Plant Formations in the Philippinean BioProvince

Peter Martin Rhind

Philippinean Dipterocarp Forest

Forests dominated by dipterocarps are characteristic of the lowlands and up to an altitude
of about 600 m. Prior to man’s interventions they represented about 75% of the virgin
forest area and contained about 95% of the archipelago’s standing timber. The dominant
dipterocarps are Parashorea malaanonan, Pentacme contorta and Shorea guisa and
these together with trees such as the endemic Canarium luzonicum (Burseraceae) and
Celtis philippensis (Ulmaceae) form a closed canopy. The tallest of these trees,
Parashorea malaanonan, can reach heights of 40 m. Two sub-canopy layers can usually
be distinguised. In the middle layer, at about 20 m high, Diospyros ahernii, Diplodiscus
paniculatus and the endemic Dillenia philippinensis (Dilleniaceae) and Strombosia
philippinensis (Olacaceae) represent some of the more prominent trees, but this layer
probably contains a greater number of species than the other two stories combined. The
third storey reaches about 10 m. Here the main species include Laportea subclausa, Thea
montana and the endemic Leea manillensis (Leeaceae). Other endemic trees include
Dillenia reifferscheidia (Dilleniaceae), Dipterocarpus philippinensis, Hopea acuminata,
Shorea astlosa, Vatica pachyphylla (Dipterocarpaceae), Eugenia luzonensis (Myrtaceae),
Gloeocarpus patentivalis (Sapindaceae), Guioa discolor (Sapindaceae), Hydnocarpus
cauliflora (Flacourtiaceae), Leea philippinensis (Leeaceae), Mastixia tetrapetala
(Mastixiaceae), Myristica rubrinervis (Myristicaceae), Pandanus luzonensis
(Pandanaceae), Symplocos verticillifolia (Symplocaceae) and Terminalia pellucida
(Combretaceae).

At ground level rattans (Calamus and Daemonorops) in their rosette stage are one of the
most prominent elements. Other shrubs comprise various endemic species like
Anaxogorea luzonensis (Annonaceae) and Osmoxylon oblongifolium (Araliaceae). In
these more shrubby areas, herbaceous species are scarce, but in the wetter areas,
particularly in ravines, they become much more conspicuous. Species of the shallow
rooting genus Elatostema can be present in large numbers, while endemic species may
include Carex nodiflora (Cyperaceae), Plectranthus merrillii (Lamiaceae), Sedum
ambliflorum (Crassulaceae), Tectaridium macleanii (familiy), and by rivers the generic
endemic fern Podosorus angustatus (Polypodiaceae). Ferns can be present in large
numbers but most are fairly small species, while the spectacular Angiopteria angustifolia
has fronds up to 5 m in length. Some of the more bizare ground dwelling species include
the showy endemic parasite Rafflesia manillana (Rafflesiaceae) and the endemic leafless
orchid Taeniophyllum philippinensis (Orchidaceae). With its photosynthetic roots this latter
species is also occasionally found on the trunks of trees. However, epiphytic vegetation in
general is quite scare and mostly confined to the large branches of tall trees where they
often form a veritable aerial garden. Ferns such as Asplenium nidus (bird’s-nest fern) and
various endemic members of the Polypodiaceae like Drynaria descensa, Microsorum
heterolobum, Platycerium grande and Pyrrosia samarensis are common, while the
flowering plants are mainly orchids or species of Hoya. Phalaenopsis amabilis is a
spectacular orchid of these high branches but is rarely seen. Climbers, on the other hand,
are very common. The most noticeable of these are the climbing palms (rattans). These
start of as self-supporting ground species with spiny, pinnate leaves of up to 3 m until they
send out climbing stems which can reach lengths of more than 100 m. Other conspicuous
climbers are the climbing bamboos such as Schizostachyum diffusum (Poaceae) and
other monocots of the genera Freycinetia (Panadanaceae) and Pothos (Araceae).
Frequent among the dicot climbers is the endemic Symphorema luzonicum
Copyright © 2010 Peter Martin Rhind
(Verbenaceae), but several others endemic dicot species of climbers and lianas may be
encountered including Aristolochia leytensis (Aristolochiaceae), Cannarus whitfordii
(Connaraceae), Cyclea cauliflora (Menispermaceae), Erycibe terminaliflora
(Convolvulaceae), Prenacantha repanda (Icacinaceae) and Strychnos lanata
(Loganiaceae).

Philippinean Limestone Forest

These forests are confined to limestone, but are sometimes referred to as molave forest
due to the conspicuous presence of this species (Vitex parviflora). They also contain large
numbers of leguminous species and many of the trees are deciduous. Among other
characteristic trees are Afzelia rhomboides, Heritiera sylvatica, Intsia bijuga,
Kingiodendron alternifolium, Lagerstroemia piriformis, Mimusops parviflora, Parinari
corymbosa, Pterocarpus indicus, Pterocymbium tinctorium, Toona calanthes, Wrightia
pubescens, Ziziphus talanai, endemic taxa like Litchi chinensis subsp. philippinensis
(Sapindaceae), Sindora supa (Fabaceae) and the near endemic Wallaceodendron
celebica (Fabaceae). Not surprisingly the latter species also occurs in the forests of
Sulawesi (Celebes). Other characteristic but less common endemic species include
Heterogonium lobulatum (Dryopteridaceae), the epiphyte Microsorum samarense
(Polypodiaceae), Pneumatopteris lithophila (Thelypteridaceae), Sphaerostephanos
subcordata (Thelypteridaceae) and various species of Tectaria such as T. athyriosora, T.
calcarea and T. tabonensis (Dryopteridaceae).

Philippinean Ultrabasic Forest

There are substantial areas of ultrabasic rock in the Philippines. Examples include Mount
Bloomfield on Palawan and Mount Giting-Giting on Sibuyan. The forests are typically
stunted although the reason for this is not absolutely clear. It could be due to a shortage of
essential nutrients or to the high levels of magnesium and calcium or high nickel
concentrations. On Mt Bloomfield the forest trees mainly comprise various metaliferous
species such as Brackenridgea palustris var. foxworthyi, Exocarpus latifolius and Scaevola
micrantha, while other trees include Gymnostoma mesostrobilus and Phyllanthus balgooyi.
Several species, such as the endemic shrub Walsura monophylla (Meliaceae) are known
to be nickel hyperaccumuators. The value of this adaptation is unclear but possibly
renders their leaves toxic to certain herbivores. Other endemic species associated with
these untrabasic rock forests include trees such as Myristica colinridsdalei (Myristicaceae)
and shrubs such as Licania palawanensis (Chrysobalanaceae) and Securidaca atro-
violacea (Polygalaceae).

Philippinean Montane Forest

Above the dipterocarp forest from about the 600 m contour the forests are much less
dense and the number of tree stories are reduced to two. The canopy height varies with
altitude but reaches about 18 m at an elevation of about 700 m, while the lower story
varies from between 6-12 m. However, it is difficult to define these forests in terms of
dominant species, but fairly prevalent first story species include Neonauclea calycina,
Quercus soleriana, various species of Ficus and the endemic Palaquium philippense
(Sapotaceae) and Weinmannia luzoniensis (Cunoniaceae). The second story is composed
of a multitude of species, some of which like the endemic Sauravia luzoniensis
(Sauraviaceae) rarely reach more than about 6 m in height. Other endemic small trees
include Arthrophyllum pulgarense (Araliaceae), Symplocos whitfordii (Symplocaceae) and
Viburnum cornutidens (Caprifoliaceae). Palms are much less frequent and mostly
represented by scattered specimens of Pinanya barnesii. Tree ferns, on the other hand,
become far more abundant and include endemic species like Cyathea caudata, C.
heterochlamydea, C. robinsonii and C. zamboanyana (Cyatheaceae). Dicotyledonous

Copyright © 2010 Peter Martin Rhind

vines are also less prominent with monocots like climbing palms (rattans) and species of
the genus Freycinetia (Pandanaceae) making up most of the climbing flora, although the
woody, endemic vine Kadura philippinensis (Schisandraceae) may be encountered. The
most conspicuous change compared to the lowland forests is the increased epiphytic flora,
but again these are mostly confined to the crowns of tall trees. For example, there are
several species of the fern genus Aglaomorpha including the spectacular endemic
Aglaomorpha splendens (Polypodiaceae) with its large pinnate leaves. The trunks of trees
usually only support a sparse covering of mosses and other epiphytic species, and it is the
bark of trees that is prominent in giving character to the appearance of these forests,
especially at lower altitudes. Other endemic species include Sphaerostephanos lobatus
(Thelypteridaceae) and Teratophyllum luzonicum (Lomariopsidaceae).

Philippinean Mossy Forest

From an altitude of about 1200 m, such as mountain summits like the top of Mount
Maguiling, the cloud belt starts shrouding these zones in mist for long periods. The high
relative humidity and low evaporation rates is responsible for many of the features of these
forests and in many ways they are of more interest than those at lower elevations. One of
the most obvious features is the abundance of epiphytic mosses. In places these may be
several centimeters thick and can reach 30 cm in length. In addition to mosses there are
many filmy ferns and small species of the clubmoss Selaginella such as the endemic
Selaginella maquiliense (Selaginaceae). There is usually a single story of low trees with a
canopy height of about 10 m. Many of the trees have a tendency to send out aerial roots
often causing them to have fantastic shapes. Species of Astronia, particularly A.
lagunensis, and trees ferns (Cyathea) are the dominant tree taxa in terms of numbers of
species. Tree ferns are very abundant growing luxuriantly among other trees and giving
these forests a primordial appearance, and many of these, like Cyathea edanoi, C.
ferruginea, C. fuliginosa and C. philippinensis (Cyatheaceae), are endemic. Other endemic
trees include Aquilaria apiculata (Thymelaeaceae), Clethra tomentella (Clethraceae),
Diplycosia luzonica (Ericaceae), Guioa myriadenia (Sapindaceae), Matthaea pubescens
(Monimiaceae), Microtropis curvanii (Celastraceae), Podocarpus lophatus
(Podocarpaceae), Prunus subglabra (Rosaceae), Schuumansia vidalii (family?) and
Vaccinium barandanum (Ericaceae). Shrubs are also frequently encountered with many
endemic species of the Ericaceae such as Dimorphanthera mindanaensis, Rhododendron
mindanaense and Vaccinium halconense. Other endemic shrubs include Daphne luzonica
(Thymelaeaceae), Daphniphyllum parvifolium (Daphniphyllaceae) and Gomphandra
flavicarpa (Icacinaceae). In addition to terrestrial shrubs there are also many epiphytic
species, which are again dominated by endemic species of the Ericaceae such as Costera
loheri, Diplycosia apoensis, Rhododendron leytense and Vaccinium perrigidum. Vines,
both epiphytic and terrestrial, are fairly conspicuous but represented by comparatively few
species. Possibly the most frequent are species of Freycinetia particularly Freycinetia
williamsii. Where trees send out large numbers of aerial roots and the crowns are
overgrown with vines and epiphytes it can be very dark at ground level and devoid of
herbaceous species, but where light penetrates fairly dense herbaceous layers can
develop. The most conspicuous large herb is Strobilanthes pluriformis, while the smaller
ones consist largely of ferns (mainly species of Hymenophyllaceae and Polypodiaceae),
together with species of Elatostema and Selaginella. Among the endemic herbaceous flora
are Plectranthus sparsiflorus (Lamiaceae), Pogostemon philippinensis (Lamiaceae),
Trigonotis philippinensis (Boraginaceae) and Viola merrilliana (Violaceae).

Philippinean Pine Forest

These forests reach their best development on the high plateaus of northern Luzon in the
so-called ‘Mountain Province’. They range in altitude from about 900 to 1500 m and are

Copyright © 2010 Peter Martin Rhind

characterized mainly by the presence of Pinus insularis (P. kesiya) and P. merkusii.
Associated endemic plants include Pronephrium rubidum (Thelypteridaceae) and the
epiphytic fern Selliguea elmeri (Polypodiaceae).

Further information required.

References

Brown, W. H. 1919. Vegetation of Philippine Mountains. Publication No. 13. Department of

Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bureau of Science, Manila.

Campbell, D. G. & Hammond, H. D. 1989. Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries. The

New York Botanical Garden.

Hamann, A., Barbon, E. B., Curio, E. & Madulid, D. A. 1999. A botanical inventory of a
submontane tropical rainforest on Negros Island, Philippines. Biodiversity and
Conservation, 8: 1017-1031.

Hosokawa, T., Tagawa, H. & Chapman, V. J. 1977. Mangals of Micronesia, Taiwan,

Japan, the Philippines and Oceania. In: Ecosystems of the World 1 - Wet Coastal
Ecosystems. Ed. V. J. Chapman. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.

Langenberger, G., Martin, K. & Sauerborn, J. 2006. Vascular plant species inventory of a
Philippine lowland rain forest and its conservation status. Biodiversity and Conservation,
15: 1271-1301.

Lazardo, L. 1957. The Philippine Pine Forest. Tropical Silviculture, 2: 344-366.

Leith, H. & Werger, M. J. A. 1989. Ecosystems of the World 14B - Tropical Rain Forests.
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.

Pipoly, J. J. & Madulid, D. A. 1998. Composition, structure and species richness of a

submontane moist forest on Mt Kinasalapi, Mindanao, Philippines. In: Forest Biodiversity
Research, Monitoring and Modeling. Eds. F. Dallmeier and J. A. Comiskey. Man and the
Biosphere Series, Volume 40. The Parthenon Publishing Group.

Proctor, J. 2003. Vegetation and soil and plant chemistry on ultramafic rocks in the tropical
Far East. Perspective in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 6: 105-124.

Steenis, C. G. G. J. van. 1957. Outline of the vegetation types in Indonesia and some
adjacent regions. Proceedings of the Pacific Scientific Congress, 8: 61-97.

Copyright © 2010 Peter Martin Rhind