Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res.

2014 Mazhar Iqbal, 2014

ISSN 2278 – 0149 www.ijmerr.com

Vol. 2, No. 3, July 2014
© 2014 IJMERR. All Rights Reserved

Research Paper

GATING DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SOUND CASTING

Mazhar Iqbal1*

*Corresponding Author: Mazhar Iqbal  [email protected]

Casting as a manufacturing process to make complex shapes of molten metal in mass production
may experience many different defects such as porosity and incomplete filling. How to improve
the casting quality becomes important. Gating/riser system design is critical to improving casting
quality. The objective of the research presented in this thesis is to optimize gating systems with
the goal of improving casting quality such as reducing incomplete filling area, decreasing large
porosity and increasing yield

Keywords: Gating system, sprue, runner, ingates, shrinkage,

INTRODUCTION the metal temperature or use higher metal

As defined earlier, gating systems refer to all heads. The metal should flow smoothly into the
those elements, which are connected with the mould without any turbulence. A turbulence
flow of molten metal from the ladle to the mould metal flow tends to form dross in the mould.
cavity. The various elements that are Unwanted material such as slag, dross and
connected with a gating system are (Rao P N, other mould material should not be allowed to
xxxx). enter the mould cavity. The metal entry into the
Pouring basin, Sprue, Sprue base well, mould cavity should be properly controlled in
Runner, Runner Extension,In-gate. such a way that a aspiration of the atmospheric
air is prevented. A proper thermal gradient
Any gating system designed should aim at should be maintained so that the casting is
providing a defect free casting. This can be cooled without any shrinkage cavities or
achieved by making provision for certain distortions. Metal flow should be maintained
requirements while designing the gating in such a way that no gating or mould erosion
system. These are as follows. takes place. The gating system should ensure
The mould should be completely filled in the that enough molten metal reaches the mould
smallest time possible without having to raise cavity. The gating system design should be
1
NIFFT, National Institute of foundry And Forge Technology, Ranchi, Ranchi university.

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Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Mazhar Iqbal, 2014

economical and easy to implement and Rapid mold fillingcan be important for
remove after casting solidification. Ultimately, several reasons.Especially with thin-section
the casting yield should be maximized. A castings, heat loss from the liquid metal during
gating system is the conduit network through mold filling may result in premature
which liquid metal enters a mold and flows to freezing,producing surface defects (for
fill the mold cavity, where the metal can then example, cold laps) or incompletely filled
solidify to form the desired casting shape. The sections (misruns). Superheating of themolten
basic components of a simple gating system
metal will increase fluidity and retard freezing,
for a horizontally parted mold are shown in Fig.
but excessive superheat can increase
1. A pouring cup or a pouring basin provides
problems of gas pickup by the molten metal
an opening for the introduction of metal from a
pouring device. A sprue carries the liquid metal and exaggerate the thermal degradation of the
down to join one or more runners, which mold medium. In addition, the mold filling time
distribute the metal throughout the mold until it should be kept shorter than the mold producing
can enter the casting cavity through ingates. time of the molding equipment to maximize
productivity.
DESIGN VARIABLES
Minimizing Turbulence
Methods used to promote any of the desirable
Turbulent filling and flow in the gating system
design considerations discussed below often
conflict with another desired effect. For and mold cavity can increase mechanical and
example, attempts to fill a mold rapidly can thermal attack on the mold. More important,
result in metal velocities that promote mold turbulence may produce casting defects by
erosion. As a result, any gating system will promoting the entrainment ofgases into the
generally be a compromise among conflicting flowing metal. These gases may by themselves
design considerations, with the relative become defects (for example bubbles), or they
importance of the consideration being may producedross or inclusions by reacting
determined by the specific casting and its with the liquid metal. Turbulent flow increases
molding and pouring conditions (Wallace J F the surface area of the liquid metal exposed
and Evans E B, 1959; Sylvia J G, 1972).
to air within the gating system. The
Figure 1: Elements of Gating System susceptibility of different casting alloys to
(Sylvia J G, 1972)
oxidation varies considerably. For those alloys
that are highly sensitive to oxidation, such as
aluminum alloys; magnesium alloys; and
silicon, aluminum, and manganese bronzes,
turbulence can generate extensive oxide films
that will be churned into the flowing metal, often
causing unacceptable defects.
Avoiding Mold and Core Erosion
High flow velocity or improperly directed flow
against a mold or core surface may produce

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defective castings by eroding the mold surface the metal that will fill the gating system and
(thus enlarging the mold cavity) and by risers. These components must then be
entraining the dislodged particles of the mold removed from the casting and generally
to produce inclusions in the casting. returned for remelt, where their value is
downgraded to that of scrap. Production costs
Removing Slag, Dross, and
can be significantly reduced by minimizing the
Inclusions
amount of metal contained in the gating
This factor includes materials that may be
system. The production capacity of a foundry
introduced from outside the mold (for example,
can also be enhanced by increasing the
furnace slags and ladle refractories) and those
percentage of salable castings that can be
that may be generated inside the system.
produced from a given volume of melted metal.
Methods can be incorporated into the gating
system to trap such particles (for example, Economical Gating Removal
filters) or to allow them time to float out of the Costs associated with the cleaning and
metal stream before entering the mold cavity. finishing of castings can be reduced if the
number and size of ingate connections with
Promoting Favorable Thermal
Gradients the casting can be minimized. Again, it may
be advantageous to introduce metal into the
Because the last metal to enter the mold cavity
mold cavity through a riser, because the riser
will generally be the hottest, it is usually
neck can also serve as an ingate.
desirable to introduce metal in those parts of
the casting that would already be expected to Avoiding Casting Distortion
be the last to solidify. One obvious method of It is especially important with rangy, thin-wall
accomplishing this is to direct the metal flow castings, in which uneven distribution of heat
from the gating system into a riser, from which as the mold cavity is filled may produce
it then enters the mold cavity. Because the riser undesirable solidification patterns that cause
is generally designed to be the last part of the the casting to warp. In addition, the contraction
riser/casting system to solidify, such a gating of the gating system as it solidifies can pull on
arrangement will help promote directional sections of the solidifying casting, resulting in
solidification from the casting to the riser. If the hot tearing or distortion.
gating system cannot be designed to promote
Compatibility with Existing
some desirable thermal gradient, it should at
Molding/Pouring Methods
least be designed so that it will not produce
unfavorable gradients. This will often involve Modern high-production molding machines
introducing metal into the mold cavity through and automated pouring systems often severely
multiple ingates so that no one location limit the flexibility allowed in locating and
becomes a hot spot. shaping the pouring cup and sprue for
introducing metal into the mold. They also
Maximizing Yield generally place definite limits on the rate at
A variety of unrecoverable costs must go into which metal can be poured.

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Controlled Flow Conditions • Pressure head, Pv

A steady flow rate of metal in the gating system • Velocity head V2/2g
should be established as soon as possible
• Frictional loss of head F
during mold filling, and the conditions of flow
should be predictably consistent from one • Equation 1 allows prediction of the effect of
mold to the next. the several variables at different points in
the gating system, although several
PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW conditions inherent in foundry gating
Proper design of an optimized gating system systems complicate and modify its strict
will be made easier by the application of application. For example:
several fundamental principles of fluid flow. • Equation 1 is for full systems, and at least
Chief among these principles are Bernoulli’s at the start of pouring, a gating system is
theorem, the law of continuity, and the effect of empty. This
momentum.
• Indicates that a gating system should be
Bernoulli’s Theorem designed to establish as quickly as possible
This basic law of hydraulics relates the the flow conditions of a full system
pressure, velocity, and elevation along a line
• Equation 1 assumes an impermeable wall
of flow in a way that can be applied to gating
around the flowing metal. In sand foundry
systems. The theorem states that, at any point
practice, the permeability of the mold
in a full system, the sum of the potential energy,
medium can introduce problems, for
kinetic energy,pressure energy, and frictional
example, air aspiration in the flowing liquid
energy of a flowing liquid is equal to a constant.
The theorem can be expressed as: • Additional energy losses due to turbulence
or to friction (for example, because of
wZ +wPv+ wV2/2g+ wF =K ...(1)
changes in the direction of flow) must be
where w is the total weight of the flowing liquid accounted for
(in pounds), Z is the height of the liquid (in
• Heat loss from the liquid metal is not
inches), P is the static pressure in liquid (in
considered, which will set a limit on the time
pounds per square inch), v is the specific
over which flow can be maintained. Also,
volume of liquid (in cubic inches per pound), g
solidifying metal on the walls of the gating
is the acceleration due to gravity (386.4 in. /
system components will alter their design
s2), V is the velocity (in inches per second), F
while flow continues
is the friction loss per unit weight, and K is a
constant. • Bernoulli’s theorem (Eq 1) is illustrated
schematically in Figure 2, and several
If Equation (1) is divided by w, all the terms
practical interpretations can be derived.
reduce to dimensions of length and will
The potential energy is obviously at a
represent:
maximum at the highest point in the system,
• Potential head Z that is, the top of the pouring basin. As metal

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Figure 2: Illustration of Bernoulli's The Law of Continuity

Theorem (Sylvia J G, 1972)
This law states that, for a system with
impermeable walls and filled with an
incompressible fluid, the rate of flow will be the
same at all points in the system. This can be
expressed as:
Q = A1μ1 = A2μ2 ...(2)
where Q is the rate of flow (in cubic inches per
second), Ais the cross-sectional area of the
stream (in square inches), is the velocity of the
stream (in inches per second), and the
subscripts 1 and 2 designate two different
flows from the basin down the sprue,
locations in the system. Again, the permeability
potential energy changes to kinetic energy
of sand molds can complicate the strict
as the stream increases in velocity because
application of this law, introducing potential
of gravity. As the sprue fills, a pressure head problems into the casting process.
is developed.
One practical implication of the law of
Once flow in a filled system is established, continuity is illustrated in Figure 3, which
the potential and frictional heads become illustrates the flow of metal from a pouring
virtually constant, so conditions within the basin. As indicated in Eq 1, potential energy
gating system are determined by the interplay is high but velocity is low as the stream leaves
of the remaining factors. The velocity is high the basin. Velocity increases as the stream
where the pressure is low, and vice versa. falls, so the cross-sectional area of the stream

Figure 3: Schematic Showing The Advantages Of A Tapered Sprue Over A Straight-sided

Sprue. (a) Natural Flow Of A Free-falling Liquid. (b) Air Aspiration Induced By Liquid
Flow In A Straight-sided Sprue. (c) Liquid Flow In A Tapered Sprue (Sylvia J G, 1972)

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Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Mazhar Iqbal, 2014

must decrease proportionately to maintain the production molding units do not readily
balance of the flow rate. The result is the accommodate tapered sprues, so the gating
tapered shape typical of a free-falling stream system designerwill try to approximate the
shown in Figure 3(a). effect of a tapered sprue by placing a
If the same flow is directed down a straight- restriction, or choke, at or near the base of the
sided sprue (Figure 3b), the falling stream will sprue to force the falling stream to back up
create a low-pressure area as it pulls away into the sprue (Figure 4).
from the sprue walls and will probably aspirate Momentum Effects
air. In addition, the flow will tend to be uneven Newton’s first law states that a body in motion
and turbulent, especially when the stream will continue to move in a given direction until
reaches the base of the sprue. The tapered some force is exerted on it to change its
sprue shown in Figure 3(c) is designed to direction.
conform to the natural form of the flowing
stream and therefore reduces turbulence and Reynolds’s Numbers and Types of
the possibility of air aspiration. It also tends to Flow
fill quickly, establishing the pressure head The flow of liquids can be characterized by a
characteristic of the full-flow conditions special measurement called the Reynolds’s
required by Eq 1. Many types of high- number, which can be calculated as follows:
NR= vdr/m ...(3)
Figure 4: Choke Mechanisms
Incorporated Into Straight-sided where NR is the Reynolds’s number, v is the
Sprues To Approximate Liquid Flow in velocity of the liquid, d is the diameter of the
Tapered Sprues (a) Choke Core (b)
liquid channel, ρ is the density of the liquid,
Runner Choke (Sylvia J G, 1972)
and μ is the viscosity of the liquid.
Reynold’s number, NR, and its relationship
to flow characterization. (a) NR < 2000,
laminar flow. (b) 2000 £NR < 20,000, turbulent
flow. (c) NR³ 20,000, severe turbulent flow
(Sylvia J G, 1972).
If a fluid flow system has a Reynold’s number
between 2000 and 20,000, some mixing and
turbulence will occur but a relatively
undisturbed boundary layer will be maintained
on the surface of the stream. This type of
turbulent flow, common in most foundry gating
systems, can be considered relatively
harmless so long as the surface is not ruptured,
thus avoiding air entrainment in the flowing
stream. With a Reynold’s number of about

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20,000, flow will be severely turbulent. This will minimized by making gradual changes in the
lead to rupturing of the stream surface with the flow channel cross section; abrupt
strong likelihood of air entrainment and dross changesshould be avoided.
formation as the flowing metal reacts with
Abrupt Changes in Flow Direction
gases.
As shown in Figure 6, sudden changes in the
Abrupt Changes in Flow Channel direction of flow can produce low pressure
Cross Section zones, as described above. Problems of air
As shown in Figure 6, low-pressure zones— entrainment can be minimized by making the
with a resulting tendency toward air change in direction more gradual.
entrainment—can be created as the metal
Figure 6: Schematic Illustrating Fluid
stream pulls away from the mold wall. With a Flow Around Right-angle And Curved
sudden enlargement of the channel (Figure 6a), Bends In A Gating System (a) Turbulence
Resulting From A Sharp Corner (b) Metal
momentum effects will carry the stream forward
Damage Resulting From A Sharp Corner
and create low-pressure zones at the (c) Streamlined Corner That Minimizes
enlargement. With a sudden reduction in the Turbulence And Metal Damage
channel (Figure 6b), the law of continuity shows
that the stream velocity must increase rapidly.
This spurting flow will create a low-pressure
zone directly after the constriction. The
problemsillustrated in Figure 5 can be
Figure 5: Schematic Showing
The Formation Of Low-pressure Areas Abrupt changes in flow direction, in addition
Due To Abrupt Changes In The Cross
Section Of A Flow Channels to increasing the chances of metal damage,
(a) Sudden Enlargement of the Channel will increase the frictional losses during flow.
(b) Sudden Reduction of the Channel As shown in Figure 7, a system with high
Figure 7: Effect of Pressure Head and
Change in Gate Design on the Velocity of
Metal Flow: (a) 90° Bend; (b) r/d = 1;
(c) r/d = 6; (d) Multiple 90° Bends.
The Variables r and d are the Radius
of Curvature and the Diameter
of the Runner, Respectively

Source: Sylvia J G, 1972

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frictional losses will require a greater pressure consideration in Eq 1 to show the interaction of
head to maintain a given flow velocity. pressure and velocity effects.
Using a Runner Extension At the first ingate, velocity is high as
Use of a runner extension beyond the last momentum effects carry the flowing stream
ingate is illustrated in Figure 1. The first metal past the gate. At the second ingate, velocity
entering the gating system will generally be the decreases in the runner as it reaches the end,
most heavily damaged by contact with the mold causing higher pressure and resulting in higher
medium and with air as it flows. To avoid flow through the gate. By stepping down the
having this metal enter the casting cavity, runner after the first ingate, metal velocities
momentum effects can be used to carry it past and pressures at the two ingates can be
the ingates and into the runner extension. The equalized. Thiseffect can be achieved by
ingates will then fill with the cleaner, less gradually tapering the runner to a smaller cross
damaged metal that follows the initial molten section along its length, but patternmaking
metal stream. limitations usually make it simpler to
incorporate actual steps in the runner.
Equalizing flow through ingates by decreasing
the runner cross section after the ingate is DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
illustrated in Figure 8; this is done for systems
In applying fluid flow principles to the design
with multiple ingates. As noted earlier, in the filled
of a specific gating system, several design
system shown, potential and frictional energies
decisions must be made before the actual
become constants, so they can be dropped from
sizes of the various components can be
Figure 8: Applying Bernoulli’s Theorem to calculated.
Flow From a Runner at two Ingates For a
Filled System and Comparingvelocity and Runner and Ingate
Pressure at the Ingates for two Runner
Configurations (a) Same Runner Cross Figures 1 and 2 show gating systems with
Section at Bothingates (b) Stepped ingates coming off the top of the runner and
Runner Providing Two Different Runner then into the casting. This arrangement of cope
Cross Sections at Each Ingate
ingates and drag runners is common and has
the advantages that the runner will be full before
metal enters the ingates. This establishes the
full-flow conditions discussed earlier in this
article. A full runner will reduce turbulence and
will help to allow any low-density inclusions in
the flowing stream to float out and attach
themselves to the mold wall.A system of cope
runners and drag ingates (or ingates coming
off the base of a cope runner) is also common
and has strong proponents (Sylvia J G, 1972).
The basis of this design is that momentum
Source: Sylvia J G, 1972
effects will carry the first metal past the ingates,

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Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Mazhar Iqbal, 2014

and if the runner can be quickly filled (at least alloys that are highly sensitive to oxide and
above the level of the ingates), clean metal will dross formation. Pressurized systems
flow from the bottom of the runner, while generally have the advantage of reduced size
inclusions carried along in the metal stream and weight for a given casting, thus increasing
will float above the ingates. A common element mold yield. The single greatest disadvantage
of this system is that the total cross-sectional of pressurized systems is that, by design,
area of the ingates should be smaller than the stream velocities are highest at the gatesjust
crosssectional area of the runner. Such a as the metal enters the casting. This increases
pressurized system is intended to force the the potential for mold or core erosion and
metal to back up at the ingates and rapidly fill places a premium on proper location of ingates
the runner, although complete filling of a cope to minimize such damage.
runner will often depend on at least partial filling Some gating ratios1 used in practice are
of the casting. During this period of incomplete
filling, turbulence and the potential for air Aluminium 1:2:11:3:31:4:4

entrainment and dross generation are Aluminium bronze 1:2.88:4.8

increased.
Brass 1:1:11:1:31.6:1.3:1
Pressurized Versus Unpressurized
Copper 2:8:13:9:1
Systems.
The difference between these two systems is Ductile Iron 1.15:1.1:11.25:1.13:1

in the choice of the location of the flow- Grey Cast Iron 2:1.5:12:3:1
controlling constriction, or choke that will
Magnesium 1:2:21:4:4
determine the ultimate flow rate for the gating
system. This decision involves the Malleable Iron 1:2:9.51.5:1:2.52:1:4.9
determination of a desired gating ratio, that Steels 1:1:71:2:11:2:1.5
is, the relative cross-sectional areas of the
sprue, runner, and gates. This ratio, numerically Gating System and Types
expressed in the order sprue: runner: gate, A mould cavity must be filled with clean metal
defines whether a gating system is increasing in a controlled manner to ensure smooth,
in area (unpressurized) or constricting uniform and complete filling, for the casting to
(pressurized). Common unpressurized gating be free of discontinuities, solid inclusionsand
ratios are 1:2:2, 1:2:4, and 1:4:4. A typical voids. This can be achieved by a well-
pressurized gating ratio is 4:8:3. Both types designed gating system. The first step
of systems are widely used. involvesselecting the type of gating system and
The unpressurized system has the the layout of gating channels: the orientation
advantage of reducing metal velocity in the andposition of sprue, runner and ingate(s). The
gating system as it approaches and enters the most critical design decision is the idealfilling
casting. Lower velocities help encourage time, based on which the gating channels are
laminar (or less turbulent) flow, so designed.The main objective of a gating
unpressurized systems are recommended for system is to lead clean molten metalpoured

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from ladle tothe casting cavity, ensuring runner and ingates), as horizontal or vertical.
smooth, uniformand completefilling. Clean Depending on the position of the ingate(s),
metal impliespreventing the entry of slag and gating systems can be classified as top,
inclusions into the mould cavity, and minimizing parting and bottom.
surfaceturbulence. Smooth filling implies Horizontal gating systems are suitable for
minimizing bulk turbulence. Uniform filling flat castings filled under gravity. They are widely
impliesthat all portions of the casting fill in a used in sand casting of ferrous metals, as well
controlled manner, usually at the same as gravity diecasting of non-ferrous metals.
time.Complete filling implies leading molten
metal to thin and end sections with minimum Vertical gating systems are suitable for tall
resistance [4]. The major elements of a gating castings. They are employed in high-pressure
system include pouring basin, sprue, well, sand mould, shell mould and diecasting
runner and ingate, in the sequence of flow of processes, where the parting plane is vertical.
molten metal from the ladle to the mould cavity. Top gating systems, in which hot molten
The pouring basin or bush or cup is a circular metal enters at the top of the casting, promote
or rectangular pocket that accepts the molten directional solidification from bottom to top of
metal from the ladle. The sprue or down sprue, the casting. These are however, suitable only
usually circular in crosssection, leads molten for flat castings to limit the damage to metal
metal from the pouring basin to the sprue well. as well as the mould by free fall of the molten
The sprue well or base changes the direction metal during initial filling.
of molten metal by right-angle and sends it to
Bottom gating systems have the opposite
the runner. The runner takes the metal from the
characteristics: the metal enters at the bottom
sprue to close to the casting. Finally, the ingate
of the casting and gradually fills up the mould
leads the metal to the mould cavity. Another
with minimal disturbances. It is recommended
major element is filter or slag trap, usually
for tall castings, where free fall of molten metal
placed in the runner or between the runner and
(from top or parting gates) has to be avoided.
ingate, meant for filtering out slag and other
inclusions. Middle or side or parting gating systems
combine the characteristics of top and bottom
The sprue is always vertical. The well, runner
gating systems. If the gating channels are at
and ingate are usually located in the parting
the parting plane, they are also easier to
plane. Depending on the orientation of the
produce and modify if necessary, during trial
parting plane, the gating systems can be
runs. The most widely used system is the
classified as horizontal and vertical gating
horizontal gating with ingates at the parting
systems. Thus in horizontal gating systems, the
plane. In vertical gating systems, ingates may
sprue is perpendicular to the parting plane,
be positioned at top, bottom andside.
whereas in vertical gating systems, the sprue
is parallel to the parting plane.Gating systems Gating Channel Layout
can be classified depending on the orientation The most important decision here is the
of the parting plane (which contains the sprue, number and location of ingate(s). Let us

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consider horizontal gating systems with side change of direction (particularly at sharp
ingates. Their location is governed by the corners) to avoid turbulencerelated problems.
following considerations Ingates should never be placed directly
Side feeders opposite a core.
If side feeders are employed, then their Low Free fall
efficiency can be improved by filling with the The ingate should be located where the free
first stream of hot molten metal through
fall of molten metal inside the mould cavity is
ingates. It also reduces the fettling effort and
low. This minimizes oxidation during fall and
the resulting marks on the casting, since the
erosion at the point of impact of molten metal.
ingates do not have to be removed separately.
The number of ingates must be sufficient
Thick Sections
enough, so that the distance of flow from any
The next best position after a side feeder is a ingate to the farthest point filled by that ingate
thick section, which will allow molten metal to
is less than the fluidity distance.
flow to other sections with minimal cooling. It
will also reduce occasional breakage during The sprue conducts the molten metal from
fettling of ingates. the pouring basin at its top to the plane in which
the runners and ingates are located. Its location
Clear Path
is governed by the following considerations:
In sand casting, the molten metal should be
allowed to flow with minimal obstructions and Flow Distance
The sprue location must minimize the total flow
Figure 9: Heuristics for Ingate Location
distance within the gating channels, to reduce
heat loss as well as maximize yield.

Heat Concentration
Since the hottest metal flows through the sprue,
it must be away from hot spots (essentially
thick sections) in the casting.

Mould Layout
The sprue must be located to minimize the size
of the bounding box enclosing the entire
casting (including the gating channels), so that
a smaller mould is required. This also applies
to multi cavity layout, where the sprue and
runner(s) are shared by multiple cavities.The
runner layout is simply given by the shortest
Source: Sylvia J G, 1972 path to connect the ingates with sprue.

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MOULD FILLING tension of aluminum and iron is 0.5 and 0.9 N/

PHENOMENON m respectively; similar to mercury at room
temperature (0.46 N/m), but higher than water
Fluidity
(0.07 N/m).
It is not a physical property. It is a technological
characteristic. It indicates theability of liquid Heat Diffusivity
metal to flow through a given mould passage Moulds with high heat diffusivity transfer heat
– even as it is solidifying – and fill the cavity to faster from the moltenmetal, causing it to freeze
reproduce the design details. It is quantified earlier and stop flowing. It is given by √ (Km
in terms of the solidified length of a standard ρm Cm), where Km is thermal conductivity, ρm
spiral casting.mThe fluidity as defined by the is density and Cm is specific heat of the mould
foundry community is different that defined by material.
physicists(as the reciprocal of viscosity). The
Back Pressure
casting fluidity is driven by metallostatic
pressure and hindered by: viscosity and As molten metal advances in the mould, the
surface tension of molten metal, heat diffusivity back pressure of air that isbeing compressed
of mould, back pressure of air in mould cavity in the cavity ahead effectively reduces the
and friction between the metal-mould pair. metallostatic pressure, andthus hinders filling.
The back pressure depends on the cavity
Metallostatic Head volume, mould permeability and the velocity
The metallostatic pressure is given by ρ g h of the advancing front. Venting helps.
where ρ is the metaldensity and h is the height
Friction
of liquid metal column above the filling point. A
higher metallostatic pressure gives higher The rough surface of sand mould hinders metal
velocity of molten metal, and there by higher flow. Thus mould coating(usually water based,
fluidity. containing silica flour and graphite) reduces
the friction betweenthe metal and mould,
Viscosity contributing to higher fluidity. In general, fluidity
Viscosity depends on the metal family, of pure metals is higher than alloys. Within
composition and the instantaneous alloys, eutectics havehigher fluidity than non-
temperature. For most metals, the viscosity at eutectics. The fluidity of grey iron ranges
the pouring temperature is close to that ofwater between 0.5-1.0 m,and can be estimated by
(1 centistokes); aluminum: 1.2 and iron: 0.9 the empirical equation:
centistokes. In comparison, the viscosity of
Fluidity = 14.9 CE + 0.05 T –p - 155 inch.
typical mineral oils is about 600.
where CEis the carbon equivalent given by
Surface Tension CE= %C + 0.25 %Si + 0.5 %Pand Tp is the
For a flat plate of thickness t, the relation pouring temperature in Fahrenheit.
between head, thickness and surface tension
is given by: ρ g h= γ / t, where ρ is the surface Turbulence
tension. At the pouring temperature, the surface It implies irregular, fluctuating flow with

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disturbances. It is observed when:(1) inertia 4. Filling of mould cavity by liquid movements

forces (which make the fluid continue in the in the bulk as well as near the surface.In
same direction), are much higherthan the drag general, the entire path of molten metal,
forces (which tend to stop the fluid motion), and within the gating system as well as the
(2) there are obstructions in the path of flow, mould cavity, is turbulent in most castings.
such as a sharp corner or a change of section This can be readily ascertained by
thickness. The drag forces include those calculating thevalue of Reynolds number for
caused by viscosity and surface tension. The a typical casting. A major purpose of the
viscous forcesmainly operate in the bulk of the gating system (instead of pouring metal
liquid metal, whereas surface tension forces directly into the mould cavity) is to reduce
operate near the mould wall. Thus we have two the turbulence, though it cannot be
types of turbulence: bulk and surface. completely eliminated.

Bulk Turbulence There are mainly three major classes of

It is quantified by Reynolds number Re, which casting defects related to mould filling:
incomplete filling, solid inclusions and gaseous
is the ratio of inertia toviscous pressure in a
entrapments
fluid. It is given by ρ V d / μ where ρ is the
density, μ is the viscosityand V is the velocity INCOMPLETE FILLING
of the liquid; dis a characteristic dimension of
This is primarily caused by poor fluidity of
the flow path. If Re ismore than 2000, then the
molten metal, andmanifests in the form of a
flow is usually turbulent.
cold shut or mishrun. A cold shut occurs when
Surface Turbulence two streams ofmolten metal coming from
It is quantified by the Weber number We, which opposite directions meet, but do not fuse
is the ratio of inertiato surface tension pressure completely. A misrun occurs when the molten
in a fluid. It is given by ρ V2 r / γ where ris the metal does not completely fill a section of the
radius ofcurvature of the free liquid surface. mould cavity (usually an end section far from
For Weis less than 1, surface turbulence is the entry point). The presence of surface oxide
absent.When it is 100 or more, surface sand impurities on the advancing front of liquid
turbulence is prominent, leading to violent metal aggravates such defects.
mixing ofsurface layers with the bulk of the Solid Inclusions
molten metal. The path of molten metal during
This is primarily caused by the turbulence in
casting process comprises mainly four parts:
molten metal, and manifests in the form of
1. Pouring of molten metal from ladle to the sand inclusion or slag inclusion. Sand
cup in the mould inclusions are mainly caused by bulk
2. Flow within the gating channels, from turbulence in gating channels or mould cavity,
pouring basin to ingate which dislodges sand particles from the mould
3. Jet of molten metal emerging from ingate wall. Slag inclusions can be caused by surface
and entering the mould cavity turbulence any where along the path of molten

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metal, leading to mixing of surface oxide layers A generalized equation for filling time can
with the rest of molten metal. be written as:
Gaseous Entrapments τ f = K0 (KfLf / 1000) ( Ks + Ktt / 20)
This class of casting defects includes air and (Kw W )P
gas entrapment, usually in form of blow hole There are five coefficients: K0 is an overall
and gas porosity, respectively. They occur coefficient, and Kf, Ks, Kt, Kw are the
when the air orgas inside the mould cavity coefficients for fluidity, size, thickness and
cannot escape through the mould. The major weight, respectively. For grey iron the following
source of gases includes dissolved gases in values may be used: K0 = 1.0, Kf= 1.0, Ks =
the molten metal, vaporization of mould sand 1.1(for castings of size 100-1000 mm),
moisture andcombustion of binders in core or Kt=1.4(for wall thickness up to 10 mm), Kw =
mould sand. The occurrence of these defects 1and P = 0.4. Based on individual experience,
increases when the amount of air entrapped an expert casting engineer can set the values
or gas generated is high, filling and of the coefficients for each metal-process
solidification of molten metal are fast, the combination. These form a valuable part of the
venting of the mould is poor. knowledge base of a foundry specializing in
specific castings.
Optimal Filling Time
Metal Velocity
A casting that fills too slow can have
The optimal filling time is determined such that
discontinuities such as cold shuts and misruns.
gating channels can be designed to avoid
Too fast filling can lead to solid and gaseous
surface turbulence and minimize bulk
inclusions. The higher limit of filling time
turbulence within the gating channels as well
(slowest filling) is governed by the need to as the mould cavity. This mainly depends on
avoid premature freezing in thin sections the velocity of the molten metal, which varies
before complete filling. The lower limit of the widely within the gating channels as well as
filling time (fastest filling) is governed by the inside the mould cavity. For a given location in
onset of surface turbulence. The correct filling the casting, the velocity also changes with time,
time lies some where in between, and is a from the start to end of filling. The most
function of cast metal, weight, minimum section important event is that of molten metal
thickness and pouring temperature. emerging from the ingate, just after the filling
of gating channels and before the filling of
Several empirical equations for
mould cavity. The metal is both hot and fast at
determining the correct filling time for major
this location and instant, and can lead to
metals have been developed by casting considerable damage if not controlled
researchers, based on experimental properly. The velocity of molten metal at the
investigations. The filling timetfis expressed as ingate depends on mainly two parameters: (1)
a function of casting weight W in kg, section the metallostatic head and (2) the ratio of
thickness t in mm and fluidity length Lf in mm. cross-sections of sprue exit, runner(s) and

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ingates(s), referred to as the gating ratio. In or ingates) with the smallest value in the gating
general, the velocity of molten metal must be ratio is considered the choke. The choke area
kept lower than 1 m/s for ferrous metals and Acis given by:
0.5 m/s for aluminum alloys. Ac = W / (ρ c τ f V c)
GATING ELEMENT DESIGN where, W is the total casting weight (including
The gating system can be designed to fill a feeders and gating channels), ρ c is the metal
given casting in a predetermined time, by density, tf is the total filling time and Vc is the
keeping a constant level of liquid metal in the choke velocity.
pouring basin during pouring, to achieve a The choke velocity is given by:
controlled rate of flow through the choke. The
Vc = Vp+ cf√ (2 g H)
choke is the smallest cross-section in the
gating system that controls the flow rate of where H is the metallostatic pressure head,
molten metal. The element (sprue exit, runners given by the vertical distance between the

Figure 10: Flow Chart of Gating Element Design

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Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Mazhar Iqbal, 2014

liquid level in pouring cup and the centerline of A1 √ H1 = A2 √ H2 where, H1 and H2 are
the choke. The value of pouring velocity Vp is the metallostatic pressure head at the top and
non-zero, if poured from a height or if bottom bottom of the sprue, respectively; A1 and A2
pouring ladles are used. The friction factor cf being the respective cross-sectional areas.
within the gating system depends on its The ideal sprue must be larger at the top and
geometry and surface finish, and ranges smaller at the bottom. Since this leads to an
between 0.6-0.9. undercut, such a sprue can not be created by
Note that the weight of the gating system is the pattern during moulding operations, and
unknown at the time of calculating the mould must be formed by a core. If this is not
filling time and choke area. This can be economical, then the choke can be created in
overcome by determining the total casting the beginning of runner.
weight after a gating design and repeating the Sprue well
calculations.During actual filling, the It arrests the free fall of molten metal through
metallostatic pressure head gradually the sprue and turns it by a right angle towards
decreases after the molten metal starts rising the runner. It must be designed to minimize
above the level of choke. Thus the average turbulence and air aspiration. The
value of actual choke velocity is less than the recommended shape of a sprue well is
one used above, leading to slower filling. This cylindrical, with diameter twice that of sprue
can be compensated by estimating the actual exit and depth twice that of runner. A fillet
filling time (as described in a later section), between the well and runner will facilitate
and then correcting the choke area. smooth transfer of molten metal.
The cross-sectional area of sprue exit, Runner
runners and ingates, is initially determined
The main function of the runner is to slow down
based on the choke area, gating ratio and the
the molten metal, which speeds up during its
number of individual elements. Then the
free fall through the sprue, and take it to all the
sectional area of individual elements, as well
ingates. This implies that the total cross-
as their shape and dimensions are determined
sectional area of runner(s) must be greater
as follows.
than the sprue exit. In general, a ratio of 1:2 is
Sprue recommended. A much higher ratio (such as
It usually has a circular cross-section, which 1:4) may lead to flow separation in the runner.
minimizes turbulence and heat loss.The cross- The second implication is that the runner must
sectional area at the sprue exit or bottom is fill completely before letting the molten metal
calculated from the choke area and gating enter the ingates. Finally, in casting where more
ratio. The area of the sprue top should be than one ingate is present, the runner cross-
calculated using mass and energy balance section area must be reduced after each
equations, to prevent flow separation in the ingate connection (by an amount equal to the
sprue. Essentially, area of that ingate), to ensure uniform flow.

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Ingate Mould Filling Time

The ingate leads the molten metal from the The actual filling time as determined by
gating system to the mould cavity. A number of computer simulation or actual experiment must
conflicting requirements apply to the design be close to the optimal filling time for which
of ingates, as listed below. Ingate section must the gating system was designed. This criterion
be designed to reduce the metal velocity below is expressed as follows:
the critical limit.This implies that in general, the CG1 = 1 (/τ f-actual - τ f-optimal /) /
ingate area must be more than the sprue exit
(choke). Ingate must be easy to fettle. This τ f-optimal
implies a smaller cross-section, preferably a Note that if a casting is found to have filling-
flat section (against a square one), is related defects at the optimal filling time, but
preferred. Ingate must not lead to a local hot is defect-free at some other filling time, then
spot. This implies that the ingate modulus (ratio the empirical equation for optimal filling time
of volume to cooling surface area) must be may be corrected for the particular
smaller than that of the connected section. combination of geometry, metal and process.
Flow of molten metal through an ingate (and
Ingate Velocity
therefore its cross-sectional area) mustbe
proportional to the volume of the connected The velocity of molten metal emerging from the
casting region.The number, shape (aspect ingate must be as low as possible to minimize
ratio) and dimensions of ingates must be turbulence.
carefully designed to optimize the above CG2 = 1 (Vingate/ Vcritical)
requirements.
where, Vcritical is the recommended limit of
Optimization and Validation velocity depending on the metal: about 1 m/s
Several iterations of gating system design and for iron, and 0.5 m/s for aluminum.
mould filling analysis may be carried out until Impingement
filling related problems are eliminated. In
The velocity and direction of the first stream of
general, several different gating designs
molten metal emergingfrom an ingate and
(essentially, the number, location and
striking a mould face affect mould erosion at
dimensions of gating channels) may lead to
that location. A faststream striking in a direction
defect free castings. We will therefore, develop
perpendicular to the face of impingement should
a set of criteria to assess a given gating
beavoided. This is expressed as follows:
design,which can be used in an optimization
exercise. Finally we describe different CG3 = Vimp-limit / ( Vimp( nimp. nf))
experimental techniques to observe mould where, Vimp-limitis the limiting value of
filling for validating the gating design.A given impingement velocity for the onset of mould
design of gating system can be assessed erosion, Vimp is the velocity of impingement;
using the following criteria. All criteria have nimp and nf are the unit vectors along the
been normalized and are sought to be direction of impingement and normal to the
maximized. casting face of impingement, respectively.

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Gating Yield High-speed Radiography

The volume of the gating system must be This involves recording the mould-filling
minimized to increase the yield. phenomenon using a high-speed x-ray
The criterion is given by: camera. This is most useful for observing all
major phenomenon in mould filling, including
CG4 = Ncvc/ ( Ncvc+ vg )
initial filling of the gating system, the sequence
Where, Nc is number of casting cavities per of filling through different ingates, branching
mould, vc is the volume of each cavity, and vg and rejoining of streams, etc. It is however,
is the volume of the common gating system limited to low density metals and small
for all the cavities in the mould. castings (in terms of thickness along the
Fettling direction of rays).
The size of an ingate must be small compared Partial Filling
to the connected portion of the casting to avoid Several moulds are prepared; and say only
casting breakage or cracks during fettling. 10% of metal is poured in the first mould, 20%
When several ingates are present, one that is in the second mould, and so on. The sequence
most likely to cause damage determines the of partially filled and solidified castings
criteria assessment value. facilitates visualizing the mould filling. This is
CG5 = mini (1(tgi/ tci) suitable for thin castings in which the mould
filling time is comparable to the casting
where, tgi is the thickness of ingate i and tci is
solidification time.
the thickness of the connected portion of
casting. The gating design can be validated Open Mould
by various techniques. Visualization of mould This is suitable for castings that are primarily
filling – g,)g – even if indirect (since the moulds in the drag. A portion of cope directly above
are opaque)– g,) g – provides a useful pointer the casting cavity is cut away, leaving the gating
to filling related defects and their causes. Other system. A standard video camera is used to
techniques are briefly described here. record the molten metal stream emerging from
the ingate and the gradual filling of the mould.
Shop Floor Trials
The video can later be played back in slow
Sample castings are produced using the motion. The absence of back pressure of air
materials and processes that will be finally used in the mould may lead to some errors.
for production castings. Then their surface,
Contact Wire Sensing
sub-surface and internal quality may be
observed by visual, destructive and non- Contact wires can be placed in different parts
of the mould. The completion of circuit when
destructive testing. Destructive testing
the metal reaches a particular wire is recorded
includes machining and cutting the sections
by a multi channel recorder. Based on the
through critical regions.
sequence of observations, the time taken for

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