4, 6, 133.
77- — and Rhythm, 9, 15,
— and Three-measure Rhy- — continuous, 55 Brahms' ; in
thms, 135, 136. Symphony, No. 223 2, ; in
— Quartet E No.
in flat, Symphony, 301.
38, Elgar's
172, 173. — of Wagner and his successors,
Hebrew Poetry, Rhythm of, 25. 74' 75-
Mendelssohn, Pianoforte Trio
Iambus, 81. in D minor, 1 17.
Instruments, Improvements in, — Phrase-construction, 137.
1 1, 12. Metre, 23.
Interpretation of Compositions, Midsummer Night's Dream,
17. Half verses in Shakespeare's,
Introductory Measures, see Pre- 141-143.
liminary Measures. — Overture, 166.
Italian Opera, 74. Mozart, 10.
— Attitude towards music, 13.
Joachim, 309. — Various kinds of period in,
Koch, H. C, Anleitung zur — Conflicting Rhythmical

musikalische Composition, schemes in "Don Giovanni,"
154.
Kuhnau Bible Sonatas, 5. — Duple Triple Time,
against
105.
Legato, 182-185. — and Three-measure Rhy-
Lesezeichen in Riemann's thms, 134-136.
Dynamik und Agogik 312. — Jupiter Symphony, 171.
Lombardic style, 104
Note-values and Êsthetic Char-
Madrigals, 6, 7. acter of Music, 93-95.
March form, 91.
Masculine Ending, 32. One-measure phrases in Tschai-
Mechanical music, 113. kowsky's Pathetic Symphony,
'
Measure, 22, 23. 251.

INDEX 3J9
Organ, 12. Rhythm, and the Church, 6.

— and accent, 187, 188. — and Expression, 13, 14.
— Marches on the, 190, 191. — Two sides of, 14.
Overlap, 51-57. — Definition of, 20.
— in R. Strauss' Violin Sonata, — equivalent to Phrase, 21-25.
109, no. — The word used in two
senses, 24.
Paderewski, Chants des Voya- — and Accent, 32.
geurs, No. 4, 127-129. — Construction 44. of,
Pause, 163-166. — Experiments with material
— on an unstruck accent, of, 65-67.
179. — within Rhythm, 77.
Period, 23-25. — of two Measures, 83 (see also
— of eight Measures, 53. Half-rhythms).
Piano and Rhythm, 185, 186. Rhythmical figures in accom-
Polonaise form, 35. paniment, 29.
Phrasing in Song, 26.
" Popular"
— Accentuation, 63, 64, 65.
audiences, 274. Function 71. of,
Preliminary or Introductory — Schemes combination, 69,
in
Measures, 49-51. 70,7i-.
— Measures in Brahms, op. 10, — Complications Sixteenth in
No. 3, 171, 172. Century, 87.
Primary Times, Notes, Values, Rhythmless Music, 58, 59.
Riemann, Dr. Hugo, 308.
— Rhythm, 39. Rising Accentuation, 45, 64,
— Accentuation, Function of, 185.
— in Beethoven's Fifth Sym-
— Rhythm in Brahms' Sym- phony, 65.
phony in D, 212. Rising and Falling Accentuation,
Programme music, 5, 6. 116, 117.
Prose, Poetry and Music, 20. Ritardando, 160-163.
Quintuple Rhythm, 125-130. Saint-Saens Etude, op. 52,

— in Tschaikowsky's Pathetic No. 4, 132.
Symphony, 246. Salvation Army drum and
Quintuple Diaeresis in D'Indy's classical rhythm, 191, 192.
Sonata in E, 263, 264. Schubert, 12.
— Sonata D, in 92. op. 53,
" Reading " of a composition, — D minor, Quartet, 84, 92.
18. — March
Pianoforte, D, in 92.
Rests, 166-174. — Phrase-construction, 137,
Rhythm, and Melos, 4, 9. 138.
— and Form, 4. Schumann Piano quintet, 84.
320 INDEX
Schumann Toccata in C, 95. Syllabic, see Song.
— and Phrase-construction, Syncopated dactyls in Brahms'
137- Symphony in D, 100.
Schwerpunkt (Accent), 311. — Triplets in Elgar's Sym-
Sentences of Prose, 20. phony, 301.
Septuple Rhythm, 130-132. Syncopation, 66-104.
Seven-Measure Rhythms, 54, — Beethoven's Eroica
in Sym-
158. phony, 97.
Sforzando, 83, 89. — Brahms' Symphony
in in D,
Signatures, 39. 98-100.
Six-time Measure, 150. — Beethoven's Sonata, op.
in
Six-measure Rhythms, 157. 106, 100, 101.
Slanca, from Kuhac, 131, — in Schumann's Concerto,
132. 102.
Sonata, 9. — in Hungarian and Bohemian
Song, Phrasing in, 27. music, 103.
Song, Syllabic and Melismatic, — in Elgar's Symphony, 293.
.
73-75-
Speech and Music, 19. Tempo, 28, 29.
Staccato 182-185.
», — Variations 159. of,
Stanford, Quartet No. 2, op. 45, — Rubato,

162, 308.
273-288. Three-measure Rhythms, 151-
Stanza, 23. 1.53-
Steigerung, 206, 207. — in Beethoven's 9th Sym-
Strauss, R, " Italy " Symphony, phony, 139.
58, 152. — in Strauss' " Italy " Sym-
— Duple Triple Time,
against phony, 152.
108, 109. — Brahms' Piano Quartet
in in
— Violin Sonata, G minor, 153.
op. 18,
109,
no. — Quartet,
in Stanford's
45, op.
— Ein Heldenleben, 155. 286.
— Tod und Verklarung, 173, Time, Measurement 20-22, of,
259.
Stress, 19. Time-signatures, 36-38, 112-
Strophe, 23, 24. 122.
Subsidiary Rhythm, 39. Toccata, 7.
— Times, Notes, Values, 31, Tonic and Dominant Har-
82. monies, 8.
— Accentuation, Function of, Tremolo, 22.
72. Triple Measure, 29, 30.
— Rhythm exemplified by Triplets, syncopated in Elgar's
Brahms, op. 117, No. 2, 75, Symphony, 301.
7 6 > 77- Trochee, 81.
INDEX 321
Tschai'kowsky Romance, 115. Verse, 20, 23 note.

— Pathetic Symphony, 130, Vierer, 1 54.
236-255. Vivaldi, 104.
Uneven Measure, 30. Wagner, Tristan, 127, 128.

Unproportional Time, 258. Weber, Overture to " Oberon,"
190.
Values, 30. "Well-marked" Rhythm, 88,
— and Accent, 79. 89.
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1

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.

MACMILLAN AND CO. LIMITED

GLASGOW PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

BY ROBERT MACLEHCSE AND CO. LTD.

rather than as an element of formal construction.

the melody of a piece and little to its Rhythm, unless

becomes a living organism, capable of moving the

however carefully he may down his ideas,

is quite possible to have them made ineffective in

performance by faulty accentuation or phrasing.

names for the various parts of a rhythmical whole,

but we cannot conveniently use the technical terms

difficulty. But I wish my book to be acceptable

But I hope that they will become sufficiently familiar,

in process of reading, to prevent them from

letters. Whether I have succeeded in my effort

I must leave to the judgment of my readers.

Milford-on-Sea, 'November, 1909.

Accent — Prose, Poetry and — Measurement of Time

Song — Phrasing Instrumental Music — The Caesura

Tempo — Duple and Triple Rhythm-species — Masculine

The Anacrusis — Preliminary Measures — The Overlap —

used simultaneously — The three Kinds of Accentuation

Effect of longer and shorter Notes on Accentuation

Importance of the — Schubert's

Variations of Tempo — The Pause — Rests and Empty

Staccato — Forte, Piano, Crescendo, and Diminuendo —The

Op. 45 — Elgar, Symphony, Op. 55 - pp. 256-307

XIV MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

>» >y ?>

Fantasien, op. 116, No. 1, 10 46

Brahms (continued), Ex. Page

XVI MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS

Symphonie Patetique, op. 74, First movement, 78 236

The power of expression that has been reached

one of the greatest achievements of modern civilisa-

The poet, the painter, the architect appeal to

they work with more or less concrete material, and

which we can see, or imagine we see, or emotions

The art which most nearly approaches to that

when we contemplate a beautiful cathedral are not

moved by any association with a tangible object,

for it is dug out of the earth, and brought to a

condition for use in art through the chisel of the

art-material is not found in nature. The nearest

removed from it as is the mind of man from the

used by the musician.

speech, or stone, and working it into a form that

number of entirely artificially produced sounds in

such a way that not only are they pleasant to listen

through the intellect and the emotions. For in-

strumental music is no longer merely pretty, or

expresses noble thoughts, and acts as a powerful

immediately the vibrations of string or pipe which

A musical sound is pleasant or unpleasant, and

the kaleidoscope. Before pleasant sounds can be