NAVEDTRA 12964

Naval Education and July 1990 Training Manual

Training Command 0502-LP-213-2300 (TRAMAN)

Fluid Power

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document

must use the purchasing instructions on the inside cover.
FLUID POWER

NAVEDTRA 12964

1990 Edition Prepared by

MWC Albert Beasley, Jr.
 PREFACE

This training manual (TRAMAN) and the associated nonresident training

course (NRTC) are written for Navy and Naval Reserve personnel whose duties
require them to have a knowledge of the fundamentals of hydraulics and
pneumatics. The TRAMAN is based on occupational standards for
advancement as stated in the Navy Enlisted Manpower and Personnel
Classifications and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068E; and
numerous personnel qualifications standards (PQS) published by the Naval
Education and Training Support Center, Pacific.

The completion of this TRAMAN and the associated NRTC, combined

with the necessary practical experience, will assist personnel preparing for
advancement in ratings requiring a knowledge of fluid power. Additionally,
completion of this TRAMAN and the associated NRTC will assist personnel
preparing for watch station qualification for PQSs requiring a knowledge of
fluid power.

This self-study package was prepared by the Naval Education and Training
Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Florida, for the Chief
of Naval Education and Training. Technical assistance was provided by Naval
Safety Center, Norfolk, Virginia; Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington,
D.C.; Chief of Naval Operations (OP-03), Washington, D.C.; Commander,
Naval Air Systems Command, Patuxent River, MD; Naval Supply Center,
Pensacola, FL; and the subject matter experts for the AMH, AS, EN, and
GSM ratings at NETPMSA, Pensacola, FL.

1990 Edition

Stock Ordering No.

0502-LP-213-2300

Published by
NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAM
MANAGEMENT SUPPORT ACTIVITY

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.: 1990

i
 THE UNITED STATES NAVY
GUARDIAN OF OUR COUNTRY
The United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of the
sea and is a ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable of
strong action to preserve the peace or of instant offensive action to
win in war.

It is upon the maintenance of this control that our country’s glorious

future depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR

Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navy’s heritage from the past. To
these may be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as the
watchwords of the present and the future.

At home or on distant stations we serve with pride, confident in the

respect of our country, our shipmates, and our families.

Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.

Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve with

honor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY

The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, and
greater power to protect and defend the United States on the sea,
under the sea, and in the air.

Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States her
greatest advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory in
war.

Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes of

the new Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in the
future, in continued dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on our
heritage from the past.

Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.

ii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

1. Introduction to Fluid Power.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

2. Forces in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

3. Hydraulic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

4. Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

5. Fluid Lines and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

6. Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

7. Sealing Devices and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

8. Measurement and Pressure Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

9. Reservoirs, Strainers, Filters, and Accumulators . . . . . . 9-1

10. Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

11. Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

12. Basic Diagrams and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

APPENDIX

I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AI-1

II. Mechanical Symbols Other than Aeronautical

for Fluid Power Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AII-1

III. Aeronautical Mechanical Symbols for Fluid

Power Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AIII-1

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX-1

...
iii
 CREDITS

The companies listed below have provided permission to use certain

tradenames/trademarks in this edition of Fluid Power. Permission to use these
tradenames/trademarks is gratefully acknowledged. Permission to reproduce
or use these tradenames/trademarks must be obtained from the source.

SOURCE TEXT ON PAGE

DuPont 5-8

Greene, Tweed and Company 7-5

Minnesota Rubber 7-15

iv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID POWER

Fluid power is a term which was created to hazardous fluids, liquid contamination, and
include the generation, control, and application control of contaminants.
of smooth, effective power of pumped or Chapter 4 covers the hydraulic pump, the
compressed fluids (either liquids or gases) when component in the hydraulic system which
this power is used to provide force and motion generates the force required for the system to
to mechanisms. This force and motion maybe in perform its design function. The information
the form of pushing, pulling, rotating, regulating, provided covers classifications, types, operation,
or driving. Fluid power includes hydraulics, which and construction of pumps.
involves liquids, and pneumatics, which involves Chapter 5 deals with the piping, tubing and
gases. Liquids and gases are similar in many flexible hoses, and connectors used to carry fluids
respects. The differences are pointed out in the under pressure.
appropriate areas of this manual. Chapter 6 discusses the classification, types,
and operation of valves used in the control of
This manual presents many of the funda-
flow, pressure, and direction of fluids.
mental concepts in the fields of hydraulics and
Chapter 7 covers the types and purposes of
pneumatics. It is intended as a basic reference for
sealing devices used in fluid power systems,
all personnel of the Navy whose duties and
including the different materials used in their
responsibilities require them to have a knowledge
construction. Additionally, the guidelines for
of the fundamentals of fluid power. Conse-
selecting, installing, and removing O-rings are
quently, emphasis is placed primarily on the
included.
theory of operation of typical fluid power systems
Chapter 8 discusses the operation of devices
and components that have applications in naval
used to measure and regulate the pressure of fluids
equipment. Many applications of fluid power are
and to measure the temperature of fluids.
presented in this manual to illustrate the functions
Chapter 9 describes the functions and types
and operation of different systems and com-
of reservoirs, strainers, filters, and accumulators,
ponents. However, these are only representative
and their uses in fluid power systems.
of the many applications of fluid power in naval
Chapter 10 discusses the types and operation
equipment. Individual training manuals for each
of actuators used to transform the energy
rate provide information concerning the applica-
generated by hydraulic systems into mechanical
tion of fluid power to specific equipment for
force and motion.
which the rating is responsible.
Chapter 11 deals with pneumatics. It discusses
A brief summary of the contents of this the origin of pneumatics, the characteristics and
training manual is given in the following compressibility of gases, and the most commonly
paragraphs: used gases in pneumatic systems. Also, sections
are included to cover safety precautions and the
Chapter 2 covers the characteristics of liquids potential hazards of compressed gases.
and the factors affecting them. It also explains Chapter 12 identifies the types of diagrams
the behavior of liquids at rest, identifies the encountered in fluid power systems. This chapter
characteristics of liquids in motion, and explains also discusses how components of chapters 4, 5,
the operation of basic hydraulic components. 6, 8, 9, and 10 are combined to form and operate
Chapter 3 discusses the qualities of fluids together as a system.
acceptable for hydraulic systems and the types of A glossary of terms commonly used in fluid
fluids used. Included are sections on safety power is provided in appendix I. Appendix II
precautions to follow when handling potentially provides symbols used in aeronautical mechanical

1-1
systems, and appendix III provides symbols used amount of pressure and a more accurate control,
in nonaeronautical mechanical systems. a combination of hydraulics and pneumatics may
The remainder of chapter 1 is devoted to the be used. If the application requires a great amount
advantages and problems of fluid power appli- of pressure and/or extremely accurate control, a
cations. Included are brief sections on the history, hydraulic system should be used.
development, and applications of hydraulics, and
the states of matter.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER The extreme flexibility of fluid power elements

presents a number of problems. Since fluids have
The extensive use of hydraulics and pneuma- no shape of their own, they must be positively
tics to transmit power is due to the fact that confined throughout the entire system. Special
properly constructed fluid power systems possess consideration must be given to the structural
a number of favorable characteristics. They integrity of the parts of a fluid power system.
eliminate the need for complicated systems of Strong pipes and containers must be provided.
gears, cams, and levers. Motion can be trans- Leaks must be prevented. This is a serious
mitted without the slack inherent in the use of problem with the high pressure obtained in many
solid machine parts. The fluids used are not fluid power installations.
subject to breakage as are mechanical parts, and The operation of the system involves constant
the mechanisms are not subjected to great wear. movement of the fluid within the lines and
The different parts of a fluid power system components. This movement causes friction
can be conveniently located at widely separated within the fluid itself and against the containing
points, since the forces generated are rapidly surfaces which, if excessive, can lead to serious
transmitted over considerable distances with small losses in efficiency. Foreign matter must not be
loss. These forces can be conveyed up and down allowed to accumulate in the system, where it will
or around corners with small loss in efficiency and clog small passages or score closely fitted parts.
without complicated mechanisms. Very large Chemical action may cause corrosion. Anyone
forces can be controlled by much smaller ones and working with fluid power systems must know how
can be transmitted through comparatively small a fluid power system and its components operate,
lines and orifices. both in terms of the general principles common
If the system is well adapted to the work it is to all physical mechanisms and of the peculiarities
required to perform, and if it is not misused, it of the particular arrangement at hand.
can provide smooth, flexible, uniform action
without vibration, and is unaffected by variation
of load. In case of an overload, an automatic HYDRAULICS
release of pressure can be guaranteed, so that the
system is protected against breakdown or strain. The word hydraulics is based on the Greek
Fluid power systems can provide widely variable word for water, and originally covered the study
motions in both rotary and straight-line trans- of the physical behavior of water at rest and in
mission of power. The need for control by hand motion. Use has broadened its meaning to include
can be minimized. In addition, fluid power the behavior of all liquids, although it is primarily
systems are economical to operate. concerned with the motion of liquids.
The question may arise as to why hydraulics Hydraulics includes the manner in which
is used in some applications and pneumatics in liquids act in tanks and pipes, deals with their
others. Many factors are considered by the user properties, and explores ways to take advantage
and/or the manufacturer when determining which of these properties.
type of system to use in a specific application.
There are no hard and fast rules to follow; DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS
however, past experience has provided some
sound ideas that are usually considered when such Although the modern development of
decisions are made. If the application requires hydraulics is comparatively recent, the ancients
speed, a medium amount of pressure, and only were familiar with many hydraulic principles and
fairly accurate control, a pneumatic system may their applications. The Egyptians and the ancient
be used. If the application requires only a medium people of Persia, India, and China conveyed water

1-2
along channels for irrigation and domestic Use of Hydraulics
purposes, using dams and sluice gates to control
the flow. The ancient Cretans had an elaborate The hydraulic press, invented by Englishman
plumbing system. Archimedes studied the laws of John Brahmah, was one of the first work-
floating and submerged bodies. The Romans able pieces of machinery developed that used
constructed aqueducts to carry water to their hydraulics in its operation. It consisted of a
cities. plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram.
After the breakup of the ancient world, there This press found wide use in England because it
were few new developments for many centuries. provided a more effective and economical means
Then, over a comparatively short period, of applying large forces in industrial uses.
beginning near the end of the seventeenth century, Today, hydraulic power is used to operate
Italian physicist, Evangelista Torricelle, French many different tools and mechanisms. In a
physicist, Edme Mariotte, and later, Daniel garage, a mechanic raises the end of an auto-
Bernoulli conducted experiments to study the mobile with a hydraulic jack. Dentists and barbers
elements of force in the discharge of water use hydraulic power, through a few strokes of a
through small openings in the sides of tanks and control lever, to lift and position their chairs to
through short pipes. During the same period, a convenient working height. Hydraulic doorstops
Blaise Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the keep heavy doors from slamming. Hydraulic
fundamental law for the science of hydraulics. brakes have been standard equipment on auto-
Pascal’s law states that increase in pressure on mobiles since the 1930s. Most automobiles are
the surface of a confined fluid is transmitted equipped with automatic transmissions that are
undiminished throughout the confining vessel or hydraulically operated. Power steering is another
system (fig. 1-1). (This is the basic principle of application of hydraulic power. Construction
hydraulics and is covered in detail in chapter 2 workers depend upon hydraulic power for the
of this manual.) operation of various components of their
For Pascal’s law to be made effective for equipment. For example, the blade of a bulldozer
practical applications, it was necessary to have a is normally operated by hydraulic power.
piston that “fit exactly.” It was not until the latter During the period preceding World War II,
part of the eighteenth century that methods were the Navy began to apply hydraulics to naval
found to make these snugly fitted parts required mechanisms extensively. Since then, naval
in hydraulic systems. This was accomplished by applications have increased to the point where
the invention of machines that were used to cut many ingenious hydraulic devices are used in the
and shape the necessary closely fitted parts and, solution of problems of gunnery, aeronautics, and
particularly, by the development of gaskets and navigation. Aboard ship, hydraulic power is used
packings. Since that time, components such as to operate such equipment as anchor windlasses,
valves, pumps, actuating cylinders, and motors cranes, steering gear, remote control devices, and
have been developed and refined to make power drives for elevating and training guns and
hydraulics one of the leading methods of trans- rocket launchers. Elevators on aircraft carriers use
mitting power. hydraulic power to transfer aircraft from the
hangar deck to the flight deck and vice versa.
Hydraulics and pneumatics (chapter 11) are
combined for some applications. This combina-
tion is referred to as hydropneumatics. A n
example of this combination is the lift used in
garages and service stations. Air pressure is
applied to the surface of hydraulic fluid in a
reservoir. The air pressure forces the hydraulic
fluid to raise the lift.

STATES OF MATTER

The material that makes up the universe is

known as matter. Matter is defined as any
Figure 1-1.—Force transmitted through fluid. substance that occupies space and has weight.

1-3
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas; Pressure is another important factor that will
each has distinguishing characteristics. Solids have affect changes in the state of matter. At pressures
a definite volume and a definite shape; liquids lower than atmospheric pressure, water will boil
have a definite volume, but take the shape of their and thus change into steam at temperatures lower
containing vessels; gases have neither a definite than 212° Fahrenheit (F). Pressure is also a critical
shape nor a definite volume. Gases not only take factor in changing some gases to liquids or solids.
the shape of the containing vessel, but also expand Normally, when pressure and chilling are both
and fill the vessel, regardless of its volume. applied to a gas, the gas assumes a liquid state.
Examples of the states of matter are iron, water, Liquid air, which is a mixture of oxygen and
and air. nitrogen, is produced in this manner.
Matter can change from one state to another. In the study of fluid power, we are concerned
Water is a good example. At high temperatures primarily with the properties and characteristics
it is in the gaseous state known as steam. At of liquids and gases. However, you should keep
moderate temperatures it is a liquid, and at low in mind that the properties of solids also affect
temperatures it becomes ice, which is definitely the characteristics of liquids and gases. The lines
a solid state. In this example, the temperature is and components, which are solids, enclose and
the dominant factor in determining the state the control the liquid or gas in their respective
substance assumes. systems.

1-4
 CHAPTER 2

FORCES IN LIQUIDS
The study of liquids is divided into two main PRESSURE AND FORCE
parts: liquids at rest (hydrostatics) and liquids in
motion (hydraulics). The terms force and pressure are used
extensively in the study of fluid power. It
The effects of liquids at rest can often is essential that we distinguish between the
be expressed by simple formulas. The effects terms. Force means a total push or pull.
of liquids in motion are more difficult to It is the push or pull exerted against the
express due to frictional and other factors total area of a particular surface and is expressed
whose actions cannot be expressed by simple in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount
mathematics. of push or pull (force) applied to each unit area
of the surface and is expressed in pounds per
In chapter 1 we learned that liquids have a square inch (lb/in 2 ) or grams per square
definite volume but take the shape of their centimeter (gm/cm2). Pressure maybe exerted in
containing vessel. There are two additional one direction, in several directions, or in all
characteristics we must explore prior to pro- directions.
ceeding.

Liquids are almost incompressible. For Computing Force, Pressure, and Area
example, if a pressure of 100 pounds per square
inch (psi) is applied to a given volume of water A formula is used in computing force,
that is at atmospheric pressure, the volume will
pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this
decrease by only 0.03 percent. It would take a
formula, P refers to pressure, F indicates force,
force of approximately 32 tons to reduce its
and A represents area.
volume by 10 percent; however, when this force
is removed, the water immediately returns to its
Force equals pressure times area. Thus, the
original volume. Other liquids behave in about
formula is written
the same manner as water.

Another characteristic of a liquid is the Equation 2-1.

tendency to keep its free surface level. If the
surface is not level, liquids will flow in the Pressure equals force divided by area. By
direction which will tend to make the surface
rearranging the formula, this statement may be
level.
condensed into

Equation 2-2.
LIQUIDS AT REST

In studying fluids at rest, we are con-

Since area equals force divided by pressure,
cerned with the transmission of force and
the formula is written
the factors which affect the forces in liquids.
Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and
factors affecting pressure are of great im- Equation 2-3.
portance.

2-1
 As one ascends, the atmospheric pressure
decreases by approximately 1.0 psi for every 2,343
feet. However, below sea level, in excavations and
depressions, atmospheric pressure increases.
Pressures under water differ from those under air
only because the weight of the water must be
added to the pressure of the air.
Atmospheric pressure can be measured by any
of several methods. The common laboratory
method uses the mercury column barometer. The
Figure 2-1.—Device for determining the arrangement of the height of the mercury column serves as an
force, pressure, and area formula. indicator of atmospheric pressure. At sea level and
at a temperature of 0° Celsius (C), the height of
the mercury column is approximately 30 inches,
Figure 2-1 illustrates a memory device for or 76 centimeters. This represents a pressure of
recalling the different variations of this formula. approximately 14.7 psi. The 30-inch column is
Any letter in the triangle may be expressed as the used as a reference standard.
product or quotient of the other two, depending
on its position within the triangle. Another device used to measure atmospheric
For example, to find area, consider the letter pressure is the aneroid barometer. The aneroid
A as being set off to itself, followed by an equal barometer uses the change in shape of an
sign. Now look at the other two letters. The letter evacuated metal cell to measure variations in
F is above the letter P; therefore, atmospheric pressure (fig. 2-2). The thin metal of
the aneroid cell moves in or out with the variation
of pressure on its external surface. This movement
is transmitted through a system of levers to a
pointer, which indicates the pressure.
NOTE: Sometimes the area may not be The atmospheric pressure does not vary
expressed in square units. If the surface is uniformly with altitude. It changes more rapidly
rectangular, you can determine its area by at lower altitudes because of the compressibility
multiplying its length (say, in inches) by its width of the air, which causes the air layers close to the
(also in inches). The majority of areas you will earth’s surface to be compressed by the air masses
consider in these calculations are circular in shape. above them. This effect, however, is partially
Either the radius or the diameter may be given, counteracted by the contraction of the upper
but you must know the radius in inches to find
the area. The radius is one-half the diameter. To
determine the area, use the formula for finding
the area of a circle. This is written A = rmz, where
A is the area, n is 3.1416 (3.14 or 3 1/7 for most
calculations), and r2 indicates the radius squared.

Atmospheric Pressure

The atmosphere is the entire mass of air that

surrounds the earth. While it extends upward for
about 500 miles, the section of primary interest
is the portion that rests on the earth’s surface and
extends upward for about 7 1/2 miles. This layer
is called the troposphere.
If a column of air 1-inch square extending all
the way to the “top” of the atmosphere could
be weighed, this column of air would weigh
approximately 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus,
atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately
14.7 psi. Figure 2-2.—Simple diagram of the aneroid barometer.

2-2
layers due to cooling. The cooling tends to
increase the density of the air.
Atmospheric pressures are quite large, but in
most instances practically the same pressure is
present on all sides of objects so that no single
surface is subjected to a great load.
Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of
a liquid (fig. 2-3, view A) is transmitted equally
throughout the liquid to the walls of the container,
but is balanced by the same atmospheric pressure
acting on the outer walls of the container. In view
B of figure 2-3, atmospheric pressure acting on
the surface of one piston is balanced by the same
pressure acting on the surface of the other piston.
The different areas of the two surfaces make no
difference, since for a unit of area, pressures are
balanced.

TRANSMISSION OF FORCES
THROUGH LIQUIDS

When the end of a solid bar is struck, the main

force of the blow is carried straight through the Figure 2-4.—Transmission of force: (A) solid; (B) fluid.
bar to the other end (fig. 2-4, view A). This
happens because the bar is rigid. The direction
of the blow almost entirely determines the the bar, the less force is lost inside the bar or
direction of the transmitted force. The more rigid transmitted outward at right angles to the
direction of the blow.
When a force is applied to the end of a column
of confined liquid (fig. 2-4, view B), it is
transmitted straight through to the other end and
also equally and undiminished in every direction
throughout the column—forward, backward, and
sideways—so that the containing vessel is literally
filled with pressure.
An example of this distribution of force is
illustrated in figure 2-5. The flat hose takes on

Figure 2-3.—Effects of atmospheric pressure. Figure 2-5.—Distribution of force.

2-3
a circular cross section when it is filled with water In physics, the word specific implies a ratio.
under pressure. The outward push of the water Weight is the measure of the earth’s attraction for
is equal in every direction. a body. The earth’s attraction for a body is called
So far we have explained the effects of gravity. Thus, the ratio of the weight of a unit
atmospheric pressure on liquids and how external volume of some substance to the weight of an
forces are distributed through liquids. Let us now equal volume of a standard substance, measured
focus our attention on forces generated by the under standard pressure and temperature con-
weight of liquids themselves. To do this, we must ditions, is called specific gravity. The terms
first discuss density, specific gravity, and Pascal’s specific weight and specific density are sometimes
law. used to express this ratio.
The following formulas are used to find the
specific gravity (sp gr) of solids and liquids, with
Density and Specific Gravity water used as the standard substance.

The density of a substance is its weight per unit

volume. The unit volume in the English system
of measurement is 1 cubic foot. In the metric
system it is the cubic centimeter; therefore, density or,
is expressed in pounds per cubic foot or in grams
per cubic centimeter.
To find the density of a substance, you must
know its weight and volume. You then divide its
weight by its volume to find the weight per unit The same formulas are used to find the specific
volume. In equation form, this is written as gravity of gases by substituting air, oxygen, or
hydrogen for water.
Equation 2-4.

EXAMPLE: The liquid that fills a certain

container weighs 1,497.6 pounds. The If a cubic foot of a certain liquid weighs 68.64
container is 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and pounds, then its specific gravity is 1.1,
2 feet deep. Its volume is 24 cubic feet
(4 ft x 3 ft x 2 ft). If 24 cubic feet of this
liquid weighs 1,497.6 pounds, then 1 cubic
foot weighs
Thus, the specific gravity of the liquid is the
ratio of its density to the density of water. If the
specific gravity of a liquid or solid is known, the
density of the liquid or solid maybe obtained by
or 62.4 pounds. Therefore, the density of multiplying its specific gravity by the density of
the liquid is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. water. For example, if a certain hydraulic liquid
has a specific gravity of 0.8, 1 cubic foot of the
This is the density of water at 4°C and is liquid weighs 0.8 times as much as a cubic foot
usually used as the standard for comparing of water—0.8 times 62.4, or 49.92 pounds. In the
densities of other substances. The temperature of metric system, 1 cubic centimeter of a substance
4°C was selected because water has its maximum with a specific gravity of 0.8 weighs 1 times 0.8,
density at this temperature. In the metric system, or 0.8 grams. (Note that in the metric system the
the density of water is 1 gram per cubic specific gravity of a liquid or solid has the same
centimeter. The standard temperature of 4°C is numerical value as its density, because water
used whenever the density of liquids and solids weighs 1 gram per cubic centimeter.)
is measured. Changes in temperature will not Specific gravity and density are independent
change the weight of a substance but will change of the size of the sample under consideration and
the volume of the substance by expansion or depend only on the substance of which it is made.
contraction, thus changing the weight per unit A device called a hydrometer is used for
volume. measuring the specific gravity of liquids.

2-4
Pascal’s Law

Recall from chapter 1 that the foundation of

modern hydraulics was established when Pascal
discovered that pressure in a fluid acts equally in
all directions. This pressure acts at right angles
to the containing surfaces. If some type of
pressure gauge, with an exposed face, is placed
beneath the surface of a liquid (fig. 2-6) at a
specific depth and pointed in different directions,
the pressure will read the same. Thus, we can say
that pressure in a liquid is independent of
direction.

Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any

level, depends on the depth of the fluid from the
surface. If the exposed face of the pressure gauges,
figure 2-6, are moved closer to the surface of the
liquid, the indicated pressure will be less. When
the depth is doubled, the indicated pressure is Figure 2-6.—Pressure of a liquid is independent of direction.
doubled. Thus the pressure in a liquid is directly
proportional to the depth.

Consider a container with vertical sides cross-sectional area of the column at that depth.
(fig. 2-7) that is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide. Let The volume of a liquid that produces the pressure
it be filled with water 1 foot deep, providing 1 is referred to as the fluid head of the liquid. The
cubic foot of water. We learned earlier in this pressure of a liquid due to its fluid head is also
chapter that 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 dependent on the density of the liquid.
pounds. Using this information and equation 2-2,
P = F/A, we can calculate the pressure on the If we let A equal any cross-sectional area of
bottom of the container. a liquid column and h equal the depth of the
column, the volume becomes Ah. Using equation
2-4, D = W/V, the weight of the liquid above area
A is equal to AhD.

Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot,

This can be stated as follows: the weight of a

column of water 1 foot high, having a cross-
sectional area of 1 square inch, is 0.433 pound.

If the depth of the column is tripled, the

weight of the column will be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299
pounds, and the pressure at the bottom will be
1.299 lb/in2 (psi), since pressure equals the force
divided by the area. Thus, the pressure at any
depth in a liquid is equal to the weight of the
column of liquid at that depth divided by the Figure 2-7.—Water pressure in a 1-cubic-foot container.

2-5
Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area,
set A equal to 1. Then the formula pressure
becomes

P=hD Equation 2-5.

It is essential that h and D be expressed in similar

units. That is, if D is expressed in pounds per
cubic foot, the value of h must be expressed in
feet. If the desired pressure is to be expressed in
pounds per square inch, the pressure formula,
equation 2-5, becomes

Figure 2-9.—Force transmitted through fluid.

Equation 2-6.

Pascal was also the first to prove by of the shape of the container. Consider the effect
experiment that the shape and volume of a of this in the system shown in figure 2-9. If there
container in no way alters pressure. Thus in figure is a resistance on the output piston and the input
2-8, if the pressure due to the weight of the liquid piston is pushed downward, a pressure is created
at a point on horizontal line H is 8 psi, the through the fluid, which acts equally at right
pressure is 8 psi everywhere at level H in the angles to surfaces in all parts of the container.
system. Equation 2-5 also shows that the pressure If force 1 is 100 pounds and the area of the
is independent of the shape and volume of a input piston is 10 square inches, then the pressure
container. in the fluid is 10 psi

Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems

Recall that, according to Pascal’s law, any

force applied to a confined fluid is transmitted NOTE: Fluid pressure cannot be created
in all directions throughout the fluid regardless without resistance to flow. In this case, resistance

Figure 2-8.—Pressure relationship with shape.

2-6
is provided by the equipment to which the
output piston is attached. The force of re-
sistance acts against the top of the output
piston. The pressure created in the system
by the input piston pushes on the underside of
the output piston with a force of 10 pounds on
each square inch.

In this case, the fluid column has a uniform

cross section, so the area of the output piston
is the same as the area of the input piston,
or 10 square inches. Therefore, the upward
force on the output piston is 100 pounds
(10 psi x 10 sq. in.), the same as the force applied
to the input piston. All that was accomplished in
this system was to transmit the 100-pound force
around the bend. However, this principle under-
lies practically all mechanical applications of fluid Figure 2-11.—Multiplication of forces.
power.

At this point you should note that since

in the fluid. Although this force is much smaller
Pascal’s law is independent of the shape of
than the force applied in figures 2-9 and 2-10, the
the container, it is not necessary that the
pressure is the same. This is because the force is
tube connecting the two pistons have the same
applied to a smaller area.
cross-sectional area of the pistons. A connection
of any size, shape, or length will do, as long as
This pressure of 10 psi acts on all parts of the
an unobstructed passage is provided. Therefore,
fluid container, including the bottom of the
the system shown in figure 2-10, with a relatively
output piston. The upward force on the output
small, bent pipe connecting two cylinders,
piston is 200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on
will act exactly the same as the system shown in
each square inch). In this case, the original force
figure 2-9.
has been multiplied tenfold while using the same
pressure in the fluid as before. In any system with
MULTIPLICATION OF FORCES.— Con- these dimensions, the ratio of output force to
sider the situation in figure 2-11, where the input input force is always ten to one, regardless of the
piston is much smaller than the output piston. applied force. For example, if the applied force
Assume that the area of the input piston is 2 of the input piston is 50 pounds, the pressure in
square inches. With a resistant force on the output the system will be 25 psi. This will support a
piston a downward force of 20 pounds acting on resistant force of 500 pounds on the output piston.
the input piston creates a pressure of ~ or 10 psi
The system works the same in reverse. If we
change the applied force and place a 200-pound
force on the output piston (fig. 2-11), making it
the input piston, the output force on the input
piston will be one-tenth the input force, or 20
pounds. (Sometimes such results are desired.)
Therefore, if two pistons are used in a fluid power
system, the force acting on each piston is directly
proportional to its area, and the magnitude of
each force is the product of the pressure and the
area of each piston.

Note the white arrows at the bottom of figure

2-11 that indicate up and down movement. The
movement they represent will be explained later
Figure 2-10.—Transmitting force through a small pipe. in the discussion of volume and distance factors.

2-7
 DIFFERENTIAL AREAS.— Consider the an equal resistant force on the output piston. The
special situation shown in figure 2-12. Here, a pressure of the liquid at this point is equal to the
single piston (1) in a cylinder (2) has a piston rod force applied to the input piston divided by the
(3) attached to one of its sides. The piston rod piston’s area. Let us now look at what happens
extends out of one end of the cylinder. Fluid under when a force greater than the resistance is applied
pressure is admitted equally to both ends of the to the input piston.
cylinder. The opposed faces of the piston (1) In the system illustrated in figure 2-9, assume
behave like two pistons acting against each other. that the resistance force on the output piston is
The area of one face is the full cross-sectional area 100 psi. If a force slightly greater than 100 pounds
of the cylinder, say 6 square inches, while the area is applied to the input piston, the pressure in the
of the other face is the area of the cylinder minus system will be slightly greater than 10 psi. This
the area of the piston rod, which is 2 square increase in pressure will overcome the resistance
inches. This leaves an effective area of 4 square force on the output piston. Assume that the input
inches on the right face of the piston. The pressure piston is forced downward 1 inch. The movement
on both faces is the same, in this case, 20 psi. displaces 10 cubic inches of fluid. The fluid must
Applying the rule just stated, the force pushing go somewhere. Since the system is closed and the
the piston to the right is its area times the pressure, fluid is practically incompressible, the fluid will
or 120 pounds (20 x 6). Likewise, the force move to the right side of the system. Because the
pushing the piston to the left is its area times the output piston also has a cross-sectional area of
pressure, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Therefore, there 10 square inches, it will move 1 inch upward to
is a net unbalanced force of 40 pounds acting to accommodate the 10 cubic inches of fluid. You
the right, and the piston will move in that may generalize this by saying that if two pistons
direction. The net effect is the same as if the piston in a closed system have equal cross-sectional areas
and the cylinder had the same cross-sectional area and one piston is pushed and moved, the other
as the piston rod. piston will move the same distance, though in the
opposite direction. This is because a decrease in
VOLUME AND DISTANCE FACTORS.— volume in one part of the system is balanced by
You have learned that if a force is applied to a one equal increase in volume in another part of
system and the cross-sectional areas of the input the system.
and output pistons are equal, as in figures 2-9 and Apply this reasoning to the system in figure
2-10, the force on the input piston will support 2-11. If the input piston is pushed down a distance

Figure 2-12.—Differential areas on a piston.

2-8
of 1 inch, the volume of fluid in the left cylinder VOLUME AND VELOCITY OF FLOW
will decrease by 2 cubic inches. At the same time,
the volume in the right cylinder will increase by The volume of a liquid passing a point in a
2 cubic inches. Since the diameter of the right given time is known as its volume of flow or flow
cylinder cannot change, the piston must move rate. The volume of flow is usually expressed in
upward to allow the volume to increase. The gallons per minute (gpm) and is associated with
piston will move a distance equal to the volume relative pressures of the liquid, such as 5 gpm at
increase divided by the surface area of the piston 40 psi.
(equal to the surface area of the cylinder). In this
example, the piston will move one-tenth of an inch The velocity of flow or velocity of the fluid
(2 cu. in. ÷ 20 sq. in.). This leads to the second is defined as the average speed at which the fluid
basic rule for a fluid power system that contains moves past a given point. It is usually expressed
two pistons: The distances the pistons move are in feet per second (fps) or feet per minute (fpm).
inversely proportional to the areas of the pistons. Velocity of flow is an important consideration in
Or more simply, if one piston is smaller than the sizing the hydraulic lines. (Hydraulic lines are
other, the smaller piston must move a greater discussed in chapter 5.)
distance than the larger piston any time the pistons
move. Volume and velocity of flow are often
considered together. With other conditions
unaltered—that is, with volume of input
LIQUIDS IN MOTION unchanged—the velocity of flow increases as the
cross section or size of the pipe decreases, and the
In the operation of fluid power systems, there velocity of flow decreases as the cross section
must be a flow of fluid. The amount of flow will increases. For example, the velocity of flow is slow
vary from system to system. To understand fluid at wide parts of a stream and rapid at narrow
power systems in action, it is necessary to parts, yet the volume of water passing each part
understand some of the characteristics of liquids of the stream is the same.
in motion.
Liquids in motion have characteristics dif- In figure 2-13, if the cross-sectional area of
ferent from liquids at rest. Frictional resistances the pipe is 16 square inches at point A and 4
within a fluid (viscosity) and inertia contribute to square inches at point B, we can calculate the
these differences. (Viscosity is discussed in chapter relative velocity of flow using the flow equation
3.) Inertia, which means the resistance a mass
offers to being set in motion, will be discussed Q=vA Equation 2-7.
later in this section. There are other relationships
of liquids in motion with which you must become where Q is the volume of flow, v is the velocity
familiar. Among these are volume and velocity of flow and A is the cross-sectional area of the
of flow, flow rate and speed, laminar and liquid. Since the volume of flow at point A, Q 1,
turbulent flow, and more importantly, the force is equal to the volume of flow at point B, Q2, we
and energy changes which occur in flow. can use equation 2-7 to determine the ratio of the

Figure 2-13.—Volume and velocity of flow.

2-9
velocity of flow at point A, v1, to the velocity of
flow at point B, v2.

Since Q 1 = Q 2 , A1 v 1 = A 2 v 2

From figure 2-13; A1 = 16sq. in., A2 = 4sq. in.

Substituting: 16v 1 = 4V 2 or v 2 = 4vI

Therefore, the velocity of flow at point B is four

times the velocity of flow at point A.
Figure 2-14.—Streamline flow.

VOLUME OF FLOW AND SPEED

own path, without crossing or bumping into the
If you consider the cylinder volume you must other.
fill and the distance the piston must travel, you
can relate the volume of flow to the speed of the If the stream narrows, however, and the
piston. The volume of the cylinder is found by volume of flow remains the same, the velocity
multiplying the piston area by the length the piston of flow increases. If the velocity increases
must travel (stroke). sufficiently, the water becomes turbulent. (See
Suppose you have determined that two fig. 2-15.) Swirls, eddies, and cross-motions are
cylinders have the same volume and that one set up in the water. As this happens, the logs are
cylinder is twice as long as the other. In this case, thrown against each other and against the banks
the cross-sectional area of the longer tube will be of the stream, and the paths followed by different
half of the cross-sectional area of the other tube. logs will cross and recross.
If fluid is pumped into each cylinder at the same
rate, both pistons will reach their full travel at the Particles of fluid flowing in pipes act in the
same time. However, the piston in the smaller same manner. The flow is streamlined if the fluid
cylinder must travel twice as fast because it has flows slowly enough, and remains streamlined at
twice as far to go. greater velocities if the diameter of the pipe is
small. If the velocity of flow or size of pipe is
There are two ways of controlling the speed increased sufficiently, the flow becomes turbulent.
of the piston, (1) by varying the size of the cylinder
and (2) by varying the volume of flow (gpm) to While a high velocity of flow will produce
the cylinders. (Hydraulic cylinders are discussed turbulence in any pipe, other factors contribute
in detail in chapter 10. ) to turbulence. Among these are the roughness of
the inside of the pipe, obstructions, the degree of
curvature of bends, and the number of bends in
STREAMLINE AND the pipe. In setting up or maintaining fluid power
TURBULENT FLOW systems, care should be taken to eliminate or

At low velocities or in tubes of small diameter,

flow is streamlined. This means that a given
particle of fluid moves straight forward without
bumping into other particles and without crossing
their paths. Streamline flow is often referred to
as laminar flow, which is defined as a flow
situation in which fluid moves in parallel lamina
or layers. As an example of streamline flow,
consider figure 2-14, which illustrates an open
stream flowing at a slow, uniform rate with logs
floating on its surface. The logs represent particles
of fluid. As long as the stream flows at a slow,
uniform rate, each log floats downstream in its Figure 2-15.—Turbulent flow.

2-10
minimize as many causes of turbulence as Inertia and Force
possible, since the energy consumed by turbulence
is wasted. Limitations related to the degree T o overcome the tendency of an object to
and number of bends of pipe are discussed in resist any change in its state of rest or motion,
chapter 5. some force that is not otherwise canceled or
unbalanced must act on the object. Some
While designers of fluid power equipment do unbalanced force must be applied whenever fluids
what they can to minimize turbulence, it cannot are set in motion or increased in velocity; while
be avoided. For example, in a 4-inch pipe at 68°F, conversely, forces are made to do work elsewhere
flow becomes turbulent at velocities over approxi- whenever fluids in motion are retarded or
mately 6 inches per second or about 3 inches per stopped.
second in a 6-inch pipe. These velocities are far
below those commonly encountered in fluid power There is a direct relationship between the
systems, where velocities of 5 feet per second and magnitude of the force exerted and the inertia
above are common. In streamlined flow, losses against which it acts. This force is dependent
due to friction increase directly with velocity. With on two factors: (1) the mass of the object
turbulent flow these losses increase much more (which is proportional to its weight), and (2)
rapidly. the rate at which the velocity of the object
is changed. The rule is that the force in
pounds required to overcome inertia is equal
FACTORS INVOLVED IN FLOW to the weight of the object multiplied by the
change in velocity, measured in feet per second,
An understanding of the behavior of fluids in and divided by 32 times the time in seconds
motion, or solids for that matter, requires an required to accomplish the change. Thus, the rate
understanding of the term inertia. Inertia is the of change in velocity of an object is proportional
term used by scientists to describe the property to the force applied. The number 32 appears
possessed by all forms of matter that makes the because it is the conversion factor between weight
matter resist being moved if it is at rest, and and mass.
likewise, resist any change in its rate of motion
if it is moving. There are five physical factors that can act on
a fluid to affect its behavior. All of the physical
The basic statement covering inertia is actions of fluids in all systems are determined by
Newton’s first law of motion—inertia. Sir Isaac the relationships of these five factors to each
Newton was a British philosopher and mathe- other. Summarizing, these five factors are as
matician. His first law states: A body at rest tends follows:
to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to
remain in motion at the same speed and direction, 1. Gravity, which acts at all times on all
unless acted on by some unbalanced force. bodies, regardless of other forces
This simply says what you have learned by
experience—that you must push an object to start 2. Atmospheric pressure, which acts on
it moving and push it in the opposite direction any part of a system exposed to the open
to stop it again. air

A familiar illustration is the effort a pitcher 3. Specific applied forces, which mayor may
must exert to make a fast pitch and the opposition not be present, but which, in any event, are
the catcher must put forth to stop the ball. entirely independent of the presence or absence
Similarly, considerable work must be performed of motion
by the engine to make an automobile begin
to roll; although, after it has attained a certain 4. Inertia, which comes into play whenever
velocity, it will roll along the road at uniform there is a change from rest to motion or the
speed if just enough effort is expended to opposite, or whenever there is a change in
overcome friction, while brakes are necessary to direction or in rate of motion
stop its motion. Inertia also explains the kick or
recoil of guns and the tremendous striking force 5. Friction, which is always present whenever
of projectiles. there is motion

2-11
 Figure 2-16 illustrates a possible relationship or to increase the velocity it already has. Whether
of these factors with respect to a particle of fluid the force begins or changes velocity, it acts over
(P) in a system. The different forces are shown a certain distance. A force acting over a certain
in terms of head, or in other words, in terms of distance is work. Work and all forms into which
vertical columns of fluid required to provide it can be changed are classified as energy.
the forces. At the particular moment under Obviously then, energy is required to give an
consideration, a particle of water (P) is being acted object velocity. The greater the energy used, the
on by applied force (A), by atmospheric pressure greater the velocity will be.
(B), and by gravity (C) produced by the weight
Disregarding friction, for an object to be
of the fluid standing over it. The particle possesses
brought to rest or for its motion to be slowed
sufficient inertia or velocity head to rise to level
down, a force opposed to its motion must be
P1, since head equivalent to F was lost in friction
applied to it. This force also acts over some
as P passed through the system. Since atmospheric
distance. In this way energy is given up by the
pressure (B) acts downward on both sides of the
object and delivered in some form to whatever
system, what is gained on one side is lost on the
opposes its continuous motion. The moving object
other.
is therefore a means of receiving energy at one
If all the pressure acting on P to force it
place (where its motion is increased) and delivering
through the nozzle could be recovered in the form
it to another point (where it is stopped or
of elevation head, it would rise to level Y. If
retarded). While it is in motion, it is said to
account is taken of the balance in atmospheric
contain this energy as energy of motion or kinetic
pressure, in a frictionless system, P would rise to
energy.
level X, or precisely as high as the sum of the
gravity head and the head equivalent to the Since energy can never be destroyed, it follows
applied force. that if friction is disregarded the energy delivered
to stop the object will exactly equal the energy
Kinetic Energy that was required to increase its speed. At all times
the amount of kinetic energy possessed by an
It was previously pointed out that a force must object depends on its weight and the velocity at
be applied to an object in order to give it a velocity which it is moving.

Figure 2-16.—Physical factors governing fluid flow.

2-12
 The mathematical relationship for kinetic system imparts energy to the fluid, which
energy is stated in the rule: “Kinetic energy in overcomes the inertia of the fluid at rest and
foot-pounds is equal to the force in pounds which causes it to flow through the lines. The fluid flows
created it, multiplied by the distance through against some type of actuator that is at rest. The
which it was applied, or to the weight of the fluid tends to continue flowing, overcomes the
moving object in pounds, multiplied by the square inertia of the actuator, and moves the actuator
of its velocity in feet per second, and divided by to do work. Friction uses up a portion of the
64.s” energy as the fluid flows through the lines and
components.
The relationship between inertia forces,
velocity, and kinetic energy can be illustrated by
analyzing what happens when a gun fires a RELATIONSHIP OF FORCE,
projectile against the armor of an enemy ship. (See PRESSURE, AND HEAD
fig. 2-17.) The explosive force of the powder in
the breach pushes the projectile out of the gun, In dealing with fluids, forces are usually
giving it a high velocity. Because of its inertia, considered in relation to the areas over which they
the projectile offers opposition to this sudden are applied. As previously discussed, a force
velocity and a reaction is set up that pushes the acting over a unit area is a pressure, and pressure
gun backward (kick or recoil). The force of the can alternately be stated in pounds per square inch
explosion acts on the projectile throughout its or in terms of head, which is the vertical height
movement in the gun. This is force acting through of the column of fluid whose weight would
a distance producing work. This work appears as produce that pressure.
kinetic energy in the speeding projectile. The In most of the applications of fluid power in
resistance of the air produces friction, which uses the Navy, applied forces greatly outweigh all other
some of the energy and slows down the projectile. forces, and the fluid is entirely confined. Under
Eventually, however, the projectile hits its target these circumstances it is customary to think of the
and, because of the inertia, tries to continue forces involved in terms of pressures. Since the
moving. The target, being relatively stationary, term head is encountered frequently in the study
tends to remain stationary because of its inertia. of fluid power, it is necessary to understand what
The result is that a tremendous force is set up that it means and how it is related to pressure and
either leads to the penetration of the armor or force.
the shattering of the projectile. The projectile All five of the factors that control the actions
is simply a means of transferring energy, in of fluids can, of course, be expressed either as
this instance for destructive purpose, from the force, or in terms of equivalent pressures or head.
gun to the enemy ship. This energy is transmitted In each situation, the different factors are referred
in the form of energy of motion or kinetic to in the same terms, since they can be added and
energy. subtracted to study their relationship to each
other.
A similar action takes place in a fluid power At this point you need to review some terms
system in which the fluid takes the place of the in general use. Gravity head, when it is important
projectile. For example, the pump in a hydraulic enough to be considered, is sometimes referred
to as head. The effect of atmospheric pressure is
referred to as atmospheric pressure. (Atmospheric
pressure is frequently and improperly referred to
as suction.) Inertia effect, because it is always
directly related to velocity, is usually called
velocity head; and friction, because it represents
a loss of pressure or head, is usually referred to
as friction head.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS

Figure 2-17.—Relationship of inertia, velocity, and kinetic Gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric
energy. pressure are static factors that apply equally to

2-13
fluids at rest or in motion, while inertia and 10 psi exerted in a direction parallel to the line
friction are dynamic factors that apply only to of flow, plus the unused static pressure of 90 psi,
fluids in motion. The mathematical sum of which still obeys Pascal’s law and operates equally
gravity, applied force, and atmospheric pressure in all directions. As the fluid enters chamber B
is the static pressure obtained at any one point it is slowed down, and its velocity is changed back
in a fluid at any given time. Static pressure exists to pressure. The force required to absorb its
in addition to any dynamic factors that may also inertia equals the force required to start the fluid
be present at the same time. moving originally, so that the static pressure in
chamber B is equal to that in chamber A.
Remember, Pascal’s law states that a pressure
set up in a fluid acts equally in all directions and This situation (fig. 2-18) disregards friction;
at right angles to the containing surfaces. This therefore, it would not be encountered in actual
covers the situation only for fluids at rest or practice. Force or head is also required to
practically at rest. It is true only for the factors overcome friction but, unlike inertia effect, this
making up static head. Obviously, when velocity force cannot be recovered again, although the
becomes a factor it must have a direction, and energy represented still exists somewhere as heat.
as previously explained, the force related to the Therefore, in an actual system the pressure in
velocity must also have a direction, so that chamber B would be less than in chamber A by
Pascal’s law alone does not apply to the dynamic the amount of pressure used in overcoming
factors of fluid power. friction along the way.

The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are At all points in a system the static pressure is
related to the static factors. Velocity head and always the original static pressure, less any velocity
friction head are obtained at the expense of static head at the point in question and less the friction
head. However, a portion of the velocity head can head consumed in reaching that point. Since both
always be reconverted to static head. Force, which the velocity head and the friction head represent
can be produced by pressure or head when dealing energy that came from the original static head,
with fluids, is necessary to start a body moving and since energy cannot be destroyed, the sum of
if it is at rest, and is present in some form when the static head, the velocity head, and the friction
the motion of the body is arrested; therefore, head at any point in the system must add up to
whenever a fluid is given velocity, some part of the original static head. This is known as
its original static head is used to impart this Bernoulli's principle, which states: For the
velocity, which then exists as velocity head. horizontal flow of fluid through a tube, the sum
of the pressure and the kinetic energy per unit
volume of the fluid is constant. This principle
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE governs the relations of the static and dynamic
factors concerning fluids, while Pascal’s law states
Consider the system illustrated in figure 2-18. the manner in which the static factors behave
Chamber A is under pressure and is connected by when taken by themselves.
a tube to chamber B, which is also under pressure.
The pressure in chamber A is static pressure of
100 psi. The pressure at some point (X) along the MINIMIZING FRICTION
connecting tube consists of a velocity pressure of
Fluid power equipment is designed to reduce
friction to the lowest possible level. Volume and
velocity of flow are made the subject of careful
study. The proper fluid for the system is chosen.
Clean, smooth pipe of the best dimensions for the
particular conditions is used, and it is installed
along as direct a route as possible. Sharp bends
and sudden changes in cross-sectional areas are
avoided. Valves, gauges, and other components
are designed to interrupt flow as little as possible.
Figure 2-18.—Relation of static and dynamic factors— Careful thought is given to the size and shape of
Bernoulli’s principle. the openings. The systems are designed so they

2-14
can be kept clean inside and variations from can lift a load weighing several tons. A small
normal operation can easily be detected and initial force exerted on the handle is transmitted
remedied. by a fluid to a much larger area. To understand
this better, study figure 2-19. The small input
piston has an area of 5 square inches and is
directly connected to a large cylinder with an
OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC output piston having an area of 250 square inches.
COMPONENTS The top of this piston forms a lift platform.

To transmit and control power through If a force of 25 pounds is applied to the input
pressurized fluids, an arrangement of inter- piston, it produces a pressure of 5 psi in the fluid,
connected components is required. Such an that is, of course, if a sufficient amount of
arrangement is commonly referred to as a system. resistant force is acting against the top of the
The number and arrangement of the components output piston. Disregarding friction loss, this
vary from system to system, depending on the pressure acting on the 250 square inch area of the
particular application. In many applications, one output piston will support a resistance force of
main system supplies power to several subsystems, 1,250 pounds. In other words, this pressure could
which are sometimes referred to as circuits. The overcome a force of slightly under 1,250 pounds.
complete system may be a small compact unit; An input force of 25 pounds has been transformed
more often, however, the components are located into a working force of more than half a ton;
at widely separated points for convenient control however, for this to be true, the distance traveled
and operation of the system. by the input piston must be 50 times greater than
the distance traveled by the output piston. Thus,
The basic components of a fluid power system for every inch that the input piston moves, the
are essentially the same, regardless of whether the output piston will move only one-fiftieth of an
system uses a hydraulic or a pneumatic medium. inch.
There are five basic components used in a system.
These basic components are as follows: This would be ideal if the output piston needed
to move only a short distance. However, in most
1. Reservoir or receiver instances, the output piston would have to be
capable of moving a greater distance to serve a
2. Pump or compressor
practical application. The device shown in figure
3. Lines (pipe, tubing, or flexible hose) 2-19 is not capable of moving the output piston
farther than that shown; therefore, some other
4. Directional control valve
means must be used to raise the output piston to
5. Actuating device a greater height.

Several applications of fluid power require

only a simple system; that is, a system which uses
only a few components in addition to the five
basic components. A few of these applications are
presented in the following paragraphs. We will
explain the operation of these systems briefly at
this time so you will know the purpose of each
component and can better understand how
hydraulics is used in the operation of these
systems. More complex fluid power systems are
described in chapter 12.

HYDRAULIC JACK

The hydraulic jack is perhaps one of the

simplest forms of a fluid power system. By
moving the handle of a small device, an individual Figure 2-19.—Hydraulic jack.

2-15
 The output piston can be raised higher and thus transmitted into cylinder 2, where it acts to
maintained at this height if additional components raise the output piston with its attached lift
are installed as shown in figure 2-20. In this platform. When the input piston is again raised,
illustration the jack is designed so that it can be the pressure in cylinder 1 drops below that in
raised, lowered, or held at a constant height. cylinder 2, causing valve 1 to close. This prevents
These results are attained by introducing a number the return of fluid and holds the output piston
of valves and also a reserve supply of fluid to be with its attached lift platform at its new level.
used in the system. During this stroke, valve 2 opens again allowing
Notice that this system contains the five basic a new supply of fluid into cylinder 1 for the next
components—the reservoir; cylinder 1, which power (downward) stroke of the input piston.
serves as a pump; valve 3, which serves as a Thus, by repeated strokes of the input piston, the
directional control valve; cylinder 2, which serves lift platform can be progressively raised. To lower
as the actuating device; and lines to transmit the the lift platform, valve 3 is opened, and the fluid
fluid to and from the different components. In from cylinder 2 is returned to the reservoir.
addition, this system contains two valves, 1 and
2, whose functions are explained in the following
discussion. HYDRAULIC BRAKES
As the input piston is raised (fig. 2-20, view
A), valve 1 is closed by the back pressure from The hydraulic brake system used in the
the weight of the output piston. At the same time, automobile is a multiple piston system. A multiple
valve 2 is opened by the head of the fluid in the piston system allows forces to be transmitted to
reservoir. This forces fluid into cylinder 1. When two or more pistons in the manner indicated in
the input piston is lowered (fig. 2-20, view B), a figure 2-21. Note that the pressure set up by the
pressure is developed in cylinder 1. When this force applied to the input piston (1) is transmitted
pressure exceeds the head in the reservoir, it closes undiminished to both output pistons (2 and 3),
valve 2. When it exceeds the back pressure from and that the resultant force on each piston is
the output piston, it opens valve 1, forcing fluid proportional to its area. The multiplication of
into the pipeline. The pressure from cylinder 1 is forces from the input piston to each output piston
is the same as that explained earlier.
The hydraulic brake system from the master
cylinders to the wheel cylinders on most

Figure 2-20.—Hydraulic jack; (A) up stroke; (B) downstroke. Figure 2-21.—Multiple piston system.

2-16
automobiles operates in a way similar to the cylinder pistons to their released positions. This
system illustrated in figure 2-22. action forces the displaced brake fluid back
When the brake pedal is depressed, the through the flexible hose and tubing to the master
pressure on the brake pedal moves the piston cylinder.
within the master cylinder, forcing the brake fluid The force applied to the brake pedal produces
from the master cylinder through the tubing and a proportional force on each of the output
flexible hose to the wheel cylinders. The wheel pistons, which in turn apply the brake shoes
cylinders contain two opposed output pistons, frictionally to the turning wheels to retard
each of which is attached to a brake shoe fitted rotation.
inside the brake drum. Each output piston pushes As previously mentioned, the hydraulic brake
the attached brake shoe against the wall of the system on most automobiles operates in a similar
brake drum, thus retarding the rotation of the way, as shown in figure 2-22. It is beyond the
wheel. When pressure on the pedal is released, the scope of this manual to discuss the various brake
springs on the brake shoes return the wheel systems.

Figure 2-22.—An automobile brake system.

2-17
 CHAPTER 3

HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

During the design of equipment that requires and a liquid, such as tar, which flows slowly has
fluid power, many factors are considered in a high viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid is
selecting the type of system to be used—hydraulic, affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
pneumatic, or a combination of the two. Some As the temperature of a liquid increases, its
of the factors are required speed and accuracy of viscosity decreases. That is, a liquid flows more
operation, surrounding atmospheric conditions, easily when it is hot than when it is cold. The
economic conditions, availability of replacement viscosity of a liquid increases as the pressure on
fluid, required pressure level, operating tempera- the liquid increases.
ture range, contamination possibilities, cost of
transmission lines, limitations of the equipment, A satisfactory liquid for a hydraulic system
lubricity, safety to the operators, and expected must be thick enough to give a good seal at
service life of the equipment. pumps, motors, valves, and so on. These com-
ponents depend on close fits for creating and
After the type of system has been selected, maintaining pressure. Any internal leakage
many of these same factors must be considered through these clearances results in loss of pressure,
in selecting the fluid for the system. This chapter instantaneous control, and pump efficiency.
is devoted to hydraulic fluids. Included in it are Leakage losses are greater with thinner liquids
sections on the properties and characteristics (low viscosity). A liquid that is too thin will also
desired of hydraulic fluids; types of hydraulic allow rapid wearing of moving parts, or of parts
fluids; hazards and safety precautions for working that operate under heavy loads. On the other
with, handling, and disposing of hydraulic hand, if the liquid is too thick (viscosity too high),
liquids; types and control of contamination; and the internal friction of the liquid will cause an
sampling. increase in the liquid’s flow resistance through
clearances of closely fitted parts, lines, and
internal passages. This results in pressure drops
throughout the system, sluggish operation
PROPERTIES of the equipment, and an increase in power
consumption.
If fluidity (the physical property of a substance
that enables it to flow) and incompressibility were
the only properties required, any liquid not too Measurement of Viscosity
thick might be used in a hydraulic system.
However, a satisfactory liquid for a particular Viscosity is normally determined by measuring
system must possess a number of other properties. the time required for a fixed volume of a fluid
The most important properties and some charac- (at a given temperature) to flow through a
teristics are discussed in the following paragraphs. calibrated orifice or capillary tube. The instru-
ments used to measure the viscosity of a liquid
are known as viscometers or viscosimeters.
VISCOSITY
Several types of viscosimeters are in use today.
Viscosity is one of the most important The Saybolt viscometer, shown in figure 3-1,
properties of hydraulic fluids. It is a measure of measures the time required, in seconds, for 60
a fluid’s resistance to flow. A liquid, such as milliliters of the tested fluid at 100°F to pass
gasoline, which flows easily has a low viscosity; through a standard orifice. The time measured is

3-1
 measure kinematic viscosity. Like the Saybolt
viscometer, the glass capillary measures the time
in seconds required for the tested fluid to flow
through the capillary. This time is multiplied by
the temperature constant of the viscometer in use
to provide the viscosity, expressed in centistrokes.

The following formulas may be used to

convert centistrokes (cSt units) to approximate
Saybolt universal seconds (SUS units).

For SUS values between 32 and 100:

For SUS values greater than 100:

Figure 3-1.—Saybolt viscometer.

Although the viscometers discussed above are
used in laboratories, there are other viscometers
used to express the fluid’s viscosity, in Saybolt in the supply system that are available for local
universal seconds or Saybolt furol seconds. use. These viscometers can be used to test the
The glass capillary viscometers, shown in viscosity of hydraulic fluids either prior to their
figure 3-2, are examples of the second type of being added to a system or periodically after they
viscometer used. These viscometers are used to have been in an operating system for a while.

Figure 3-2.–Various styles of glass capillary viscometers.

3-2
 Additional information on the various types liquid spreads out into a thin film which enables
of viscometers and their operation can be found the parts to move more freely. Different liquids,
in the Physical Measurements Training Manual, including oils, vary greatly not only in their
NAVAIR 17-35QAL-2. lubricating ability but also in film strength. Film
strength is the capability of a liquid to resist being
Viscosity Index wiped or squeezed out from between the surfaces
when spread out in an extremely thin layer. A
The viscosity index (V.I.) of an oil is a number liquid will no longer lubricate if the film breaks
that indicates the effect of temperature changes down, since the motion of part against part wipes
on the viscosity of the oil. A low V.I. signifies the metal clean of liquid.
a relatively large change of viscosity with changes Lubricating power varies with temperature
of temperature. In other words, the oil becomes changes; therefore, the climatic and working
extremely thin at high temperatures and extremely conditions must enter into the determination of
thick at low temperatures. On the other hand, a the lubricating qualities of a liquid. Unlike
high V.I. signifies relatively little change in viscosity, which is a physical property, the
viscosity over a wide temperature range. lubricating power and film strength of a liquid
An ideal oil for most purposes is one is directly related to its chemical nature.
that maintains a constant viscosity throughout Lubricating qualities and film strength can be
temperature changes. The importance of the V.I. improved by the addition of certain chemical
can be shown easily by considering automotive agents.
lubricants. An oil having a high V.I. resists
excessive thickening when the engine is cold and, CHEMICAL STABILITY
consequently, promotes rapid starting and prompt
circulation; it resists excessive thinning when the Chemical stability is another property which
motor is hot and thus provides full lubrication and is exceedingly important in the selection of a
prevents excessive oil consumption. hydraulic liquid. It is defined as the liquid’s ability
Another example of the importance of the V.I. to resist oxidation and deterioration for long
is the need for a high V.I. hydraulic oil for military periods. All liquids tend to undergo unfavorable
aircraft, since hydraulic control systems may be changes under severe operating conditions. This
exposed to temperatures ranging from below is the case, for example, when a system operates
–65°F at high altitudes to over 100°F on the for a considerable period of time at high
ground. For the proper operation of the hydraulic temperatures.
control system, the hydraulic fluid must have a Excessive temperatures, especially extremely
sufficiently high V.I. to perform its functions at high temperatures, have a great effect on the life
the extremes of the expected temperature range. of a liquid. The temperature of the liquid in the
Liquids with a high viscosity have a greater reservoir of an operating hydraulic system does
resistance to heat than low viscosity liquids which not always indicate the operating conditions
have been derived from the same source. The throughout the system. Localized hot spots occur
average hydraulic liquid has a relatively low on bearings, gear teeth, or at other points where
viscosity. Fortunately, there is a wide choice of the liquid under pressure is forced through small
liquids available for use in the viscosity range orifices. Continuous passage of the liquid through
required of hydraulic liquids. these points may produce local temperatures high
The V.I. of an oil may be determined if its enough to carbonize the liquid or turn it into
viscosity at any two temperatures is known. sludge, yet the liquid in the reservoir may not
Tables, based on a large number of tests, are indicate an excessively high temperature.
issued by the American Society for Testing Liquids may break down if exposed to air,
and Materials (ASTM). These tables permit water, salt, or other impurities, especially if they
calculation of the V.I. from known viscosities. are in constant motion or subjected to heat. Some
metals, such as zinc, lead, brass, and copper, have
LUBRICATING POWER undesirable chemical reactions with certain
liquids.
If motion takes place between surfaces in These chemical reactions result in the forma-
contact, friction tends to oppose the motion. tion of sludge, gums, carbon, or other deposits
When pressure forces the liquid of a hydraulic which clog openings, cause valves and pistons to
system between the surfaces of moving parts, the stick or leak, and give poor lubrication to moving

3-3
parts. Once a small amount of sludge or other FIRE POINT
deposits is formed, the rate of formation generally
increases more rapidly. As these deposits are Fire point is the temperature at which a
formed, certain changes in the physical and substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity
chemical properties of the liquid take place. The to ignite and continue to burn when exposed to
liquid usually becomes darker, the viscosity a spark or flame. Like flashpoint, a high fire point
increases and damaging acids are formed. is required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

The extent to which changes occur in different MINIMUM TOXICITY

liquids depends on the type of liquid, type of
refining, and whether it has been treated to Toxicity is defined as the quality, state, or
provide further resistance to oxidation. The degree of being toxic or poisonous. Some liquids
stability of liquids can be improved by the contain chemicals that are a serious toxic hazard.
addition of oxidation inhibitors. Inhibitors These toxic or poisonous chemicals may enter the
selected to improve stability must be compatible body through inhalation, by absorption through
with the other required properties of the liquid. the skin, or through the eyes or the mouth. The
result is sickness and, in some cases, death.
Manufacturers of hydraulic liquids strive to
FREEDOM FROM ACIDITY produce suitable liquids that contain no toxic
chemicals and, as a result, most hydraulic liquids
An ideal hydraulic liquid should be free from are free of harmful chemicals. Some fire-resistant
acids which cause corrosion of the metals in the liquids are toxic, and suitable protection and care
system. Most liquids cannot be expected to remain in handling must be provided.
completely noncorrosive under severe operating
conditions. The degree of acidity of a liquid, when DENSITY AND COMPRESSIBILITY
new, may be satisfactory; but after use, the liquid
may tend to become corrosive as it begins to A fluid with a specific gravity of less than 1.0
deteriorate. is desired when weight is critical, although with
Many systems are idle for long periods after proper system design, a fluid with a specific
operating at high temperatures. This permits gravity greater than one can be tolerated. Where
moisture to condense in the system, resulting in avoidance of detection by military units is desired,
rust formation. a fluid which sinks rather than rises to the surface
of the water is desirable. Fluids having a specific
Certain corrosion- and rust-preventive addi- gravity greater than 1.0 are desired, as leaking
tives are added to hydraulic liquids. Some of these fluid will sink, allowing the vessel with the leak
additives are effective only for a limited period. to remain undetected.
Therefore, the best procedure is to use the liquid Recall from chapter 2 that under extreme
specified for the system for the time specified by pressure a fluid may be compressed up to 7
the system manufacturer and to protect the liquid percent of its original volume. Highly com-
and the system as much as possible from pressible fluids produce sluggish system operation.
contamination by foreign matter, from abnormal This does not present a serious problem in small,
temperatures, and from misuse. low-speed operations, but it must be considered
in the operating instructions.

FLASHPOINT FOAMING TENDENCIES

Flashpoint is the temperature at which a liquid Foam is an emulsion of gas bubbles in the
gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite fluid. Foam in a hydraulic system results from
momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A compressed gases in the hydraulic fluid. A fluid
high flashpoint is desirable for hydraulic liquids under high pressure can contain a large volume
because it provides good resistance to combustion of air bubbles. When this fluid is depressurized,
and a low degree of evaporation at normal as when it reaches the reservoir, the gas bubbles
temperatures. Required flashpoint minimums in the fluid expand and produce foam. Any
vary from 300°F for the lightest oils to 510°F for amount of foaming may cause pump cavitation
the heaviest oils. and produce poor system response and spongy

3-4
control. Therefore, defoaming agents are often SYNTHETIC FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS
added to fluids to prevent foaming. Minimizing
air in fluid systems is discussed later in this Petroleum-based oils contain most of the
chapter. desired properties of a hydraulic liquid. However,
they are flammable under normal conditions and
can become explosive when subjected to high
CLEANLINESS pressures and a source of flame or high tempera-
tures. Nonflammable synthetic liquids have been
Cleanliness in hydraulic systems has received developed for use in hydraulic systems where fire
considerable attention recently. Some hydraulic hazards exist.
systems, such as aerospace hydraulic systems, are
extremely sensitive to contamination. Fluid Phosphate Ester Fire-Resistant Fluid
cleanliness is of primary importance because
contaminants can cause component malfunction, Phosphate ester fire-resistant fluid for
prevent proper valve seating, cause wear in shipboard use is covered by specification MIL-
components, and may increase the response time H-19457. There are certain trade names closely
of servo valves. Fluid contaminants are discussed associated with these fluids. However, the only
later in this chapter. acceptable fluids conforming to MIL-H-19457 are
the ones listed on the current Qualified Products
The inside of a hydraulic system can only be
List (QPL) 19457. These fluids will be delivered
kept as clean as the fluid added to it. Initial fluid
in containers marked MIL-H-19457C or a later
cleanliness can be achieved by observing stringent
specification revision. Phosphate ester in
cleanliness requirements (discussed later in this
containers marked by a brand name without a
chapter) or by filtering all fluid added to the
specification identification must not be used in
system.
shipboard systems, as they may contain toxic
chemicals.
These fluids will burn if sufficient heat and
flame are applied, but they do not support
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
combustion. Drawbacks of phosphate ester fluids
are that they will attack and loosen commonly
There have been many liquids tested for use
used paints and adhesives, deteriorate many types
in hydraulic systems. Currently, liquids being used
of insulations used in electrical cables, and
include mineral oil, water, phosphate ester,
deteriorate many gasket and seal materials.
water-based ethylene glycol compounds, and
Therefore, gaskets and seals for systems in which
silicone fluids. The three most common types of
phosphate ester fluids are used are manufactured
hydraulic liquids are petroleum-based, synthetic
of specific materials. Naval Ships’ Technical
fire-resistant, and water-based fire-resistant.
Manual, chapter 262, specifies paints to be used
on exterior surfaces of hydraulic systems and
components in which phosphate ester fluid is used
PETROLEUM-BASED FLUIDS
and on ship structure and decks in the immediate
vicinity of this equipment. Naval Ships’ Technical
The most common hydraulic fluids used in
Manual, chapter 078, specifies gasket and seal
shipboard systems are the petroleum-based oils.
materials used. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 also contains
These fluids contain additives to protect the fluid
a list of materials resistant to phosphate ester
from oxidation (antioxidant), to protect system
fluids.
metals from corrosion (anticorrosion), to reduce
Trade names for phosphate ester fluids, which
tendency of the fluid to foam (foam suppressant),
do not conform to MIL-H-19457 include Pydraul,
and to improve viscosity.
Skydrol, and Fyre Safe.
Petroleum-based fluids are used in surface
ships’ electrohydraulic steering and deck PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID SAFETY.—
machinery systems, submarines’ hydraulic As a maintenance person, operator, supervisor,
systems, and aircraft automatic pilots, shock or crew member of a ship, squadron, or naval
absorbers, brakes, control mechanisms, and other shore installation, you must understand the
hydraulic systems using seal materials compatible hazards associated with hydraulic fluids to which
with petroleum-based fluids. you may be exposed.

3-5
 Phosphate ester fluid conforming to specifi- do they provide the corrosion protection and
cation MIL-H-19457 is used in aircraft elevators, lubrication of phosphate ester fluids, but they are
ballast valve operating systems, and replenish- excellent for fire protection. Silicone fluid
ment-at-sea systems. This type of fluid contains conforming to MIL-S-81087 is used in the missile
a controlled amount of neurotoxic material. holddown and lockout system aboard submarines.
Because of the neurotoxic effects that can result
from ingestion, skin absorption, or inhalation of Lightweight Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
these fluids, be sure to use the following
precautions: In applications where weight is critical,
lightweight synthetic fluid is used in hydraulic
1. Avoid contact with the fluids by wearing systems. MIL-H-83282 is a synthetic, fire-resistant
protective clothing. hydraulic fluid used in military aircraft and
2. Use chemical goggles or face shields to hydrofoils where the requirement to minimize
protect your eyes. weight dictates the use of a low-viscosity fluid.
3. If you are expected to work in an It is also the most commonly used fluid in aviation
atmosphere containing a fine mist or spray, support equipment. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 contains
wear a continuous-flow airline respirator. additional information on fluids conforming to
4. Thoroughly clean skin areas contaminated specification MIL-H-83282.
by this fluid with soap and water.
5. If you get any fluid in your eyes, flush them WATER-BASED FIRE-RESISTANT
with running water for at least 15 minutes FLUIDS
and seek medical attention.
The most widely used water-based hydraulic
If you come in contact with MIL-H-19457 fluids may be classified as water-glycol mixtures
fluid, report the contact when you seek medical and water-synthetic base mixtures. The water-
aid and whenever you have a routine medical glycol mixture contains additives to protect it from
examination. oxidation, corrosion, and biological growth and
Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter 262, to enhance its load-carrying capacity.
contains a list of protective clothing, along with Fire resistance of the water mixture fluids
national stock numbers (NSN), for use with fluids depends on the vaporization and smothering
conforming to MIL-H-19457. It also contains effect of steam generated from the water. The
procedures for repair work and for low-level water in water-based fluids is constantly being
leakage and massive spills cleanup. driven off while the system is operating. There-
fore, frequent checks to maintain the correct ratio
PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID DISPOSAL.— of water are important.
Waste MIL-H-19457 fluids and refuse (rags and The water-based fluid used in catapult
other materials) must not be dumped at sea. Fluid retracting engines, jet blast deflectors, and
should be placed in bung-type drums. Rags and weapons elevators and handling systems conforms
other materials should be placed in open top to MIL-H-22072.
drums for shore disposal. These drums should be The safety precautions outlined for phosphate
marked with a warning label stating their content, ester fluid and the disposal of phosphate ester
safety precautions, and disposal instructions. fluid also apply to water-based fluid conforming
Detailed instructions for phosphate ester fluids to MIL-H-22072.
disposal can be found in Naval Ships’ Technical
Manual, chapter 262, and OPNAVINST 5090.1.
CONTAMINATION
Silicone Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
Hydraulic fluid contamination may be
Silicone synthetic fire-resistant fluids are described as any foreign material or substance
frequently used for hydraulic systems which whose presence in the fluid is capable of adversely
require fire resistance, but which have only affecting system performance or reliability. It may
marginal requirements for other chemical or assume many different forms, including liquids,
physical properties common to hydraulic fluids. gases, and solid matter of various composition,
Silicone fluids do not have the detrimental sizes, and shapes. Solid matter is the type most
characteristics of phosphate ester fluids, nor often found in hydraulic systems and is generally

3-6
referred to as particulate contamination. Con- particles. Because of their continuous high-speed
tamination is always present to some degree, even internal movement, hydraulic pumps usually
in new, unused fluid, but must be kept below a contribute most of the metallic particulate
level that will adversely affect system operation. contamination present in hydraulic systems. Metal
Hydraulic contamination control consists of particles are also produced by other hydraulic
requirements, techniques, and practices necessary system components, such as valves and actuators,
to minimize and control fluid contamination. due to body wear and the chipping and wearing
away of small pieces of metal plating materials.
CLASSIFICATION
INORGANIC SOLID CONTAMINA-
There are many types of contaminants which TION.— This contaminant group includes dust,
are harmful to hydraulic systems and liquids. paint particles, dirt, and silicates. Glass particles
These contaminants may be divided into two from glass bead peening and blasting may also
different classes—particulate and fluid. be found as contaminants. Glass particles are very
undesirable contaminants due to their abrasive
Particulate Contamination effect on synthetic rubber seals and the very fine
surfaces of critical moving parts. Atmospheric
This class of contaminants includes organic, dust, dirt, paint particles, and other materials are
metallic solid, and inorganic solid contaminants. often drawn into hydraulic systems from external
These contaminants are discussed in the following sources. For example, the wet piston shaft of a
paragraphs. hydraulic actuator may draw some of these
foreign materials into the cylinder past the wiper
ORGANIC CONTAMINATION.— Organic and dynamic seals, and the contaminant materials
solids or semisolids found in hydraulic systems are then dispersed in the hydraulic fluid.
are produced by wear, oxidation, or polymeriza- Contaminants may also enter the hydraulic fluid
tion. Minute particles of O-rings, seals, gaskets, during maintenance when tubing, hoses, fittings,
and hoses are present, due to wear or chemical and components are disconnected or replaced. It
reactions. Synthetic products, such as neoprene, is therefore important that all exposed fluid ports
silicones, and hypalon, though resistant to be sealed with approved protective closures to
chemical reaction with hydraulic fluids, produce minimize such contamination.
small wear particles. Oxidation of hydraulic fluids
increases with pressure and temperature, although Fluid Contamination
antioxidants are blended into hydraulic fluids to
minimize such oxidation. The ability of a Air, water, solvent, and other foreign fluids
hydraulic fluid to resist oxidation or poly- are in the class of fluid contaminants.
merization in service is defined as its oxidation
stability. Oxidation products appear as organic AIR CONTAMINATION.— Hydraulic fluids
acids, asphaltics, gums, and varnishes. These are adversely affected by dissolved, entrained, or
products combine with particles in the hydraulic free air. Air may be introduced through improper
fluid to form sludge. Some oxidation products are maintenance or as a result of system design. Any
oil soluble and cause the hydraulic fluid to maintenance operation that involves breaking into
increase in viscosity; other oxidation products are the hydraulic system, such as disconnecting or
not oil soluble and form sediment. removing a line or component will invariably
result in some air being introduced into the
METALLIC SOLID CONTAMINATION.— system. This source of air can and must be
Metallic contaminants are almost always present minimized by prebilling replacement components
in a hydraulic system and will range in size from with new filtered fluid prior to their installation.
microscopic particles to particles readily visible Failing to prefill a filter element bowl with fluid
to the naked eye. These particles are the result of is a good example of how air can be introduced
wearing and scoring of bare metal parts and into the system. Although prebilling will minimize
plating materials, such as silver and chromium. introduction of air, it is still important to vent the
Although practically all metals commonly used system where venting is possible.
for parts fabrication and plating may be found Most hydraulic systems have built-in sources
in hydraulic fluids, the major metallic materials of air. Leaky seals in gas-pressurized accumulators
found are ferrous, aluminum, and chromium and reservoirs can feed gas into a system faster

3-7
than it can be removed, even with the best of are not compatible with other fluids and damage
maintenance. Another lesser known but major to the seals will result.
source of air is air that is sucked into the system
past actuator piston rod seals. This usually occurs ORIGIN OF CONTAMINATION
when the piston rod is stroked by some external
means while the actuator itself is not pressurized. Recall that contaminants are produced from
wear and chemical reactions, introduced by
improper maintenance, and inadvertently intro-
WATER CONTAMINATION.— Water is a
duced during servicing. These methods of con-
serious contaminant of hydraulic systems.
taminant introduction fall into one of the four
Hydraulic fluids are adversely affected by
dissolved, emulsified, or free water. Water major areas of contaminant origin.
contamination may result in the formation of ice,
1. Particles originally contained in the system.
which impedes the operation of valves, actuators,
These particles originate during the fabrication
and other moving parts. Water can also cause the
and storage of system components. Weld spatter
formation of oxidation products and corrosion
and slag may remain in welded system com-
of metallic surfaces.
ponents, especially in reservoirs and pipe
assemblies. The presence is minimized by proper
SOLVENT CONTAMINATION.— Solvent design. For example, seam-welded overlapping
contamination is a special form of foreign fluid joints are preferred, and arc welding of open
contamination in which the original contami- sections is usually avoided. Hidden passages in
nating substance is a chlorinated solvent. Chlori- valve bodies, inaccessible to sand blasting or other
nated solvents or their residues may, when methods of cleaning, are the main source of
introduced into a hydraulic system, react with any introduction of core sand. Even the most carefully
water present to form highly corrosive acids. designed and cleaned casting will almost invari-
Chlorinated solvents, when allowed to com- ably free some sand particles under the action of
bine with minute amounts of water often found hydraulic pressure. Rubber hose assemblies always
in operating hydraulic systems, change chemically contain some loose particles. Most of these
into hydrochloric acids. These acids then attack particles can be removed by flushing the hose
internal metallic surfaces in the system, before installation; however, some particles
particularly those that are ferrous, and produce withstand cleaning and are freed later by the
a severe rust-like corrosion. NAVAIR 01-1A-17 action of hydraulic pressure.
and NSTM, chapter 556, contain tables of
solvents for use in hydraulic maintenance. Particles of lint from cleaning rags can
cause abrasive damage in hydraulic systems,
FOREIGN-FLUIDS CONTAMINATION.— especially to closely fitted moving parts. In
Hydraulic systems can be seriously contaminated addition, lint in a hydraulic system packs easily
by foreign fluids other than water and chlorinated into clearances between packing and contacting
solvents. This type of contamination is generally surfaces, leading to component leakage and
a result of lube oil, engine fuel, or incorrect decreased efficiency. Lint also helps clog filters
hydraulic fluid being introduced inadvertently into prematurely. The use of the proper wiping
the system during servicing. The effects of such materials will reduce or eliminate lint contamina-
contamination depend on the contaminant, the tion. The wiping materials to be used for a given
amount in the system, and how long it has been application will be determined by
present.
a. substances being wiped or absorbed,
NOTE: It is extremely important that the b. the amount of absorbency required,
different types of hydraulic fluids are not mixed and/or
in one system. If different type hydraulic fluids c. the required degree of cleanliness.
are mixed, the characteristics of the fluid required
for a specific purpose are lost. Mixing the These wiping materials are categorized for
different types of fluids usually will result in a contamination control by the degree of lint or
heavy, gummy deposit that will clog passages and debris that they may deposit during use. For
require a major cleaning. In addition, seals and internal hydraulic repairs, this factor itself
packing installed for use with one fluid usually will determine the choice of wiping material.

3-8
NAVAIR 01-1A-17 and NSTM, chapter 556, Liquids containing antioxidants have little
provides information on low-lint wiping cloths. tendency to form gums and sludge under normal
operating conditions. However, as the tempera-
Rust or corrosion initially present in a ture increases, resistance to oxidation diminishes.
hydraulic system can usually be traced to Hydraulic liquids that have been subjected to
improper storage of materials and component excessively high temperatures (above 250°F for
parts. Particles can range in size from large flakes most liquids) will break down, leaving minute
to abrasives of microscopic dimensions. Proper particles of asphaltines suspended in the liquids.
preservation of stored parts is helpful in elimi- The liquid changes to brown in color and is
nating corrosion. referred to as decomposed liquid. This explains
the importance of keeping the hydraulic liquid
2. Particles introduced from outside sources. temperature below specific levels.
Particles can be introduced into hydraulic systems The second contaminant-producing chemi-
at points where either the liquid or certain working cal action in hydraulic liquids is one that permits
parts of the system (for example, piston rods) are these liquids to react with certain types of rubber.
at least in temporary contact with the atmosphere. This reaction causes structural changes in the
The most common contaminant introduction rubber, turning it brittle, and finally causing its
areas are at the refill and breather openings, complete disintegration. For this reason, the
cylinder rod packings, and open lines where compatibility of system liquid with seals and hose
components are removed for repair or replace- material is a very important factor.
ment. Contamination arising from carelessness
during servicing operations is minimized by the 4. Particles introduced by foreign liquids. One
use of filters in the system fill lines and finger of the most common foreign-fluid contaminants
strainers in the filler adapter of hydraulic is water, especially in hydraulic systems that
reservoirs. Hydraulic cylinder piston rods require petroleum-based liquids. Water, which
incorporate wiper rings and dust seals to prevent enters even the most carefully designed system by
the dust that settles on the piston rod during its condensation of atmospheric moisture, normally
outward stroke from entering the system when the settles to the bottom of the reservoir. Oil
piston rod retracts. Caps and plugs are available movement in the reservoir disperses the water into
and should be used to seal off the open lines when fine droplets, and agitation of the liquid in
a component is removed for repair or the pump and in high-speed passages forms an
replacement. oil-water-air emulsion. This emulsion normally
3. Particles created within the system during separates during the rest period in the system
operation. Contaminants created during system reservoir; but when fine dust and corrosion
operation are of two general types—mechanical particles are present, the emulsion is chemically
and chemical. Particles of a mechanical nature are changed by high pressures into sludge. The
formed by wearing of parts in frictional contact, damaging action of sludge explains the need for
such as pumps, cylinders, and packing gland effective filtration, as well as the need for water
components. These wear particles can vary from separation qualities in hydraulic liquids.
large chunks of packings down to steel shavings
that are too small to be trapped by filters. CONTAMINATION CONTROL

The major source of chemical contami- Maintaining hydraulic fluid within allowable
nants in hydraulic liquid is oxidation. These contamination limits for both water and particu-
contaminants are formed under high pressure and late matter is crucial to the care and protection
temperatures and are promoted by the chemical of hydraulic equipment.
action of water and air and of metals like copper Filters (discussed in chapter 9) will provide
and iron oxides. Liquid-oxidation products appear adequate control of the particular contamination
initially as organic acids, asphaltines, gums, problem during all normal hydraulic system
and varnishes—sometimes combined with dust operations if the filtration system is installed
particles as sludge. Liquid-soluble oxidation properly and filter maintenance is performed
products tend to increase liquid viscosity, while properly. Filter maintenance includes changing
insoluble types separate and form sediments, elements at proper intervals. Control of the size
especially on colder elements such as heat and amount of contamination entering the system
exchanger coils. from any other source is the responsibility

3-9
of the personnel who service and maintain the Some hydraulic fluid specifications, such as
equipment. During installation, maintenance, and MIL-H-6083, MIL-H-46170, and MIL-H-83282,
repair of hydraulic equipment, the retention of contain particle contamination limits that are so
cleanliness of the system is of paramount low that the products are packaged under clean
importance for subsequent satisfactory per- room conditions. Very slight amounts of dirt,
formance. rust, and metal particles will cause them to
fail the specification limit for contamination.
The following maintenance and servicing Since these fluids are usually all packaged in
procedures should be adhered to at all times to hermetically sealed containers, the act of opening
provide proper contamination control: a container may allow more contaminants into the
fluid than the specification allows. Therefore,
1. All tools and the work area (workbenches extreme care should be taken in the handling of
and test equipment) should be kept in a clean, these fluids. In opening the container for use,
dirt-free condition. observation, or tests, it is extremely important that
2. A suitable container should always be the can be opened and handled in a clean
provided to receive the hydraulic liquid that is environment. The area of the container to be
spilled during component removal or disassembly. opened should be flushed with filtered solvent
(petroleum ether or isopropyl alcohol), and the
NOTE: The reuse of drained hydraulic device used for opening the container should be
liquid is prohibited in most hydraulic systems. In thoroughly rinsed with filtered solvent. After the
some large-capacity systems the reuse of fluid is container is opened, a small amount of the
permitted. When liquid is drained from these material should be poured from the container and
systems for reuse, it must be stored in a clean and disposed of prior to pouring the sample for
suitable container. The liquid must be strained analysis. Once a container is opened, if the
and/or filtered when it is returned to the system contents are not totally used, the unused portion
reservoir. should be discarded. Since the level of con-
tamination of a system containing these fluids
3. Before hydraulic lines or fittings are must be kept low, maintenance on the system’s
disconnected, the affected area should be cleaned components must be performed in a clean
with an approved dry-cleaning solvent. environment commonly known as a controlled
4. All hydraulic lines and fittings should be environment work center. Specific information
capped or plugged immediately after discon- about the controlled environment work center can
nection. be found in the Aviation Hydraulics Manual,
5. Before any hydraulic components are NAVAIR 01-1A-17.
assembled, their parts should be washed with an
approved dry-cleaning solvent.
6. After the parts have been cleaned in
dry-cleaning solvent, they should be dried HYDRAULIC FLUID SAMPLING
thoroughly with clean, low-lint cloths and
lubricated with the recommended preservative or The condition of a hydraulic system, as well
hydraulic liquid before assembly. as its probable future performance, can best be
determined by analyzing the operating fluid. Of
NOTE: Only clean, low lint type I or II particular interest are any changes in the physical
cloths as appropriate should be used to wipe or and chemical properties of the fluid and excessive
dry component parts. particulate or water contamination, either of
which indicates impending trouble.
7. All packings and gaskets should be replaced
during the assembly procedures. Excessive particulate contamination of the
8. All parts should be connected with care to fluid indicates that the filters are not keeping the
avoid stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. system clean. This can result from improper filter
All fittings and lines should be installed and maintenance, inadequate filters, or excessive
torqued according to applicable technical ongoing corrosion and wear.
instructions.
9. All hydraulic servicing equipment should Operating equipment should be sampled
be kept clean and in good operating condition. according to instructions given in the operating

3-10
and maintenance manual for the particular located wholly within one compartment. For
equipment or as directed by the MRCs. ship’s systems extending into two or more
compartments, a second sample is required. An
1. All samples should be taken from circu- exception to this requirement is submarine
lating systems, or immediately upon shutdown, external hydraulic systems, which require only one
while the hydraulic fluid is within 5°C (9°F) of sample. Original sample points should be labeled
normal system operating temperature. Systems and the same sample points used for successive
not up to temperature may provide nonrepre- sampling. If possible, the following sampling
sentative samples of system dirt and water locations should be selected:
content, and such samples should either be
avoided or so indicated on the analysis report. The a. A location that provides a sample
first oil coming from the sampling point should representative of fluid being supplied
be discarded, since it can be very dirty and does to system components
not represent the system. As a general rule, a b. A return line as close to the supply tank
volume of oil equivalent to one to two times the as practical but upstream of any return
volume of oil contained in the sampling line and line filter
valve should be drained before the sample is c. For systems requiring a second sample,
taken. a location as far from the pump as
2. Ideally, the sample should be taken from practical
a valve installed specifically for sampling. When
sampling valves are not installed, the taking of Operation of the sampling point should not
samples from locations where sediment or water introduce any significant amount of external
can collect, such as dead ends of piping, tank contaminants into the collected fluid. Additional
drains, and low points of large pipes and filter information on hydraulic fluid sampling can be
bowls, should be avoided if possible. If samples found in NAVAIR 01-1A-17.
are taken from pipe drains, sufficient fluid should Most fluid samples are submitted to shore
be drained before the sample is taken to ensure laboratories for analysis. NAVAIR 17-15-50-1
that the sample actually represents the system. and NSTM, chapter 556, contain details on
Samples are not to be taken from the tops of collecting, labeling, and shipping samples.
reservoirs or other locations where the contami- NAVAIR 01-1A-17 contains procedures for
nation levels are normally low. unit level, both aboard ship and ashore, testing
3. Unless otherwise specified, a minimum of of aviation hydraulic fluids for water, particulate,
one sample should be taken for each system and chlorinated solvent contamination.

3-11
 CHAPTER 4

PUMPS

Pumps are used for some essential services in high altitudes are equipped with pressurized
the Navy. Pumps supply water to the boilers, draw hydraulic reservoirs to compensate for low
condensation from the condensers, supply sea atmospheric pressure encountered at high
water to the firemain, circulate cooling water for altitudes.
coolers and condensers, pump out bilges, transfer
fuel, supply water to the distilling plants, and
serve many other purposes. Although the pumps PERFORMANCE
discussed in this chapter are used primarily in
hydraulic systems, the principles of operation Pumps are normally rated by their volumetric
apply as well to the pumps used in other systems. output and pressure. Volumetric output is the
amount of fluid a pump can deliver to its outlet
port in a certain period of time at a given speed.
PURPOSE Volumetric output is usually expressed in gallons
per minute (gpm). Since changes in pump speed
The purpose of a hydraulic pump is to supply affect volumetric output, some pumps are rated
a flow of fluid to a hydraulic system. The pump by their displacement. Pump displacement is the
does not create system pressure, since pressure can amount of fluid the pump can deliver per cycle.
be created only by a resistance to the flow. As the Since most pumps use a rotary drive, displacement
pump provides flow, it transmits a force to the is usually expressed in terms of cubic inches per
fluid. As the fluid flow encounters resistance, this revolution.
force is changed into a pressure. Resistance to As we stated previously, a pump does not
flow is the result of a restriction or obstruction create pressure. However, the pressure developed
in the path of the flow. This restriction is normally by the restrictions in the system is a factor that
the work accomplished by the hydraulic system, affects the volumetric output of the pump. As the
but can also be restrictions of lines, fittings, and system pressure increases, the volumetric output
valves within the system. Thus, the pressure is decreases. This drop in volumetric output is the
controlled by the load imposed on the system or result of an increase in the amount of internal
the action of a pressure-regulating device. leakage from the outlet side to the inlet side of
the pump. This leakage is referred to as pump
slippage and is a factor that must be considered
OPERATION in all pumps. This explains why most pumps are
rated in terms of volumetric output at a given
A pump must have a continuous supply of pressure.
fluid available to the inlet port to supply fluid to
the system. As the pump forces fluid through the
outlet port, a partial vacuum or low-pressure area CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
is created at the inlet port. When the pressure at
the inlet port of the pump is lower than the local Many different methods are used to classify
atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure acting pumps. Terms such as nonpositive displacement,
on the fluid in the reservoir forces the fluid into positive displacement, fixed displacement,
the pump’s inlet. If the pump is located at variable displacement, fixed delivery, variable
a level lower than the reservoir, the force of delivery, constant volume, and others are used to
gravity supplements atmospheric pressure on the describe pumps. The first two of these terms
reservoir. Aircraft and missiles that operate at describe the fundamental division of pumps; that

4-1
is, all pumps are either nonpositive displacement from the pump back to the reservoir. (See chapter
or positive displacement. 6 for more detailed information concerning
Basically, pumps that discharge liquid in a pressure regulators.) The pump continues to
continuous flow are referred to as nonpositive deliver a fixed volume of fluid during each cycle.
displacement, and those that discharge volumes Such terms as fixed delivery, constant delivery,
separated by a period of no discharge are referred and constant volume are all used to identify the
to as positive displacement. fixed-displacement pump.
Although the nonpositive-displacement pump The variable-displacement pump is con-
normally produces a continuous flow, it does not structed so that the displacement per cycle can be
provide a positive seal against slippage; therefore, varied. The displacement is varied through the use
the output of the pump varies as system pressure of an internal controlling device. Some of these
varies. In other words, the volume of fluid controlling devices are described later in this
delivered for each cycle depends on the resistance chapter.
to the flow. This type of pump produces a force Pumps may also be classified according to the
on the fluid that is constant for each particular specific design used to create the flow of fluid.
speed of the pump. Resistance in the discharge Practically all hydraulic pumps fall within three
line produces a force in a direction opposite the design classifications-centrifugal, rotary, and
direction of the force produced by the pump. reciprocating. The use of centrifugal pumps in
When these forces are equal, the fluid is in a state hydraulics is limited and will not be discussed in
of equilibrium and does not flow. this text.
If the outlet of a nonpositive-displacement
pump is completely closed, the discharge pressure
will increase to the maximum for that particular ROTARY PUMPS
pump at a specific speed. Nothing more will
happen except that the pump will churn the fluid All rotary pumps have rotating parts which
and produce heat. trap the fluid at the inlet (suction) port and force
In contrast to the nonpositive-displacement it through the discharge port into the system.
pump, the positive-displacement pump provides Gears, screws, lobes, and vanes are commonly
a positive internal seal against slippage. Therefore, used to move the fluid. Rotary pumps are positive
this type of pump delivers a definite volume of displacement of the fixed displacement type.
fluid for each cycle of pump operation, regardless Rotary pumps are designed with very small
of the resistance offered, provided the capacity clearances between rotating parts and stationary
of the power unit driving the pump is not parts to minimize slippage from the discharge
exceeded. If the outlet of a positive-displacement side back to the suction side. They are designed
pump were completely closed, the pressure would to operate at relatively moderate speeds.
instantaneously increase to the point at which the Operating at high speeds causes erosion and
unit driving the pump would stall or something excessive wear which results in increased
would break. clearances.
Positive-displacement pumps are further There are numerous types of rotary pumps
classified as fixed displacement or variable and various methods of classification. They may
displacement. The fixed-displacement pump be classified by the shaft position—either
delivers the same amount of fluid on each cycle. vertically or horizontally mounted; the type of
The output volume can be changed only by drive—electric motor, gasoline engine, and so
changing the speed of the pump. When a pump forth; their manufacturer’s name; or their service
of this type is used in a hydraulic system, a application. However, classification of rotary
pressure regulator (unloading valve) must be pumps is generally made according to the type of
incorporated in the system. A pressure regulator rotating element. A few of the most common
or unloading valve is used in a hydraulic system types of rotary pumps are discussed in the
to control the amount of pressure in the system following paragraphs.
and to unload or relieve the pump when the
desired pressure is reached. This action of a GEAR PUMPS
pressure regulator keeps the pump from working
against a load when the hydraulic system is at Gear pumps are classified as either external
maximum pressure and not functioning. During or internal gear pumps. In external gear pumps
this time the pressure regulator bypasses the fluid the teeth of both gears project outward from their

4-2
centers (fig, 4-1). External pumps may use spur
gears, herringbone gears, or helical gears to move
the fluid. In an internal gear pump, the teeth of
one gear project outward, but the teeth of the
other gear project inward toward the center of the
pump (fig. 4-2, view A). Internal gear pumps may
be either centered or off-centered.

Spur Gear Pump

The spur gear pump (fig. 4-1) consists of two

meshed gears which revolve in a housing. The Figure 4-2.—Off-centered internal gear pump.
drive gear in the illustration is turned by a drive
shaft which is attached to the power source. The
clearances between the gear teeth as they mesh and the teeth pass the inlet port, liquid is trapped
between the teeth and the pump housing are very between the teeth and the housing. This liquid is
small. carried around the housing to the outlet port. As
The inlet port is connected to the fluid supply the teeth mesh again, the liquid between the teeth
line, and the outlet port is connected to the is pushed into the outlet port. This action
pressure line. In figure 4-1 the drive gear is turning produces a positive flow of liquid into the system.
in a counterclockwise direction, and the driven A shearpin or shear section is incorporated in the
(idle) gear is turning in a clockwise direction. As drive shaft. This is to protect the power source

Figure 4-1.—Gear-type rotary pump.

4-3
or reduction gears if the pump fails because of is pumped in the same manner as in the spur gear
excessive load or jamming of parts. pump. However, in the herringbone pump, each
set of teeth begins its fluid discharge phase before
the previous set of teeth has completed its
Herringbone Gear Pump discharge phase. This overlapping and the
relatively larger space at the center of the gears
The herringbone gear pump (fig. 4-3) is a tend to minimize pulsations and give a steadier
modification of the spur gear pump. The liquid flow than the spur gear pump.

Figure 4-3.—Herringbone gear pump.

4-4
Helical Gear Pump packings are used to prevent leakage around the
shaft.
The helical gear pump (fig. 4-4) is still
another modification of the spur gear pump. Off-centered Internal Gear Pump
Because of the helical gear design, the
overlapping of successive discharges from This pump is illustrated in figure 4-2, view B.
spaces between the teeth is even greater than it The drive gear is attached directly to the drive shaft
is in the herringbone gear pump; therefore, the of the pump and is placed off-center in relation to
discharge flow is smoother. Since the discharge the internal gear. The two gears mesh on one side
flow is smooth in the helical pump, the gears of the pump, between the suction (inlet) and
can be designed with a small number of large discharge ports. On the opposite side of the
teeth—thus allowing increased capacity without chamber, a crescent-shaped form fitted to a close
sacrificing smoothness of flow. tolerance fills the space between the two gears.
The pumping gears of this type of pump are
driven by a set of timing and driving gears that The rotation of the center gear by the drive
help maintain the required close clearances shaft causes the outside gear to rotate, since the
without actual metallic contact of the pumping two are meshed. Everything in the chamber rotates
gears. (Metallic contact between the teeth of the except the crescent. This causes liquid to be
pumping gears would provide a tighter seal trapped in the gear spaces as they pass the
against slippage; however, it would cause rapid crescent. The liquid is carried from the suction port
wear of the teeth, because foreign matter in the to the discharge port where it is forced out of the
liquid would be present on the contact pump by the meshing of the gears. The size of the
surfaces.) crescent that separates the internal and external
Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts gears determines the volume delivery of the pump.
maintain proper alignment and minimize the A small crescent allows more volume of liquid per
friction loss in the transmission of power. Suitable revolution than a larger crescent.

Figure 4-4.—Helical gear pump.

4-5
Centered Internal Gear Pump

Another design of internal gear pump is

illustrated in figures 4-5 and 4-6. This pump
consists of a pair of gear-shaped elements, one
within the other, located in the pump chamber.
The inner gear is connected to the drive shaft of
the power source.
The operation of this type of internal gear
pump is illustrated in figure 4-6. To simplify the
explanation, the teeth of the inner gear and the
spaces between the teeth of the outer gear are
numbered. Note that the inner gear has one less
tooth than the outer gear. The tooth form of each
gear is related to that of the other in such a way
that each tooth of the inner gear is always in
sliding contact with the surface of the outer gear.
Each tooth of the inner gear meshes with the outer
gear at just one point during each revolution. In
the illustration, this point is at the X. In view A,
tooth 1 of the inner gear is meshed with space 1
of the outer gear. As the gears continue to rotate
in a clockwise direction and the teeth approach
point X, tooth 6 of the inner gear will mesh with
space 7 of the outer gear, tooth 5 with space 6,
and so on. During this revolution, tooth 1 will
mesh with space 2; and during the following
revolution, tooth 1 will mesh with space 3. As a
result, the outer gear will rotate at just six-sevenths
the speed of the inner gear.
At one side of the point of mesh, pockets of
increasing size are formed as the gears rotate,
while on the other side the pockets decrease in size.
In figure 4-6, the pockets on the right-hand side
of the drawings are increasing in size toward the
bottom of the illustration, while those on the
left-hand side are decreasing in size toward the
top of the illustration. The intake side of
the pump would therefore be on the right and the
discharge side on the left. In figure 4-5, since the
right-hand side of the drawing was turned over
to show the ports, the intake and discharge appear

Figure 4-6.—Principles of operation of the internal gear

pump.

reversed. Actually, A in one drawing covers A in

the other.

LOBE PUMP

The lobe pump uses the same principle of

Figure 4-5.—Centered internal gear pump. operation as the external gear pump described

4-6
 chamber is lowered, and additional liquid is forced
into the chamber from the reservoir.
The lobes are constructed so there is a
continuous seal at the points where they meet at
the center of the pump. The lobes of the pump
illustrated in figure 4-7 are fitted with small vanes
at the outer edge to improve the seal of the pump.
Although these vanes are mechanically held in
their slots, they are, to some extent, free to move
outward. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes snug
against the chamber and the other rotating
Figure 4-7.—Lobe pump. members.

SCREW PUMP
previously. The lobes are considerably larger than
gear teeth, but there are only two or three lobes Screw pumps for power transmission systems
on each rotor. A three-lobe pump is illustrated are generally used only on submarines. Although
in figure 4-7. The two elements are rotated, one low in efficiency and expensive, the screw pump
directly driven by the source of power, and the is suitable for high pressures (3000 psi), and
other through timing gears. As the elements delivers fluid with little noise or pressure
rotate, liquid is trapped between two lobes of each pulsation.
rotor and the walls of the pump chamber and Screw pumps are available in several different
carried around from the suction side to the designs; however, they all operate in a similar
discharge side of the pump. As liquid leaves the manner. In a fixed-displacement rotary-type screw
suction chamber, the pressure in the suction pump (fig. 4-8, view A), fluid is propelled axially

Figure 4-8.—Screw pumps.

4-7
in a constant, uniform flow through the action end plates. (Figure 4-9 illustrates a vane pump
of just three moving parts-a power rotor and two with a circular interior.) A slotted rotor is fixed
idler rotors. The power rotor is the only driven to a shaft that enters the housing cavity through
element, extending outside the pump casing for one of the end plates. A number of small
power connections to an electrical motor. The rectangular plates or vanes are set into the slots
idler rotors are turned by the power rotor through of the rotor. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force
the action of the meshing threads. The fluid causes the outer edge of each vane to slide along
pumped between the meshing helical threads of the surface of the housing cavity as the vanes slide
the idler and power rotors provides a protective in and out of the rotor slots. The numerous
film to prevent metal-to-metal contact. The idler cavities, formed by the vanes, the end plates, the
rotors perform no work; therefore, they do not housing, and the rotor, enlarge and shrink as the
need to be connected by gears to transmit power. rotor and vane assembly rotates. An inlet port is
The enclosures formed by the meshing of the installed in the housing so fluid may flow into the
rotors inside the close clearance housing contain cavities as they enlarge. An outlet port is provided
the fluid being pumped. As the rotors turn, these to allow the fluid to flow out of the cavities as
enclosures move axially, providing a continuous they become small.
flow. Effective performance is based on the The pump shown in figure 4-9 is referred to
following factors: as an unbalanced pump because all of the
pumping action takes place on one side of the
1. The rolling action obtained with the thread
rotor. This causes a side load on the rotor. Some
design of the rotors is responsible for the very
vane pumps are constructed with an elliptically
quiet pump operation. The symmetrical pressure
shaped housing that forms two separate pumping
loading around the power rotor eliminates the
areas on opposite sides of the rotor. This cancels
need for radial bearings because there are no
out the side loads; such pumps are referred to as
radial loads. The cartridge-type ball bearing in the
balanced vane.
pump positions the power rotor for proper seal
Usually vane pumps are fixed displacement
operation. The axial loads on the rotors created
and pump only in one direction. There are,
by discharge pressure are hydraulically balanced.
however, some designs of vane pumps that
2. The key to screw pump performance is the
provide variable flow. Vane pumps are generally
operation of the idler rotors in their housing
restricted to service where pressure demand does
bores. The idler rotors generate a hydrodynamic
not exceed 2000 psi. Wear rates, vibration, and
film to support themselves in their bores like
noise levels increase rapidly in vane pumps as
journal bearings. Since this film is self-generated,
pressure demands exceed 2000 psi.
it depends on three operating characteristics of
the pump—speed, discharge pressure, and fluid
viscosity. The strength of the film is increased by RECIPROCATING PUMPS
increasing the operating speed, by decreasing
The term reciprocating is defined as back-and-
pressure, or by increasing the fluid viscosity. This
forth motion. In the reciprocating pump it is this
is why screw pump performance capabilities are
based on pump speed, discharge pressure, and
fluid viscosity.
The supply line is connected at the center of
the pump housing in some pumps (fig. 4-8, view
B). Fluid enters into the pump’s suction port,
which opens into chambers at the ends of the
screw assembly. As the screws turn, the fluid flows
between the threads at each end of the assembly.
The threads carry the fluid along within the
housing toward the center of the pump to the
discharge port.

VANE PUMP

Vane-type hydraulic pumps generally have

circularly or elliptically shaped interior and flat Figure 4-9.—Vane pump.

4-8
back-and-forth motion of pistons inside of to the left, the force of the liquid in the outlet
cylinders that provides the flow of fluid. Recipro- chamber and spring tension cause valve A to close.
cating pumps, like rotary pumps, operate on This movement causes the piston to force the
the positive principle—that is, each stroke liquid in the outlet chamber through the outlet
delivers a definite volume of liquid to the port and into the system. This same piston
system. movement causes a low-pressure area in the inlet
chamber. The difference in pressure between the
The master cylinder of the automobile brake inlet chamber and the liquid (at atmospheric
system, which is described and illustrated in pressure) in the reservior acting on check valve
chapter 2, is an example of a simple reciprocating B causes its spring to compress; thus, opening the
pump. Several types of power-operated hydraulic check valve. This allows liquid to enter the inlet
pumps, such as the radial piston and axial piston, chamber.
are also classified as reciprocating pumps. These
pumps are sometimes classified as rotary pumps, When the piston completes this stroke to the
because a rotary motion is imparted to the pumps left, the inlet chamber is full of liquid. This
by the source of power. However, the actual eliminates the pressure difference between the inlet
pumping is performed by sets of pistons recipro- chamber and the reservior, thereby allowing
cating inside sets of cylinders. spring tension to close check valve B.

When the piston is moved to the right, the

HAND PUMPS force of the confined liquid in the inlet chamber
acts on check valve A. This action compresses
There are two types of manually operated the spring and opens check valve A which
reciprocating pumps—the single-action and allows the liquid to flow from the intake
the double-action. The single-action pump chamber to the outlet chamber. Because of the
provides flow during every other stroke, while the area occupied by the piston rod, the outlet
double-action provides flow during each stroke. chamber cannot contain all the liquid discharged
Single-action pumps are frequently used in from the inlet chamber. Since liquids do not
hydraulic jacks. compress, the extra liquid is forced out of the
outlet port into the system.
A double-action hand pump is illustrated in
figure 4-10. This type of pump is used in some
aircraft hydraulic systems as a source of hydraulic PISTON PUMPS
power for emergencies, for testing certain
subsystems during preventive maintenance Piston pumps are made in a variety of
inspections, and for determining the causes of types and configurations. A basic distinction
malfunctions in these subsystems. is made between axial and radial pumps. The
axial piston pump has the cylinders parallel
This pump (fig. 4-10) consists of a cylinder, to each other and the drive shaft. The radial
a piston containing a built-in check valve (A), a piston design has the cylinders extending
piston rod, an operating handle, and a check valve radially outward from the drive shaft like
(B) at the inlet port. When the piston is moved the spokes of a wheel. A further distinction
is made between pumps that provide a fixed
delivery and those able to vary the flow of the
fluid. Variable delivery pumps can be further
divided into those able to pump fluid from zero
to full delivery in one direction of flow and those
able to pump from zero the full delivery in either
direction.

All piston pumps used in Navy shipboard

systems have the cylinders bored in a cylinder
block that is mounted on bearings within a
housing. This cylinder block assembly rotates with
Figure 4-10.—Hydraulic hand pump. the pump drive shaft.

4-9
Radial Piston Pumps cylinder block, which revolves around the pintle
and contains the cylinders in which the pistons
Figure 4-11 illustrates the operation of the operate; a rotor, which houses the reaction ring
radial piston pump. The pump consists of a pintle, of hardened steel against which the piston heads
which remains stationary and acts as a valve; a press; and a slide block, which is used to control
the length of the piston strokes. The slide block
does not revolve but houses and supports the
rotor, which does revolve due to the friction set
up by the sliding action between the piston heads
and the reaction ring. The cylinder block is
attached to the drive shaft.
Referring to view A of figure 4-11, assume that
space X in one of the cylinders of the cylinder
block contains liquid and that the respective piston
of this cylinder is at position 1. When the cylinder
block and piston are rotated in a clockwise
direction, the piston is forced into its cylinder as
it approaches position 2. This action reduces the
volumetric size of the cylinder and forces a
quantity of liquid out of the cylinder and into the
outlet port above the pintle. This pumping action
is due to the rotor being off-center in relation to
the center of the cylinder block.
In figure 4-11 view B, the piston has reached
position 2 and has forced the liquid out of the
open end of the cylinder through the outlet above
the pintle and into the system. While the piston
moves from position 2 to position 3, the open end
of the cylinder passes over the solid part of the
pintle; therefore, there is no intake or discharge
of liquid during this time. As the piston and
cylinder move from position 3 to position 4,
centrifugal force causes the piston to move
outward against the reaction ring of the rotor.
During this time the open end of the cylinder is
open to the intake side of the pintle and, therefore,
fills with liquid. As the piston moves from
position 4 to position 1, the open end of the
cylinder is against the solid side of the pintle and
no intake or discharge of liquid takes place. After
the piston has passed the pintle and starts toward
position 2, another discharge of liquid takes place.
Alternate intake and discharge continues as the
rotor revolves about its axis-intake on one side
of the pintle and discharge on the other, as the
piston slides in and out.
Notice in views A and B of figure 4-11 that
the center point of the rotor is different from the
center point of the cylinder block. The difference
of these centers produces the pumping action. If
the rotor is moved so that its center point is the
same as that of the cylinder block, as shown in
figure 4-11, view C, there is no pumping action,
Figure 4-11.—Principles of operation of the radial piston since the piston does not move back and forth in
pump. the cylinder as it rotates with the cylinder block.

4-10
 The flow in this pump can be reversed by to accommodate varying volume requirements
moving the slide block, and therefore the rotor, during the operating cycle, a hydraulically
to the right so the relation of the centers of the controlled cylinder may be used to position the
rotor and the cylinder block is reversed from the slide block. A gear-motor controlled by a push
position shown in views A and B of figure 4-11. button or a limit switch is sometimes used for this
View D shows this arrangement. Liquid enters the purpose.
cylinder as the piston travels from position 1 to Figure 4-11 is shown with four pistons for the
position 2 and is discharged from the cylinder as sake of simplicity. Radial pumps are actually
the piston travels from position 3 to 4. designed with an odd number of pistons (fig.
In the illustrations the rotor is shown in the 4-12). This is to ensure that no more than one
center, the extreme right, or the extreme left in cylinder is completely blocked by the pintle at any
relation to the cylinder block. The amount of one time. If there were an even number of pistons
adjustment in distance between the two centers spaced evenly around the cylinder block (for
determines the length of the piston stroke, which example, eight), there would be occasions when
controls the amount of liquid flow in and out of two of the cylinders would be blocked by the
the cylinder. Thus, this adjustment determines the pintle, while at other times none would be
displacement of the pump; that is, the volume of blocked. This would cause three cylinders to dis-
liquid the pump delivers per revolution. This charge at one time and four at one time, causing
adjustment may be controlled in different ways. pulsations in flow. With an odd number of pistons
Manual control by a handwheel is the simplest. spaced evenly around the cylinder block, only one
The pump illustrated in figure 4-11 is controlled cylinder is completely blocked by the pintle at any
in this way. For automatic control of delivery one time. This reduces pulsations of flow.

Figure 4-12.—Nine-piston radial piston pump.

4-11
Axial Piston Pumps

In axial piston pumps of the in-line type,

where the cylinders and the drive shaft are parallel
(fig. 4-13), the reciprocating motion is created by
a cam plate, also known as a wobble plate, tilting
plate, or swash plate. This plate lies in a plane
that cuts across the center line of the drive shaft
and cylinder barrel and does not rotate. In a
fixed-displacement pump, the cam plate will be
rigidly mounted in a position so that it intersects
the center line of the cylinder barrel at an angle
approximately 25 degrees from perpendicular.
Variable-delivery axial piston pumps are designed
so that the angle that the cam plate makes with
a perpendicular to the center line of the cylinder
barrel may be varied from zero to 20 or 25 degrees Figure 4-14.—Bent-axis axial piston pump.
to one or both sides. One end of each piston rod
is held in contact with the cam plate as the cylinder
block and piston assembly rotates with the drive connecting rods are retained in sockets on a disc
shaft. This causes the pistons to reciprocate within that turns with the drive shaft. The cylinder block
the cyIinders. The length of the piston stroke is is turned with the drive shaft by a universal joint
proportional to the angle that the cam plate is set assembly at the intersection of the drive shaft and
from perpendicular to the center line of the the cylinder block shaft. In order to vary the pump
cylinder barrel. displacement, the cylinder block and valve plate
A variation of axial piston pump is the are mounted in a yoke and the entire assembly
bent-axis type shown in figure 4-14. This type does is swung in an are around a pair of mounting
not have a tilting cam plate as the in-line pump pintles attached to the pump housing.
does. Instead, the cylinder block axis is varied The pumping action of the axial piston pump
from the drive shaft axis. The ends of the is made possible by a universal joint or link.

Figure 4-13.—In-line axial piston pump.

4-12
Figure 4-15 is a series of drawings that illustrates to right in another arc, in a plane at right angles
how the universal joint is used in the operation to the plane in which the rocker arm turns.
of this pump. Next, a tilting plate is added to the assembly.
First, a rocker arm is installed on a horizontal The tilting plate is placed at a slant to the axis
shaft. (See fig. 4-15, view A.) The arm is joined of the shaft, as depicted in figure 4-15, view D.
to the shaft by a pin so that it can be swung back The rocker arm is then slanted at the same angle
and forth, as indicated in view B. Next, a ring is as the tilting plate, so that it lies parallel to the
placed around the shaft and secured to the rocker tilting plate. The ring is also parallel to, and in
arm so the ring can turn from left to right as contact with, the tilting plate. The position of the
shown in view C. This provides two rotary ring in relation to the rocker arm is unchanged
motions in different planes at the same time and from that shown in figure 4-15, view C.
in varying proportions as may be desired. The Figure 4-15, view E, shows the assembly after
rocker arm can swing back and forth in one arc, the shaft, still in a horizontal position, has been
and the ring can simultaneously move from left rotated a quarter turn. The rocker arm is still in
the same position as the tilting plate and is now
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. The ring
has turned on the rocker pins, so that it has
changed its position in relation to the rocker arm,
but it remains parallel to, and in contact with, the
tilting plate.
View F of figure 4-15 shows the assembly after
the shaft has been rotated another quarter turn.
The parts are now in the same position as shown
in view D, but with the ends of the rocker arm
reversed. The ring still bears against the tilting
plate.
As the shaft continues to rotate, the rocker
arm and the ring turn about their pivots, with each
changing its relation to the other and with the ring
always bearing on the plate.
Figure 4-15, view G, shows a wheel added to
the assembly. The wheel is placed upright and
fixed to the shaft, so that it rotates with the shaft.
In addition, two rods, A and B, are loosely
connected to the tilting ring and extend through
two holes standing opposite each other in the fixed
wheel. As the shaft is rotated, the fixed wheel
turns perpendicular to the shaft at all times. The
tilting ring rotates with the shaft and always
remains tilted, since it remains in contact with the
tilting plate. Referring to view G, the distance
along rod A, from the tilting ring to the fixed
wheel, is greater than the distance along rod B.
As the assembly is rotated, however, the distance
along rod A decreases as its point of attachment
to the tilting ring moves closer to the fixed wheel,
while the distance along rod B increases. These
changes continue until after a half revolution, at
which time the initial positions of the rods have
been reversed. After another half revolution, the
two rods will again be in their original positions.
As the assembly rotates, the rods move in and
out through the holes in the fixed wheel. This is
Figure 4-15.–Relationship of the universal joint in operation the way the axial piston pump works. To get a
of the axial piston pump. pumping action, place pistons at the ends of the

4-13
rods, beyond the fixed wheel, and insert them into takes place. When the swash plate is tilted away
cylinders. The rods must be connected to the from a right angle, the pistons reciprocate and
pistons and to the wheel by ball and socket joints. fluid is pumped.
As the assembly rotates, each piston moves back Since the displacement of this type of pump
and forth in its cylinder. Suction and discharge is varied by changing the angle of the tilting box,
lines can be arranged so that liquid enters the some means must be used to control the changes
cylinders while the spaces between the piston of this angle. Various methods are used to control
heads and the bases of the cylinders are increasing, this movement—manual, electric, pneumatic, or
and leaves the cylinders during the other half of hydraulic.
each revolution when the pistons are moving in
the opposite direction. STRATOPOWER PUMP.— Another type of
The main parts of the pump are the drive axial piston pump, sometimes referred to as an
shaft, pistons, cylinder block, and valve and swash in-line pump, is commonly referred to as a
plates. There are two ports in the valve plate. Stratopower pump. This pump is available
These ports connect directly to openings in the in either the fixed-displacement type or the
face of the cylinder block. Fluid is drawn into one variable-displacement type.
port and forced out the other port by the Two major functions are performed by the
reciprocating action of the pistons. internal parts of the fixed-displacement Strato-
power pump. These functions are mechanical
IN-LINE VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT drive and fluid displacement.
AXIAL PISTON PUMP.— When the drive shaft The mechanical drive mechanism is shown in
is rotated, it rotates the pistons and the cylinder figure 4-16. In this type of pump, the pistons and
block with it. The swash plate placed at an angle block do not rotate. Piston motion is caused by
causes the pistons to move back and forth in the rotating the drive cam displacing each piston the
cylinder block while the shaft, piston, cylinder full height of the drive cam during each revolution
block, and swash plate rotate together. (The shaft, of the shaft. The ends of the pistons are attached
piston, cylinder block, and swash plate together to a wobble plate supported by a freed center pivot
is sometimes referred to as the rotating group or and are held inconstant contact with the cam face.
assembly.) As the pistons reciprocate in the As the high side of the rotating drive cam
cylinder block, fluid enters one port and is forced depresses one side of the wobble plate, the other
out the other. side of the wobble plate is withdrawn an equal
Figure 4-13 shows piston A at the bottom of amount, moving the pistons with it. The two creep
its stroke. When piston A has rotated to the plates are provided to decrease wear on the
position held by piston B, it will have moved revolving cam.
upward in its cylinder, forcing fluid through the A schematic diagram of the displacement of
outlet port during the entire distance. During the fluid is shown in figure 4-17. Fluid is displaced
remainder of the rotation back to it original by axial motion of the pistons. As each piston
position, the piston travels downward in the advances in its respective cylinder block bore,
cylinder. This action creates a low-pressure area pressure opens the check valve and a quantity of
in the cylinder. The difference in pressure between fluid is forced past it. Combined back pressure
the cylinder inlet and the reservoir causes fluid and check valve spring tension close the check
to flow into the inlet port to the cylinder. Since
each one of the pistons performs the same
operation in succession, fluid is constantly being
taken into the cylinder bores through the inlet port
and discharged from the cylinder bores into
the system. This action provides a steady,
nonpulsating flow of fluid.
The tilt or angle of the swash plate determines
the distance the pistons move back and forth in
their cylinders; thereby, controlling the pump
output.
When the swash plate is at a right angle to the
shaft, and the pump is rotating, the pistons do
not reciprocate; therefore, no pumping action Figure 4-16.—Mechanical drive—Stratopower pump.

4-14
 fixed-displacement Stratopower pump; however,
this pump provides the additional function of
automatically varying the volume output.
This function is controlled by the pressure in
the hydraulic system. For example, let us take a
pump rated at 3000 psi, and providing flow to a
3000 psi system. As system pressure approaches,
say 2850 psi, the pump begins to unload (deliver
less flow to the system) and is fully unloaded (zero
flow) at 3000 psi.
The pressure regulation and flow are
controlled by internal bypasses that automatically
adjust fluid delivery to system demands.
The bypass system is provided to supply
Figure 4-17.—Fluid displacement—Stratopower pump. self-lubrication, particularly when the pump is in
nonflow operation. The ring of bypass holes in
the pistons are aligned with the bypass passage
valve when the piston advances to its foremost each time a piston reaches the very end of its
position. The low-pressure area occurring in the forward travel. This pumps a small quantity of
cylinder during the piston return causes fluid to fluid out of the bypass passage back to the supply
flow from the reservoir into the cylinder. reservoir and provides a constant changing of
The internal features of the variable- fluid in the pump. The bypass is designed to pump
displacement Stratopower pump are illustrated in against a considerable back pressure for use with
figure 4-18. This pump operates similarly to the pressurized reservoirs.

Figure 4-18.—Internal features of Stratopower variable-displacement pump.

4-15
 CHAPTER 5

FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS

The control and application of fluid power SELECTION OF PIPES AND TUBING
would be impossible without suitable means of
transferring the fluid between the reservoir, the
The material, ID, and wall thickness are
power source, and the points of application. Fluid
the three primary considerations in the selec-
lines are used to transfer the fluid, and fittings
tion of lines for a particular fluid power
are used to connect the lines to the power source
system.
and the points of application.
The ID of a line is important, since it
This chapter is devoted to fluid lines and
determines how much fluid can pass through the
fittings. After studying this chapter, you should
line in a given time period (rate of flow)
have the knowledge to identify the most com-
without loss of power due to excessive friction
monly used lines and fittings, and be able to
and heat. The velocity of a given flow is less
explain the procedure for fabricating, testing, and
through a large opening than through a small
labeling the lines.
opening. If the ID of the line is too small for the
amount of flow, excessive turbulence and friction
heat cause unnecessary power loss and overheated
fluid.
TYPES OF LINES

The three types of lines used in fluid power

Sizing of Pipes and Tubing
systems are pipe (rigid), tubing (semirigid),
and hose (flexible). A number of factors are
considered when the type of line is selected for Pipes are available in three different weights:
a particular fluid system. These factors include standard (STD), or Schedule 40; extra strong
the type of fluid, the required system pressure, (XS), or Schedule 80; and double extra strong
and the location of the system. For example, (XXS). The schedule numbers range from 10
heavy pipe might be used for a large stationary to 160 and cover 10 distinct sets of wall
fluid power system, but comparatively lightweight thickness. (See table 5-1.) Schedule 160 wall
tubing must be used in aircraft and missile thickness is slightly thinner than the double extra
systems because weight and space are critical strong.
factors. Flexible hose is required in installations
where units must be free to move relative to each As mentioned earlier, the size of pipes is
other. determined by the nominal (approximate) ID. For
example, the ID for a 1/4-inch Schedule 40 pipe
is 0.364 inch, and the ID for a 1/2-inch Schedule
40 pipe is 0.622 inch.
PIPES AND TUBING
It is important to note that the IDs of all pipes
There are three important dimensions of any of the same nominal size are not equal. This is
tubular product—outside diameter (OD), inside because the OD remains constant and the wall
diameter (ID), and wall thickness. Sizes of pipe thickness increases as the schedule number
are listed by the nominal (or approximate) ID and increases. For example, a nominal size 1-inch
the wall thickness. Sizes of tubing are listed by Schedule 40 pipe has a 1.049 ID. The same size
the actual OD and the wall thickness. Schedule 80 pipe has a 0.957 ID, while Schedule

5-1
 Table 5-1.—Wall Thickness Schedule Designations for Pipe

160 pipe has a 0.815 ID. In each case the OD is metals has its own distinct advantages or
1.315 (table 5-1) and the wall thicknesses are disadvantages in certain applications.
0.133 ( 1“315 ; 1“M9), 0.179 (1”315 ; 9“957), Steel pipe and tubing are relatively inexpensive
and are used in many hydraulic and pneumatic
and 0.250 ( 1“315~0”815) respectively. Note systems. Steel is used because of its strength,
that the difference between the OD and ID suitability for bending and flanging, and
includes two wall thicknesses and must be divided adaptability to high pressures and temperatures.
by 2 to obtain the wall thickness. Its chief disadvantage is its comparatively low
Tubing differs from pipe in its size classi- resistance to corrosion.
fication. Tubing is designated by its actual OD. Copper pipe and tubing are sometimes used
(See table 5-2.) Thus, 5/8-inch tubing has an OD for fluid power lines. Copper has high resistance
of 5/8 inch. As indicated in the table, tubing is to corrosion and is easily drawn or bent. However,
available in a variety of wall thicknesses. The it is unsatisfactory for high temperatures and has
diameter of tubing is often measured and a tendency to harden and break due to stress and
indicated in 16ths. Thus, No. 6 tubing is 6/16 or vibration.
3/8 inch, No. 8 tubing is 8/16 or 1/2 inch, and
so forth. Aluminum has many of the characteristics and
The wall thickness, material used, and ID qualities required for fluid power lines. It has high
determine the bursting pressure of a line or fitting. resistance to corrosion and is easily drawn or bent.
The greater the wall thickness in relation to the In addition, it has the outstanding characteristic
ID and the stronger the metal, the higher the of light weight. Since weight elimination is a vital
bursting pressure. However, the greater the ID for factor in the design of aircraft, aluminum alloy
a given wall thickness, the lower the bursting tubing is used in the majority of aircraft fluid
pressure, because force is the product of area and power systems.
pressure.
Stainless-steel tubing is used in certain areas
of many aircraft fluid power systems. As a general
Materials
rule, exposed lines and lines subject to abrasion
or intense heat are made of stainless steel.
The pipe and tubing used in fluid power
systems are commonly made from steel, copper, An improperly piped system can lead to
brass, aluminum, and stainless steel. Each of these serious power loss and possible harmful fluid

5-2
 Table 5-2.—Tubing Size Designation

contamination. Therefore in maintenance and PREPARATION OF PIPES

repair of fluid power system lines, the basic design AND TUBING
requirements must be kept in mind. Two primary
requirements are as follows: Fluid power systems are designed as compactly
as possible, to keep the connecting lines short.
1. The lines must have the correct ID to Every section of line should be anchored securely
provide the required volume and velocity of flow in one or more places so that neither the weight
with the least amount of turbulence during all of the line nor the effects of vibration are carried
demands on the system. on the joints. The aim is to minimize stress
throughout the system.
2. The lines must be made of the proper Lines should normally be kept as short and
material and have the wall thickness to provide free of bends as possible. However, tubing should
sufficient strength to both contain the fluid at the not be assembled in a straight line, because a bend
required pressure and withstand the surges of tends to eliminate strain by absorbing vibration
pressure that may develop in the system. and also compensates for thermal expansion and

5-3
contraction. Bends are preferred to elbows,
because bends cause less of a power loss. A few
of the correct and incorrect methods of installing
tubing are illustrated in figure 5-1.
Bends are described by their radius measure-
ments. The ideal bend radius is 2 1/2 to 3 times
the ID, as shown in figure 5-2. For example, if
the ID of a line is 2 inches, the radius of the bend
should be between 5 and 6 inches.
While friction increases markedly for sharper
curves than this, it also tends to increase up to
a certain point for gentler curves. The increases
in friction in a bend with a radius of more than
3 pipe diameters result from increased turbulence
near the outside edges of the flow. Particles of
fluid must travel a longer distance in making the Figure 5-2.—Ideal bend radius.
change in direction. When the radius of the bend
is less than 2 1/2 pipe diameters, the increased
pressure loss is due to the abrupt change in the knob. Too much pressure applied to the cutting
direction of flow, especially for particles near the wheel at onetime may deform the tubing or cause
inside edge of the flow. excessive burrs. Rotate the cutter toward its open
During your career in the Navy, you may be side (fig. 5-3). As you rotate the cutter, adjust the
required to fabricate new tubing to replace tightening knob after each complete turn to
damaged or failed lines. Fabrication of tubing maintain light pressure on the cutting wheel.
consists of four basic operations: cutting, When you use the chipless cutter, take the
deburring, bending, and joint preparation. following steps:

Tube Cutting and Deburring 1. Select the chipless cutter according to

tubing size.
The objective of cutting tubing is to produce 2. Rotate the cutter head to accept the tubing
a square end that is free from burrs. Tubing may in the cutting position. Check that the cutter
be cut using a standard tube cutter (fig. 5-3), a ratchet is operating freely and that the cutter wheel
chipless cutter (fig. 5-4), or a fine-toothed is clear of the cutter head opening (fig. 5-4).
hacksaw if a tube cutter is not available. 3. Center the tubing on two rollers and the
When you use the standard tube cutter, place cutting blade.
the tube in the cutter with the cutting wheel at the 4. Use the hex key provided with the kit to
point where the cut is to be made. Apply light turn the drive screw in until the cutter wheel
pressure on the tube by tightening the adjusting touches the tube.

Figure 5-1.—Correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing.

5-4
 Figure 5-3.—Tube cutting.

5. Tighten the drive screw 1/8 to 1/4 turn. Do After the tubing is cut, remove all burrs and
not overtighten the drive screw. Overtightening sharp edges from inside and outside of the tube
can damage soft tubing or cause excessive wear (fig. 5-5) with deburring tools. Clean out the
or breakage of the cutter wheel in hard tubing. tubing. Make sure no foreign particles remain.
6. Swing the ratchet handle back and forth A convenient method for cutting tubing with
through the available clearance until there is a a hacksaw is to place the tube in a flaring block
noticeable ease of rotation. Avoid putting side and clamp the block in a vice. After cutting the
force on the cutter handle. Side force will cause tubing with a hacksaw, remove all saw marks by
the cutter wheel to break. filing.
7. Tighten the drive screw an additional 1/8
Tube Bending
to 1/4 turn and swing the ratchet handle back and
forth, retightening the drive screw as needed until The objective in tube bending is to obtain a
the cut is completed. The completed cut should smooth bend without flattening the tube. Tube
be 1/2 degree square to the tube centerline. bending is usually done with either a hand tube
bender or a mechanically operated bender.

Figure 5-4.—Chipless cutter. Figure 5-5.—Properly burred tubing.

5-5
 Figure 5-6.—Bending tubing with hand-operated tube bender.

HAND TUBE BENDER.— The hand tube

tubing. The radius block is marked in degrees of
bender shown in figure 5-6 consists of a handle,
bend ranging from 0 to 180 degrees. The slide bar
a radius block, a clip, and a slide bar. The handle
has a mark which is lined up with the zero mark
and slide bar are used as levers to provide the
on the radius block. The tube is inserted in the
mechanical advantage necessary to bend the
tube bender, and after the marks are lined up, the

5-6
 tubing, as well as all other metal tubing. It is
designed to be fastened to a bench or tripod. The
base is formed to provide a secure grip in a vise.
This type of tube bender uses a hand crank
and gears. The forming die is keyed to the drive
gear and is secured by a screw.
The forming die on the mechanical tube
bender is calibrated in degrees, similarly to the
radius block of the hand bender. A length of
replacement tubing may be bent to a specified
number of degrees or it may be bent to duplicate
a bend either in a damaged tube or in a pattern.
Duplicating a bend of a damaged tube or of a
pattern is done by laying the sample or pattern
on top of the tube being bent and slowly bending
the new tube to the required bend.

Tube Flaring
Figure 5-7.—Mechanically operated tube bender.
Tube flaring is a method of forming the end
of a tube into a funnel shape so it can be held by
slide bar is moved around until the mark on the
a threaded fitting. When a flared tube is prepared,
slide bar reaches the desired degree of bend on
a flare nut is slipped onto the tube and the end
the radius block. See figure 5-6 for the six
of the tube is flared. During tube installation, the
procedural steps in tube bending with the
flare is seated to a fitting with the inside of the
hand-operated tube bender.
flare against the cone-shaped end of the fitting,
and the flare nut is screwed onto the fitting,
MECHANICAL TUBE BENDER.— The
pulling the inside of the flare against the seating
tube bender shown in figure 5-7 is issued as a kit.
surface of the fitting.
The kit contains the equipment necessary for
Either of two flaring tools (fig. 5-8) may be
bending tubing from 1/4 inch to 3/4 inch in
used. One gives a single flare and the other gives
diameter.
a double flare. The flaring tool consists of a split
This tube bender is designed for use with
die block that has holes for various sizes of tubing,
aircraft grade, high-strengths stainless-steel

Figure 5-8.—Flaring tools.

5-7
a clamp to lock the end of the tubing inside the
die block, and a yoke with a compressor screw
and cone that slips over the die block and forms
the 45-degree flare on the end of the tube. The
screw has a T-handle. A double flaring tube has
adaptors that turn in the edge of the tube before
a regular 45-degree double flare is made.
To use the single flaring tool, first check to
see that the end of the tubing has been cut off
squarely and has had the burrs removed from
both inside and outside. Slip the flare nut onto
the tube before you make the flare. Then, open
the die block. Insert the end of the tubing into
the hole corresponding to the OD of the tubing
so that the end protrudes slightly above the top
face of the die blocks. The amount by which the
tubing extends above the blocks determines the
finished diameter of the flare. The flare must be
large enough to seat properly against the fitting,
but small enough that the threads of the flare nut Figure 5-9.—Synthetic rubber hoses.
will slide over it. Close the die block and secure
the tool with the wing nut. Use the handle of the
yoke to tighten the wing nut. Then place the yoke pressure ranges: low, medium, and high. The
over the end of the tubing and tighten the handle outer cover is designed to withstand external abuse
to force the cone into the end of the tubing. The and contains identification markings.
completed flare should be slightly visible above Synthetic rubber hoses with rubber covers are
the face of the die blocks. identified with the military specification number,
the size by dash number, the quarter and year of
cure or manufacture, and the manufacturer’s code
FLEXIBLE HOSE identification number or federal supply code
number printed along their layline (fig. 5-10, view
Shock-resistant, flexible hose assemblies are A). The layline is a legible marking parallel to the
required to absorb the movements of mounted longitudinal axis of a hose used in determining
equipment under both normal operating condi- the straightness or lay of the hose.
tions and extreme conditions. They are also Synthetic rubber hoses with wire braid cover
used for their noise-attenuating properties and are identified by bands (fig. 5-10, view B) wrapped
to connect moving parts of certain equipment. around the hose ends and at intervals along the
The two basic hose types are synthetic rubber length of the hose.
and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), such as
Du Pont’s Teflon®fluorocarbon resin.
Sizing

The size of a flexible hose is identified by the

dash (-) number, which is the ID of the hose
Rubber hoses are designed for specific fluid,
expressed in 16ths of an inch. For example, the
temperature, and pressure ranges and are
ID of a -64 hose is 4 inches. For a few hose styles
provided in various specifications. Rubber hoses
this is the nominal and not the true ID.
(fig. 5-9) consist of a minimum three layers; a
seamless synthetic rubber tube reinforced with one
or more layers of braided or spiraled cotton, wire, Cure Date
or synthetic fiber; and an outer cover. The inner
tube is designed to withstand the attack of the Synthetic rubber hoses will deteriorate from
fluid that passes through it. The braided or aging. A cure date is used to ensure that they do
spiraled layers determine the strength of the hose. not deteriorate beyond material and performance
The greater the number of these layers, the greater specifications. The cure date is the quarter and
is the pressure rating. Hoses are provided in three year the hose was manufactured. For example,

5-8
 Technical Directive for Piping Devices and
Flexible Hose Assemblies, NAVSEA S6430-AE-
TED-010. volume 1. provide detailed instructions
on discarding and downgrading of rubber hoses
exceeding their shelf life.

PFTE

PFTE hose is a flexible hose designed to meet

the requirements of higher operating pressures and
temperatures in present fluid power systems. This
type of hose is made from a chemical resin, which
is processed and extruded into a tube shaped to
a desired size. It is reinforced with one or more
layers of braided stainless-steel wire or with an
even number of spiral wrap layers with an outer
wire braid layer.
PTFE hose is unaffected by all fluids presently
used in fluid power systems. It is inert to acids,
both concentrated and diluted. Certain PFTE
hose may be used in systems where operating
temperatures range from –100°F to +500°F.
PTFE is nonflammable; however, where the
possibility of open flame exists, a special asbestos
fire sleeve should be used.
PFTE hose will not absorb moisture. This,
together with its chemical inertness and anti-
adhesive characteristics, makes it ideal for missile
fluid power systems where noncontamination and
cleanliness are essential.
In lieu of layline marking, PTFE hoses are
identified by metal or pliable plastic bands at their
ends and at intervals along their length. Figure
5-10, view C, shows a hose label for a PTFE hose.
Usually the only condition that will shorten the
life of PTFE hose is excessive temperature. For
this reason there is no manufacture date listed on
the identification tag.

Figure 5-10.—Hose identification. APPLICATION

As mentioned earlier, flexible hose is available

1Q89 or 1/89 means the hose was made during in three pressure ranges: low, medium, and high.
the first quarter (1 Jan to 31 Mar) of 1989. When replacing hoses, it is important to ensure
The cure date limits the length of time a rubber that the replacement hose is a duplicate of the one
hose can be stored, in bulk or as an assembly, removed in length, OD, material, type and
prior to being placed into service. The storage or contour, and associated markings. In selecting
shelf life for rubber hose is 4 years. For the hose hose, several precautions must be observed. The
manufactured in 1Q89, the storage or shelf life selected hose must
will end on the 31st of March 1993. At this point,
the hose is no longer considered usable and should 1. be compatible with the system fluid,
be discarded or downgraded. The Aviation Hose 2. have a rated pressure greater than the design
and Tube Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-20, and the pressure of the system,

5-9
3. be designed to give adequate performance and minutes to ensure that it will withstand normal
service for infrequent transient pressure peaks working pressures. The test pressure, known as
up to 150 percent of the working pressure of normal proof pressure, is twice the rated working
the hose, and pressure. While the test pressure is being applied,
4. have a safety factor with a burst pressure at the hose must not burst, leak, or show signs
a minimum of 4 times the rated working of fitting separation. NAVAIR 01-1A-20 and
pressure. NAVSEA S6430-AE-TED-010, volume 1, provide
detailed instructions on cleaning of hoses, cleaning
There are temperature restrictions applied to and test media, proof pressure and proof testing.
the use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used
where the operating temperature exceeds 200°F. After proof testing is completed, the hose must
PTFE hoses in high-pressure air systems must not be flushed and dried and the ends capped or
be used where the temperature exceeds 350°F. plugged to keep dirt and other contaminants out
PTFE hoses in water and steam drain applications of the hose.
must not be used where the operating temperature
exceeds 380°F.
IDENTIFICATION
FABRICATION AND TESTING
The final step after fabrication and satisfac-
The fabrication of flexible hose assemblies is tory testing of a hose assembly is the attachment
covered in applicable training manuals, technical of identification tags as shown in figure 5-11 (for
publications, and NAVAIR 01-1A-20. After a ships) and in figure 5-12 (for aircraft). The tag
hose assembly has been completely fabricated it shown in figure 5-12, view B, is used in areas
must be cleaned, visually inspected for foreign where a tag maybe drawn into an engine intake.
materials, and proof tested. Hose assemblies to be installed in aircraft fuel and
A hose assembly is proof tested by the oil tanks are marked with an approved electric
application of a nondestructive pressure for a engraver on the socket-wrench flats with the
minimum of 1 minute but not longer than 5 required information.

Figure 5-11.—Hose assembly identification tags (ships).

5-10
Figure 5-12.—Hose assembly identification tags (aircraft).

INSTALLATION
Figure 5-13.—Correct and incorrect installation of flexible
Flexible hose must not be twisted during hose.
installation, since this reduces the life of the hose
considerably and may cause the fittings to loosen
as well. You can determine whether or not a hose supports are desirable and in some cases may be
is twisted by looking at the layline that runs along required.
the length of the hose. If the layline does not spiral A flexible hose must never be stretched tightly
around the hose, the hose is not twisted. If the between two fittings. About 5 to 8 percent of the
layline does spiral around the hose, the hose is total length must be allowed as slack to provide
twisted (fig. 5-13, view B) and must be untwisted. freedom of movement under pressure. When
Flexible hose should be protected from chafing under pressure, flexible hose contracts in length
by using a chafe-resistant covering wherever and expands in diameter. Examples of correct and
necessary. incorrect installations of flexible hose are
The minimum bend radius for flexible hose illustrated in figure 5-13.
varies according to the size and construction of PFTE hose should be handled carefully during
the hose and the pressure under which the removal and installation. Some PFTE hose is pre-
system operates. Current applicable technical formed during fabrication. This type of hose tends
publications contain tables and graphs showing to form itself to the installed position in the sys-
minimum bend radii for the different types of tem. To ensure its satisfactory function and reduce
installations. Bends that are too sharp will reduce the likelihood of failure, anyone who works with
the bursting pressure of flexible hose considerably PFTE hose should observe the following rules:
below its rated value.
Flexible hose should be installed so that it will 1. Do not exceed recommended bend limits.
be subjected to a minimum of flexing during 2. Do not exceed twisting limits.
operation. Support clamps are not necessary with 3. Do not straighten a bent hose that has
short installations; but for hose of considerable taken a permanent set.
length (48 inches for example), clamps should be 4. Do not hang, lift, or support objects from
placed not more than 24 inches apart. Closer PFTE hose.

5-11
 Once flexible hose assemblies are installed, compound so that it will not contaminate the
there are no servicing or maintenance require- fluid. Pipe compound, when improperly applied,
ments other than periodic inspections. These may get inside the lines and components and
inspections are conducted according to mainte- damage pumps and control equipment.
nance instruction manuals (MIMs), maintenance Another material used on pipe threads is
requirement cards (MRCs), and depot-level sealant tape. This tape, which is made of PTFE,
specifications. provides an effective means of sealing pipe
connections and eliminates the necessity of
torquing connections to excessively high values
TYPES OF FITTINGS in order to prevent pressure leaks. It also provides
AND CONNECTORS for ease of maintenance whenever it is necessary
to disconnect pipe joints. The tape is applied over
Some type of connector or fitting must be the male threads, leaving the first thread exposed.
provided to attach the lines to the components of After the tape is pressed firmly against the
the system and to connect sections of line to threads, the joint is connected.
each other. There are many different types of
connectors and fittings provided for this purpose. FLANGE CONNECTORS
The type of connector or fitting required for a
specific system depends on several factors. One Bolted flange connectors (fig. 5-14) are
determining factor, of course, is the type of fluid suitable for most pressures now in use. The
line (pipe, tubing, or flexible hose) used in flanges are attached to the piping by welding,
the system. Other determining factors are the brazing, tapered threads (for some low-pressure
type of fluid medium and the maximum operating systems), or rolling and bending into recesses.
pressure of the system. Some of the most common Those illustrated are the most common types of
types of fittings and connectors are described in flange joints used. The same types of standard
the following paragraphs. fitting shapes (tee, cross, elbow, and so forth) are
manufactured for flange joints. Suitable gasket
THREADED CONNECTORS material must be used between the flanges.

There are several different types of threaded WELDED CONNECTORS

connectors. In the type discussed in this section,
both the connector and the end of the fluid line The subassemblies of some fluid power
(pipe) are threaded. These connectors are used in systems are connected by welded joints, especially
some low-pressure fluid power systems and are in high-pressure systems which use pipe for fluid
usually made of steel, copper, or brass, and are lines. The welding is done according to standard
available in a variety of designs.
Threaded connectors are made with standard
pipe threads cut on the inside surface. The end
of the pipe is threaded with outside threads.
Standard pipe threads are tapered slightly to
ensure tight connections. The amount of taper is
approximately 3/4 inch in diameter per foot of
thread.
Metal is removed when a pipe is threaded,
thinning the pipe and exposing new and rough
surfaces. Corrosion agents work more quickly at
such points than elsewhere. If pipes are assembled
with no protective compound on the threads,
corrosion sets in at once and the two sections
stick together so that the threads seize when
disassembly is attempted. The result is damaged
threads and pipes.
To prevent seizing, a suitable pipe thread
compound is sometimes applied to the threads.
The two end threads must be kept free of Figure 5-14.—Four types of bolted flange connectors.

5-12
specifications which define the materials and connectors with aluminum alloy tubing. Fittings
techniques. are made in union, 45-degree and 90-degree
elbow, tee, and various other shapes (fig. 5-16).

BRAZED CONNECTORS Tees, crosses, and elbows are self-explanatory.

Universal and bulkhead fittings can be mounted
Silver-brazed connectors are commonly used solidly with one outlet of the fitting extending
for joining nonferrous (copper, brass, and soon) through a bulkhead and the other outlet(s) posi-
piping in the pressure and temperature range tioned at any angle. Universal means the fitting
where their use is practical. Use of this type of can assume the angle required for the specific
connector is limited to installations in which the installation. Bulkhead means the fitting is long
piping temperature will not exceed 425°F and the enough to pass through a bulkhead and is
pressure in cold lines will not-exceed 3,000 psi. designed so it can be secured solidly to the
The alloy is melted by heating the joint with an bulkhead.
oxyacetylene torch. This causes the alloy insert
to melt and fill the few thousandths of an inch For connecting to tubing, the ends of the
annular space between the pipe and the fitting. fittings are threaded with straight machine threads
A fitting of this type which has been removed to correspond with the female threads of the nut.
from a piping system can be rebrazed into a In some cases, however, one end of the fitting may
system, as in most cases sufficient alloy remains be threaded with tapered pipe threads to fit
in the insert groove for a second joint. New alloy
inserts may be obtained for fittings which do not
have sufficient alloy remaining in the insert for
making a new joint.

FLARED CONNECTORS

Flared connectors are commonly used in fluid

power systems containing lines made of tubing.
These connectors provide safe, strong, dependable
connections without the need for threading,
welding, or soldering the tubing. The connector
consists of a fitting, a sleeve, and a nut (fig. 5-15).

The fittings are made of steel, aluminum alloy,

or bronze. The fitting used in a connection should
be made of the same material as that of the sleeve,
the nut, and the tubing. For example, use steel
connectors with steel tubing and aluminum alloy

Figure 5-15.—Flared-tube fitting. Figure 5-16.—Flared-tube fittings.

5-13
threaded ports in pumps, valves, and other If an aluminum alloy flared connector leaks
components. Several of these thread combinations after being tightened to the required torque, it
are shown in figure 5-16. must not be tightened further. Overtightening may
severely damage or completely cut off the tubing
Tubing used with flare connectors must be flare or may result in damage to the sleeve or nut.
flared prior to assembly. The nut fits over the The leaking connection must be disassembled and
sleeve and when tightened, it draws the sleeve and the fault corrected.
tubing flare tightly against the male fitting to form If a steel tube connection leaks, it may be
a seal. tightened 1/6 turn beyond the specified torque in
an attempt to stop the leakage; then if it still leaks,
The male fitting has a cone-shaped surface it must be disassembled and repaired.
with the same angle as the inside of the flare. The Undertightening of connections may be
sleeve supports the tube so vibration does not serious, as this can allow the tubing to leak at the
concentrate at the edge of the flare, and distributes connector bemuse of insufficient grip on the flare
the shearing action over a wider area for added by the sleeve. The use of a torque wrench will
strength. Tube flaring is covered in Tools and prevent undertightening.
Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 10085 (series), and
other applicable training manuals.
CAUTION
Correct and incorrect methods of installing
flared-tube connectors are illustrated in figure A nut should never be tightened when
5-17. Tubing nuts should be tightened with a there is pressure in the line, as this will tend
torque wrench to the value specified in applicable to damage the connection without adding
technical publications. any appreciable torque to the connection.

Figure 5-17.—Correct and incorrect methods of installing flared fittings.

5-14
FLARELESS-TUBE CONNECTORS concentric, and free of burrs. For the connection
to be effective, the cutting edge of the sleeve or
This type of connector eliminates all tube ferrule must bite into the periphery of the tube
flaring, yet provides a safe, strong, and depend- (fig. 5-19). This is ensured by presetting the sleeve
able tube connection. This connector consists or ferrule on the tube.
of a fitting, a sleeve or ferrule, and a nut.
(See fig. 5-18.)
Presetting

Presetting consists of deforming the ferrule to

NOTE bite into the tube OD and deforming the end of
the tube to form a shallow conical ring seating
Although the use of flareless tube surface. The tube and ferrule assembly should be
connectors is widespread, NAVSEA policy preset in a presetting tool that has an end section
is to reduce or eliminate use of flareless identical to a fitting body but which is made of
fittings in newly designed ships; the extent specially hardened steel. This tool hardness is
to which flareless fittings are approved for needed to ensure that all deformation at the tube
use in a particular ship is reflected in end seat goes into the tube.
applicable ship drawings.
Presetting is done with a hydraulic presetting
Flareless-tube fittings are available in many tool or a manual presetting tool, either in the shop
of the same shapes and thread combinations as or aboard ship. The tool vendor’s instructions
flared-tube fittings. (See fig. 5-16.) The fitting has must be followed for the hydraulic presetting tool.
a counterbore shoulder for the end of the tubing If a presetting tool is not available, the fitting
to rest against. The angle of the counterbore body intended for installation is used in the same
causes the cutting edge of the sleeve or ferrule to manner as the manual presetting tool. (If an
cut into the outside surface of the tube when the aluminum fitting is used, it should not be reused
two are assembled. in the system.) The manual tool is used as follows:
The nut presses on the bevel of the sleeve and
causes it to clamp tightly to the tube. Resistance
WARNING
to vibration is concentrated at this point rather
than at the sleeve cut. When fully tightened, the
Failure to follow these instructions may
sleeve or ferrule is bowed slightly at the midsection
result in improperly preset ferrules with
and acts as a spring. This spring action of the
insufficient bite into the tube. Improperly
sleeve or ferrule maintains a constant tension
preset ferrules have resulted in joints that
between the body and the nut and thus prevents
passed hydrostatic testing and operated for
the nut from loosening.
weeks or years, then failed catastrophically
Prior to the installation of a new flareless-tube under shock, vibration, or normal operat-
connector, the end of the tubing must be square, ing loads. Flareless fitting failures have

Figure 5-18. —Flareless-tube connector. Figure 5-19.—Unused ferrules.

5-15
 caused personnel injury, damage to equip-
ment, and unnecessary interruption of
propulsion power.

1. Cut the tubing square and lightly deburr

the inside and outside corners. For corrosion
resisting steel (CRES) tubing, use a hacksaw rather
than a tubing cutter to avoid work hardening the
tube end. For CRES, and if necessary for other
materials, dress the tube end smooth and square
with a file. Tube ends with irregular cutting marks
will not produce satisfactory seating surface
impressions.

2. Test the hardness of the ferrule by making Figure 5-20.—Tube and ferrule assembled for preset-
a light scratch on the tubing at least 1/2 inch back ting, showing nut position required for inspecting
from the tube end, using a sharp corner on the ferrule.
ferrule. If the ferrule will not scratch the tube,
no bite will be obtained. This test maybe omitted
for flush-type ferrules where the bite will be Inspection
visible. Moderate hand pressure is sufficient for
producing the scratch. Disassemble and inspect the fitting as follows
(mandatory):
3. Lubricate the nut threads, the ferrule
leading and trailing edges, and the preset tool 1. Ensure that the end of the tubing has an
threads with a thread lubricant compatible with impression of the presetting tool seat surface
the system. Slide the nut onto the tubing so the (circular appearing ring) for 360 degrees. A partial
threads face the tube end. Note whether the circle, a visibly off-center circle, or a circle broken
ferrule is a flush type or recessed type (fig. 5-19), by the roughness of the tube end is unsatisfactory.
and slide the ferrule onto the tube so the cutting
edge is toward the tube end (large end toward the 2. Check for proper bite:
nut).
a. For flush-type ferrules, a raised ridge
4. Bottom the end of the tubing in the (fig. 5-21) of tube metal must be visible completely
presetting tool. Slide the ferrule up into the around the tube at the leading edge of the ferrule.
presetting tool, and confirm that the nut can be The best practice is to obtain a ridge about 50
moved down the tube sufficiently to expose at percent of the ferrule edge thickness.
least 1/8 inch of tubing past the ferrule after the
presetting operation (fig. 5-20) to allow for
inspection of the ferrule. Table 5-3.—Number of Turns

5. While keeping the tube bottomed in the

presetting tool, tighten the nut onto the fitting
body until the ferrule just grips the tube by
friction. This ring grip point may be identified by
lightly turning the tube or the presetting tool and
slowly tightening the nut until the tube cannot
be turned in the presetting tool by hand.
Mark the nut and the presetting tool at this
position.

6. Tighten the nut according to the number

of turns given in table 5-3, depending on tube
size.

5-16
 2. Place the tube assembly in position and
check for alignment.

3. Tighten the nut by hand until you feel an

increase in resistance to turning. This indicates
that the sleeve or ferrule pilot has contacted the
fitting.

4. If possible, use a torque wrench to tighten

flareless tubing nuts. Torque values for specific
installations are usually listed in the applicable
technical publications. If it is not possible to use
Figure 5-21.—Ferrules installed on tube, preset and removed a torque wrench, use the following procedures for
for inspection. tightening the nuts:

After the nut is handtight, turn the nut 1/6

b. For recessed-type ferrules, the leading turn (one flat on a hex nut) with a wrench. Use
edge must be snug against the tube OD. Determine a wrench on the connector to prevent it from
this visually and by attempting to rock the ferrule turning while tightening the nut. After you install
on the tube. the tube assembly, have the system pressure tested.
3. Ensure that the nut end of the ferrule (both Should a connection leak, you may tighten the
types) is collapsed around the tube to provide nut an additional 1/6 turn (making a total of 1/3
support against bending loads and vibration. turn). If, after tightening the nut a total of 1/3
turn, leakage still exists, remove the assembly and
4. The ferrule (both types) must have little or
inspect the components of the assembly for scores,
no play along the direction of the tube run. Check
cracks, presence of foreign material, or damage
this by trying to move the ferrule back and forth
from overtightening.
by hand. The ferrule will often be free to rotate
on the tubing; this does not affect its function.
5. For flush-type ferrules, check that the gap NOTE: Overtightening a flareless-tube nut
between the raised metal ridge and the cutting end drives the cutting edge of the sleeve or ferrule
of the ferrule stays the same while the ferrule is deeply into the tube, causing the tube to be
rotated. (Omit this check for recessed-type ferrules weakened to the point where normal vibration
or if the flush-type ferrule will not rotate on the could cause the tube to shear. After you complete
tube). the inspection (if you do not find any dis-
crepancies), reassemble the connection and repeat
6. Check that the middle portion of the ferrule
the pressure test procedures.
(both types) is bowed or sprung into an arc. The
leading edge of the ferrule may appear flattened
into a cone shape; this is acceptable as long as CAUTION: Do not in any case tighten the
there is a bowed section near the middle of the nut beyond 1/3 turn (two flats on the hex nut);
ferrule. If the whole leading section of the ferrule this is the maximum the fitting may be tightened
is flattened into a cone with no bowed section, without the possibility of permanently damaging
the ferrule (and possibly the fitting body, if used) the sleeve or the tube.
has been damaged by overtightening and will not
seal reliably.
CONNECTORS FOR
FLEXIBLE HOSE
Final Assembly

When you make a final assembly in the As stated previously, the fabrication of flexible
system, use the following installation procedure: hose assemblies is covered in applicable training
manuals, technical publications, and NAVAIR
1. Lubricate all threads with a liquid that is 01-1A-20. There are various types of end fittings
compatible with the fluid to be used in the system. for both the piping connection side and the hose

5-17
connection side of hose fittings. Figure 5-22 shows the fitting manufacturer and takes into con-
commonly used fittings. sideration such things as size, construction, wall
thickness, and pressure rating. Hoses used for
Piping Connection Side of Hose Fitting flexible connections use one of the following
methods for attachment of the fitting to the
The piping side of an end fitting comes with hose.
several connecting variations: flange, JIC 37°
flare, O-ring union, and split clamp, to name a ONE-PIECE REUSABLE SOCKET.— The
few. Not all varieties are available for each hose. socket component of the fitting is fabricated as
Therefore, installers must consult the military a single piece. One-piece reusable sockets are
specification and manufacturer’s data to screwed or rocked onto the hose OD, followed
determine the specific end fittings available. by insertion of the nipple component.

Hose Connection Side of Hose Fitting SEGMENTED, BOLTED SOCKET.— The

segmented, bolted socket consists of two or more
Hose fittings are attached to the hose by segments which are bolted together on the hose
several methods. Each method is determined by after insertion of the nipple component.

Figure 5-22.—End fittings and hose fittings.

5-18
 SEGMENTED SOCKET, RING AND a coupling that is used with portable pneumatic
BAND ATTACHED.— The segmented, ring and tools. The male section is connected to the tool
band attached socket consists of three or more or to the line leading from the tool. The female
segments. As with the bolt-together segments, the section, which contains the shutoff valve, is
segments, ring and band are put on the hose after installed in the pneumatic line leading from
insertion of the nipple. A special tool is required the pressure source. These connectors can be
to compress the segments. separated or connected by very little effort on the
part of the operator.
The most common quick-disconnect coupling
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RING AND BOLT
for hydraulic systems consists of two parts, held
ATTACHED.— The segmented, ring and bolt
together by a union nut. Each part contains a
attached socket consists of three or more
valve which is held open when the coupling is
segments. As with other segmented socket-type
connected, allowing fluid to flow in either
fittings, the segments, ring, and nuts and bolts
direction through the coupling. When the
are put on the hose after insertion of the nipple.
coupling is disconnected, a spring in each part
closes the valve, preventing the loss of fluid and
SOLID SOCKET, PERMANENTLY entrance of foreign matter.
ATTACHED.— This type of socket is perma-
nently attached to the hose by crimping or
swaging. It is not reusable and is only found MANIFOLDS
on hose assemblies where operating conditions
preclude the use of other fitting types. Hose Some fluid power systems are equipped with
assemblies with this type of fitting attachment are manifolds in the pressure supply and/or return
purchased as complete hose assemblies from the lines. A manifold is a fluid conductor that
manufacturer. provides multiple connection ports. Manifolds
eliminate piping, reduce joints, which are often
a source of leakage, and conserve space. For
QUICK-DISCONNECT COUPLINGS example, manifolds may be used in systems that
contain several subsystems. One common line
Self-sealing, quick-disconnect couplings are connects the pump to the manifold. There are
used at various points in many fluid power outlet ports in the manifold to provide con-
systems. These couplings are installed at locations nections to each subsystem. A similar manifold
where frequent uncoupling of the lines is required may be used in the return system. Lines from the
for inspection, test, and maintenance. Quick- control valves of the subsystem connect to the inlet
disconnect couplings are also commonly used in ports of the manifold, where the fluid combines
pneumatic systems to connect sections of air hose into one outlet line to the reservoir. Some
and to connect tools to the air pressure lines. This manifolds are equipped with the check valves,
provides a convenient method of attaching and relief valves, filters, and so on, required for the
detaching tools and sections of lines without losing system. In some cases, the control valves are
pressure. mounted on the manifold in such a manner that
Quick-disconnect couplings provide a means the ports of the valves are connected directly to
for quickly disconnecting a line without the loss the manifold.
of fluid from the system or the entrance of Manifolds are usually one of three types—
foreign matter into the system. Several types of sandwich, cast, or drilled. The sandwich type is
quick-disconnect couplings have been designed for constructed of three or more flat plates. The
use in fluid power systems. Figure 5-23 illustrates center plate (or plates) is machined for passages,
and the required inlet and outlet ports are drilled
into the outer plates. The plates are then bonded
together to provide a leakproof assembly. The cast
type of manifold is designed with cast passages
and drilled ports. The casting may be iron, steel,
bronze, or aluminum, depending upon the type
of system and fluid medium. In the drilled type
of manifold, all ports and passages are drilled in
Figure 5-23.—Quick-disconnect coupling for air lines. a block of metal.

5-19
 A simple manifold is illustrated in figure 5-24.
This manifold contains one pressure inlet port and
several pressure outlet ports that can be blocked
off with threaded plugs. This type of manifold
can be adapted to systems containing various
numbers of subsystems. A thermal relief valve
may be incorporated in this manifold. In this case,
the port labeled T is connected to the return line
to provide a passage for the relieved fluid to flow
to the reservoir.
Figure 5-25 shows a flow diagram in a
manifold which provides both pressure and return
passages. One common line provides pressurized
fluid to the manifold, which distributes the fluid
to any one of five outlet ports. The return side
of the manifold is similar in design. This manifold
is provided with a relief valve, which is connected
to the pressure and return passages. In the event
of excessive pressure, the relief valve opens and
allows the fluid to flow from the pressure side of
the manifold to the return side.

Figure 5-25.—Fluid manifold—flow diagram.

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
perfectly clean on the inside. All lines must be
The fabrication, installation, and maintenance absolutely clean and free from scale and other
of all fluid lines and connectors are beyond the foreign matter. Iron or steel pipes, tubing, and
scope of this training manual. However, there are fittings can be cleaned with a boiler tube
some general precautionary measures that apply wire brush or with commercial pipe cleaning
to the maintenance of all fluid lines. apparatus. Rust and scale can be removed from
Regardless of the type of lines or connectors short, straight pieces by sandblasting, provided
used to make up a fluid power system, make there is no danger that sand particles will remain
certain they are the correct size and strength and lodged in blind holes or pockets after the piece

Figure 5-24 .—Fluid manifold.

5-20
is flushed. In the case of long pieces or pieces bent Open ends of pipes, tubing, hose, and fittings
to complex shapes, rust and scale can be removed should be capped or plugged when they are to be
by pickling (cleaning metal in a chemical bath). stored for any considerable period. Rags or waste
Parts must be degreased prior to pickling. The must not be used for this purpose, because they
manufacturer of the parts should provide deposit harmful lint which can cause severe
complete pickling instructions. damage to the fluid power system.

5-21
 CHAPTER 6

VALVES

It is all but impossible to design a practical control. Some valves have multiple functions that
fluid power system without some means of fall into more than one classification.
controlling the volume and pressure of the fluid
and directing the flow of fluid to the operating
units. This is accomplished by the incorporation FLOW CONTROL VALVES
of different types of valves. A valve is defined as
Flow control valves are used to regulate the
any device by which the flow of fluid may be
flow of fluids in fluid-power systems. Control of
started, stopped, or regulated by a movable part
flow in fluid-power systems is important because
that opens or obstructs passage. As applied
the rate of movement of fluid-powered machines
in fluid power systems, valves are used for
depends on the rate of flow of the pressurized
controlling the flow, the pressure, and the
fluid. These valves may be manually, hydrau-
direction of the fluid flow.
lically, electrically, or pneumatically operated.
Valves must be accurate in the control of fluid
Some of the different types of flow control
flow and pressure and the sequence of operation.
valves are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Leakage between the valve element and the valve
seat is reduced to a negligible quantity by
BALL VALVES
precision-machined surfaces, resulting in carefully
controlled clearances. This is one of the very Ball valves, as the name implies, are stop
important reasons for minimizing contamination valves that use a ball to stop or start a flow of
in fluid power systems. Contamination causes fluid. The ball, shown in figure 6-1, performs the
valves to stick, plugs small orifices, and causes
abrasions of the valve seating surfaces, which
results in leakage between the valve element and
valve seat when the valve is in the closed position.
Any of these can result in inefficient operation
or complete stoppage of the equipment.
Valves may be controlled manually, electri-
cally, pneumatically, mechanically, hydraulically,
or by combinations of two or more of these
methods. Factors that determine the method of
control include the purpose of the valve, the
design and purpose of the system, the location of
the valve within the system, and the availability
of the source of power.
The different types of valves used in fluid
power systems, their classification, and their
application are discussed in this chapter.

CLASSIFICATIONS

Valves are classified according to their use:

flow control, pressure control, and directional Figure 6-1.—Typical ball valve.

6-1
same function as the disk in other valves. As the handwheel and operating force to operate a fairly
valve handle is turned to open the valve, the ball large valve. The gearing does, however, increase
rotates to a point where part or all of the hole the operating time for the valve. Some ball valves
through the ball is in line with the valve body inlet also contain a swing check located within the ball
and outlet, allowing fluid to flow through the to give the valve a check valve feature. Figure 6-2
valve. When the ball is rotated so the hole is shows a ball-stop, swing-check valve with a
perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve planetary gear operation.
body, the flow of fluid stops.
Most ball valves are the quick-acting type. In addition to the ball valves shown in figures
They require only a 90-degree turn to either 6-1 and 6-2, there are three-way ball valves that
completely open or close the valve. However, are used to supply fluid from a single source to
many are operated by planetary gears. This type one component or the other in a two-component
of gearing allows the use of a relatively small system (fig. 6-3).

Figure 6-2.—Typical ball-stop, swing-check valve.

6-2
 (fig. 6-4). Therefore, there is little pressure drop
or flow restriction through the valve.
Gate valves are not suitable for throttling
purposes. The control of flow is difficult because
of the valve’s design, and the flow of fluid
slapping against a partially open gate can
cause extensive damage to the valve. Except as
specifically authorized, gate valves should not be
used for throttling.
Gate valves are classified as either rising-stem
or nonrising-stem valves. The nonrising-stem
valve is shown in figure 6-4. The stem is threaded
into the gate. As the handwheel on the stem is
rotated, the gate travels up or down the stem on
the threads while the stem remains vertically
stationary. This type of valve will almost always
have a pointer indicator threaded onto the upper
end of the stem to indicate the position of the gate.
Valves with rising stems (fig. 6-5) are used
when it is important to know by immediate
inspection whether the valve is open or closed and
Figure 6-3.—Three-way ball valve. when the threads (stem and gate) exposed to the
fluid could become damaged by fluid contami-
nants. In this valve, the stem rises out of the valve
GATE VALVES when the valve is opened.
GLOBE VALVES
Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow
of fluid and minimum flow restriction are needed. Globe valves are probably the most common
Gate valves are so-named because the part that valves in existence. The globe valve gets its name
either stops or allows flow through the valve
acts somewhat like a gate. The gate is usually
wedge-shaped. When the valve is wide open the
gate is fully drawn up into the valve bonnet. This
leaves an opening for flow through the valve the
same size as the pipe in which the valve is installed

Figure 6-4.—Operation of a gate valve. Figure 6-5.—Rising stem gate valve.

6-3
 Figure 6-6.—Types of globe valve bodies.

from the globular shape of the valve body. Other when the valve is closed. When the valve is open
types of valves may also have globular-shaped (fig. 6-7, view B), the fluid flows through the space
bodies. Thus, it is the internal structure of the between the edge of the disk and the seat. Since
valve that identifies the type of valve. the fluid flows equally on all sides of the center
The inlet and outlet openings for globe valves of support when the valve is open, there is no
are arranged in a way to satisfy the flow unbalanced pressure on the disk to cause uneven
requirements. Figure 6-6 shows straight-, angle-, wear. The rate at which fluid flows through the
and cross-flow valves. valve is regulated by the position of the disk in
The moving parts of a globe valve consist of relation to the seat. The valve is commonly used
the disk, the valve stem, and the handwheel. The as a fully open or fully closed valve, but it may
stem connects the handwheel and the disk. It is be used as a throttle valve. However, since the
threaded and fits into the threads in the valve seating surface is a relatively large area, it is not
bonnet. suitable as a throttle valve, where fine adjustments
The part of the globe valve that controls flow are required in controlling the rate of flow.
is the disk, which is attached to the valve stem. The globe valve should never be jammed in
(Disks are available in various designs.) The valve the open position. After a valve is fully opened,
is closed by turning the valve stem in until the disk the handwheel should be turned toward the closed
is seated into the valve seat. This prevents fluid position approximately one-half turn. Unless this
from flowing through the valve (fig. 6-7, view A). is done, the valve is likely to seize in the open
The edge of the disk and the seat are very position, making it difficult, if not impossible, to
accurately machined so that they forma tight seal close the valve. Many valves are damaged in this

Figure 6-7.—Operation of a globe valve.

6-4
manner. Another reason for not leaving globe pressure. Needle valves are also used to control
valves in the fully open position is that it is the end of a work cycle, where it is desirable for
sometimes difficult to determine if the valve is motion to be brought slowly to a halt, and at other
open or closed. If the valve is jammed in the open points where precise adjustments of flow are
position, the stem may be damaged or broken by necessary and where a small rate of flow is
someone who thinks the valve is closed, and desired.
attempts to open it. Although many of the needle valves used in
It is important that globe valves be installed fluid power systems are the manually operated
with the pressure against the face of the disk to type (fig. 6-8), modifications of this type of valve
keep the system pressure away from the stem are often used as variable restrictors. This valve is
packing when the valve is shut. constructed without a handwheel and is adjusted
to provide a specific rate of flow. This rate of flow
NEEDLE VALVES will provide a desired time of operation for a
particular subsystem. Since this type of valve can
Needle valves are similar in design and be adjusted to conform to the requirements of a
operation to the globe valve. Instead of a disk, particular system, it can be used in a variety of
a needle valve has a long tapered point at the end systems. Figure 6-9 illustrates a needle valve that
of the valve stem. A cross-sectional view of a was modified as a variable restrictor.
needle valve is illustrated in figure 6-8.
The long taper of the valve element permits HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
a much smaller seating surface area than that of GLOBE VALVES
the globe valve; therefore, the needle valve is more
suitable as a throttle valve. Needle valves are used The valve consists of a valve body and a stem
to control flow into delicate gauges, which cartridge assembly. The stem cartridge assembly
might be damaged by sudden surges of fluid under includes the bonnet, gland nut, packing, packing
retainer, handle, stem, and seat. On small valves
(1/8 and 1/4 inch) the stem is made in one piece,
but on larger sizes it is made of a stem, guide,
and stem retainer. The valve disk is made of nylon
and is swaged into either the stem, for 1/8- and
1/4-inch valves, or the guide, for larger valves.
The bonnet screws into the valve body with
left-hand threads and is sealed by an O-ring
(including a back-up ring).

Figure 6-8.—Cross-sectional view of a needle valve. Figure 6-9.—Variable restrictor.

6-5
 The valve is available with either a rising stem RELIEF VALVES
or a non-rising stem. The rising stem valve uses
the same port body design as does the non-rising Some fluid power systems, even when operat-
stem valve. The stem is threaded into the gland ing normally, may temporarily develop excessive
nut and screws outward as the valve is opened. pressure; for example, when an unusually strong
This valve does not incorporate provisions for work resistance is encountered. Relief valves are
tightening the stem packing nor replacing the used to control this excess pressure.
packing while the valve is in service; therefore,
complete valve disassembly is required for Relief valves are automatic valves used on
maintenance. Figure 6-10 illustrates a rising stem system lines and equipment to prevent over-
hydraulic and pneumatic globe valve. Additional pressurization. Most relief valves simply lift (open)
information on this valve is available in Standard at a preset pressure and reset (shut) when the
Navy Valves, NAVSHIPS 0948-012-5000. pressure drops slightly below the lifting pressure.
They do not maintain flow or pressure at a given
amount, but prevent pressure from rising above
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES a specific level when the system is temporarily
overloaded.
The safe and efficient operation of fluid
power systems, system components, and related Main system relief valves are generally
equipment requires a means of controlling installed between the pump or pressure source and
pressure. There are many types of automatic the first system isolation valve. The valve must
pressure control valves. Some of them merely be large enough to allow the full output of the
provide an escape for pressure that exceeds a set hydraulic pump to be delivered back to the
pressure; some only reduce the pressure to a lower reservoir. In a pneumatic system, the relief valve
pressure system or subsystem; and some keep the controls excess pressure by discharging the excess
pressure in a system within a required range. gas to the atmosphere.

Figure 6-10.—Hydraulic and pneumatic globe valve (rising stem).

6-6
 Smaller relief valves, similar in design and with an operating lever or some type of device to
operation to the main system relief valve, are often allow manual cycling or gagging the valve open
used in isolated parts of the system where a check for certain tasks.
valve or directional control valve prevents pressure Various modifications of the relief valve
from being relieved through the main system relief shown in figure 6-11 are used to efficiently serve
valve and where pressures must be relieved at a the requirements of some fluid power systems;
set point lower than that provided by the main however, this relief valve is unsatisfactory for
system relief. These small relief valves are also some applications. To give you a better under-
used to relieve pressures caused by thermal standing of the operation of relief valves, we will
expansion (see glossary) of the fluids. discuss some of the undesirable characteristics of
Figure 6-11 shows a typical relief valve. System this valve.
pressure simply acts under the valve disk at the A simple relief valve, such as the one
inlet to the valve. When the system pressure illustrated in figure 6-11, with a suitable spring
exceeds the force exerted by the valve spring, the adjustment can be set so that it will open when
valve disk lifts off of its seat, allowing some of the system pressure reaches a certain level, 500
the system fluid to escape through the valve outlet psi for example. When the valve does open, the
until the system pressure is reduced to just below volume of flow to be handled may be greater than
the relief set point of the valve. the capacity of the valve; therefore, pressure in
All relief valves have an adjustment for the system may increase to several hundred psi
increasing or decreasing the set relief pressure. above the set pressure before the valve brings the
Some relief valves are equipped with an adjusting pressure under control. A simple relief valve will
screw for this purpose. This adjusting screw is be effective under these conditions only if it is very
usually covered with a cap, which must be large. In this case, it would operate stiffly and the
removed before an adjustment can be made. Some valve element would chatter back and forth. In
type of locking device, such as a lock nut, is addition, the valve will not close until the system
usually provided to prevent the adjustment from pressure decreases to a point somewhat below the
changing through vibration. Other types of relief opening pressure.
valves are equipped with a handwheel for making The surface area of the valve element must be
adjustments to the valve. Either the adjusting larger than that of the pressure opening if the
screw or the handwheel is turned clockwise to valve is to seat satisfactorily as shown in figure
increase the pressure at which the valve will open. 6-12. The pressure in the system acts on the valve
In addition, most relief valves are also provided element open to it. In each case in figure 6-12,
the force exerted directly upward by system
pressure when the valve is closed depends on the
area (A) across the valve element where the
element seats against the pressure tube. The
moment the valve opens, however, the upward
force exerted depends on the horizontal area (B)
of the entire valve element, which is greater than
area A. This causes an upward jump of the valve
element immediately after it opens, because the

Figure 6-11.—Relief valve. Figure 6-12.—Pressure acting on different areas.

6-7
same pressure acting over different areas produces
forces proportional to the areas. It also requires
a greater force to close the valve than was required
to open it. As a result, the valve will not close until
the system pressure has decreased to a certain
point below the pressure required to open it.
Let us assume that a valve of this type is set
to open at 500 psi. (Refer to fig. 6-12.) When the
valve is closed, the pressure acts on area A. If this
area is 0.5 square inch, an upward force of 250
pounds (500 ~ 0.5) will be exerted on the valve
at the moment of opening. With the valve open,
however, the pressure acts on area B. If area B
is 1 square inch, the upward force is 500 pounds,
or double the force at which the valve actually
opened. For the valve to close, pressure in the
system would have to decrease well below the
point at which the valve opened. The exact
pressure would depend on the shape of the valve
element.
In some hydraulic systems, there is a pressure
in the return line. This back pressure is caused
by restrictions in the return line and will vary in
relation to the amount of fluid flowing in the
return line. This pressure creates a force on the
back of the valve element and will increase the
force necessary to open the valve and relieve
system pressure.
It follows that simple relief valves have a
tendency to open and close rapidly as they “hunt”
above and below the set pressure, causing
pressure pulsations and undesirable vibrations
and producing a noisy chatter. Because of the
unsatisfactory performance of the simple relief
valve in some applications, compound relief valves
were developed.
Compound relief valves use the principles of
operation of simple relief valves for one stage of
their action—that of the pilot valve. Provision is
made to limit the amount of fluid that the pilot
valve must handle, and thereby avoid the
weaknesses of simple relief valves. (A pilot
valve is a small valve used for operating another
valve.)
The operation of a compound relief valve is
illustrated in figure 6-13. In view A, the main
valve, which consists of a piston, stem, and spring,
is closed, blocking flow from the high-pressure
line to the reservoir. Fluid in the high-pressure line
flows around the stem of the main valves as it
flows to the actuating unit. The stem of the main
valve is hollow (the stem passage) and contains
Figure 6-13.—Operation of compound relief valve,
the main valve spring, which forces the main valve
against its seat. When the pilot valve is open the
stem passage allows fluid to flow from the pilot

6-8
valve, around the main valve spring, and down by allowing excess fluid to flow through the
to the return line. piston passage, through the stem passage, and
into the return line. When pressure in the system
There is also a narrow passage (piston passage) increases to a value that is above the flow capacity
through the main valve piston. This passage of the pilot valve, the main valve opens,
connects the high-pressure line to the valve permitting excess fluid to flow directly to the
chamber. return line. This is accomplished in the following
manner.
The pilot valve is a small, ball-type, spring-
loaded check valve, which connects the top of the As system pressure increases, the upward force
passage from the valve chamber with the passage on the main piston overcomes the downward
through the main valve stem. The pilot valve is force, which consists of the tension of the main
the control unit of the relief valve because the piston spring and the pressure of the fluid in the
pressure at which the relief valve will open valve chamber (fig. 6-13, view C). The piston then
depends on the tension of the pilot valve spring. rises, unseating the stem, and allows the fluid to
The pilot valve spring tension is adjusted by flow from the system pressure line directly into
turning the adjusting screw so that the ball will the return line. This causes system pressure to
unseat when system pressure reaches the preset decrease rapidly, since the main valve is designed
limit. to handle the complete output of the pump. When
the pressure returns to normal, the pilot spring
Fluid at line pressure flows through the forces the ball onto the seat. Pressures are equal
narrow piston passage to fill the chamber. above and below the main piston, and the main
Because the line and the chamber are connected, spring forces the valve to seat.
the pressure in both are equal. The top and
bottom of the main piston have equal areas; As you can see, the compound valve over-
therefore, the hydraulic forces acting upward comes the greatest limitation of a simple relief
and downward are equal, and there is no tendency valve by limiting the flow through the pilot valve
for the piston to move in either direction. to the quantity it can satisfactorily handle. This
The only other force acting on the main valve limits the pressure above the main valve and
is that of the main valve spring, which holds it enables the main line pressure to open the main
closed. valve. In this way, the system is relieved when an
overload exists.
When the pressure in the high-pressure line
increases to the point at which the pilot valve
is set, the ball unseats (fig. 6-13, view B). PRESSURE REGULATORS
This opens the valve chamber through the
valve stem passage to the low-pressure return Pressure regulators, often referred to as
line. Fluid immediately begins to flow out of the unloading valves, are used in fluid power systems
chamber, much faster than it can flow through to regulate pressure. In pneumatic systems, the
the narrow piston passage. As a result the valve, commonly referred to as a pressure
chamber pressure immediately drops, and the regulator, simply reduces pressure. This type of
pilot valve begins to close again, restricting valve is discussed later in this chapter under
the outward flow of fluid. Chamber pressure pressure-reducing valves. In hydraulic systems the
therefore increases, the valve opens, and the cycle pressure regulator is used to unload the pump and
repeats. to maintain and regulate system pressure at the
desired values. All hydraulic systems do not
So far, the only part of the valve that has require pressure regulators. The open-center
moved appreciably is the pilot, which functions system (discussed in chapter 12) does not require
just like any other simple spring-loaded relief a pressure regulator. Many systems are equipped
valve. Because of the small size of the piston with variable-displacement pumps (discussed in
passage, there is a severe limit on the amount chapter 4), which contain a pressure-regulating
of overpressure protection the pilot can provide device.
the system. All the pilot valve can do is limit
fluid pressure in the valve chamber above the Pressure regulators are made in a variety of
main piston to a preset maximum pressure, types and by various manufacturers; however, the

6-9
basic operating principles of all regulators are system pressure exceeds the force exerted by the
similar to the one illustrated in figure 6-14. spring, the piston moves up, causing the pilot
A regulator is open when it is directing fluid valve to unseat. Since the fluid will take the path
under pressure into the system (fig. 6-14, view A). of least resistance, it will pass through the
In the closed position (fig. 6-14, view B), the fluid regulator and back to the reservoir through the
in the part of the system beyond the regulator is return line.
trapped at the desired pressure, and the fluid from
the pump is bypassed into the return line and back When the fluid from the pump is suddenly
to the reservoir. To prevent constant opening and allowed a free path to return, the pressure on the
closing (chatter), the regulator is designed to open input side of the check valve drops and the check
at a pressure somewhat lower than the closing valve closes. The fluid in the system is then
pressure. This difference is known as differential trapped under pressure. This fluid will remain
or operating range. For example, assume that a pressurized until a power unit is actuated, or until
pressure regulator is set to open when the system pressure is slowly lost through normal internal
pressure drops below 600 psi, and close when the leakage within the system.
pressure rises above 800 psi. The differential or
operating range is 200 psi. When the system pressure decreases to a point
Referring to figure 6-14, assume that the slightly below 600 psi, the spring forces the piston
piston has an area of 1 square inch, the pilot valve down and closes the pilot valve. When the pilot
has a cross-sectional area of one-fourth square valve is closed, the fluid cannot flow directly to
inch, and the piston spring provides 600 pounds the return line. This causes the pressure to increase
of force pushing the piston down. When the in the line between the pump and the regulator.
pressure in the system is less than 600 psi, fluid This pressure opens the check valve, causing the
from the pump will enter the inlet port, flow to fluid to enter the system.
the top of the regulator, and then to the pilot
valve. When the pressure of the fluid at the inlet In summary, when the system pressure
increases to the point where the force it creates decreases a certain amount, the pressure regulator
against the front of the check valve exceeds the will open, sending fluid to the system. When the
force created against the back of the check valve system pressure increases sufficiently, the
by system pressure and the check valve spring, the regulator will close, allowing the fluid from the
check valve opens. This allows fluid to flow into pump to flow through the regulator and back to
the system and to the bottom of the regulator the reservoir. The pressure regulator takes the load
against the piston. When the force created by the off of the pump and regulates system pressure.

Figure 6-14.—Hydraulic pressure regulator.

6-10
 sequence valve installed in each landing gear
actuating line performs this function.
A sequence valve is somewhat similar to a
relief valve except that, after the set pressure has
been reached, the sequence valve diverts the fluid
to a second actuator or motor to do work in
another part of the system. Figure 6-15 shows an
installation of two sequence valves that control
the sequence of operation of three actuating
cylinders. Fluid is free to flow into cylinder A.
The first sequence valve (1) blocks the passage of
fluid until the piston in cylinder A moves to the
end of its stroke. At this time, sequence valve 1
opens, allowing fluid to enter cylinder B. This
action continues until all three pistons complete
their strokes.
There are various types of sequence valves.
Some are controlled by pressure and some are
Figure 6-15 .—Installation of sequence valves. controlled mechanically.

Pressure-Controlled Sequence Valve

SEQUENCE VALVES
The operation of a typical pressure-controlled
Sequence valves control the sequence of sequence valve is illustrated in figure 6-16. The
operation between two branches in a circuit; that opening pressure is obtained by adjusting the
is, they enable one unit to automatically set tension of the spring that normally holds the
another unit into motion. An example of the use piston in the closed position. (Note that the top
of a sequence valve is in an aircraft landing gear part of the piston has a larger diameter than the
actuating system. lower part.) Fluid enters the valve through the
inlet port, flows around the lower part of the
In a landing gear actuating system, the landing piston and exits the outlet port, where it flows to
gear doors must open before the landing gear the primary (first) unit to be operated (fig. 6-16,
starts to extend. Conversely, the landing gear must view A). This fluid pressure also acts against the
be completely retracted before the doors close. A lower surface of the piston.

Figure 6-16.—Operation of a pressure-controlled sequence valve.

6-11
 When the primary actuating unit completes its through the valve, out port B, and to the
operation, pressure in the line to the actuating unit secondary unit.
increases sufficiently to overcome the force of the This type of sequence valve permits flow in
spring, and the piston rises. The valve is then in the opposite direction. Fluid enters port B and
the open position (fig. 6-16, view B). The fluid flows to the check valve. Although this is return
entering the valve takes the path of least resistance flow from the actuating unit, the fluid overcomes
and flows to the secondary unit. spring tension, unseats the check valve, and flows
A drain passage is provided to allow any fluid out through port A.
leaking past the piston to flow from the top of
the valve. In hydraulic systems, this drain line is
usually connected to the main return line. PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES

Mechanically Operated Sequence Valve Pressure-reducing valves provide a steady

pressure into a system that operates at a lower
The mechanically operated sequence valve pressure than the supply system. A reducing valve
(fig. 6-17) is operated by a plunger that extends can normally be set for any desired downstream
through the body of the valve. The valve is pressure within the design limits of the valve. Once
mounted so that the plunger will be operated by the valve is set, the reduced pressure will be
the primary unit. maintained regardless of changes in supply
A check valve, either a ball or a poppet, is pressure (as long as the supply pressure is at least
installed between the fluid ports in the body. It as high as the reduced pressure desired) and
can be unseated by either the plunger or fluid regardless of the system load, providing the load
pressure. does not exceed the design capacity of the reducer.
Port A (fig. 6-17) and the actuator of the
primary unit are connected by a common line.
Port B is connected by a line to the actuator of
the secondary unit. When fluid under pressure
flows to the primary unit, it also flows into the
sequence valve through port A to the seated check
valve in the sequence valve. In order to operate
the secondary unit, the fluid must flow through
the sequence valve. The valve is located so that
the primary unit depresses the plunger as it
completes its operation. The plunger unseats
the check valve and allows the fluid to flow

Figure 6-17.—Mechanically operated sequence valve. Figure 6-18.—Spring-loaded pressure-reducing valve.

6-12
 There are various designs and types of approaching the desired value, the pressure
pressure-reducing valves. The spring-loaded under the diaphragm begins to overcome spring
reducer and the pilot-controlled valve are pressure, forcing the valve stem upwards, shutting
discussed in this text. the valve. You can adjust the downstream
pressure by turning the adjusting screw, which
Spring-Loaded Reducer varies the spring pressure against the diaphragm.
This particular spring-loaded valve will fail in the
The spring-loaded pressure-reducing valve open position if a diaphragm rupture occurs.
(fig. 6-18) is commonly used in pneumatic
systems. It is often referred to as a pressure
regulator. Pilot-Controlled Pressure-Reducing Valve
The valve simply uses spring pressure against
a diaphragm to open the valve. On the bottom Figure 6-19 illustrates the operation of a
of the diaphragm, the outlet pressure (the pressure pilot-controlled pressure-reducing valve. This
in the reduced-pressure system) of the valve forces valve consists of an adjustable pilot valve, which
the diaphragm upward to shut the valve. When controls the operating pressure of the valve, and
the outlet pressure drops below the set point of a spool valve, which reacts to the action of the
the valve, the spring pressure overcomes the outlet pilot valve.
pressure and forces the valve stem downward, The pilot valve consists of a poppet (1), a
opening the valve. As the outlet pressure increases, spring (2), and an adjusting screw (3). The valve

Figure 6-19.—Pilot-controlled pressure-reducing valve.

6-13
 spool assembly consists of a valve spool (10) and in position for a period of time. This valve serves
a spring (4). as a hydraulic resistance to the actuating cylinder.
Fluid under main pressure enters the inlet port For example, counterbalance valves are used in
(11) and under all conditions is free to flow some hydraulically operated forklifts. The valve
through the valve and the outlet port (5). (Either offers a resistance to the flow from the actuating
port 5 or port 11 maybe used as the high-pressure cylinder when the fork is lowered. It also helps
port.) to support the fork in the UP position.
Figure 6-19, view A, shows the valve in the Counterbalance valves are also used in air-
open position. In this position, the pressure in the launched weapons loaders. In this case the valve
reduced-pressure outlet port (6) has not reached is located in the top of the lift cylinder. The valve
the preset operating pressure of the valve. The requires a specific pressure to lower the load. If
fluid also flows through passage 8, through smaller adequate pressure is not available, the load cannot
passage 9 in the center of the valve spool, and into be lowered. This prevents collapse of the load due
chamber 12. The fluid pressure at outlet port 6 to any malfunction of the hydraulic system.
is therefore distributed to both ends of the spool. One type of counterbalance valve is illustrated
When these pressures are equal the spool is hydrau- in figure 6-20. The valve element is a balanced
lically balanced. Spring 4 is a low-tension spring spool (4). The spool consists of two pistons
and applies only a slight downward force on the permanently fixed on either end of a shaft. The
spool. Its main purpose is to position the spool inner surface areas of the pistons are equal;
and to maintain opening 7 at its maximum size. therefore, pressure acts equally on both areas
As the pressure increases in outlet port 6 (fig. regardless of the position of the valve and has no
16, view B), this pressure is transmitted through effect on the movement of the valve—hence, the
passages 8 and 9 to chamber 12. This pressure also term balanced. The shaft area between the two
acts on the pilot valve poppet (1). When this pistons provides the area for the fluid to flow
pressure increases above the preset operating
pressure of the valve, it overcomes the force of
pilot valve spring 2 and unseats the poppet. This
allows fluid to flow through the drain port (15).
Because the small passage (9) restricts flow into
chamber 12, the fluid pressure in the chamber
drops. This causes a momentary difference in
pressure across the valve spool (10) which allows
fluid pressure acting against the bottom area of
the valve spool to overcome the downward force
of spring 4. The spool is then forced upward until
the pressures across its ends are equalized. As the
spool moves upward, it restricts the flow through
opening 7 and causes the pressure to decrease in
the reduced pressure outlet port 6. If the pressure
in the outlet port continues to increase to a value
above the preset pressure, the pilot valve will open
again and the cycle will repeat. This allows the
spool valve to move up higher into chamber 12;
thus further reducing the size of opening 7.
These cycles repeat until the desired pressure is
maintained in outlet 6.
When the pressure in outlet 6 decreases to a
value below the preset pressure, spring 4 forces
the spool downward, allowing more fluid to flow
through opening 7.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
The counterbalance valve is normally located
in the line between a directional control valve and
the outlet of a vertically mounted actuating
cylinder which supports weight or must be held Figure 6-20.—Counterbalance valve.

6-14
when the valve is open. A small piston (9) is Directional control valves may be operated by
attached to the bottom of the spool valve. differences in pressure acting on opposite sides
When the valve is in the closed position, the of the valving element, or they maybe positioned
top piston of the spool valve blocks the discharge manually, mechanically, or electrically. Often two
port (8). With the valve in this position, fluid or more methods of operating the same valve will
flowing from the actuating unit enters the inlet be used in different phases of its action.
port (5). The fluid cannot flow through the valve
CLASSIFICATION
because discharge port 8 is blocked. However,
fluid will flow through the pilot passage (6) to the Directional control valves may be classified in
small pilot piston. As the pressure increases, it acts several ways. Some of the different ways are by
on the pilot piston until it overcomes the preset the type of control, the number of ports in the
pressure of spring 3. This forces the valve spool valve housing, and the specific function of the
(4) up and allows the fluid to flow around the valve. The most common method is by the type
shaft of the valve spool and out discharge port of valving element used in the construction of the
8. Figure 6-20 shows the valve in this position. valve. The most common types of valving
During reverse flow, the fluid enters port 8. The elements are the ball, cone or sleeve, poppet,
spring (3) forces valve spool 4 to the closed rotary spool, and sliding spool. The basic
position. The fluid pressure overcomes the spring operating principles of the poppet, rotary spool,
tension of the check valve (7). The check valve and sliding spool valving elements are discussed
opens and allows free flow around the shaft of in this text.
the valve spool and out through port 5.
Poppet
The operating pressure of the valve can be
adjusted by turning the adjustment screw (1), The poppet fits into the center bore of the seat
which increases or decreases the tension of the (fig. 6-21). The seating surfaces of the poppet and
spring. This adjustment depends on the weight the seat are lapped or closely machined so that
that the valve must support. the center bore will be sealed when the poppet is
It is normal for a small amount of fluid to leak
around the top piston of the spool valve and into
the area around the spring. An accumulation
would cause additional pressure on top of the
spool valve. This would require additional
pressure to open the valve. The drain (2) provides
a passage for this fluid to flow to port 8.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Directional control valves are designed to
direct the flow of fluid, at the desired time, to the
point in a fluid power system where it will do
work. The driving of a ram back and forth in its
cylinder is an example of when a directional
control valve is used. Various other terms are used
to identify directional valves, such as selector
valve, transfer valve, and control valve. This
manual will use the term directional control valve
to identify these valves.
Directional control valves for hydraulic
and pneumatic systems are similar in design
and operation. However, there is one major
difference. The return port of a hydraulic valve
is ported through a return line to the reservoir,
while the similar port of a pneumatic valve,
commonly referred to as the exhaust port, is
usually vented to the atmosphere. Any other
differences are pointed out in the discussion of
the valves. Figure 6-21.—Operation of a simple poppet valve.

6-15
seated (shut). The action of the poppet is similar
to that of the valves in an automobile engine. In
most valves the poppet is held in the seated
position by a spring.
The valve consists primarily of a movable
poppet which closes against the valve seat. In the
closed position, fluid pressure on the inlet side
tends to hold the valve tightly closed. A small
amount of movement from a force applied to the
top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and
allows fluid to flow through the valve.
The use of the poppet as a-valving element is
not limited to directional control valves.

Rotary Spool

The rotary spool directional control valve

(fig. 6-22) has a round core with one or more
passages or recesses in it. The core is mounted
within a stationary sleeve. As the core is rotated
within the stationary sleeve, the passages or
recesses connect or block the ports in the sleeve.
The ports in the sleeve are connected to the Figure 6-23.—Two-way, sliding spool directional control
appropriate lines of the fluid system. valve.

Sliding spool
acts equally on both inner piston areas regardless
The operation of a simple sliding spool of the position of the spool. Sealing is usually
directional control valve is shown in figure 6-23. accomplished by a very closely machined fit
The valve is so-named because of the shape of the between the spool and the valve body or sleeve.
valving element that slides back and forth to block For valves with more ports, the spool is designed
and uncover ports in the housing. (The sliding with more pistons or lands on a common shaft.
element is also referred to as a piston.) The inner The sliding spool is the most commonly used type
piston areas (lands) are equal. Thus fluid under of valving element used in directional control
pressure which enters the valve from the inlet ports valves.

CHECK VALVE

Check valves are used in fluid systems to

permit flow in one direction and to prevent flow
in the other direction. They are classified as
one-way directional control valves.
The check valve may be installed inde-
pendently in a line to allow flow in one direction
only, or it may be used as an integral part of
globe, sequence, counterbalance, and pressure-
reducing valves.
Check valves are available in various designs.
They are opened by the force of fluid in motion
flowing in one direction, and are closed by fluid
attempting to flow in the opposite direction. The
Figure 6-22.—Parts of a rotary spool directional control force of gravity or the action of a spring aids in
valve. closing the valve.

6-16
 Figure 6-24.—Swing check valve.

Figure 6-24 shows a swing check valve. In the its seat, allowing fluid to flow freely through the
open position, the flow of fluid forces the hinged valve. This valve is known as a spring-loaded
disk up and allows free flow through the valve. check valve.
Flow in the opposite direction with the aid of The spring is installed in the valve to hold the
gravity, forces the hinged disk to close the passage cone or ball on its seat whenever fluid is not
and blocks the flow. This type of valve is flowing. The spring also helps to force the cone
sometimes designed with a spring to assist in or ball on its seat when the fluid attempts to flow
closing the valve. in the opposite direction. Since the opening and
The most common type of check valve, closing of this type of valve is not dependent on
installed in fluid-power systems, uses either a ball gravity, its location in a system is not limited to
or cone for the sealing element (fig. 6-25). As fluid the vertical position.
pressure is applied in the direction of the arrow, A modification of the spring-loaded check
the cone (view A) or ball (view B) is forced off valve is the orifice check valve (fig. 6-26). This

Figure 6-25.—Spring-loaded check valves. Figure 6-26.—Typical orifice check valves.

6-17
valve allows normal flow in one direction and
restricted flow in the other. It is often referred
to as a one-way restrictor.
Figure 6-26, view A, shows a cone-type orifice
check valve. When sufficient fluid pressure is
applied at the inlet port, it overcomes spring
tension and moves the cone off of its seat. The
two orifices (2) in the illustration represent several
openings located around the slanted circumference
of the cone. These orifices allow free flow of fluid
through the valve while the cone is off of its seat.
When fluid pressure is applied through the outlet
port, the force of the fluid and spring tension
move the cone to the left and onto its seat. This
action blocks the flow of fluid through the valve,
except through the orifice (1) in the center of the
cone. The size of the orifice (in the center of the
cone) determines the rate of flow through the Figure 6-27.—Shuttle valve.
valve as the fluid flows from right to left.
Figure 6-26, view B, shows a ball-type orifice
When a shuttle valve is in the normal
check valve. Fluid flow through the valve from
operation position, fluid has a free flow from the
left to right forces the ball off of its seat and
normal system inlet port, through the valve, and
allows normal flow. Fluid flow through the valve
out through the outlet port to the actuating unit.
in the opposite direction forces the ball onto its
The shuttle is seated against the alternate system
seat. Thus, the flow is restricted by the size of the
inlet port and held there by normal system
orifice located in the housing of the valve.
pressure and by the shuttle valve spring. The
shuttle remains in this position until the alternate
NOTE: The direction of free flow through the
system is activated. This action directs fluid under
orifice check valve is indicated by an arrow
pressure from the alternate system to the shuttle
stamped on the housing.
valve and forces the shuttle from the alternate
system inlet port to the normal system inlet port.
Fluid from the alternate system then has a free
SHUTTLE VALVE
flow to the outlet port, but is prevented from
entering the normal system by the shuttle, which
In certain fluid power systems, the supply of
seals off the normal system port.
fluid to a subsystem must be from more than one
The shuttle may be one of four types: (1)
source to meet system requirements. In some
sliding plunger, (2) spring-loaded piston, (3)
systems an emergency system is provided as a
spring-loaded ball, or (4) spring-loaded poppet.
source of pressure in the event of normal system
In shuttle valves that are designed with a spring,
failure. The emergency system will usually actuate
the shuttle is normally held against the alternate
only essential components.
system inlet port by the spring.
The main purpose of the shuttle valve is to
isolate the normal system from an alternate or TWO-WAY VALVES
emergency system. It is small and simple; yet, it
is a very important component. The term two-way indicates that the valve
Figure 6-27 is a cutaway view of a typical contains and controls two functional flow control
shuttle valve. The housing contains three ports— ports-an inlet and an outlet. A two-way, sliding
normal system inlet, alternate or emergency spool directional control valve is shown in figure
system inlet, and outlet. A shuttle valve used to 6-23. As the spool is moved back and forth, it
operate more than one actuating unit may contain either allows fluid to flow through the valve or
additional unit outlet ports. Enclosed in the prevents flow. In the open position, the fluid
housing is a sliding part called the shuttle. Its enters the inlet port, flows around the shaft of
purpose is to seal off either one or the other inlet the spool, and through the outlet port. The spool
ports. There is a shuttle seat at each inlet port. cannot move back and forth by difference of

6-18
forces set up within the cylinder, since the forces
there are equal. As indicated by the arrows against
the pistons of the spool, the same pressure acts
on equal areas on their inside surfaces. In the
closed position, one of the pistons of the spool
simply blocks the inlet port, thus preventing flow
through the valve.
A number of features common to most sliding
spool valves are shown in figure 6-23. The small
ports at either end of the valve housing provide
a path for any fluid that leaks past the spool to
flow to the reservoir. This prevents pressure from
building up against the ends of the pistons, which
would hinder the movement of the spool. When
spool valves become worn, they may lose balance
because of greater leakage on one side of the spool
than on the other. In that event, the spool would
tend to stick when it is moved back and forth.
Small grooves are therefore machined around the
sliding surface of the piston; and in hydraulic
valves, leaking liquid will encircle the pistons and
keep the contacting surfaces lubricated and
centered.

THREE-WAY VALVES

Three-way valves contain a pressure port, a

cylinder port, and a return or exhaust port. The
three-way directional control valve is designed to
operate an actuating unit in one direction; it
permits either the load on the actuating unit or
a spring to return the unit to its original position.

Cam-Operated Three-Way Valves

Figure 6-28 shows the operation of a cam-

operated, three-way, poppet-type directional
control valve. View A shows fluid under pressure
forcing the piston outward against a load. The
upper poppet (2) is unseated by the inside cam
(5), permitting fluid to flow from the line (3) into
the cylinder to actuate the piston. The lower
poppet (1) is seated, sealing off the flow into the
return line (4). As the force of the pressurized fluid
extends the piston rod, it also compresses the
spring in the cylinder.
View B shows the valve with the control
handle turned to the opposite position. In this
position, the upper poppet (2) is seated, blocking
the flow of fluid from the pressure line (3). The
lower poppet (1) is unseated by the outside cam
Figure 6-28.—Three-way, poppet-type directional control
(6). This releases the pressure in the cylinder and valve (cam-operated).
allows the spring to expand, which forces the
piston rod to retract. The fluid from the cylinder
flows through the control valve and out the return

6-19
port (4). In hydraulic systems, the return port is The valve in figure 6-29 is a normally closed
connected by a line to the reservoir. In pneumatic valve. Normally open valves are similar in design.
systems, the return port is usually open to the When no pressure is applied to the pilot chamber,
atmosphere. the upper poppet is forced off of its seat and the
lower poppet is closed. Fluid is free to flow from
Pilot-Operated Three-Way Valves the inlet port through the cylinder to the actuating
unit. When pilot pressure is applied, the poppets
A pilot-operated, poppet-type, three-way are forced downward, closing the upper poppet
directional control valve is shown in figure 6-29. and opening the lower poppet. Fluid can now flow
Valves of this design are often used in pneumatic from the cylinder through the valve and out the
systems. This valve is normally closed and is exhaust port to the atmosphere.
forced open by fluid pressure entering the
FOUR-WAY VALVES
pilot chamber. The valve contains two poppets
connected to each other by a common stem. The Most actuating devices require system pressure
poppets are connected to diaphragms which hold for operation in either direction. The four-way
them in a centered position. directional control valve, which contains four
The movement of the poppet is controlled by ports, is used to control the operation of such
the pressure in the pilot port and the chamber devices. The four-way valve is also used in some
above the upper diaphragm. When the pilot systems to control the operation of other valves.
chamber is not pressurized, the lower poppet is It is one of the most widely used directional
seated against the lower valve seat. Fluid can flow control valves in fluid power systems.
from the supply line through the inlet port and The typical four-way directional control valve
through the holes in the lower diaphragm to fill has four ports: a pressure port, a return or exhaust
the bottom chamber. This pressure holds the port, and two cylinder or working ports. The
lower poppet tightly against its seat and blocks pressure port is connected to the main system
flow from the inlet port through the valve. At the pressure line and the return line is connected to
same time, due to the common stem, the upper the reservoir in hydraulic systems. In pneumatic
poppet is forced off of its seat. Fluid from the systems the return port is usually vented to the
actuating unit flows through the open passage, atmosphere. The two cylinder ports are connected
around the stem, and through the exhaust port by lines to the actuating units.
to the atmosphere.
Poppet-Type Four-Way Valves
When the pilot chamber is pressurized, the
force acting against the diaphragm forces the Figure 6-30 shows atypical four-way, poppet-
poppet down. The upper poppet closes against its type directional control valve. This is a manually
seat, blocking the flow of fluid from the cylinder operated valve and consists of a group of
to the exhaust port. The lower poppet opens, and conventional spring-loaded poppets. The poppets
the passage from the supply inlet port to the are enclosed in a common housing and are
cylinder port is open so that the fluid can flow interconnected by ducts to direct the flow of fluid
to the actuating unit. in the desired direction.

Figure 6-29.—Three-way, poppet-type, normally closed directional control valve (pilot-operated).

6-20
 The poppets are actuated by cams on a The poppets are arranged so that rotation of
camshaft (fig. 6-30). The camshaft is controlled the camshaft will open the proper combination
by the movement of the handle. The valve may of poppets to direct the flow of fluid through the
be operated by manually moving the handle, or, desired working line to an actuating unit. At the
in some cases, the handle may be connected by same time, fluid will be directed from the
mechanical linkage to a control handle which is actuating unit through the opposite working line,
located in a convenient place for the operator through the valve, and back to the reservoir
some distance from the valve. (hydraulic) or exhausted to the atmosphere
The camshaft may be rotated to any one (pneumatic).
of three positions (neutral and two working To stop rotation of the camshaft at an exact
positions). In the neutral position the camshaft position, a stop pin is secured to the body and
lobes are not contacting any of the poppets. This extends through a cutout section of the camshaft
assures that the poppet springs will hold all four flange. This stop pin prevents overtravel by
poppets firmly seated. With all poppets seated, ensuring that the camshaft stops rotating at the
there is no fluid flow through the valve. This also point where the cam lobes have moved the
blocks the two cylinder ports; so when the valve poppets the greatest distance from their seats and
is in neutral, the fluid in the actuating unit is where any further rotation would allow the
trapped. Relief valves are installed in both poppets to start returning to their seats.
working lines to prevent overpressurization caused O-rings are spaced at intervals along the length
by thermal expansion. of the shaft to prevent external leakage around
the ends of the shaft and internal leakage from
NOTE: In some versions of this type of valve, one of the valve chambers to another. The
the cam lobes are designed so that the two camshaft has two lobes, or raised portions. The
return/exhaust poppets are open when the valve shape of these lobes is such that when the shaft
is in the neutral position. This compensates for is placed in the neutral position the lobes will not
thermal expansion, because both working lines are contact any of the poppets.
open to the return/exhaust when the valve is in When the handle is moved in either direction
the neutral position. from neutral, the camshaft is rotated. This rotates

Figure 6-30.—Cutaway view of poppet-type, four-way directional control valve.

6-21
the lobes, which unseat one pressure poppet and
one return/exhaust poppet (fig. 6-31). The valve
is now in the working position. Fluid under
pressure, entering the pressure port, flows through
the vertical fluid passages in both pressure poppets
seats. Since only one pressure poppet, IN (2), is
unseated by the cam lobe, the fluid flows past the
open poppet to the inside of the poppet seat. From
there it flows through the diagonal passages, out
one cylinder port, C2, and to the actuating unit.
Return fluid from the actuating unit enters the
other cylinder port, C1. It then flows through the
corresponding fluid passage, past the unseated
return poppet, OUT (1), through the vertical fluid
passages, and out the return/exhaust port. When
the camshaft is rotated in the opposite direction
to the neutral position, the two poppets seat and
the flow stops. When the camshaft is further
rotated in this direction until the stop pins hits, Figure 6-32.—Sliding spool valve controlled by a rotary spool
the opposite pressure and return poppets are valve.
unseated. This reverses the flow in the working
lines, causing the actuating unit to move in the
opposite direction. Figure 6-33 shows the operation of a rotary spool
valve. Views A and C show the valve in a position
Rotary Spool Valve
to deliver fluid to another valve, while view B
Four-way directional control valves of this shows the valve in the neutral position, with all
type are frequently used as pilot valves to direct passages through the valve blocked.
flow to and from other valves (fig. 6-32). Fluid Rotary spool valves can be operated manually,
is directed from one source of supply through the electrically, or by fluid pressure.
rotary valve to another directional control valve,
Sliding Spool Valve
where it positions the valve to direct flow from
another source to one side of an actuating unit. The sliding spool four-way directional control
Fluid from the other end of the main valve flows valve is similar in operation to the two-way
through a return line, through the rotary valve valve previously described in this chapter. It is
to the return or exhaust port. simple in its principle of operation and is the
The principal parts of a rotary spool direc- most durable and trouble-free of all four-way
tional control valve are shown in figure 6-22. directional control valves.
The valve described in the following para-
graphs is a manually operated type. The same
principle is used in many remotely controlled
directional control valves.
The valve (fig. 6-34) consists of a valve body
containing four fluid ports—pressure (P),

Figure 6-31.—Working view of a poppet-type, four-way Figure 6-33.—Operation of a rotary spool, four-way
directional control valve. directional control valve.

6-22
Figure 6-34.—Operation of a sliding spool, four-way directional control valve.

6-23
return/exhaust (R), and two cylinder ports (C/1 The lands have shifted inside the sleeve, and the
and C2). A hollow sleeve fits into the main bore ports are opened. Fluid under pressure enters the
of the body. There are O-rings placed at intervals sleeve, passes through it by way of the drilled
around the outside diameter of the sleeve. These holes, and leaves through cylinder port C2. Return
O-rings form a seal between the sleeve and the fluid, flowing from the actuator enters port C1,
body, creating chambers around the sleeve. Each flows through the sleeve, and is directed out the
of the chambers is lined up with one of the fluid return port back to the reservoir or exhausted to
ports in the body. The drilled passage in the body the atmosphere. Fluid cannot flow past the spool
accounts for a fifth chamber which results in lands because of the lapped surfaces.
having the two outboard chambers connected to
the return/exhaust port. The sleeve has a pattern Figure 6-34, view C, shows the valve in the
of holes drilled through it to allow fluid to flow opposite working position with the sliding spool
from one port to another. A series of holes are extended. The detent spring is in the inboard
drilled into the hollow center sleeve in each detent. The center land of the sliding spool is now
chamber. on the other side of the pressure port, and the
The sleeve is prevented from turning by a fluid under pressure is directed through the sleeve
sleeve retainer bolt or pin which secures it to the and out port C1. Return fluid flowing in the other
valve body. cylinder port is directed to the drilled passage in
The sliding spool fits into the hollow center the body. It flows along this passage to the other
sleeve. This spool is similar to the spool in the end of the sleeve where it is directed out of the
two-way valve, except that this spool has three return/exhaust port.
pistons or lands. These lands are lapped or
machine fitted to the inside of the sleeve. The directional control valves previously
One end of the sliding spool is connected to discussed are for use in closed-center fluid power
a handle either directly or by mechanical linkage systems. Figure 6-35 shows the operation of
to a more desirable location. When the control
handle is moved, it will position the spool within
the sleeve. The lands of the spool then line up
different combinations of fluid ports thus
directing a flow of fluid through the valve.
The detent spring is a clothespin-type spring,
secured to the end of the body by a spring
retaining bolt. The two legs of the spring extend
down through slots in the sleeve and fit into the
detents. The spool is gripped between the two legs
of the spring. To move the spool, enough force
must be applied to spread the two spring legs and
allow them to snap back into the next detent,
which would be for another position.
Figure 6-34, view A, shows a manually
operated sliding spool valve in the neutral
position. The detent spring is in the center detent
of the sliding spool. The center land is lined up
with the pressure port (P) preventing fluid from
flowing into the valve through this port. The
return/exhaust port is also blocked, preventing
flow through that port. With both the pressure
and return ports blocked, fluid in the actuating
lines is trapped. For this reason, a relief valve is
usually installed in each actuating line when this
type of valve is used.
Figure 6-34, view B, shows the valve in the
working position with the end of the sliding spool
retracted. The detent spring is in the outboard Figure 6-35.—Open center, sliding spool directional control
detent, locking the sliding spool in this position. valve.

6-24
a representative open-center, sliding spool When the spool is moved to the right of the
directional control valve. neutral position, view B, one working line (C1)
is aligned to system pressure and the other
When this type of valve is in the neutral working line (C2) is open through the hollow
position (fig. 6-35, view A), fluid flows into the spool to the return port. View C shows the flow
valve through the pressure port (P) through the of fluid through the valve with the spool moved
hollow spool, and return to the reservoir. to the left of neutral.

6-25
 CHAPTER 7

SEALING DEVICES AND MATERIALS

Recall from chapter 1 that Pascal’s theorem, deviations are found in some technical publi-
from which the fundamental law for the science cations. Certain types of seals (for example, the
of hydraulics evolved, was proposed in the O-ring, which is discussed later) may be used
seventeenth century. One stipulation to make the either as a gasket or a packing.
law effective for practical applications was a Many of the seals in fluid power systems
piston that would “fit” the opening in the vessel prevent external leakage. These seals serve two
“exactly.” However, it was not until the late purposes—to seal the fluid in the system and to
eighteenth century that Joseph Brahmah invented keep foreign matter out of the system. Other seals
an effective piston seal, the cup packing. This led simply prevent internal leakage within a system.
to Brahmah's development of the hydraulic press.
The packing was probably the most important NOTE: Although leakage of any kind results
invention in the development of hydraulics as a in a loss of efficiency, some leakage, especially
leading method of transmitting power. The internal leakage, is desired in hydraulic systems
development of machines to cut and shape closely to provide lubrication of moving parts. This also
fitted parts was also very important in the applies to some pneumatic systems in which drops
development of hydraulics. However, regardless of oil are introduced into the flow of air in the
of how precise the machining process is, some type system.
of packing is usually required to make the piston,
and many other parts of hydraulic components, The first part of this chapter deals primarily
“fit exactly.” This also applies to the components with the different types of materials used in the
of pneumatic systems. construction of seals. The next section is devoted
Through years of research and experiments, to the different shapes and designs of seals and
many different materials and designs have been their application as gaskets and/or packings in
created in attempts to develop suitable packing fluid power systems. Also included in this chapter
devices. Suitable materials must be durable, must are sections concerning the functions of wipers
provide effective sealing, and must be compatible and backup washers in fluid power systems and
with the fluid used in the system. the selection, storage, and handling of sealing
The packing materials are commonly referred devices.
to as seals or sealing devices. The seals used in
fluid power systems and components are divided
into two general classes-static seals and dynamic SEAL MATERIALS
seals.
The static seal is usually referred to as a gasket. As mentioned previously, many different
The function of a gasket is to provide a material materials have been used in the development of
that can flow into the surface irregularities of sealing devices. The material used for a particular
mating areas that require sealing. To do this, the application depends on several factors: fluid
gasket material must be under pressure. This compatibility, resistance to heat, pressure, wear
requires that the joint be tightly bolted or resistance, hardness, and type of motion.
otherwise held together. The selection of the correct packings and
The dynamic seal, commonly referred to as gaskets and their proper installation are important
a packing, is used to provide a seal between two factors in maintaining an efficient fluid power
parts that move in relation to each other. system. The types of seals to be used in a
These two classifications of seals—gaskets particular piece of equipment is specified by the
and packing—apply in most cases; however, equipment manufacturer.

7-1
 Often the selection of seals is limited to seals sometimes used to make gaskets for applications
covered by military specifications. However, there similar to those described for cork gaskets.
are occasions when nonstandard or proprietary
seals reflecting the advancing state of the art may LEATHER
be approved. Thus, it is important to follow the
manufacturer’s instructions when you replace Leather is a closely knit material that is
seals. If the proper seal is not available, you generally tough, pliable, and relatively resistant
should give careful consideration in the selection to abrasion, wear, stress, and the effects of
of a suitable substitute. Consult the Naval Ships’ temperature changes. Because it is porous, it is
Technical Manual, military standards, military able to absorb lubricating fluids. This porosity
standardization handbooks, and other applicable makes it necessary to impregnate leather for most
technical manuals if you have any doubts in uses. In general, leather must be tanned and
selecting the proper seal. treated in order to make it useful as a gasket
Seals are made of materials that have material. The tanning processes are those
been carefully chosen or developed for spe- normally used in the leather industry.
cific applications. These materials include Leather is generally resistant to abrasion
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), commonly called regardless of whether the grain side or the flesh
Teflon; synthetic rubber (elastomers); cork; side is exposed to abrasive action. Leather remains
leather; metal; and asbestos. Some of the most flexible at low temperatures and can be forced
common materials used to make seals for fluid with comparative ease into contact with metal
power systems are discussed in the following flanges. When properly impregnated, it is
paragraphs. impermeable to most liquids and some gases,
and capable of withstanding the effects of
temperatures ranging from –700F to +2200F.
CORK
Leather has four basic limitations. First, the
size of the typical hide limits the size of the seals
Cork has several of the required properties, that can be made from leather. A second
which makes it ideally suited as a sealing material
limitation is the number of seals that are
in certain applications. The compressibility of
acceptable. Another limitation is that under heavy
cork seals makes them well suited for confined
mechanical pressures leather tends to extrude.
applications in which little or no spread of the
Finally, many of the properties (such as
material is allowed. The compressibility of cork
impermeability, tensile strength, high- and
also makes a good seal that can be cut to any
low-temperature resistance, pliability, and
desired thickness and shape to fit any surface and
compatibility with environment) depend upon the
still provide an excellent seal.
type of leather and impregnation. Leathers not
One of the undesirable characteristics of cork
tanned and impregnated for specific conditions
is its tendency to crumble. If cork is used as
and properties will become brittle, dry, and
packing or in areas where there is a high fluid
completely degreased by exposure to particular
pressure and/or high flow velocity, small particles
chemicals. Leather is never used with steam
will be cast off into the system. Cork use in fluid
pressure of any type, nor with acid or alkali
power systems is therefore limited. It is sometimes
solutions.
used as gasket materials for inspection plates of
Leather may be used as packing. When
hydraulic reservoirs.
molded into V’s and U’s, and cups, and other
Cork is generally recommended for use where
shapes, it can be applied as dynamic packing,
sustained temperatures do not exceed 275 0F.
while in its flat form it can be used as straight
compression packing.
CORK AND RUBBER
METAL
Cork and rubber seals are made by combining
synthetic rubber and cork. This combination has One of the most common metal seals used in
the properties of both of the two materials. Navy equipment is copper. Flat copper rings are
This means that seals can be made with the sometimes used as gaskets under adjusting screws
compressibility of cork, but with a resistance to to provide a fluid seal. Molded copper rings are
fluid comparable to the synthetic rubber on which sometimes used as packing with speed gears
they are based. Cork and rubber composition is operating under high pressures. Either type is

7-2
 compounded into numerous varieties. The
characteristics of these varieties have a wide range,
as shown in table 7-1. The table shows, with the
exception of a few basic similarities, that rubbers
have diverse properties and limitations; therefore,
specific applications require careful study before
the sealing material is selected.
Natural rubbers have many of the charac-
teristics required in an effective seal. However,
their very poor resistance to petroleum fluids and
Figure 7-1.—Spiral-wouna metallic-asbestos gasket. rapid aging when exposed to oxygen or ozone limit
their use. Today their use has almost ceased.
There are two general classes of synthetic
easily bent and requires careful handling. In rubber seals. One class is made entirely of a certain
addition, copper becomes hard when used over synthetic rubber. The term homogeneous, which
long periods and when subjected to compression. means having uniform structure or composition
Whenever a unit or component is disassembled, throughout, is frequently used to describe this
the copper sealing rings should be replaced. class of seal. The other class of seal is made by
However, if new rings are not available and the impregnating woven cotton duck or fine-weave
part must be repaired, the old ring should be asbestos with synthetic rubber. This class is
softened by annealing. (Annealing is the process sometimes referred to as fabricated seals.
of heating a metal, then cooling it, to make it Additional information on sealing materials
more pliable and less brittle.) is provided in the Military Handbook, Gasket
Metallic piston rings are used as packing in Materials (Nonmetalic), MIL-HDBK-212; and
some fluid power actuating cylinders. These rings the Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter 078.
are similar in design to the piston rings in
automobile engines.
Metal is also used with asbestos to form TYPES OF SEALS
spiral-wound metallic-asbestos gaskets (fig. 7-1).
Fluid power seals are usually typed according
These gaskets are composed of interlocked plies
to their shape or design. These types include
of preformed corrugated metal and asbestos
T-seals, V-rings, O-rings, U-cups and so on. Some
strips, called a filler.
of the most commonly used seals are discussed
The filler may or may not be encased in a solid
in the remainder of this chapter.
metal outer ring. These gaskets are used in flanged
connections and for connecting the body to the
T-SEALS
bonnet in some valves, and are usually required
in specific high-pressure, high-temperature The T-seal has an elastomeric bidirectional
applications. sealing element resembling an inverted letter T.
This sealing element is always paired with two
RUBBER
special extrusion-resisting backup rings, one on
The term r u b b e r covers many natural each side of the T. The basic T-seal configuration
and synthetic rubbers, each of which can be is shown in figure 7-2, view A. The backup rings

Figure7-2.–T-seals.

7-3
Table 7-l.—Comparison of Physical Properties for Some Hydraulic Fluid Seal Materials

are single turn, bias cut, and usually made of TFE,

molybdenum-disulfide-impregnated nylon, or a
combination of TFE and nylon. Nylon is widely
used for T-seal backup rings because it provides
excellent resistance to extrusion and has low
friction characteristics.
The special T-ring configuration adds stability
Figure 7-3.—V-rings. to the seal, eliminating spiraling and rolling.

7-4
T-seals are used in applications where large numbering system was created to identify T-seals
clearances could occur as a result of the expansion required for hydraulic actuators (piston seals only)
of the thin-walled hydraulic cylinder. The T-ring without reference to a particular manufacturer’s
is installed under radial compression and provides part number. The Navy number is composed of
a positive seal at zero or low pressure. Backup the letters G-T followed by a dash number of three
rings, one on each side, ride free of T-ring flanges digits and one letter, R, S, or T (for example,
and the rod or cylinder wall (fig. 7-2, view B). G-T-217T). The three digits are the appropriate
These clearances keep seal friction to a minimum O-ring size dash number according to AS568 or
at low pressure. When pressure is applied (fig. 7-2, MS28775. The letters R, S, and T designate the
view C), the T-ring acts to provide positive sealing number of backup rings that the groove of the
action as fluid pressure increases. One frequently T-seal is designed to accommodate: none, one,
used T-ring, manufactured by Greene, Tweed and or two, respectively.
Company, (called a G-Tring ®1), incorporates a
unique, patented backup ring feature. One corner V-RINGS
on the ID of each radius-styled backup ring on
the G-Tring® set has been rounded to mate with The V-ring is one of the most frequently used
the inside corner of the rubber T. Figure 7-2, views dynamic seals in ship service although its
B and C, shows the G-Tring®. identification, installation, and performance are
There is no military standard part numbering probably most misunderstood. Properly selected
system by which T-seals can be identified. In and installed, V-rings can provide excellent service
general, each manufacturer issues proprietary part life; otherwise, problems associated with friction,
numbers to identify seals. However, it is common rod and seal wear, noise, and leakage can be
practice to identify T-seal sizes by the same expected.
dash numbers used for equivalent O-ring sizes The V-ring is the part of the packing set that
(discussed later in this chapter) as defined by does the sealing. It has a cross section resembling
AS568 and MS28775 dimension standards. the letter V, (fig. 7-3) from which its name is
Typically, an O-ring groove that accepts a certain derived. To achieve a seal, the V-ring must be
O-ring dash number will accept the same dash installed as part of a packing set or stack, which
number T-seal. includes one male adapter, one female adapter,
In the absence of an existing military standard and several V-rings (fig. 7-4). The male adapter
for identifying T-seals, a new and simple is the first ring on the pressure end of the packing
stack and is flat on one side and wedge-shaped
on the other to contain the V of the adjacent
1
G-Tring® is a Greene, Tweed Trademark, V-ring. The female adapter, the last ring of the

Figure 7-4.—Outside packed V-ring installations.

7-5
packing stack, is flat on one side and V-shaped should always be installed so the sealing lips face
on the other to properly support the adjacent away from each other as in figure 7-5. This
V-ring. Proper design and installation of the prevents trapping pressure between the sets of
female adapter has significant impact on the packings. The female adapters in inside packed
service life and performance of the V-rings installations should always be located adjacent to
because the female adapter bridges the clearance a fixed or rigid part of the piston.
gap between the moving surfaces and resists
extrusion. O-RINGS
The packing set is installed in a cavity that is
slightly deeper than the free stack height (the An O-ring is doughnut-shaped. O-rings are
nominal overall height of a V-ring packing set, usually molded from rubber compounds; how-
including the male and female adapters as ever, they can be molded or machined from plastic
measured before installation) and as wide as the materials. The O-ring is usually fitted into a
nominal cross section of the V-rings. This cavity, rectangular groove (usually called a gland)
called a packing gland or stuffing box, contains machined into the mechanism to be sealed. An
and supports the packing around the shaft, rod, O-ring seal consists of an O-ring mounted
or piston. Adjustment of the packing gland depth in the gland so that the O-ring’s cross section
through the use of shims or spacers is usually is compressed (squeezed) when the gland is
necessary to obtain the correct squeeze or assembled (fig. 7-6).
clearance on the packing stack for good service An O-ring sealing system is often one of the
life. first sealing systems considered when a fluid
Two basic installations apply to V-ring closure is designed because of the following
packings. The more common is referred to as an advantages of such a system:
outside packed installation, in which the packing
seals against a shaft or rod, as shown in figure 1. Simplicity
7-4. The inside packed installation, is shown as 2. Ruggedness
a piston seal in figure 7-5. When V-ring packing 3. Low cost
is to be used in an inside packed installation, only 4. Ease of installation
endless ring packing should be used. Where 5. Ease of maintenance
pressures exist in both directions, as on a 6. No adjustment required
double-acting piston, opposing sets of packing 7. No critical torque in clamping

Figure 7-5.—Inside packed V-ring installation. Figure 7-6.—O-ring installed in a gland.

7-6
 8. Low distortion of structure stroke. If the return stroke does not use pneumatic
power, the O-ring returns to its round cross
9. Small space requirement section, minimizing drag and wear on the return
stroke.
10. Reliability

11. Effectiveness over wide pressure and

temperature ranges Identification

As stated previously, O-rings are used in both As a maintenance person or supervisor

static (as gaskets) and dynamic (as packing) working with fluid power systems, you must be
applications. An O-ring will almost always be the able to positively identify, inspect, and install the
most satisfactory choice of seals in static correct size and type of O-ring to ensure the best
applications if the fluids, temperatures, pressure, possible service. These tasks can be difficult since
and geometry permit. part numbers cannot be put directly on the seals
and because of the continual introduction of new
Standard O-ring packings are not specifically types of seals and obsolescence of others. (Naval
designed to be used as rotary seals. When Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter 078, contains
infrequent rotary motion or low peripheral a table that cross-references obsolete and current
velocity is involved standard O-ring packings may O-ring specifications for ship applications.)
be used, provided consistent surface finishes over
the entire gland are used and eccentricities are O-rings are packaged in individually sealed
accurately controlled. O-rings cannot compensate envelopes. O-ring seals manufactured to govern-
for out-of-round or eccentrically rotating shafts. ment specifications are marked according to the
requirements of the specific military specification
As rotary seals, O-rings perform satisfactorily and standard. The required marking for each
in two application areas: package is as follows:

1. In low-speed applications where the surface 1. National stock number (NSN)

speed of the shaft does not exceed 200 ft/min
2. Nomenclature
2. In high-speed moderate-pressure appli-
cations, between 50 and 800 psi 3. Military part number

The use of low-friction extrusion-resistant 4. Material specification

devices is helpful in prolonging the life and
improving the performance of O-rings used as 5. Manufacturer’s name
rotary seals.
6. Manufacturer’s compound number
O-rings are often used as reciprocating seals
in hydraulic and pneumatic systems. While best 7. Manufacturer’s batch number
suited for short-stroke, relatively small diameter
applications, O-rings have been used successfully 8. Contract number
in long-stroke, large diameter applications.
Glands for O-rings used as reciprocating seals are 9. Cure date
usually designed according to MIL-G-5514 to
provide a squeeze that varies from 8 to 10 percent NOTE: Keep preformed packings in their
minimum and 13.5 to 16 percent maximum. A original envelopes, which provide preservation,
squeeze of 20 percent is allowed on O-rings with protection, identification, and cure date.
a cross section of 0.070-inch or less. In some
reciprocating pneumatic applications, a floating When you select an O-ring for installation,
O-ring design may simultaneously reduce friction carefully observe the information on the package.
and wear by maintaining no squeeze by the gland If you cannot positively identify an O-ring,
on the O-ring. When air pressure enters the discard it. The part number on the sealed
cylinder, the air pressure flattens the O-ring, package provides the most reliable and complete
causing sufficient squeeze to seal during the identification.

7-7
Sizes be slightly larger than the nominal OD. For
example, an AS568-429 O-ring is described in
A standardized dash number system for nominal dimensions as 5 inches ID by 5-1/2 inches
O-ring sizes is used in many military and industrial OD by 1/4-inch W. Actual dimensions are 4.975
specifications. The O-ring size is identified by a inches ID by 5.525 inches OD by 0.275 inches W.
dash number rather than the actual dimensions
for convenience. The basis for the dash numbers
is contained in Aerospace Standard AS568. For Specifications
nongasket O-rings (packing), the dash numbers
are divided into groups of one hundred. Each Material and performance requirements
hundred group identifies the cross section size of for O-rings are often identified in military
the O-rings within the group (table 7-2). specifications. The dimensions of these O-rings
will usually be found in accompanying slash sheets
The 900 series dash numbers contained in
(which bear the specification number and are a
AS568 identify all the presently standardized
part of the specification) or will be identified by
straight thread tube fitting boss gaskets. With the various drawings and standards that relate to the
exception of -901, the last two digits of the dash
specification. Included among the specifications
designate the tube size in 16ths of an inch. For
are Air Force-Navy Standards (AN), Mili-
example, the -904 size is for a 1/4-inch tube.
tary Standards (MS), and National Aerospace
Standards (NAS). If the specification does not
identify sizes, the sizes should be identified by the
Dimensions
AS568 dash number. Usually, you can use
drawings, technical manuals, and allowance parts
The critical dimensions of an O-ring are its ID,
lists (APLs) to identify replacement O-rings.
its cross sectional diameter (W), and the height
(Notes 2 and 3 of table 7-1 list some of the
and width of the residual molding flash (see
frequently used military specifications).
fig. 7-7).
Nominal dimensions have been used to
describe O-ring sizes, although this practice is Cure Date
rapidly being replaced by the use of dash numbers.
The actual inside diameter of a seal will be slightly A cure date is as applicable to natural or
less than the nominal ID, but the actual OD will synthetic O-rings as it is to rubber hoses. This date
is the basis for determining the age of O-rings.
It is extremely important that the cure date be
Table 7-2.—O-Ring Dash Numbers Versus Cross Section noted on all packages.
Sizes

Shelf Life and Expiration Date

All elastomers change gradually with age;

some change more rapidly than others. The
shelf life for rubber products is contained in
MIL-HDBK-695.
Check the age of natural or synthetic rubber
preformed packings before installation to
determine whether they are acceptable for use.
Make a positive identification, indicating the
source, cure date, and expiration date. Ensure that
this information is available for all packing used.
Shelf life requirements do not apply once the
packing is installed in a component.
The expiration date is the date after which
packing should not be installed. The expiration
date of all packings can be determined by adding
the shelf life to the cure date.

7-8
 Figure 7-7.—Critical dimensions of an O-ring.

Replacement might scratch or mar component surfaces or

damage the O-ring. An O-ring tool kit is
Figure 7-8 shows a typical O-ring installation. available in the supply system for O-ring in-
When such an installation shows signs of internal stallation or removal. If these tools are not on
or external leakage, the component must be hand, special tools can be made for this purpose.
disassembled and the seals replaced. Sometimes A few examples of tools used in the removal
components must be resealed because of the age and installation of O-rings are illustrated in
limitations of the seals. The O-ring should also
be replaced whenever a gland that has been in
service is disassembled and reassembled.
Often a poor O-ring installation begins when
an old seal is removed. O-ring removal involves
working with parts that have critical surface
finishes. If hardened-steel, pointed, or sharp-
edged tools are used for removal of O-rings or
backup rings, scratches, abrasions, dents, and
other deformities on critical sealing surfaces can
result in seal failure which, in turn, can result in
functional failure of the equipment.
When removing or installing O-rings, do
not use pointed or sharp-edged tools which Figure 7-8.–Typical O-ring instalation.

7-9
figure 7-9. These tools should be fabricated from extract both O-rings with minimum effort. View
soft metal such as brass or aluminum; however, D shows practically the same removal as view C,
tools made from phenolic rod, wood, or plastic except for the use of a different type of extractor
may also be used. tool.
Tool surfaces must be well rounded, polished, The removal of external O-rings is less difficult
and free of burrs. Check the tools often, especially than the removal of internally installed O-rings.
the surfaces that come in contact with O-ring Views E and F show the use of a spoon-type
grooves and critical polished surfaces. extractor, which is positioned under the seal. After
Notice in figure 7-9, view A, how the the O-ring is dislodged from its cavity, the
hook-type removal tool is positioned under the spoon is held stationary while the piston is
O-ring and then lifted to allow the extractor tool, simultaneously rotated and withdrawn. View F
as well as the removal tool, to pull the O-ring from is similar to view E, except that only one O-ring
its cavity. View B shows the use of another type is installed, and a different type of extractor tool
of extractor tool in the removal of internally is used. The wedge-type extractor tool is inserted
installed O-rings. beneath the O-ring; the hook-type removal tool
In view C, notice the extractor tool positioned hooks the O-ring. A slight pull on the latter tool
under both O-rings at the same time. This method removes the O-ring from its cavity.
of manipulating the tool positions both O-rings, After removing all O-rings, cleaning of the
which allows the hook-type removal tool to affected parts that will receive new O-rings is

Figure 7-9.—O-ring tools and O-ring removal.

7-10
mandatory. Ensure that the area used for such take care identifying and inspecting O-rings than to
installations is clean and free from all repeatedly overhaul components with faulty seals.
contamination. After inspection and prior to installation,
Remove each O-ring that is to be installed lubricate the O-ring, and all the surfaces that it
from its sealed package and inspect it for defects must slide over with a light coat of the system fluid
such as blemishes, abrasions, cuts, or punctures. or a lubricant approved for use in the system.
Although an O-ring may appear perfect at first Consult the applicable technical instruction or
glance, slight surface flaws may exist. These are Naval Ships’ Technical Manual for the correct
often capable of preventing satisfactory O-ring lubricant for pneumatic systems.
performance. O-rings should be rejected for flaws Assembly must be made with care so that the
that will affect their performance. O-ring is properly placed in the groove and not
By rolling the ring on an inspection cone or damaged as the gland is closed. During some
dowel, the inner diameter surface can be checked installations, such as on a piston, it will be
for small cracks, particles of foreign material, and necessary to stretch the O-ring. Stretch the O-ring
other irregularities that will cause leakage or as little and as uniformly as possible. Avoid rolling
shorten its life. The slight stretching of the ring or twisting the O-ring when maneuvering it into
when it is rolled inside out will help to reveal some place. Keep the position of the O-ring mold line
defects not otherwise visible. A further check of constant. O-rings should not be left in a twisted
each O-ring should be made by stretching it condition after installation.
between the fingers, but care must be taken not to If the O-ring installation requires spanning or
exceed the elastic limits of the rubber. Following inserting through sharp-threaded areas, ridges,
these inspection practices will prove to be a slots, and edges, use protective measures, such as
maintenance economy. It is far more desirable to the O-ring entering sleeve (fig. 7-10, view A). If

Figure 7-10.–O-ring installation.

7-11
the recommended O-ring entering sleeve (a soft, labels. The dash number following the military
thin wall, metallic sleeve) is not available, paper standard number found on the package indicates
sleeves and covers may be fabricated by using the the size, and usually relates directly to the dash
seal package (glossy side out) or lint-free bond number of the O-rings for which the backup ring
paper (see views B and C of fig. 7-10). is dimensionally suited. Backup rings made of
After you place the O-ring in the cavity TFE do not deteriorate with age and do not have
provided, gently roll the O-ring with your fingers shelf life limitations. TFE backup rings are
to remove any twist that might have occurred provided by manufacturer either in individually
during the installation. After installation, an sealed packages or on mandrels. If unpackaged
O-ring should seat snugly but freely in its groove. rings are stored for a long time without the use
If backup rings are installed in the groove, be of mandrels, a condition of overlap may develop.
certain the backup rings are installed on the Overlap occurs when the ID of the backup ring
correct side of the ring. becomes smaller and its ends overlap each other.
To correct this overlap condition, stack TFE rings
BACKUP RINGS on a mandrel of the correct diameter, and clamp
the rings with their coils flat and parallel. Place
Backup rings, also referred to as retainer rings, the rings in an oven at a maximum temperature
antiextrusion devices, and nonextrusion rings, are of 1770C (3500F) for approximately 10 minutes.
washer-like devices that are installed on the Do not overheat them because fumes from
low-pressure side of packing to prevent extrusion decomposing TFE are toxic. Remove and
of the packing material. Backup rings in dynamic water-quench the rings. Store the rings at room
seals minimize erosion of the packing materials temperature before you use them (preferably for
and subsequent failure of the seal. At lower 48 hours).
pressures, backup rings will prolong the normal
wear life of the packing. At higher pressures,
backup rings permit greater clearances between Installation
the moving parts. Normally, backup rings are
required for operating pressures over 1500 psi. Care must be taken in handling and installing
Backup rings can be made of polytetra- backup rings. Do not insert them with sharp
fluoroethylene, hard rubber, leather, and other tools. Backup rings must be inspected prior
materials. The most common material currently to using them for evidence of compression
used is tetrafluoroethylene (TFE). Backup rings damage, scratches, cuts, nicks, or frayed con-
are available as single-turn continuous (uncut or ditions. If O-rings are to be replaced where
solid), single-turn (bias) cut, and spiral cut. See backup rings are installed in the same groove,
figure 7-11. Leather rings are always furnished in never replace the O-ring without replacing
solid ring form (unsplit). Rings of TFE are the backup rings, or vice versa. Many seals
available in all three types. use two backup rings, one on either side of the
O-ring (fig. 7-12). Two backup rings are used
Packaging and Storing primarily in situations (such as a reciprocating
piston seal) where alternating pressure direction
Backup rings are not color-coded or otherwise can cause packing to be extruded on both sides
marked and must be identified from the packaging of the gland.

Figure 7-11.—Types of backup rings.

7-12
 If only one backup ring is used, place the
backup ring on the low-pressure side of the
packing (fig. 7-13, view A). When a backup ring
is placed on the high-pressure side of the packing,
the pressure against the relatively hard surface of
the backup ring forces the softer packing against
the low-pressure side of the gland, resulting in a
rapid failure due to extrusion (fig. 7-13, view B).
When dual backup rings are installed, stagger
the split scarfed ends as shown in figure 7-14.
When installing a spiral cut backup ring (MS28782
or MS28783), be sure to wind the ring correctly
to ease installation and ensure optimum per-
formance.
When TFE spiral rings are being installed in
Figure 7-12.—Backup ring configuration. internal grooves, the ring must have a right-hand

Figure 7-13.–Location of a single backup ring.

Figure 7-14.—Installation of cut dual backup rings.

7-13
Figure 7-15.–Installation of TFE back up rings (internal).

7-14
spiral. Figure 7-15, view A, shows how to change or two backup rings, depending upon the specific
the direction of the spiral. The ring is then seal groove application and width. The Quad-
stretched slightly, as shown in view B prior to Ring® seal works well in, both hydraulic and
installation into the groove. While the TFE ring pneumatic systems.
is being inserted into the groove, rotate the Many Quad-Ring® seal sizes have been
component in a clockwise direction. This will tend assigned NSNs and are stocked in the Federal
to expand the ring diameter and reduce the Supply System. Quad-Ring® seals in manu-
possibility of damaging the ring. facturer’s sizes designated as Q1 through Q88 are
When TFE spiral rings are being installed in interchangeable with O-rings conforming to
external grooves, the ring should have a left-hand AN6227. Likewise, Quad-Ring® seals in com-
spiral. As the ring is being inserted into the mercial sizes Q101 through Q152 are inter-
groove, rotate the component in a clockwise changeable with O-rings conforming to AN6230
direction. This action will tend to contract the ring in the respective dash sizes from –1 through–52.
diameter and reduce the possibility of damaging Therefore, the Quad-Ring® seal stock part
the ring. number uses the AN standard O-ring designations
In applications where a leather backup ring AN6227 and AN6230 and the commercial Q dash
is called for, place the smooth-grained side of the number designation. For example, NSNs are
leather next to the ring. Do not cut leather backup found under such reference part numbers as
rings. Use a leather backup ring as one continuous AN6227Q10 and AN6230Q103. If the letter Q
ring and lubricate the ring prior to installing it, does not follow AN6227 or AN6230, the part
particularly the smaller sizes. If stretching is number is an O-ring not a Quad-Ring® seal.
necessary for proper installation, soak the backup If Quad-Ring® seals are not available for
ring in the system fluid or in an acceptable maintenance actions, appropriate sized O-rings
lubricant at room temperature for at least 30 can be installed and they work satisfactorily.
minutes.
QUAD-O-DYN® SEALS
QUAD-RINGS
The Quad-O-Dyn®, also manufactured by
The Quad-Ring® seal is a special configura- Minnesota Rubber, is a special form of the
tion ring packing, manufactured by the Minnesota Quad-Ring. The Quad-O-Dyn differs from the
Rubber. As opposed to an O-ring, a Quad- Quad-Ring in configuration (fig. 7-17), is harder,
Ring® seal has a more square cross-sectional is subject to greater squeeze, and is made of a
shape with rounded corners (fig. 7-16). The Quad- different material. The Quad-O-Dyn® seal also
Ring® seal design offers more stability than the works well in O-rings glands.
O-ring design and practically eliminates the The Quad-O-Dyn® is used in relatively few
spiraling or twisting that is sometimes encountered applications. However, for difficult dynamic
with the O-ring. sealing applications, the Quad-O-Dyn® can
Quad-Rings® seals are completely inter- perform better than the Quad-Ring. Quad-O-
changeable with O-rings in the sizes offered by Dyn® rings are installed in submarine hydraulic
the manufacturer. They may be installed with one systems plant accumulators.

Figure 7-16.—Quad-Ring. Figure 7-17.—Quad-O-Dyn® seal.

7-15
U-CUPS AND U-PACKINGS figure 7-19. The leather may be chemically treated
or otherwise impregnated to improve its per-
The distinction between U-cups and formance. Leather U-packings are available in
U-packings results from the difference in materials standard sizes conforming to industrial specifica-
used in their fabrication. The U-cup is usually tions. For support, the cavity of the U-packing
made of homogeneous synthetic rubber; should contain a metal pedestal ring or should be
U-packings are usually made of leather or fabric- filled with a suitable material. Leather U-packings
reinforced rubber. Special aspects of each type will with an integral pedestal support have been
be discussed separately. However, all U-cups and installed in some submarine steering and diving
U-packings have cross sections resembling the ram piston seals.
letter U. Both types are balanced packings, both
seal on the ID and the OD, and both are applied CUP PACKINGS
individually, not in stacks like V-rings. Size
Cup packings resemble a cup or deep dish with
differences between U-cups and U-packings are
a hole in the center for mounting (fig. 7-20). Cup
usually substantial enough to prevent inter-
seals are used exclusively to seal pistons in both
changeability. There are a few sizes with smaller
low- and high-pressure hydraulic and pneu-
diameters and cross sections that may appear
matic service. They are produced in leather,
to be dimensionally equivalent but are not.
homogeneous synthetic rubber, and fabric-
Therefore, U-packings should not be substituted
reinforced synthetic rubber. Although the cup
for U-cups (or vice versa) in any installation.
packing lip flares outward, the rubbing contact
is made at the lip only when the fluid pressure is
U-CUPS
low. As the fluid pressure increases, the cup heel
expands outward until it contacts the cylinder
The U-cup (fig. 7-18) has been a popular
wall, at which point high-pressure sealing is in
packing in the past because of installation ease
effect. As the pressure loading shifts the sealing
and low friction. U-cups are used primarily for
line to the cup heel, the lip is actually pulled into
pressures below 1500 psi, but higher pressures are
the cup and away from the cylinder wall. On the
possible with the use of antiextrusion rings. For
return stroke when the pressure is relaxed, the heel
double-acting pistons, two U-cups are installed
will shrink slightly, leaving only the lip in contact
in separate grooves, back-to-back or heel-to-heel.
with the wall, avoiding unnecessary wear at the
Two U-cups are never used in the same groove.
heel.
This heel-to-heel type of installation is common
For reciprocating pistons, two cups installed
for single-acting (monodirectional) seals, such as
back-to-back in separate glands are required.
U-cups and V-rings, and is necessary to prevent
a pressure trap (hydraulic lock) between two
FLANGE PACKINGS
packings. Installation of two U-cups with sealing
lips facing each other can result in hydraulic lock Flange packings are used exclusively in low-
and must be avoided. pressure, outside-packed installations, such as rod

Leather U-Packings

As a rule, leather U-packings are made with

straight side walls (no flared sealing lips). See

Figure 7-18.—Typical U-cup seal. Figure 7-19.—U-packing.

7-16
 for metal lip-type devices that remove heavily
encrusted deposits of dirt or other abrasive
material that would merely deflect a softer lip and
be carried into the cylinder. Sometimes a rod will
have both a scraper and a wiper, the former to
remove heavy deposits and the latter to exclude
any dust particles that remain. Whenever metallic
scrapers are used with felt wipers in the same
groove, the felt wiper must not be compressed nor
restricted in any way that affects its function as
a lubricator. A wiper installed in a seal assembly
in a pneumatic application may remove too much
oil from the rod, requiring some method of
Figure 7-20.–Cup packing. replacing the oil. A common remedy is to provide
a periodically oiled felt ring between the wiper
and the seal. Felt wipers provide lubrication
seals. The flange (sometimes called the hat) is to extended operating rods, thus increasing
made of leather, fabric-reinforced rubber, or component wear life. These wipers are only used
homogeneous rubber. Lip sealing occurs only on to provide lubrication to parts.
the packing ID (fig. 7-21). Flange packings are
generally used only for rod seals when other Much longer life could be obtained from most
packings such as V-rings or U-seals cannot be seals if proper attention were given to wipers and
used. scrapers. Often, wiper or scraper failure is not
noticed when a seal packing fails. As a result, only
the packing is replaced, and the same worn wiper
DIRT EXCLUSION SEALS or scraper is reinstalled to destroy another
(WIPERS AND SCRAPERS) packing. Check the wiper or scraper condition
upon its removal. If the wiper is worn, dirty, or
Dirt exclusion devices are essential if a embedded with metallic particles, replace it with
satisfactory life is to be obtained from most rod a new one. It is usually good practice to replace
seals. The smooth finished moving rod surface, the wiper every time you replace the seal and even
if not enclosed or protected by some sort of more frequently if the wiper is readily accessible
covering, will accumulate a coating of dust or without component disassembly. If replacements
abrasive material that will be dragged or carried are not available, wash dirty wipers that are still
into the packing assembly area on the return rod in good condition with suitable solvent and
stroke. Exclusion devices called wipers or scrapers reinstall them. Remember that a wiper or scraper
are designed to remove this coating. While the is deliberately installed as a sacrificial part
terms w i p e r and scraper are often used to protect and preserve the sealing packing.
interchangeably, it is useful to reserve scraper Therefore, from a user’s standpoint, wipers and
scrapers should be inspected and replaced as
necessary.

STORAGE OF SEALS

Proper storage practices must be observed to

prevent deformation and deterioration of seals.
Most synthetic rubbers are not damaged by
storage under ideal conditions. However, most
synthetic rubbers will deteriorate when exposed
to heat, light, oil, grease, fuels, solvents, thinners,
moisture, strong drafts, or ozone (form of oxygen
formed from an electrical discharge). Damage by
exposure is magnified when rubber is under
Figure 7-21.—Typical flange packing cross section. tension, compression, or stress. There are several

7-17
conditions to be avoided, which include the 6. Contamination by piercing the sealed
following: envelope to store O-rings on rods, nails, or wire
hanging devices.
1. Deformation as a result of improper
stacking of parts and storage containers. 7. Contamination by fluids leaking from parts
2. Creasing caused by force applied to corners stored above and adjacent to the seal surfaces.
and edges, and by squeezing between boxes and
storage containers. 8. Contamination caused by adhesive tapes
3. Compression and flattening, as a result of applied to seal surfaces. A torn seal package
storage under heavy parts. should be secured with a pressure-sensitive
4. Punctures caused by staples used to attach moistureproof tape, but the tape must not contact
identification. the seal surfaces.
5. Deformation and contamination due to
hanging the seals from nails or pegs. Seals should 9. Retention of overage parts as a result
be kept in their original envelopes, which provide of improper storage arrangement or illegible
preservation, protection, identification, and cure identification. Seals should be arranged so the
date. older seals are used first.

7-18
 CHAPTER 8

MEASUREMENT AND PRESSURE

CONTROL DEVICES
For safe and efficient operation, fluid power pointer. Thus, the pointer position indirectly
systems are designed to operate at a specific indicates pressure.
pressure and/or temperature, or within a pressure
and/or temperature range. The Bourdon-tube gauge is available in
You have learned that the lubricating power various tube shapes: curved or C-shaped, helical,
of hydraulic fluids varies with temperature and and spiral. The size, shape, and material of the
that excessively high temperatures reduce the life tube depend on the pressure range and the type
of hydraulic fluids. Additionally, you have of gauge desired. Low-pressure Bourdon tubes
learned that the materials, dimensions, and (pressures up to 2000 psi) are often made of
method of fabrication of fluid power components phosphor bronze. High-pressure Bourdon tubes
limit the pressure and temperature at which a (pressures above 2000 psi) are made of stainless
system operates. You have also learned of means steel or other high-strength materials. High-
of automatically controlling pressure in both pressure Bourdon tubes tend to have more circular
hydraulic and pneumatic systems. cross sections than their lower-range counterparts,
Most fluid power systems are provided with which tend to have oval cross sections. The
pressure gauges and thermometers for measuring Bourdon tube most commonly used is the
and indicating the pressure and/or the tempera- C-shaped metal tube that is sealed at one end and
ture in the system. Additionally, various tempera- open at the other (fig. 8-1).
ture and pressure switches are used to warn of an
adverse pressure or temperature condition. Some
switches will even shut the system off when an
adverse condition occurs. These devices will be
discussed in this chapter.

PRESSURE GAUGES

Many pressure-measuring instruments are

called gauges. However, this section will be
restricted to two mechanical instruments that
contain elastic elements that respond to pressures
found in fluid power systems—the Bourdon-tube
and bellows gauges.

BOURDON TUBE GAUGES

The majority of pressure gauges in use have

a Bourdon-tube as a measuring element. (The
gauge is named for its inventor, Eugene Bourdon,
a French engineer.) The Bourdon tube is a device
that senses pressure and converts the pressure to
displacement. Since the Bourdon-tube displace-
ment is a function of the pressure applied, it may
be mechanically amplified and indicated by a Figure 8-1.—Simplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.

8-1
C-shaped Bourdon Tube independently but with the two pointers mounted
on a common dial, the assembly is called a duplex
The C-shaped Bourdon tube has a hollow, gauge. Figure 8-2 shows a duplex gauge with views
elliptical cross section. It is closed at one end and of the dial and the operating mechanism. Note
is connected to the fluid pressure at the other end. that each Bourdon tube has its own pressure
When pressure is applied, its cross section connection and its own pointer. Duplex gauges
becomes more circular, causing the tube to are used to give a simultaneous indication of the
straighten out, like a garden hose when the water pressure from two different locations. For
is first turned on, until the force of the fluid example, it may be used to measure the inlet and
pressure is balanced by the elastic resistance of outlet pressures of a strainer to obtain the
the tube material. Since the open end of the tube differential pressure across it.
is anchored in a fixed position, changes in pressure
move the closed end. A pointer is attached to the Differential pressure may also be measured
closed end of the tube through a linkage arm and with Bourdon-tube gauges. One kind of Bourdon-
a gear and pinion assembly, which rotates the tube differential pressure gauge is shown in
pointer around a graduated scale. figure 8-3. This gauge has two Bourdon tubes
but only one pointer. The Bourdon tubes are
Bourdon-tube pressure gauges are often connected in such a way that they indicate the
classified as simplex or duplex, depending upon pressure difference, rather than either of two
whether they measure one pressure or two actual pressures.
pressures. A simplex gauge has only one Bourdon
tube and measures only one pressure. The pressure As mentioned earlier, Bourdon-tube pressure
gauge shown in figure 8-1 is a simplex gauge. A gauges are used in many hydraulic systems. In this
red hand is available on some gauges. This hand application they are usually referred to as
is manually positioned at the maximum operating hydraulic gauges. Bourdon-tube hydraulic gauges
pressure of the system or portion of the system are not particularly different from other types of
in which the gauge is installed. Bourdon-tube gauges in how they operate;
however, they do sometimes have special design
When two Bourdon tubes are mounted in features because of the extremely high system
a single case, with each mechanism acting pressures to which they may be exposed. For

Figure 8-2.—Duplex Bourdon-tube pressure gauge.

8-2
 Figure 8-4.—Spiral Bourdon tube.

section. Both were designed to provide more travel

of the tube tip, primarily for moving the recording
pen of pressure recorders.

BELLOWS ELASTIC ELEMENTS

A bellows elastic element is a convoluted unit

that expands and contracts axially with changes
in pressure. The pressure to be measured can be
applied to either the outside or the inside of the
bellows; in practice, most bellows measuring

Figure 8-3.—Bourdon-tube differential pressure gauge.

example, some hydraulic gauges have a special

type of spring-loaded linkage that is capable of
taking overpressure and underpressure without
damage to the movement and that keeps the
pointer from slamming back to zero when the
pressure is suddenly changed. A hydraulic gauge
that does not have such a device must be protected
by a suitable check valve. Some hydraulic gauges
may also have special dials that indicate both the
pressure (in psi) and the corresponding total force
being applied, for example tons of force produced
by a hydraulic press.

Spiral and Helical Bourdon Tubes

Spiral and helical Bourdon tubes (figs. 8-4 and

8-5) are made from tubing with a flattened cross Figure 8-5.—Helical Bourdon tube.

8-3
 devices have the pressure applied to the outside
of the bellows (fig. 8-6).

Simple Bellows Elements

Bellows elastic elements are made of brass,

phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-
copper, or other metal suitable for the intended
service of the gauge. Motion of the element
(bellows) is transmitted by suitable linkage and
gears to a dial pointer. Most bellows gauges are
spring-loaded—that is, a spring opposes the
bellows and thus prevents full expansion of the
bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in
this way protects the bellows and prolongs its life.
Because of the elasticity in both the bellows and
the spring in a spring-loaded bellows element, the
relationship between the applied pressure and
bellows movement is linear.

Dual Bellows Indicators

Another type of bellows element is the dual-

bellows element. Figure 8-7 is a schematic diagram
of this indicator. Dual-bellows element pressure
indicators are used throughout the Navy as flow-
measuring, level-indicating, or pressure-indicating
Figure 8-6.—Simple bellows gauge. devices.

Figure 8-7.–Differential pressure sensor dual bellows.

8-4
 Figure 8-8.–Dual bellows assembly.

When in operation, the bellows will move in

proportion to the difference in pressure applied
across the bellows unit assembly. The linear
motion of the bellows is picked up by a drive arm
and transmitted as a rotary motion through a
torque tube assembly (fig. 8-8). The indicating
mechanism multiplies rotation of the torque tube
through a gear and pinion to the indicating
pointer.
Bellows elements are used in various appli-
cations where the pressure-sensitive device must
be powerful enough to operate not only the
indicating pointer but also some type of recording
device.

PRESSURE SWITCHES

Often when a measured pressure reaches a

certain maximum or minimum value, it is desir-
able to have an alarm sound a warning, a light
to give a signal, or an auxiliary control system to
energize or de-energize. A pressure switch is the
device commonly used for this purpose. Figure 8-9.—Typical pressure switch.
One of the simplest pressure switches is the
single-pole, single-throw, quick-acting type shown
in figure 8-9. This switch is contained in a metal

8-5
case that has a removable cover, an electrical
connection, and a pressure-sensing connection.
The switch contains a seamless metallic bellows
located in its housing. Changes in the measured
pressure causes the bellows to work against an
adjustable spring. This spring determines the
pressure required to actuate the switch. Through
suitable linkage, the spring causes the contacts to
open or close the electrical circuit automatically
when the operating pressure falls below or rises
above a specified value. A permanent magnet in
the switch mechanism provides a positive snap on
both the opening and closing of the contacts. The
switch is constantly energized. However, it is the
closing of the contacts that energizes the entire
electrical circuit.

Another pressure switch is an electric-

hydraulic assembly that is used for shutting off
the pump’s motor whenever the system pressure
exceeds a pre-determined maximum value (fig.
8-10). The switch is mounted on the pump housing
so that the former’s low pressure ports drain
directly into the pump housing.

This pressure switch principally consists of a

flange-mounted hydraulic valve to which is fixed
a normally closed electrical limit switch.

The valve consists of two hydraulically

interconnected components, the pilot valve sub-
assembly, which bolts on the bottom of the
body (l), functions to sense system pressure Figure 8-10.—Electric-hydraulic pressure switch.
continuously and initiates pressure switch action
whenever this pressure exceeds the adjusted setting
of the pilot adjustment. System pressure is TEMPERATURE-MEASURING
directed into the bottom port and is applied INSTRUMENTS
against the exposed tip of the pilot piston (5). This
piston is held on its seat by compression from the Temperature is the degree of hotness or
piston spring (6) which is dependent on the coldness of a substance measured on a definite
position of the adjusting screw (8). Whenever the scale. Temperature is measured when a measuring
pressure causes a force sufficiently large enough instrument, such as a thermometer, is brought
to raise the pilot piston from its seat, fluid into contact with the medium being measured.
flows through an interconnecting passage to the
actuating piston (2) chamber. The accompanying All temperature-measuring instruments use
fluid force raises the actuating piston against the some change in a material to indicate temperature.
force of spring 3 and causes depression of Some of the effects that are used to indicate
the extended switch plunger. This, in turn, temperature are changes in physical properties and
disconnects the contained electrical switch, which altered physical dimensions. One of the more
may be connected into the pump motor’s electric important physical properties used in temperature-
supply system. measuring instruments is the change in the length
of a material in the form of expansion and
Pressure switches come in many sizes and contraction.
configurations depending on how they will be Consider the uniform homogeneous bar
used. illustrated in figure 8-11. If the bar has a given

8-6
 Figure 8-11.—Expansion of a bar.

Figure 8-12.—Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic

length (LO) at some temperature and is heated, it strip.
will expand (Lf). The amount of expansion (AL)
is a function of the original length and the
temperature increase. The amount a material free end is connected to a pointer. The pointer
changes in length with temperature is called the actually indicates angular rotation of the helix;
linear coefficient of expansion. however, since the rotation is linear and a function
of temperature, the scale is marked in units of
The linear coefficient of expansion for a temperature.
material is a physical property of that material
and describes its behavior with respect to
temperature. DISTANT-READING THERMOMETERS

Distant-reading dial thermometers are used

BIMETALLIC EXPANSION when the indicating portion of the instrument
THERMOMETER must be placed at a distance from where the
temperature is being measured. The distant-
If two materials with different linear coef- reading thermometer has a long capillary, some
ficients are bonded together, as the temperature
changes their rate of expansion will be different.
This will cause the entire assembly to bend in an
arc as shown in figure 8-12.

When the temperature is raised, an arc is

formed around the material with the smaller
expansion coefficient. Since this assembly is
formed by joining two dissimilar materials, it is
known as a bimetallic element.

A modification of this bimetallic strip serves

as the basis for one of the simplest and most
commonly encountered temperature-measuring
instruments, the bimetallic thermometer.

Figure 8-13 shows a bimetallic thermometer.

In it, a bimetallic strip is wound in the form of
a long helix. One end of the helix is held rigid.
As the temperature varies, the helix tries to wind
or unwind. This causes the free end to rotate. The Figure 8-13.—Bimetallic thermometer.

8-7
as long as 125 feet, which separates the sensing or helix, which is connected to the actuating device
bulb from the Bourdon tube and dial (fig. 8-14). by a small tube or pipe. Figure 8-15 shows a
There are three basic types of distant-reading temperature switch and two types of sensing
thermometers: the liquid filled, the gas filled, elements.
and the combination liquid-vapor filled. The A temperature change causes a change in the
thermometers are filled with fluid (liquid or gas) volume of the sealed-in gas, which causes
at some temperature and sealed. Almost the entire movement of a bellows. The movement is
volume of the fluid is in the sensing bulb. transmitted by a plunger to the switch arm. The
As the temperature of the bulb changes, the moving contact is on the arm. A fixed contact may
volume of the fluid tries to change. Since be arranged so the switch will open or close on
the volume of the thermometer (sensing bulb, a temperature rise. This allows the switch contacts
capillary, and Bourdon tube) is constant, a to be arranged to close when the temperature
pressure change occurs within the thermometer. drops to a predetermined value and to open when
This pressure change causes the Bourdon tube to the temperature rises to the desired value. The
straighten out (with an increase in pressure), reverse action can be obtained by a change in the
working a system of levers and gears, which causes contact positions.
the thermometer pointer to move over the dial and
register temperature.
GAUGE SNUBBERS

TEMPERATURE SWITCHES The irregularity of impulses applied to the

fluid power system by some pumps or air
Temperature switches operate from tempera- compressors causes the gauge pointer to oscillate
ture changes occurring in an enclosure, or in the violently. This makes reading of the gauge not
air surrounding the temperature-sensing element. only difficult but often impossible. Pressure
The operation of the temperature switch is similar oscillations and other sudden pressure changes
to the operation of the pressure switch shown in existing in fluid power systems will also affect the
figure 8-9; both switches are operated by changes delicate internal mechanism of gauges and cause
in pressure. The temperature element is arranged either damage to or complete destruction of the
so a change in temperature causes a change in the
internal pressure of a sealed-gas or air-filled bulb

Figure 8-15.—Temperature switch with two types of sensing

Figure 8-14.—Distant-reading, Bourdon-tube thermometers. elements. A. Bulb unit. B. Helix unit.

8-8
gauge. A pressure gauge snubber is therefore
installed in the line that leads to the pressure
gauge.
The purpose of the snubber is to dampen the
oscillations and thus provide a steady reading and
protection for the gauge. The basic components
of a snubber are the housing, fitting assembly with
a fixed orifice diameter, and a pin and plunger
assembly (fig. 8-16). The snubbing action is
obtained by metering fluid through the snubber.
The fitting assembly orifice restricts the amount
of fluid that flows to the gauge, thereby snubbing
the force of a pressure surge. The pin is pushed
and pulled through the orifice of the fitting Figure 8-16.—Pressure gauge snubber.
assembly by the plunger, keeping it clean and at
a uniform size.

8-9
 CHAPTER 9

RESERVOIRS, STRAINERS, FILTERS,

AND ACCUMULATORS

Fluid power systems must have a sufficient

and continuous supply of uncontaminated fluid
to operate efficiently. As stated in chapter 3 and
emphasized throughout this manual, the fluid
must be kept free of all foreign matter.
This chapter covers hydraulic reservoirs,
various types of strainers and filters, and
accumulators installed in fluid power systems.

RESERVOIRS

A hydraulic system must have a reserve of

fluid in addition to that contained in the pumps,
actuators, pipes, and other components of the
system. This reserve fluid must be readily available
to make up losses of fluid from the system, to
make up for compression of the fluid under
pressure, and to compensate for the loss of Figure 9-1.—Nonpressurized reservoir (ground or ship
volume as the fluid cools. This extra fluid is installation).
contained in a tank usually called a reservoir. A
reservoir may sometimes be referred to as a sump
tank, service tank, operating tank, supply tank, system through the pump inlet line. This aids in
or base tank. settling the contamination and separating the air
In addition to providing storage for the reserve from the fluid.
fluid needed for the system, the reservoir acts as Large reservoirs are desirable for cooling. A
a radiator for dissipating heat from the fluid and large reservoir also reduces recirculation which
as a settling tank where heavy particles of helps settle contamination and separate air. As
contamination may settle out of the fluid and a ‘‘thumb rule,” the ideal reservoir should be two
remain harmlessly on the bottom until removed to three times the pump output per minute.
by cleaning or flushing of the reservoir. Also, the However, due to space limitations in mobile and
reservoir allows entrained air to separate from the aerospace systems, the benefits of a large reservoir
fluid. may have to be sacrificed. But, they must be large
Most reservoirs have a capped opening for enough to accommodate thermal expansion of the
filling, an air vent, an oil level indicator or dip fluid and changes in fluid level due to system
stick, a return line connection, a pump inlet or operation. Reservoirs are of two general types—
suction line connection, a drain line connection, nonpressurized and pressurized.
and a drain plug (fig. 9-1). The inside of the
reservoir generally will have baffles to prevent NONPRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
excessive sloshing of the fluid and to put a
partition between the fluid return line and the Hydraulic systems designed to operate
pump suction or inlet line. The partition forces equipment at or near sea level are normally
the returning fluid to travel farther around the equipped with nonpressurized reservoirs. This
tank before being drawn back into the active includes the hydraulic systems of ground and ship

9-1
installations. A typical reservoir for use with The quantity of fluid in the reservoir is
ground and ship installations is shown in figure indicated by either a glass tube, a directing gauge,
9-1. This type of reservoir is made of hot rolled or a float-type rod, which is visible through a
steel plates and has welded seams. The ends extend transparent dome installed on the reservoir.
below the bottom of the reservoir and serve as
supports. The bottom of the reservoir is convex, PRESSURIZED RESERVOIRS
and a drain plug is incorporated at the lowest
point. A pressurized reservoir is required in hydraulic
Nonpressurized reservoirs are also used in systems where atmospheric pressure is insufficient
several transport-, patrol-, and utility-type to maintain a net positive suction head (NPSH)
aircraft. These aircraft are not designed for violent to the pump. There are two common types of
maneuvers and, in some cases, do not fly at high pressurized reservoirs—fluid-pressurized and
altitude. Those aircraft that have nonpressurized air-pressurized.
reservoirs installed and that fly at high altitudes
have the reservoirs installed within a pressurized Fluid-Pressurized Reservoir
area. (High altitude in this situation means an
altitude where atmospheric pressure is inadequate Some aircraft hydraulic systems use fluid
to maintain sufficient flow of fluid to the pressure for pressurizing the reservoir. The
hydraulic pumps.) reservoir shown in figure 9-3 is of this type. This
Most nonpressurized aircraft reservoirs are reservoir is divided into two chambers by a
constructed in a cylindrical shape (fig. 9-2). The floating piston. The piston is forced downward
outer housing is manufactured from a strong in the reservoir by a compression spring within
corrosion-resistant metal. Filter elements are the pressurizing cylinder and by system pressure
normally installed internally within the reservoir entering the pressurizing port of the cylinder.
to clean returning system hydraulic fluid. Some The pressurizing port is connected directly to
of the older aircraft have a filter bypass valve the pressure line. When the system is pressurized,
installed to allow fluid to bypass the filter if the pressure enters the pressure port, thus pressurizing
filter becomes clogged. Reservoirs that are filled the reservoir. This pressurizes the pump suction
by pouring fluid directly into them have a filler line and the reservoir return line to the same
(finger) strainer assembly installed in the filler well pressure.
to strain out impurities as the fluid enters the The reservoir shown in figure 9-3 has five
reservoir. ports—pump suction, return, pressurizing,
overboard drain, and bleed. Fluid is supplied to
the pump through the pump suction port. Fluid
returns to the reservoir from the system through
the return port. Pressure from the pump enters
the pressurizing cylinder in the top of the reservoir
through the pressurizing port. The overboard
drain port is used to drain the reservoir while
performing maintenance, and the bleed port is
used as an aid when servicing the reservoir.

Air-Pressurized Reservoirs

Air-pressurized reservoirs, such as the one

shown in figure 9-4, are currently used in many
high-performance naval aircraft. The reservoir is
cylindrical in shape and has a piston installed
internally to separate the air and fluid chambers.
Air pressure is usually provided by engine bleed
air. The piston rod end protrudes through the
reservoir end cap and indicates the fluid quantity.
The quantity indication may be seen by inspecting
the distance the piston rod protrudes from the
Figure 9-2.—Nonpressurized aircraft reservoir. reservoir end cap. The reservoir is provided with

9-2
 Figure 9-3.—Typical fluid-pressurized reservoir.

threaded openings for connecting fittings and Some air-pressurized reservoirs also have
components. Figure 9-4 shows several components direct contact of fluid to gas. These reservoirs are
installed in lines leading to and from the reservoir; installed in large systems and may be cylindrical
however, this may not be the case in actual or rectangular in shape. They contain an oil level
installation. The air relief valve, bleeder valve, and indicator, a pump inlet or suction line connection,
soon, may reinstalled directly on the reservoir. a return line, a gas pressurization and venting
connection, and a drain line connection or a drain
Because the reservoir is pressurized, it can plug. These reservoirs are pressurized by air from
normally be installed at any altitude and still the ship’s service air system or nitrogen banks.
maintain a positive flow of fluid to the pump. These reservoirs are found on board aircraft
carriers and submarines.

ACCUMULATORS

An accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir

in which hydraulic fluid is stored under pressure
from an external source. The storage of fluid
under pressure serves several purposes in hydraulic
systems.
In some hydraulic systems it is necessary to
maintain the system pressure within a specific
pressure range for long periods of time. It is very
difficult to maintain a closed system without some
leakage, either external or internal. Even a small
leak can cause a decrease in pressure. By using
Figure 9-4.—Air-pressurized reservoir. an accumulator, leakage can be compensated for

9-3
Figure 9-5.–Cross-section view of a piston-type accumulator with a tailrod.

9-4
and the system pressure can be maintained within is sufficient time during the working cycle for an
an acceptable range for long periods of time. accumulator to store up enough liquid to aid the
Accumulators also compensate for thermal pump during these peak demands.
expansion and contraction of the liquid due to The energy stored in accumulators maybe also
variations in temperature. used to actuate hydraulically operated units if
A liquid, flowing at a high velocity in a pipe normal hydraulic system failure occurs.
will create a backward surge when stopped Four types of accumulators used in Navy
suddenly by the closing of a valve. This sudden hydraulic systems are as follows:
stoppage causes instantaneous pressures two to
three times the operating pressure of the system. 1. Piston type
These pressures, or shocks, produce objectional 2. Bag or bladder type
noise and vibrations which can cause considerable 3. Direct-contact gas-to-fluid type
damage to piping, fittings, and components. The 4. Diaphragm type
incorporation of an accumulator enables such
shocks and surges to be absorbed or cushioned PISTON-TYPE ACCUMULATORS
by the entrapped gas, thereby reducing their
effects. The accumulator also dampens pressure Piston-type accumulators consist of a
surges caused by pulsating delivery from the cylindrical body called a barrel, closures on each
pump. end called heads, and an internal piston. The
There are times when hydraulic systems piston may be fitted with a tailrod, which extends
require large volumes of liquid for short periods through one end of the cylinder (fig. 9-5), or it
of time. This is due to either the operation of large may not have a tailrod at all (fig. 9-6). In the latter
cylinders or the necessity of operating two or more case, it is referred to as a floating piston.
circuits simultaneously. It is not economical to Hydraulic fluid is pumped into one end of the
install a pump of such large capacity in the system cylinder and the piston is forced toward the
for only intermittent usage, particularly if there opposite end of the cylinder against a captive

Figure 9-6.—Floating piston-type accumulator.

9-5
charge of air or an inert gas such as nitrogen.
Sometimes the amount of air charge is limited to
the volume within the accumulator; other
installations may use separate air flasks which are
piped to the air side of the accumulator. Piston
accumulators may be mounted in any position.
The gas portion of the accumulator may be
located on either side of the piston. For example,
in submarine hydraulic systems with tailrod
pistons, the gas is usually on the bottom and the
fluid on top; in surface ships with floating pistons,
the gas is usually on the top. The orientation of
the accumulator and the type of accumulator are
based upon such criteria as available space,
maintenance accessibility, size, need for external
monitoring of the piston’s location (tailrod
indication), contamination tolerance, seal life, and
safety. The purpose of the piston seals is to keep
the fluid and the gas separate.
Usually, tailrod accumulators use two piston
seals, one for the air side and one for the oil side,
with the space between them vented to the
atmosphere through a hole drilled the length of
the tailrod. When the piston seals fail in this type
of accumulator, air or oil leakage is apparent.
However, seal failure in floating piston or
nonvented tailrod accumulators will not be as
obvious. Therefore, more frequent attention to
venting or draining the air side is necessary. An
indication of worn and leaking seals can be
detected by the presence of significant amounts Figure 9-7.—Bladder-type accumulator.
of oil in the air side.

BLADDER-TYPE ACCUMULATORS the accumulator. Consequently, the bladder

accumulator has a very high volumetric efficiency.
Bladder- or bag-type accumulators consist of In other words, this type of accumulator is
a shell or case with a flexible bladder inside the capable of supplying a large percentage of the
shell. See figure 9-7. The bladder is larger in stored fluid to do work.
diameter at the top (near the air valve) and The bladder is precharged with air or inert gas
gradually tapers to a smaller diameter at the to a specified pressure. Fluid is then forced into
bottom. The synthetic rubber is thinner at the top the area around the bladder, further compressing
of the bladder than at the bottom. The operation the gas in the bladder. This type of accumulator
of the accumulator is based on Barlow’s formula has the advantage that as long as the bladder is
for hoop stress, which states: “The stress in a intact there is no exposure of fluid to the gas
circle is directly proportional to its diameter and charge and therefore less danger of an explosion.
wall thickness.” This means that for a certain
thickness, a large diameter circle will stretch faster DIRECT-CONTACT GAS-TO-FLUID
than a small diameter circle; or for a certain ACCUMULATORS
diameter, a thin wall hoop will stretch faster than
a thick wall hoop. Thus, the bladder will stretch Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulators
around the top at its largest diameter and thinnest generally are used in very large installations where
wall thickness, and then will gradually stretch it would be very expensive to require a piston-
downward and push itself outward against the or bladder-type accumulator. This type of
walls of the shell. As a result, the bladder is accumulator consists of a fully enclosed cylinder,
capable of squeezing out all the liquid from. mounted in a vertical position, containing a liquid

9-6
port on the bottom and a pneumatic charging port
at the top (fig. 9-8). This type of accumulator is
used in some airplane elevator hydraulic systems
where several thousand gallons of fluid are needed
to supplement the output of the hydraulic pumps
for raising the elevator platform. The direct
contact between the air or gas and the hydraulic
fluid tends to entrain excessive amounts of gas
in the fluid. For this reason, direct contact
accumulators are generally not used for pressures
over 1200 psi. The use of this type of accumulator
with flammable fluid is dangerous because there
is a possibility of explosion if any oxygen is
present in the gas, and pressure surges generate
excessive heat. For this reason, safety fluids are
used in this type of installation.

DIAPHRAGM ACCUMULATORS

The diaphragm-type accumulator is con- Figure 9-9.—Diaphragm accumulator.

structed in two halves which are either screwed
or bolted together. A synthetic rubber diaphragm
is installed between both halves, making two of the diaphragm. An air valve for pressurizing
chambers. Two threaded openings exist in the the accumulator is located in the gas chamber end
assembled component. The opening at the top, of the sphere, and the liquid port to the hydraulic
as shown in figure 9-9, contains a screen disc system is located on the opposite end of the
which prevents the diaphragm from extruding sphere. This accumulator operates in a manner
through the threaded opening when system similar to that of the bladder-type accumulator.
pressure is depleted, thus rupturing the dia-
phragm. On some designs the screen is replaced
by a button-type protector fastened to the center FILTRATION

You have learned that maintaining hydraulic

fluids within allowable limits is crucial to
the care and protection of hydraulic equipment.
While every effort must be made to prevent
contaminants from entering the system, con-
taminants which do find their way into the system
must be removed. Filtration devices are installed
at key points in fluid power systems to remove
the contaminants that enter the system along
with those that are generated during normal
operations.
Filtration devices for hydraulic systems differ
somewhat from those of pneumatic systems.
Therefore, they will be discussed separately.
The filtering devices used in hydraulic systems
are commonly referred to as strainers and filters.
Since they share a common function, the terms
strainer and filter are often used interchangeably.
As a general rule, devices used to remove large
particles of foreign matter from hydraulic fluids
are referred to as strainers, while those used to
remove the smallest particles are referred to as
Figure 9-8.—Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulator. filters.

9-7
STRAINERS

Strainers are used primarily to catch only very

large particles and will be found in applications
where this type of protection is required. Most
hydraulic systems have a strainer in the reservoir
at the inlet to the suction line of the pump. A
strainer is used in lieu of a filter to reduce its
chance of being clogged and starving the pump.
However, since this strainer is located in the
reservoir, its maintenance is frequently neglected.
When heavy dirt and sludge accumulate on the
suction strainer, the pump soon begins to cavitate.
Pump failure follows quickly.

FILTERS

The most common device installed in

hydraulic systems to prevent foreign particles and
contamination from remaining in the system are Figure 9-10.—Full-flow hydraulic filter.
referred to as filters. They may be located in the
reservoir, in the return line, in the pressure line,
or in any other location in the system where the gauges as indicators, the differential pressure must
designer of the system decides they are needed to be obtained by subtracting the readings of two
safeguard the system against impurities. gauges located somewhere along the filter inlet
Filters are classified as full flow and and outlet piping. For pop-up indicators, when
proportional or partial flow. In the full-flow type the increase in pressure reaches a specific value,
of filter, all the fluid that enters the unit passes an indicator (usually in the filter head) pops out,
through the filtering element, while in the signifying that the filter must be cleaned or
proportional-flow type, only a portion of the fluid replaced. A low-temperature lockout feature is
passes through the element. installed in most pop-up types of contamination
indicators to eliminate the possibility of false
Full-Flow Filter indications due to cold weather because the
pressure differential may be much higher with a
The full-flow filter provides a positive filtering cold fluid due to increased viscosity.
action; however, it offers resistance to flow, Filter elements used in filters that have a
particularly when the element becomes dirty. contamination indicator are not normally
Hydraulic fluid enters the filter through the inlet removed or replaced until the indicator is
port in the body and flows around the filter actuated. This decreases the possibility of system
element inside the filter bowl. Filtering takes place contamination from outside sources due to
as the fluid passes through the filtering element unnecessary handling.
and into the hollow core, leaving the dirt and The use of the nonbypassing type of filter
impurities on the outside of the filter element. eliminates the possibility of contaminated fluid
The filtered fluid then flows from the hollow bypassing the filter element and contaminating the
core through the outlet port and into the system entire system. This type of filter will minimize the
(fig. 9-10). necessity for flushing the entire system and lessen
Some full-flow filters are equipped with a the possibility of failure of pumps and other
contamination indicator (fig. 9-11). These components in the system.
indicators, also known as differential pressure A bypass relief valve is installed in some filters.
indicators, are available in three types—gauge The bypass relief valve allows the fluid to bypass
indicators, mechanical pop-up indicators, and the filter element and pass directly through the
electrical with mechanical pop-up indicators. As outlet port in the event that the filter element
contaminating particles collect on the filter becomes clogged. These filters may or may not
element, the differential pressure across the be equipped with the contamination indicator.
element increases. In some installations using Figure 9-11 shows a full-flow bypass-type

9-8
Figure 9-11.—Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter (with contamination indicator).

9-9
hydraulic filter with a contamination indicator. Before corrective action is taken based on
Figure 9-12 shows a full-flow bypass-type indicator readings, the bypass condition should
hydraulic filter without a contamination indicator. be verified at normal operating temperature and
A filter bypass indicator provides a positive flow conditions by attempting to reset the
indication, when activated, that fluid is bypassing indicator.
the filter element by flowing through the bypass
relief valve. This indicator should not be confused
with the pop-up differential pressure indicator Proportional-Flow Filter
previously discussed which simply monitors the
pressure across the element. With the bypass This type of filter operates on the venturi
indicator, a similar pop-up button is often used principle. (See glossary.) As the fluid passes
to signal that maintenance is needed. However, through the venturi throat a drop in pressure is
the bypass indicators further signal that, as a created at the narrowest point. See figure 9-13.
result of the high differential pressures across the A portion of the fluid flowing toward and away
element, an internal bypass relief valve has lifted from the throat of the venturi flows through the
and some of the fluid is bypassing the element. passages into the body of the filter. A fluid
Identification of the type of installed indicator passage connects the hollow core of the filter with
can be obtained from filter manifold drawings or the throat of the venturi. Thus, the low-pressure
related equipment manuals. Both a fluid bypass area at the throat of the venturi causes the fluid
indicator and a differential pressure indicator or under pressure in the body of the filter to flow
gauge may be installed on the same filter through the filter element, through the hollow
assembly. core, into the low-pressure area, and then return
As with differential pressure indicators, bypass to the system. Although only a portion of the fluid
relief indicators can be activated by pressure is filtered during each cycle, constant recirculation
surges, such as may develop during cold starts or through the system will eventually cause all the
rapid system pressurization. On some relief fluid to pass through the filter element.
indicators, the pop-up button, or whatever signal
device is used, will return to a normal position
when the surge passes and pressure is reduced.
Other relief indicators may continue to indicate
a bypass condition until they are manually reset.

Figure 9-12.—Full-flow bypass-type hydraulic filter. Figure 9-13.Proportional-flow filter.

9-10
Filter Rating

Filters are rated in several ways—absolute,

mean, and nominal. The absolute filtration rating
is the diameter in microns of the largest spherical
particle that will pass through the filter under a
certain test condition. This rating is an indication
of the largest opening in the filter element. The
mean filtration rating is the measurement of the
average size of the openings in the filter element.
The nominal filtration rating is usually interpreted
to mean the size of the smallest particles of which Figure 9-14.—Cross-section of a stainless steel hydraulic filter
90 percent will be trapped in the filter at each pass element.
through the filter.

of this material may be either cleanable or

Filter Elements noncleanable, depending upon their construction.

Filter elements generally may be divided into WOVEN WIRE-MESH FILTER ELE-
two classes—surface and depth. Surface filters are MENTS.— Filters of this type are made of
made of closely woven fabric or treated paper with stainless steel and are generally rated as 15 or 25
a uniform pore size. Fluid flows through the pores micron (absolute). Figure 9-14 shows a magnified
of the filter material and contaminants are cross section of a woven wire-mesh filter element.
stopped on the filter’s surface. This type of This type of filter is reusable.
element is designed to prevent the passage of a
high percentage of solids of a specific size. Depth MICRONIC HYDRAULIC FILTER ELE-
filters, on the other hand, are composed of layers MENT.— The term micronic is derived from the
of fabric or fibers which provide many tortuous word micron. It could be used to describe any
paths for the fluid to flow through. The pores or filter element; however, through usage, this term
passages must be larger than the rated size of the has become associated with a specific filter with
filter if particles are to be retained in the depth a filtering element made of a specially treated
of the media rather than on the surface. cellulose paper (fig. 9-15). The filter shown in
Consequently, there is a statistical probability figure 9-10 is a typical micronic hydraulic filter.
that a rather large particle may pass through a This filter is designed to remove 99 percent of all
depth-type filter. particles 10 to 20 microns in diameter or larger.
Filter elements may be of the 5-micron, woven
mesh, micronic, porous metal, or magnetic type.
The micronic and 5-micron elements have
noncleanable filter media and are disposed of
when they are removed. Porous metal, woven
mesh, and magnetic filter elements are usually
designed to be cleaned and reused.

5-MICRON NONCLEANABLE FILTER

ELEMENTS.— The most common 5-micron filter
medium is composed of organic and inorganic
fibers integrally bonded by epoxy resin and faced
with a metallic mesh upstream and downstream
for protection and added mechanical strength.
Filters of this type are not to be cleaned under
any circumstances and will be marked Disposable
or Noncleanable.
Another 5-micron filter medium uses layers
of very fine stainless-steel fibers drawn into a
random but controlled matrix. Filter elements Figure 9-15.—Micronic filter element.

9-11 &
The replaceable element is made of specially and drop to the bottom of the bowl. The air then
treated convolutions (wrinkles) to increase its flows through the filter element, which filters out
dirt-holding capacity. The element is noncleanable most of the smaller particles. This type of filter
and should be replaced with a new filter element is designed with a drain valve at the bottom of
during maintenance inspections. the bowl. When the valve is opened with air
pressure in the system, the accumulation of solids
MAGNETIC FILTERS.— Some hydraulic
and water will be blown out of the bowl.
systems have magnetic filters installed at strategic
An air filter that uses moving mechanical
points. Filters of this type are designed primarily devices as an element is illustrated in figure 9-17.
to trap any ferrous particles that may be in the As compressed air passes through the filter the
system.
force revolves a number of multi-blade rotors at
PNEUMATIC GASES high speed. Moisture and dirt are caught on the
blades of the rotors. The whirling blades hurl the
Clean, dry gas is required for the efficient impurities by centrifugal force to the outer rims
operation of pneumatic systems. Due to the of the rotors and to the inner walls of the filter
normal conditions of the atmosphere, free air housing. Here, contaminating matter is out of the
seldom satisfies these requirements adequately. airstream and falls to the bottom of the bowl
The atmosphere contains both dust and impurities where it must be drained at periodic intervals.
in various amounts and a substantial amount of
moisture in vapor form. Removal of Moisture
Solids, such as dust, rust, or pipe scale in The removal of moisture from compressed air
pneumatic systems, may lead to excessive wear is important for a compressed air system. If air
and failure of components and, in some cases, at atmospheric pressure, even at a very low relative
may prevent the pneumatic devices from operating. humidity, is compressed to 3000 or 4500 psi, it
Moisture is also very harmful to the system. It becomes saturated with water vapor. Some
washes lubrication from moving parts, thereby moisture is removed by the intercoolers and
aiding corrosion and causing excessive wear of aftercoolers (see glossary). Also, air flasks,
components. Moisture will also settle in low spots receivers, and banks are provided with low point
in the system and freeze during cold weather, drains to allow periodic draining of any collected
causing a stoppage of the system or ruptured lines. moisture. However, many uses of air require air
An ideal filter would remove all dirt and with an even smaller moisture content than can
moisture from a pneumatic system without be obtained through these methods. Moisture in
causing a pressure drop in the process. Obviously,
such a condition can only be approached; it
cannot be attained.

Removal of Solids
The removal of solids from the gas of
pneumatic systems is generally done by screening
(filtering), centrifugal force, or a combination of
the two. In some cases, the removal of moisture
is done in conjunction with the removal of solids.
Some types of air filters are similar in design
and operation to the hydraulic filters discussed
earlier. Some materials used in the construction
of elements for air filters are woven screen wire,
steel wool, fiber glass, and felt fabrics. Elements
made of these materials are often used in the unit
that filters the air as it enters the compressor.
Porous metal and ceramic elements are
commonly used in filters that are installed in the
compressed air supply lines. These filters also use
a controlled air path to provide some filtration.
Internal design causes the air to flow in a circular
path within the bowl (fig. 9-16). Heavy particles
and water droplets are thrown out of the airstream Figure 9-16.—Air filter.

9-12
 (dehydrator, air purifier, and desiccator are all
terms used by different manufacturers to identify
these components) are used to dry the compressed
air. Some water removal devices are similar in
design and operation to the filters shown in figures
9-16 and 9-17. Two basic types of air dehydrators
are the refrigerated-type and the desiccant-type.
REFRIGERATED-TYPE DEHYDRATORS.–
In refrigerated-type dehydrators, compressed air
is passed over a set of refrigerated cooling coils. Oil
and moisture vapors condense from the air and can
be collected and removed via a low point drain.
DESICCANT-TYPE DEHYDRATORS.– A
desiccant is a chemical substance with a high
capacity to absorb water or moisture. It also has
the capacity to give off that moisture so that the
desiccant can be reused.
Some compressed air system dehydrators use
Figure 9-17.—Air filter using rotating blades as element. a pair of desiccant towers (flasks full of desiccant).
One is kept in service dehydrating the compressed
air, while the other one is being reactivated. A
air lines can create problems which are potentially desiccant tower is normally reactivated by passing
hazardous, such as the freezing of valves and dry, heated air through it in the direction opposite
controls. This can occur, for example, if very high the normal dehydration airflow.
pressure air is throttled to a very low pressure at Another type of chemical drier is shown in
a high flow rate. The venturi effect of the throttled figure 9-18. This unit consists of the housing, a
air produces very low temperatures which will cartridge containing a chemical agent, a filter
cause any moisture in the air to freeze into ice. (sintered bronze), and a spring. Various types of
This makes the valve (especially an automatic absorbent chemicals are used by the different
valve) either very difficult or impossible to manufacturers in the construction of the
operate. Also, droplets of water can cause serious cartridges. To ensure proper filtering, the air must
water hammer in an air system which has high pass through the drier in the proper direction. The
pressure and a high flow rate and can cause correct direction of flow is indicated by an arrow
corrosion, rust, and dilution of lubricants within and the word FLOW printed on the side of the
the system. For these reasons, air driers cartridge.

Figure 9-18.–Chemical drier.

9-13
 CHAPTER 10

ACTUATORS
One of the outstanding features of fluid power usually considered one in which the cross-sectional
systems is that force, generated by the power area of the piston rod is more than one-half the
supply, controlled and directed by suitable cross-sectional area of the movable element. In
valving, and transported by lines, can be con- most actuating cylinders of this type, the rod and
verted with ease to almost any kind of mechanical the movable element have equal areas. This type
motion desired at the very place it is needed. of movable element is frequently referred to as
Either linear (straight line) or rotary motion can a plunger.
be obtained by using a suitable actuating device. The ram-type actuator is used primarily to
An actuator is a device that converts fluid push rather than to pull. Some applications
power into mechanical force and motion. require simply a flat surface on the external part
Cylinders, motors, and turbines are the most of the ram for pushing or lifting the unit to
common types of actuating devices used in fluid be operated. Other applications require some
power systems. mechanical means of attachment, such as a clevis
This chapter describes various types of or eyebolt. The design of ram-type cylinders varies
actuating cylinders and their applications, in many other respects to satisfy the requirements
different types of fluid motors, and turbines used of different applications.
in fluid power systems.
Single-Acting Ram

CYLINDERS The single-acting ram (fig. 10-1) applies force

in only one direction. The fluid that is directed
An actuating cylinder is a device that converts into the cylinder displaces the ram and forces it
fluid power to linear, or straight line, force and outward, lifting the object placed on it. Since there
motion. Since linear motion is a back-and-forth
motion along a straight line, this type of actuator
is sometimes referred to as a reciprocating, or
linear, motor. The cylinder consists of a ram or
piston operating within a cylindrical bore. Actuat-
ing cylinders may be installed so that the cylinder
is anchored to a stationary structure and the ram
or piston is attached to the mechanism to be
operated, or the piston or ram may be anchored
to the stationary structure and the cylinder
attached to the mechanism to be operated.
Actuating cylinders for pneumatic and
hydraulic systems are similar in design and
operation. Some of the variations of ram- and
piston-type actuating cylinders are described in
the following paragraphs.

RAM-TYPE CYLINDERS

The terms ram and piston are often used

interchangeably. However, a ram-type cylinder is Figure 10-1.—Single-acting ram-type actuating cylinder.

10-1
is no provision for retracting the ram by fluid the bottom surface of the ram, and forces the ram
power, when fluid pressure is released, either the outward. Fluid above the ram lip is free to flow
weight of the object or some mechanical means, out of port B, through the control valve, and to
such as a spring, forces the ram back into the the return line in hydraulic systems or to the
cylinder. This forces the fluid back to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems.
reservoir. Normally, the pressure of the fluid is the same
The single-acting ram-type actuating cylinder for either stroke of the ram. Recall from chapter
is often used in the hydraulic jack. The elevators 2 that force is equal to pressure times area
used to move aircraft to and from the flight deck (F= PA). Notice the difference of the areas upon
and hangar deck on aircraft carriers also use which the pressure acts in figure 10-2. The
cylinders of this type. In these elevators, the pressure acts against the large surface area on the
cylinders are installed horizontally and operate the bottom of the ram during the extension stroke,
elevator through a series of cables and sheaves. during which time the ram applies force. Since
Fluid pressure forces the ram outward and lifts the ram does not require a large force during the
the elevator. When fluid pressure is released from retraction stroke, pressure acting on the small area
the ram, the weight of the elevator forces the ram on the top surface of the ram lip provides the
back into the cylinder. This, in turn, forces the necessary force to retract the ram.
fluid back into the reservoir.
Telescoping Rams
Double-Acting Ram
Figure 10-3 shows a telescoping ram-type
A double-acting ram-type cylinder is illustrated actuating cylinder. A series of rams is nested in
in figure 10-2. In this cylinder, both strokes of the telescoping assembly. With the exception of
the ram are produced by pressurized fluid. There the smallest ram, each ram is hollow and serves
are two fluid ports, one at or near each end of as the cylinder housing for the next smaller ram.
the cylinder. Fluid under pressure is directed to The ram assembly is contained in the main
the closed end of the cylinder to extend the ram cylinder assembly, which also provides the fluid
and apply force. To retract the ram and reduce ports. Although the assembly requires a small
the force, fluid is directed to the opposite end of space with all the rams retracted, the telescoping
the cylinder. action of the assembly provides a relatively long
A four-way directional control valve is stroke when the rams are extended.
normally used to control the double-acting ram. An excellent example of the application of this
When the valve is positioned to extend the ram, type of cylinder is in the dump truck. It is used
pressurized fluid enters port A (fig. 10-2), acts on to lift the forward end of the truck bed and dump
the load. During the lifting operation, the greatest
force is required for the initial lifting of the load.

Figure 10-2.—Double-acting ram-type actuating cylinder. Figure 10-3.—Telescoping ram-type actuating cylinder.

10-2
As the load is lifted and begins to dump, the
required force becomes less and less until the load
is completely dumped. During the raise cycle,
pressurized fluid enters the cylinder through port
A (fig. 10-3) and acts on the bottom surface of
all three rams. Ram 1 has a larger surface area
and, therefore, provides the greater force for the
initial load, As ram 1 reaches the end of its stroke
and the required force is decreased, ram 2 moves,
providing the smaller force needed to continue
raising the load. When ram 2 completes its stroke, Figure 10-4.-Dual ram actuating assembly.
a still smaller force is required. Ram 3 then moves
outward to finish raising and dumping the load.
Some telescoping ram-type cylinders are of the action displaces the fluid in the opposite cylinder.
single-acting type. Like the single-acting ram The displaced fluid flows back through the
discussed previously, these telescoping ram-type directional control valve to the return line or
cylinders are retracted by gravity or mechanical reservoir in hydraulic systems or to the
force. Some hydraulic jacks are equipped with atmosphere in pneumatic systems.
telescoping rams. Such jacks are used to lift Dual ram actuating assemblies are used in
vehicles with low clearances to the required height. steering systems of most ships. In some systems,
Other types of telescoping cylinders, like the one assembly is used to actuate the rudder in either
one illustrated in figure 10-3, are of the double- direction; while in other systems, two assemblies
acting type. In this type, fluid pressure is used for are used for the same purpose.
both the extension and retraction strokes. A four-
way directional control valve is commonly used PISTON-TYPE CYLINDERS
to control the operation of the double-acting type.
Note the small passages in the walls of rams 1 and An actuating cylinder in which the cross-
2. They provide a path for fluid to flow to and sectional area of the piston is less than one-half
from the chambers above the lips of rams 2 and the cross-sectional area of the movable element
3. During the extension stroke, return fluid flows is referred to as a piston-type cylinder. This type
through these passages and out of the cylinder of cylinder is normally used for applications that
through port B. It then flows through the require both push and pull functions. The piston-
directional control valve to the return line or type cylinder is the most common type used in
reservoir. fluid power systems.
To retract the rams, fluid under pressure is The essential parts of a piston-type cylinder
directed into the cylinder through port B and acts are a cylindrical barrel, a piston and rod, end caps,
against the top surface areas of all three ram lips. and suitable seals. The end caps are attached to
This forces the rams to the retracted position. The the ends of the barrel. These end caps usually
displaced fluid from the opposite side of the rams contain the fluid ports. The end cap on the rod
flows out of the cylinder through port A, through end contains a hole for the piston rod to pass
the directional control valve to the return line or through. Suitable seals are used between the hole
reservoir. and the piston rod to keep fluid from leaking out
and to keep dirt and other contaminants from
Dual Rams entering the barrel. The opposite end cap of most
cylinders is provided with a fitting for securing
A dual ram assembly consists of a single ram the actuating cylinder to some structure. This end
with a cylinder at either end (fig. 10-4). Fluid can cap is referred to as the anchor end cap.
be directed to either cylinder, forcing the ram to The piston rod may extend through either or
move in the opposite direction. The ram is both ends of the cylinder. The extended end of
connected through mechanical linkage to the unit the rod is normally threaded so that some type
to be operated. A four-way directional control of mechanical connector, such as an eyebolt or
valve is commonly used to operate the dual ram. a clevis, and a locknut can be attached. This
When the control valve is positioned to direct fluid threaded connection of the rod and mechanical
under pressure to one of the cylinders (let’s say connector provides for adjustment between the
the left one), the ram is forced to the right. This rod and the unit to be actuated. After the correct

10-3
adjustment is made, the locknut is tightened cylinder. The spring tension forces the piston to
against the connector to prevent the connector the left, retracting the piston rod and moving the
from turning. The other end of the connector is actuated unit in the opposite direction. The fluid
attached, either directly or through additional is free to flow from the cylinder through the port,
mechanical linkage, to the unit to be actuated. back through the control valve to the return line
In order to satisfy the many requirements of in hydraulic systems or to the atmosphere in
fluid power systems, piston-type cylinders are pneumatic systems.
available in various designs. The end of the cylinder opposite the fluid port
is vented to the atmosphere. This prevents air
Single-Acting Cylinder from being trapped in this area. Any trapped air
would compress during the extension stroke,
The single-acting piston-type cylinder is similar creating excess pressure on the rod side of the
in design and operation to the single-acting piston. This would cause sluggish movement of
ram-type cylinder. The single-acting piston-type the piston and could eventually cause a complete
cylinder uses fluid pressure to provide the force lock, preventing the fluid pressure from moving
in one direction, and spring tension, gravity, the piston.
compressed air, or nitrogen is used to provide the The spring-loaded cylinder is used in arresting
force in the opposite direction. Figure 10-5 shows gear systems on some models of carrier aircraft.
a single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type To raise (retract) the arresting hook, fluid pressure
actuating cylinder. In this cylinder the spring is is directed through the arresting hook control
located on the rod side of the piston. In some valve to the rod side of the cylinder. This force
spring-loaded cylinders the spring is located on moves the piston, which, through the rod and
the blank side, and the fluid port is on the rod mechanical linkage, retracts the arresting hook.
side of the cylinder. The arresting hook extends when fluid pressure
A three-way directional control valve is is released from the rod side of the cylinder,
normally used to control the operation of the allowing the spring to expand.
single-acting piston-type cylinder. To extend the Leakage between the cylinder wall and piston
piston rod, fluid under pressure is directed is prevented by adequate seals. The piston in
through the port into the cylinder (fig. 10-5). This figure 10-5 contains V-ring seals.
pressure acts on the surface area of the blank side
of the piston and forces the piston to the right. Double-Acting Cylinder
This action moves the rod to the right, through
the end of the cylinder, thus moving the actuated Most piston-type actuating cylinders are
unit in one direction. During this action, the double-acting, which means that fluid under
spring is compressed between the rod side of the pressure can be applied to either side of the piston
piston and the end of the cylinder. The length of to apply force and provide movement.
the stroke depends upon the physical limits within One design of the double-acting cylinder is
the cylinder and the required movement of the shown in figure 10-6. This cylinder contains one
actuated unit. piston and piston rod assembly. The stroke of the
To retract the piston rod, the directional piston and piston rod assembly in either direction
control valve is moved to the opposite working is produced by fluid pressure. The two fluid ports,
position, which releases the pressure in the one near each end of the cylinder, alternate as inlet
and outlet ports, depending on the direction of

Figure 10-5.—Single-acting, spring-loaded, piston-type

actuating cylinder. Figure 10-6.-Doub1e-acting piston-type actuating cylinder.

10-4
flow from the directional control valve. This
actuator (fig. 10-6) is referred to as an unbalanced
actuating cylinder because there is a difference in
the effective working areas on the two sides of
the piston. Therefore, this type of cylinder is
normally installed so that the blank side of the
piston carries the greater load; that is, the cylinder
carries the greater load during the piston rod
extension stroke. Figure 10-8.-Balanced, double-acting piston-type actuating
A four-way directional control valve is cylinder.
normally used to control the operation of this type
of cylinder. The valve can be positioned to direct
fluid under pressure to either end of the cylinder piston rod may be attached to a mechanism to
and allow the displaced fluid to flow from the be operated. In either case, the cylinder provides
opposite end of the cylinder through the control equal areas on each side of the piston. Therefore,
valve to the return line in hydraulic systems or the same amount of fluid and force is used to
to the atmosphere in pneumatic systems. move the piston a certain distance in either
There are applications where it is necessary to direction.
move two mechanisms at the same time. In this
case, double-acting piston-type actuating cylinders Tandem Cylinders
of different designs are required. See figures 10-7
and 10-8. A tandem actuating cylinder consists of two
Figure 10-7 shows a three-port, double-acting or more cylinders arranged one behind the other
piston-type actuating cylinder. This actuator but designed as a single unit (fig. 10-9). This type
contains two pistons and piston rod assemblies. of actuating cylinder is used in applications that
Fluid is directed through port A by a four-way require two or more independent systems; for
directional control valve and moves the pistons example, power-operated flight control systems
outward, thus moving the mechanisms attached in naval aircraft.
to the pistons’ rods. The fluid on the rod side of The flow of fluid to and from the two
each piston is forced out of the cylinder through chambers of the tandem actuating cylinder is
ports B and C, which are connected by a common provided from two independent hydraulic systems
line to the directional control valve. The displaced and is controlled by two sliding spool directional
fluid then flows through the control valve to the control valves. In some applications, the control
return line or to the atmosphere. valves and the actuating cylinder are two separate
When fluid under pressure is directed into the units. In some units, the pistons (lands) of the two
cylinder through ports B and C, the two pistons sliding spools are machined on one common shaft.
move inward, also moving the mechanisms In other applications, the valves and the actuator
attached to them. Fluid between the two pistons are directly connected in one compact unit.
is free to flow from the cylinder through port A Although the two control valves are hydraulically
and through the control valve to the return line independent, they are interconnected mechanically.
or to the atmosphere. In other units, the two sliding spools are connected
The actuating cylinder shown in figure 10-8 through mechanical linkages with a synchronizing
is a double-acting balanced type. The piston rod rod. In either case, the movement of the two
extends through the piston and out through both sliding spools is synchronized, thus equalizing the
ends of the cylinder. One or both ends of the

Figure 10-7.—Three-port, double-acting actuating cylinder. Figure 10-9.—Tandem actuating cylinder.

10-5
flow of fluid to and from the two chambers of The actuator consists of a body and two
the actuating cylinder. reciprocating pistons with an integral rack for
rotating the shaft mounted in roller or journal
Since the two control valves operate bearings. The shaft and bearings are located in
independently of each other as far as hydraulic a central position and are enclosed with a bearing
pressure is concerned, failure of either hydraulic cap. The pistons, one on each side of the rack,
system does not render the actuator inoperative. are enclosed in cylinders machined or sleeved into
Failure of one system does reduce the output force the body. The body is enclosed with end caps and
by one-half; however, this force is sufficient to static seals to prevent external leakage of
permit operation of the actuator. pressurized fluid.
Only a few of the many applications of
actuating cylinders were discussed in the preceding
RACK-AND-PINION PISTON-TYPE paragraphs. Figure 10-11 shows additional types
ROTARY ACTUATORS of force and motion applications.
In addition to its versatility, the cylinder-type
The rack-and-pinion-type actuators, also actuator is probably the most trouble-free
referred to as limited rotation cylinders, of the component of fluid power systems. However, it
single or multiple, bidirectional piston are used is very important that the cylinder, mechanical
for turning, positioning, steering, opening and linkage, and actuating unit are correctly aligned.
closing, swinging, or any other mechanical Any misalignment will cause excessive wear of the
function involving restricted rotation. Figure piston, piston rod, and seals. Also, proper
10-10 shows a typical rack-and-pinion double- adjustment between the piston rod and the
piston actuator. actuating unit must be maintained.

Figure 10-10.—Rack-and-pinion double-piston rotary actuator.

10-6
Figure 10-11.—Applications of actuating cylinders.

10-7
 MOTORS controlled by either a four-way directional control
valve or a variable-displacement pump.
A fluid power motor is a device that converts
fluid power energy to rotary motion and force. Fluid motors are usually classified according
The function of a motor is opposite that of a to the type of internal element, which is directly
pump. However, the design and operation of actuated by the flow. The most common types of
fluid power motors are very similar to pumps. elements are the gear, the vane, and the piston,
Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the pumps AU three of these types are adaptable for hydraulic
described in chapter 4 will help you understand systems, while only the vane type is used in
the operation of fluid power motors. pneumatic systems.
Motors have many uses in fluid power
systems. In hydraulic power drives, pumps and
motors are combined with suitable lines and valves GEAR-TYPE MOTORS
to form hydraulic transmissions. The pump,
commonly referred to as the A-end, is driven by The spur, helical, and herringbone design
some outside source, such as an electric motor. gears are used in gear-type motors. The motors
The pump delivers fluid to the motor. The motor, use external-type gears, as discussed in chapter 4.
referred to as the B-end, is actuated by this flow,
and through mechanical linkage conveys rotary The operation of a gear-type motor is shown
motion and force to the work. This type of power in figure 10-12. Both gears are driven gears;
drive is used to operate (train and elevate) many however, only one is connected to the output
of the Navy’s guns and rocket launchers. shaft. As fluid under pressure enters chamber A,
Hydraulic motors are commonly used to operate it takes the path of least resistance and flows
the wing flaps, radomes, and radar equipment in around the inside surface of the housing, forcing
aircraft. Air motors are used to drive pneumatic the gears to rotate as indicated. The flow
tools. Air motors are also used in missiles to continues through the outlet port to the return.
convert the kinetic energy of compressed gas into This rotary motion of the gears is transmitted
electrical power, or to drive the pump of a through the attached shaft to the work unit.
hydraulic system.
Fluid motors may be either fixed or variable The motor shown in figure 10-12 is operating
displacement. Fixed-displacement motors provide in one direction; however, the gear-type motor is
constant torque and variable speed. The speed is capable of providing rotary motion in either
varied by controlling the amount of input flow. direction. To reverse the direction of rotation, the
Variable-displacement motors are constructed so ports may be alternated as inlet and outlet. When
that the working relationship of the internal parts fluid is directed through the outlet port (fig. 10-12)
can be varied to change displacement. The into chamber B, the gears rotate in the opposite
majority of the motors used in fluid power direction.
systems are the fixed-displacement type.
Although most fluid power motors are capable
of providing rotary motion in either direction,
some applications require rotation in only one
direction. In these applications, one port of the
motor is connnected to the system pressure line and
the other port to the return line or exhausted to
the atmosphere. The flow of fluid to the motor
is controlled by a flow control valve, a two-way
directional control valve, or by starting and
stopping the power supply. The speed of the
motor may be controlled by varying the rate of
fluid flow to it.
In most fluid power systems, the motor is
required to provide actuation power in either
direction. In these applications the ports are
referred to as working ports, alternating as inlet
and outlet ports. The flow to the motor is usually Figure 10-12.—Gear-type motor.

10-8
VANE-TYPE MOTORS

A typical vane-type air motor is shown in

figure 10-13. This particular motor provides
rotation in only one direction. The rotating
element is a slotted rotor which is mounted on
a drive shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with
a freely sliding rectangular vane. The rotor and
vanes are enclosed in the housing, the inner
surface of which is offset from the drive shaft axis.
When the rotor is in motion, the vanes tend to
slide outward due to centrifugal force. The
distance the vanes slide is limited by the shape of
the rotor housing.
This motor operates on the principle of
differential areas. When compressed air is directed
into the inlet port, its pressure is exerted equally
in all directions. Since area A (fig. 10-13) is greater Figure 10-14.—Vane-type motor.
than area B, the rotor will turn counterclockwise.
Each vane, in turn, assumes the No. 1 and No.
2 positions and the rotor turns continuously. The starting of the motor, since centrifugal force does
potential energy of the compressed air is thus not exist until the rotor begins to rotate.
converted into kinetic energy in the form of rotary
motion and force. The air at reduced pressure is
exhausted to the atmosphere. The shaft of the PISTON-TYPE MOTORS
motor is connected to the unit to be actuated.
Many vane-type motors are capable of Piston-type motors are the most commonly
providing rotation in either direction. A motor used in hydraulic systems. They are basically the
of this design is shown in figure 10-14. This motor same as hydraulic pumps except they are used to
operates on the same principle as the vane motor convert hydraulic energy into mechanical (rotary)
shown in figure 10-13. The two ports may be energy.
alternately used as inlet and outlet, thus providing The most commonly used hydraulic motor is
rotation in either direction. Note the springs in the fixed-displacement piston type. Some
the slots of the rotor. Their purpose is to hold the equipment uses a variable-displacement piston
vanes against the housing during the initial motor where very wide speed ranges are desired.
Although some piston-type motors are
controlled by directional control valves, they
are often used in combination with variable-
displacement pumps. This pump-motor combina-
tion is used to provide a transfer of power between
a driving element and a driven element. Some
applications for which hydraulic transmissions
may be used are speed reducers, variable speed
drives, constant speed or constant torque drives,
and torque converters. Some advantages of
hydraulic transmission of power over mechanical
transmission of power are as follows:

1. Quick, easy speed adjustment over a wide

range while the power source is operating
at a constant (most efficient) speed. Rapid,
smooth acceleration or deceleration.
2. Control over maximum torque and power.
3. Cushioning effect to reduce shock loads.
Figure 10-13.—Vane-type air motor. 4. Smoother reversal of motion.

10-9
Radial-Piston Motor continues as long as fluid under pressure enters
the cylinders.
The radial-piston motor operates in reverse of
the radial-piston pump. In the radial-piston pump, The direction of rotation of the motor (fig.
as the cylinder block rotates, the pistons press 10-15) is changed by reversing the flow of fluid
against the rotor and are forced in and out of the to it. Admitting fluid under pressure on the top
cylinders, thereby receiving fluid and pushing it side of the pintle valve forces piston 3 out of the
out into the system. In the radial motor, fluid is cylinder block. This causes the cylinder to rotate
forced into the cylinders and drives the pistons in the counterclockwise direction.
outward. The pistons pushing against the rotor
cause the cylinder block to rotate.
Axial-Piston Motor
The operation of a radial-piston motor is
shown in figure 10-15. This motor is shown with
The variable-stroke axial-piston pump is often
three pistons for simplicity. Normally it contains
used as a part of variable speed gear, such as
seven or nine pistons. When liquid is forced into
electrohydraulic anchor windlasses, cranes,
the cylinder bore containing piston 1, the piston
winches, and the power transmitting unit in
moves outward since the liquid cannot be
electrohydraulic steering engines. In those cases,
compressed. This causes the cylinder to rotate in
the tilting box is arranged so that it maybe tilted
a clockwise direction. As the force acting on
in either direction. Thus it maybe used to transmit
piston 1 causes the cylinder block to rotate, piston
bidirectional power hydraulically to pistons or
2 starts to rotate and approach the position of
rams, or it may be used to drive a hydraulic
piston 3. (Note that the distance between the
motor. In the latter use, the pump is the A-end
cylinder block and the reaction ring of the rotor
of the variable speed gear and the hydraulic motor
gets progressively shorter on the top and right half
is the B-end.
of the rotor.)
As piston 2 rotates, it is forced inward and, The B-end of the hydraulic unit of the
in turn, forces the fluid out of the cylinder. Since hydraulic speed gear is exactly the same as the
there is little or no pressure on this side of the A-end of the variable-stroke pump mentioned
pintle valve, the piston is easily moved in by its previously. However, it generally does not have
contact with the reaction ring of the rotor. The a variable-stroke feature. The tilting box is
fluid is easily forced out of the cylinder and back installed at a permanently fixed angle. Thus, the
to the reservoir or to the inlet side of the pump. B-end becomes a fixed-stroke axial-piston motor.
As the piston moves past the midpoint, or past Figure 10-16 illustrates an axial-piston hydraulic
the shortest distance between the cylinder block speed gear with the A-end and B-end as a single
and the rotor, it enters the pressure side of the unit. It is used in turrets for train and elevation
pintle valve and fluid is forced into the cylinder. driving units. For electrohydraulic winches and
Piston 3 then becomes the pushing piston and in cranes, the A-end and B-end are in separate
turn rotates the cylinder block. This action housings connected by hydraulic piping.

Hydraulic fluid introduced under pressure to

a cylinder (B-end) tries to push the piston out of
the cylinder. In being pushed out, the piston,
through its piston rod, will seek the point of
greatest distance between the top of the cylinder
and the socket ring. The resultant pressure of the
piston against the socket ring will cause the
cylinder barrel and the socket ring to rotate. This
action occurs during the half revolution while the
piston is passing the intake port of the motor,
which is connected to the pressure port of the
pump. After the piston of the motor has taken
all the hydraulic fluid it can from the pump, the
piston passes the valve plate land and starts to
Figure 10-15.—Operation of a radial-piston motor. discharge oil through the outlet ports of the motor

10-10
 Figure 10-16.—Exploded view of a axial-piston hydraulic speed gear.

to the suction pistons of the pump. The pump is The basic distinction between types of turbines
constantly putting pressure on one side of the is the manner in which the gas causes the turbine
motor and receiving hydraulic fluid from the other rotor to move. When the rotor is moved by a
side. The fluid is merely circulated from pump direct push or “impulse” from the gas impinging
to motor and back again. upon the blades, the turbine is said to be an
impulse turbine. When the rotor is moved by force
Both of the axial-piston motors described in of reaction, the turbine is said to be a reaction
this section may be operated in either direction. turbine.
The direction of rotation is controlled by the
direction of fluid flow to the valve plate. The Although the distinction between impulse
direction of flow may be instantly reversed turbines and reaction turbines is a useful one,
without damage to the motor. it should not be considered as an absolute
distinction in real turbines. An impulse turbine
uses both the impulse of the gas jet and,
to a lesser extent, the reactive force that results
TURBINES when the curved blades cause the gas to change
direction. A reaction turbine is moved primarily
Turbines are used in pneumatic systems to by reactive force, but some motion of the rotor
convert kinetic energy of gases to mechanical is caused by the impact of the gas against the
energy. Turbines are used to drive electric blades.
generators, to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy, and to drive pumps to supply
fluid flow in hydraulic systems. IMPULSE TURBINE

The basic parts of a turbine are the rotor, The impulse turbine consists essentially of a
which has blades projecting radially from its rotor mounted on a shaft that is free to rotate in
periphery; and nozzles, through which the gas is a set of bearings. The outer rim of the rotor carries
expanded and directed. The conversion of kinetic a set of curved blades, and the whole assembly
energy to mechanical energy occurs on the blades. is enclosed in an airtight case. Nozzles direct the

10-11
rapidly moving fluid against the blades and turn the stator (casing) in which the rotor revolves. The
the rotor (fig. 10-17). fixed blades guide the gas into the moving blade
system and, since they are also shaped and
mounted to provide nozzle-shaped spaces between
REACTION TURBINE the blades, the freed blades also act as nozzles.
A reaction turbine is moved by three main
The reaction turbine, as the name implies, is forces: (1) the reactive force produced on the
turned by reactive force rather than by a direct moving blades as the gas increases in velocity as
push or impulse. In reaction turbines, there are it expands through the nozzle-shaped spaces
no nozzles as such. Instead, the blades that project between the blades; (2) the reactive force produced
radially from the periphery of the rotor are on the moving blades when the gas changes
formed and mounted so that the spaces between direction; and (3) the push or impulse of the gas
the blades have, in cross section, the shape of impinging upon the blades. Thus, as previously
nozzles. Since these blades are mounted on the noted, a reaction turbine is moved primarily by
revolving rotor, they are called moving blades. reactive force but also to some extent by direct
Fixed or stationary blades of the same shape impulse.
as the moving blades (fig. 10-18) are fastened to Impulse and reaction blades can be combined
to form an impulse-reaction turbine. This turbine
combines the rotational forces of the previously
described turbines; that is, it derives its rotation
from both the impulse of the gas striking the
turbine blades and the reactive force of the gas
changing direction.

Figure 10-17 .—Impulse turbine. Figure 10-18.—Reaction turbine blading.

10-12
 CHAPTER 11

PNEUMATICS
The word pneumatics is a derivative of the Probably one of the most common uses of
Greek word pneuma, which means air, wind, or pneumatic power is in the operation of pneumatic
breath. It can be defined as that branch of tools. However, you should understand that
engineering science that pertains to gaseous pneumatics is also of great importance in large
pressure and flow. As used in this manual, and complex systems such as the controls of vital
pneumatics is the portion of fluid power in which propulsion and weapon systems.
compressed air, or other gas, is used to transmit
and control power to actuating mechanisms.
This chapter discusses the origin of pneu- CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
matics. It discusses the characteristics of gases and
compares them with those of liquids. It also Recall from chapter 1 that gas is one of the
explains factors which affect the properties of three states of matter. It has characteristics similar
gases, identifies and explains the gas laws, and to those of liquids in that it has no definite shape
identifies gases commonly used in pneumatics and but conforms to the shape of its container and
their pressure ranges. It also discusses hazards of readily transmits pressure.
pneumatic gases, methods of controlling contami- Gases differ from liquids in that they have no
nation, and safety precautions associated with definite volume. That is, regardless of the size or
compressed gases. shape of the containing vessel, a gas will
completely fill it. Gases are highly compressible,
while liquids are only slightly so. Also, gases are
lighter than equal volumes of liquids, making
DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMATICS gases less dense than liquids.

There is no record of man’s first uses of air DENSITY

to do work. Probably the earliest uses were to
separate chaff from grain and to move ships. One Early experiments were conducted concerning
of the first pneumatic devices was the blow gun the behavior of air and similar gases. These
used by primitive man. In the latter part of the experiments were conducted by scientists such as
eighteenth century, heated air was used to carry Boyle and Charles (discussed later in this chapter).
the first balloon aloft. The heated air, being The results of their experiments indicated that the
lighter than the surrounding air, caused the gases’ behavior follows the law known as the
balloon to rise. ideal-gas law. It states as follows: For a given
Every age of man has witnessed the develop- weight of any gas, the product of the absolute
ment of devices which used air to do work. pressure and the volume occupied, divided by the
However, man used air to do work long before absolute temperature, is constant. In equation
he understood it. form, it is expressed as follows:
Many of the principles of hydraulics apply to
pneumatics. For example, Pascal’s law applies to
Equation 11-1
gases as well as liquids. Also, like hydraulics, the
development of pneumatics depended on closely
fitted parts and the development of gaskets and For 1 pound of gas,
packings. Since the invention of the air com-
pressor, pneumatics has become a very reliable
Equation 11-2
way to transmit power.

11-1
 NOTE: During the compression of the gas,
the temperature will actually increase; however,
the explanation is beyond the scope of this text.

a decrease in volume with the weight held constant

will cause density to increase.

TEMPERATURE

As indicated previously, temperature is a

dominant factor affecting the physical properties
of gases. It is of particular concern in calculating
The specific volume (v) is expressed in cubic feet changes in the states of gases.
per pound. Three temperature scales are used extensively
in gas calculations. They are the Celsius (C), the
For any weight of a gas this equation maybe Fahrenheit (F), and the Kelvin (K) scales. The
modified as follows: Celsius (or centigrade) scale is constructed by
identifying the freezing and boiling points of
W = weight of the gas in pounds, water, under standard conditions, as fixed points
of 0° and 100°, respectively, with 100 equal
V = volume of W pounds of the gas in cubic feet. divisions between. The Fahrenheit scale identifies
32° as the freezing point of water and 212° as the
The volume of 1 pound would then be V/W. boiling point, and has 180 equal divisions
If we substitute this for v in equation 11-3, it then between. The Kelvin scale has its zero point equal
becomes to –273°C, or –460°F.
Absolute zero, one of the fundamental
constants of physics, is commonly used in the
study of gases. It is usually expressed in terms of
the Celsius scale. If the heat energy of a gas
Solving equation 11-4 for pressure, sample could be progressively reduced, some
temperature should be reached at which the
motion of the molecules would cease entirely. If
accurately determined, this temperature could
then be taken as a natural reference, or as a true
In chapter 2 we defined density as the mass absolute zero value.
per unit volume. In equation 11-5, Experiments with hydrogen indicated that if
a gas were cooled to –273.16°C (–273° for most
w calculations), all molecular motion would cease
7 and no additional heat could be extracted. Since
this is the coldest temperature to which an ideal
represents density. (Notice that this is the reverse gas can be cooled, it is considered to be absolute
of the specific volume.) We can now say that zero. Absolute zero may be expressed as 0°K,
pressure is equal to the density of the gas times –273°C, or –459.69°F (–460°F for most
the gas constant times the absolute temperature calculations).
of the gas. (The gas constant varies for different When you work with temperatures, always be
gases.) From this equation we can show how sure which system of measurement is being used
density varies with changes in pressure and and how to convert from one to another. The
temperature. Decreasing the volume, with the conversion formulas are shown in figure 11-1. For
weight of the gas and the temperature held purposes of calculations, the Rankine (R) scale
constant, causes the pressure to increase. illustrated in figure 11-1 is commonly used to

11-2
 Figure 11-1.-Comparison of Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine temperature.

convert Fahrenheit to absolute. For Fahrenheit In practice, we maybe interested in either of

readings above zero, 460° is added. Thus, 72°F two pressure readings. We may desire either the
equals 460° plus 72°, or 532° absolute (532°R). gauge pressure or the absolute pressure.
If the Fahrenheit reading is below zero, it is Absolute pressure is measured from absolute
subtracted from 460°. Thus, -40°F equals 460° zero pressure rather than from normal or
minus 40°, or 420° absolute (420°R). atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7 psi).
The Kelvin and Celsius scales are used Gauge pressure is used on all ordinary gauges, and
internationally in scientific measurements; there- indicates pressure in excess of atmospheric
fore, some technical manuals may use these scales pressure. Therefore, absolute pressure is equal to
in directions and operating instructions. The atmospheric pressure plus gauge pressure. For
Fahrenheit scale is commonly used in the United example, 100 psi gauge pressure (psig) equals 100
States; therefore, it is used in most areas of this psi plus 14.7 psi or 114.7 psi absolute pressure
manual. (psia). Whenever gas laws are applied, absolute
pressures are required.
PRESSURE

We defined pressure in chapter 2 as force per COMPRESSIBILITY AND

unit area. Remember, liquids exert pressure on EXPANSION OF GASES
all surfaces with which they come in contact.
Gases, because of their ability to completely fill Gases can be readily compressed and are
containers, exert pressure on all sides of a assumed to be perfectly elastic. This combination
container. of properties gives a gas the ability to yield to a

11-3
force and return promptly to its original condition BOYLE’S LAW
when the force is removed. These are the
properties of air that is used in pneumatic tires, When the automobile tire is initially inflated,
tennis balls and other deformable objects whose air which normally occupies a specific volume is
shapes are maintained by compressed air. compressed into a smaller volume inside the tire.
This increases the pressure on the inside of the tire.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES Charles Boyle, an English scientist, was among

the first to experiment with the pressure-volume
In an attempt to explain the compressibility relationship of gas. During an experiment when
of gases, Bernoulli proposed the hypothesis that he compressed a volume of air he found that the
is accepted as the kinetic theory of gases. volume decreased as the pressure increased, and
According to this theory, the pressure exerted by by doubling the force exerted on the air he could
a gas on the walls of a closed container is caused decrease the volume of the air by half. See figure
by continual bombardment of the walls by 11-3. Recall from the example of the automobile
molecules of the gas. tire that changes in temperature of a gas also
Consider the container shown in figure 11-2 change the pressure and volume. Therefore, the
as containing a gas. At any given time, some experiment must be performed at a constant
molecules are moving in one direction, some are temperature. The relationship between pressure
traveling in other directions; some are traveling and volume is known as Boyle’s law. It states:
fast, some slow, and some may even be in a state When the temperature of a gas is kept constant,
of rest. The average effect of the molecules the volume of an enclosed gas varies inversely with
bombarding each container wall corresponds to its pressure.
the pressure of the gas.
As more gas is pumped into the container, In equation form, this relationship may be
more molecules are available to bombard the expressed as either
walls; thus the pressure in the container increases.
The gas pressure in a container can also be vlP~ = v~P~
increased by increasing the speed with which the
molecules hit the walls. If the temperature of the or Equation 11-6
gas is raised, the molecules move faster causing
an increase in pressure. This can be shown by VI ~,
considering the automobile tire. When you take ~=P1
a long drive on a hot day, the pressure in the tires
increases and a tire which appeared to be where V1 and P1 are the original volume and
somewhat “soft” in cool morning temperature pressure, and V 2 and P2 are the final volume
may appear normal at a higher midday tempera- and pressure (P1 and P2 are absolute pressures).
ture.

Figure 11-3.-Gas compressed to half its original volume by

Figure 11-2.—Molecular bombardment creating pressure. a doubled force.

11-4
 Example of Boyle’s law: 4 cubic feet of where V 1 and V 2 are the original and final
nitrogen are under a pressure of 100 psi (gauge). volumes, and T1 and T2 are the original and final
The nitrogen is allowed to expand to a volume absolute temperatures.
of 6 cubic feet. What is the new gauge pressure?
Remember to convert gauge pressure to absolute Since an increase in the temperature of a gas
pressure by adding 14.7. causes it to expand if the pressure is kept constant,
it is reasonable to expect that if a given sample
Using equation 11-6, V 1P 1 = V2P 2, where V1 is is heated within a closed container and its volume
4 ft3 , V2 is 6 ft, and P1 is 100 psig: remains constant, the pressure of the gas will
increase. Experiments have proven this to be true.
In equation form, this becomes

P 1 T 2 = P2 T 1 Equation 11-8

or

This equation states that for a constant volume,

the absolute pressure of a gas varies directly with
the absolute temperature.

Example: A cylinder of gas under a pressure

of 1800 psig at 70°F is left out in the sun in the
tropics and heats up to a temperature of 130°F.
What is the new pressure within the cylinder?
(Remember that both pressure and temperature
must be converted to absolute pressure and
absolute temperature.)

CHARLES’S LAW
Boyle’s law assumes conditions of constant
temperature. In actual situations this is rarely the
case. Temperature changes continually and affects
the volume of a given mass of gas.
Jacques Charles, a French physicist, provided
much of the foundation for the modern kinetic
theory of gases. Through experiments, he found
that all gases expand and contract proportionally
to the change in the absolute temperature,
providing the pressure remains constant. The
relationship between volume and temperature is
known as Charles’s law. It states: The volume of
a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature,
if constant pressure is maintained. In equation
form, this relationship may be expressed as

Equation 11-7
Converting absolute pressure to gauge pressure:

11-5
GENERAL GAS LAW the general equation to the form given in part B.
Similarly, P 1 is equated to P 2 for constant
We have learned that Boyle’s law pertains to pressure, and the equation then takes the form
situations in which the temperature remains given in part C.
constant (fig. 11-4), and that Charles’s law
pertains to situations in which pressure remains The general gas law applies with exactness only
constant (fig. 11-4). It is usually not possible to to “ideal” gases in which the molecules are
control pressure or temperature in tanks or bottles assumed to be perfectly elastic. However, it
of gas subject to the weather and shipboard describes the behavior of actual gases with
demands. Boyle’s and Charles’s laws are com- sufficient accuracy for most practical purposes.
bined to form the general gas law. This law states:
The product of the initial pressure, initial volume, Two examples of the general equation follow:
and new temperature (absolute scale) of an
enclosed gas is equal to the product of the new 1. Two cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80°F
pressure, new volume, and initial temperature. It are compressed to a volume of 1 cubic foot and
is a mathematical statement which allows many then heated to a temperature of 300°F. What is
gas problems to be solved by using the principles the new gauge pressure?
of Boyle’s law and/or Charles’s law. The equation
is expressed as Using equation 11-9, P 1V 1T 2 = P2V 2T 1, where
V 1 is 2 ft3, P1 is 75 psig, T1 is 80°F, V2 is 1 ft3
and T2 is 300°F:

or Solution:

(P and T represent absolute pressure and absolute

temperature, respectively.)

You can see by examining figure 11-4 that the Substituting:

three equations are special cases of the general
equation. Thus, if the temperature remains
constant, T1 equals T2 and both can be eliminated
from the general formula, which then reduces to
the form shown in part A. When the volume
remains constant, V1 equals V2, thereby reducing

Converting absolute pressure to gauge pressure:

2. Four cubic feet of a gas at 75 psig and 80°F

are compressed to 237.8 psig and heated to a
temperature of 300°F. What is the volume of the
gas resulting from these changes? Using equation
3
Figure 11-4.—The general gas law. 11-9, P1V 1T 2 = P 2V 2T 1, where V1 is 4 ft , P2 i s

11-6
75 psig, T1 is 800, P 1 is 237.8 psig, and T2 i s compressed air is referred to as a gas when it is
300°F: used as a fluid medium.
The unlimited supply of air and the ease of
Solution: compression make compressed air the most widely
used fluid for pneumatic systems. Although
moisture and solid particles must be removed
from the air, it does not require the extensive
distillation or separation process required in the
production of other gases.
Compressed air has most of the desired
Substituting: properties and characteristics of a gas for
pneumatic systems. It is nonpoisonous and
nonflammable but does contain oxygen, which
supports combustion. One of the most undesirable
qualities of compressed air as a fluid medium for
pneumatic systems is moisture content. The
atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture
in vapor form. Changes in the temperature of
compressed air will cause condensation of
moisture in the pneumatic system. This condensed
moisture can be very harmful to the system, as
PNEUMATIC GASES it increases corrosion, dilutes lubricants, and may
freeze in lines and components during cold
In chapter 1, you learned that many factors weather. Moisture separators and air driers
are considered in determining whether to use (dehydrators) are installed in the compressed air
hydraulics or pneumatics as a power source in a lines to minimize or eliminate moisture in
fluid power system. Once it is determined that systems where moisture would deteriorate system
pneumatics will be used as the source of power, performance.
some of the same factors are considered in The supply of compressed air at the required
selecting the pneumatic gas. volume and pressure is provided by an air
compressor. (For information on air compressors,
QUALITIES refer to Naval Ships’ Technical Manual, chapter
551.) In most systems the compressor is part of
The ideal fluid medium for a pneumatic the system with distribution lines leading from the
system is a readily available gas that is compressor to the devices to be operated. In these
nonpoisonous (nontoxic), chemically stable, free systems a receiver is installed in-line between the
from any acids that cause corrosion of system compressor and the device to be operated to help
components, and nonflammable. It also will not eliminate pulsations in the compressor discharge
support combustion of other elements. line, to act as a storage tank during intervals when
Gases that have these desired qualities may not the demand for air exceeds the compressor’s
have the required lubricating power. Therefore, capacity, and to enable the compressor to shut
lubrication of the components of some pneumatic down during periods of light load. Other systems
systems must be arranged by other means. For receive their supply from cylinders which must be
example, some air compressors are provided with filled at a centrally located air compressor and
a lubricating system, some components are then connected to the system.
lubricated upon installation or, in some cases, Compressed air systems are categorized by
lubrication is introduced into the air supply line. their operating pressures as follows: high-pressure
Two gases meeting these qualities and most (HP) air, medium-pressure (MP) air, and low-
commonly used in pneumatic systems are com- pressure (LP) air.
pressed air and nitrogen.
High-Pressure Air Systems
COMPRESSED AIR
HP air systems provide compressed air at a
Compressed air is a mixture of all gases nominal operating pressure of 3000 psi or 5000
contained in the atmosphere. In this manual, psi and are installed whenever pressure in excess

11-7
of 1000 psi is required. HP compressed air plants CONTAMINATION CONTROL
support functions which require high pressures
and high flow rates of compressed air by the As in hydraulic systems, fluid contamination
addition of HP storage flasks to the system. An is also a leading cause of malfunctions in
example of such a system is one that provides air pneumatic systems. In addition to the solid
for starting diesel and gas turbine engines. particles of foreign matter which find a way to
Reduction in pressure, if required, is done enter the system, there is also the problem of
by using specially designed pressure-reducing moisture. Most systems are equipped with one or
stations. more devices to remove this contamination. These
include filters, water separators, air dehydrators,
Medium-Pressure Air and chemical driers, which are discussed in
chapter 9 of this manual. In addition, most
MP air systems provide compressed air at a systems contain drain valves at critical low points
nominal operating pressure of 151 psi to 1000 psi. in the system. These valves are opened periodically
These pressures are provided either by an MP air to allow the escaping gas to purge a large
compressor or by the HP air system supplying air percentage of the contaminants, both solids and
through an air bank and pressure-reducing moisture, from the system. In some systems these
stations. valves are opened and closed automatically, while
in others they must be operated manually.
Low-Pressure Air Complete purging is done by removing lines
from various components throughout the system
LP air systems provide compressed air at a and then attempting to pressurize the system,
nominal operating pressure of 150 psi and below. causing a high rate of airflow through the system.
The LP air system is supplied with LP air by LP The airflow will cause the foreign matter to be
air compressors or by the HP air system supplying dislodged and blown from the system.
air through an air bank and pressure-reducing
stations. LP air is the most extensive and varied NOTE: If an excessive amount of foreign
air system used in the Navy, matter, particularly oil, is blown from any one
In addition to being used for various system, the lines and components should be
pneumatic applications, LP and HP compressed removed and cleaned or replaced.
air are used in the production of nitrogen.
In addition to monitoring the devices installed
NITROGEN to remove contamination, it is your responsibility
as a maintenance person or supervisor to control
For all practical purposes, nitrogen is the contamination. You can do this by using the
considered to be an inert gas. It is nonflammable, following maintenance practices:
does not form explosive mixtures with air or
oxygen, and does not cause rust or decay. Due 1. Keep all tools and the work area in a clean,
to these qualities, its use is preferred over dirt-free condition.
compressed air in many pneumatic systems, 2. Cap or plug all lines and fittings
especially aircraft and missile systems, and immediately after disconnecting them.
wherever an inert gas blanket is required. 3. Replace all packing and gaskets during
Nitrogen is obtained by the fractional assembly procedures.
distillation of air. Oxygen/nitrogen-producing 4. Connect all parts with care to avoid
plants expand compressed air until its temperature stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. Install
decreases to –196°C (–320°F), the boiling point and torque all fittings and lines according to
of nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. The liquid applicable technical instructions.
nitrogen is then directed to a storage tank. A 5. Complete preventive maintenance as
liquid nitrogen pump pumps the low-pressure specified by MRCs.
liquid nitrogen from the storage tank and
discharges it as a high-pressure (5000 psi) liquid Also, you must take care to ensure that the
to the vaporizer where it is converted to a gas at proper cylinders are connected to systems being
5000 psi. Oxygen/nitrogen-producing plants are supplied from cylinders.
located at many naval installations and on Cylinders for compressed air are painted
submarine tenders and aircraft carriers. black. Cylinders containing oil-pumped air have

11-8
two green stripes painted around the top of the the blood). Although compressed air and nitrogen
cylinder, while cylinders containing water-pumped seem so safe in comparison with other gases, do
air have one green stripe. Oil-pumped air indicates not let overconfidence lead to personal injury.
that the air or nitrogen is compressed by an
oil-lubricated compressor. Air or nitrogen com- SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
pressed by a water-lubricated (or nonlubricated)
compressor is referred to as water pumped. To minimize personal injury and equipment
Oil-pumped nitrogen can be very dangerous in damage when using compressed gases, observe all
certain situations. For example, nitrogen is practical operating safety precautions, including
commonly used to purge oxygen systems. Oxygen the following:
will not burn, but it supports and accelerates
combustion and will cause oil to burn easily and 1. Do not use compressed air to clean parts
with great intensity. Therefore, oil-pumped of your body or clothing, or to perform general
nitrogen must never be used to purge oxygen space cleanup in lieu of vacuuming or sweeping.
systems. When the small amount of oil remaining 2. Never attempt to stop or repair a leak while
in the nitrogen comes in contact with the oxygen, the leaking portion is still under pressure. Always
an explosion may result. In all situations, use isolate, repressurize and danger tag out the
only the gas specified by the manufacturer or portion of the system to be repaired. For pressures
recommended by the Navy. Nitrogen cylinders are of 1000 psi or greater, double valve protection is
painted gray. One black stripe identifies cylinders required to prevent injury if one of the valves
for oil-pumped nitrogen, and two black stripes should fail.
identify cylinders for water-pumped nitrogen. In 3. Avoid the application of heat to the air
addition to these color codes, the exact identi- piping system or components, and avoid striking
fication of the contents is printed in two locations a sharp or heavy blow on any pressurized part of
diametrically opposite one another along the the piping system.
longitudinal axis of the cylinder. For compressed 4. Avoid rapid operation of manual valves.
air and nitrogen cylinders, the lettering is white. The heat of compression caused by a sudden high-
-pressure flow into an empty line or vessel can
cause an explosion if oil is present. Valves should
POTENTIAL HAZARDS be slowly cracked open until airflow is noted and
should be kept in this position until pressures on
All compressed gases are hazardous. Com- both sides of the valve have equalized. The rate
pressed air and nitrogen are neither poisonous nor of pressure rise should be kept under 200 psi
flammable, but should not be handled carelessly. per second, if possible. Valves may then be opened
Some pneumatic systems operate at pressures fully.
exceeding 3000 psi. Lines and fittings have 5. Do not discharge large quantities of
exploded, injuring personnel and property. nitrogen into closed compartments unless
Literally thousands of careless workers have adequate ventilation is provided.
blown dust or harmful particles into their eyes by 6. Do not subject compressed gas cylinders
the careless handling of compressed air outlets. to temperatures greater than 130°F.
Nitrogen gas will not support life, and when
it is released in a confined space, it will cause Remember, any pressurized system can be
asphyxia (the loss of consciousness as a result of hazardous to your health if it is not maintained
too little oxygen and too much carbon dioxide in and operated carefully and safely.

11-9
 CHAPTER 12

BASIC DIAGRAMS AND SYSTEMS

In the preceding chapters, you learned about SYMBOLS
hydraulic and pneumatic fluids and components
of fluid power systems. While having a knowledge The Navy uses two military standards that
of system components is essential, it is difficult list mechanical symbols that must be used in
to understand the interrelationship of these preparing drawings that will contain symbolic
components by simply watching the system representation. These standards are as follows:
operate. The knowledge of system interrelation
is required to effectively troubleshoot and 1. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols
maintain a fluid power system. Diagrams pro- (Other than Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and
vided in applicable technical publications or Spacecraft Use), Part 1, MIL-STD-17B-1.
drawings are a valuable aid in understanding the 2. Military Standard, Mechanical Symbols for
operation of the system and in diagnosing the Aeronautical, Aerospacecraft, and Spacecraft
causes of malfunctions. Use, Part 2, MIL-STD-17B-2.
This chapter explains the different types of
diagrams used to illustrate fluid power circuits, Some of the symbols frequently used in fluid
including some of the symbols that depict fluid power systems have been selected from these
power components. Included in this chapter two standards and are shown in Appendixes II
are descriptions and illustrations denoting the and III. Appendix II contains symbols from
differences between open-center and closed-center MIL-STD-17B-1. Appendix III contains symbols
fluid power systems. The last part of the chapter from MIL-STD-17B-2.
describes and illustrates some applications of basic While the symbols shown in the appendixes
fluid power systems. are not all encompassing, they do provide a basis
for an individual working with fluid power
systems to build upon. Some rules applicable to
DIAGRAMS graphical symbols for fluid diagrams are as
follows:
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, to
troubleshoot fluid power systems intelligently, a 1. Symbols show connections, flow paths,
mechanic or technician must be familiar with the and the function of the component represented
system on which he or she is working. The only. They do not indicate conditions occurring
mechanic must know the function of each during transition from one flow path to another;
component in the system and have a mental nor do they indicate component construction or
picture of its location in relation to other values, such as pressure or flow rate.
components. This can best be done by studying 2. Symbols do not indicate the location of
the diagrams of the system. ports, direction of shifting of spools, or position
A diagram may be defined as a graphic of control elements on actual components.
representation of an assembly or system that 3. Symbols may be rotated or reversed
indicates the various parts and expresses the without altering their meaning except in cases of
methods or principles of operations. The ability lines to reservoirs and vented manifolds.
to read diagrams is a basic requirement for 4. Symbols may be drawn in any size.
understanding the operation of fluid power 5. Each symbol is drawn to show the normal
systems. Understanding the diagrams of a system or neutral condition of each component unless
requires having a knowledge of the symbols used multiple circuit diagrams are furnished showing
in the schematic diagrams. various phases of circuit operation.

12-1
 For more detailed information concerning the component, all interconnecting piping, and the
symbols used in fluid power diagrams, consult the general piping arrangement. This type of diagram
above-mentioned military standards. Additional is sometimes referred to as an installation
information concerning symbols and the reading diagram. Diagrams of this type are invaluable to
of diagrams is contained in BIueprint Reading and maintenance personnel in identifying and locating
Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1. components of a system.
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
There are many types of diagrams. Those that Cutaway Diagrams
are most pertinent to fluid power systems are
discussed in this text. Cutaway diagrams (fig. 12-2) show the internal
working parts of all fluid power components in
Pictorial Diagrams
a system. This includes controls and actuating
Pictorial diagrams (fig. 12-1) show the mechanisms and all interconnecting piping.
general location and actual appearance of each Cutaway diagrams do not normally use symbols.

Figure 12-1.—Hydraulic system pictorial diagram.

12-2
Figure 12-2.—Cutaway diagram—pneumatic.

12-3
Graphic Diagrams piping. Additionally, the diagram contains a
component list, pipe size, data on the sequence
The primary purpose of a graphic (schematic) of operation, and other pertinent information.
diagram is to enable the maintenance person to The graphic diagram (fig. 12-3) does not indi-
trace the flow of fluid from component to cate the physical location of the various com-
component within the system. This type of ponents, but it does show the relation of each
diagram uses standard symbols to show each component to the other components within the
component and includes all interconnecting system.

Figure 12-3.—Graphic diagram of LST 1182 class hydraulic steering gear.

12-4
 Notice that figure 12-3 does not indicate the
physical location of the individual components
with respect to each other in the system. For
example, the 3/4-inch, solenoid-operated, 4-way
valve (10) is not necessarily located directly above
the relief valve (26). The diagram does indicate,
however, that the 4-way valve is located in the
working line, between the variable-displacement
pump and the 1-inch rotary selector valve, and
that the valve directs fluid to and from the rotary
actuator.
Combination Diagrams
A combination drawing uses a combination
of graphic, cutaway, and pictorial symbols. This
drawing also includes all interconnecting piping.

FLUID POWER SYSTEMS

A fluid power system in which the fluid in the
system remains pressurized from the pump (or
regulator) to the directional control valve while
the pump is operating is referred to as a closed-
center system. In this type of system, any number
of subsystems may be incorporated, with a
separate directional control valve for each
subsystem. The directional control valves are
arranged in parallel so that system pressure acts Figure 12-4.—Open-center hydraulic system.
equally on all control valves.
Another type of system that is sometimes used
in hydraulically operated equipment is the open- actuating cylinder. The fluid from the other end
center system. An open-center system has fluid of the actuator returns to the control valve
flow but no internal pressure when the actuating through the opposite working line and flows back
mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates the fluid to the reservoir.
from the reservoir, through the directional control Several different types of directional control
valves, and back to the reservoir. (See fig. 12-4, valves are used in the open-center system. One
view A.) Like the closed-center system, the open- type is the manually engaged and manually
center system may have any number of subsystems, disengaged. After this type of valve is manually
with a directional control valve for each subsystem. moved to the operating position and the actuating
Unlike the closed-center system, the directional mechanism reaches the end of its operating cycle,
control valves of an open-center system are always pump output continues until the system relief
connected in series with each other, an arrange- valve setting is reached. The relief valve then
ment in which the system pressure line goes unseats and allows the fluid to flow back to the
through each directional control valve. Fluid is reservoir. The system pressure remains at the
always allowed free passage through each control pressure setting of the relief valve until the
valve and back to the reservoir until one of the con- directional control valve is manually returned to
trol valves is positioned to operate a mechanism. the neutral position. This action reopens the
When one of the directional control valves is open-center flow and allows the system pressure
positioned to operate an actuating device, as to drop to line resistance pressure.
shown in view B of figure 12-4, fluid is directed Another type of open-center directional
from the pump through one of the working lines control valve is manually engaged and pressure
to the actuator. With the control valve in this disengaged. This type of valve is similar to the
position, the flow of fluid through the valve to valve discussed in the preceding paragraph;
the reservoir is blocked. Thus, the pressure builds however, when the actuating mechanism reaches
up in the system and moves the piston of the the end of its cycle and the pressure continues to

12-5
rise to a predetermined pressure, the valve In its simplest form, the hydraulic power drive
automatically returns to the neutral position and, consists of the following:
consequently, to open-center flow.
One of the advantages of the open-center 1. The prime mover, which is the outside
system is that the continuous pressurization of the source of power used to drive the hydraulic pump
system is eliminated. Since the pressure is 2. A variable-displacement hydraulic pump
gradually built up after the directional control 3. A hydraulic motor
valve is moved to an operating position, there is 4. A means of introducing a signal to the
very little shock from pressure surges. This hydraulic pump to control its output
provides a smooth operation of the actuating 5. Mechanical shafting and gearing that
mechanisms; however, the operation is slower transmits the output of the hydraulic motor to the
than the closed-center system in which the pressure equipment being operated
is available the moment the directional control
valve is positioned. Since most applications Hydraulic power drives differ in some
require instantaneous operation, closed-center respects, such as size, method of control, and so
systems are the most widely used. forth. However, the fundamental operating
principles are similar. The unit used in the
HYDRAULIC POWER DRIVE SYSTEM
following discussion of fundamental operating
The hydraulic power drive has been used principles is representative of the hydraulic power
in the Navy for many years. Proof of its drives used to operate the 5"/38 twin mounts.
effectiveness is that it has been used to train and Figure 12-5 shows the basic components of
elevate nearly all caliber guns, from the 40-mm the train power drive. The electric motor is
gun mount to the 16-inch turret. In addition to constructed with drive shafts at both ends. The
gun mounts and turrets, hydraulic power drives forward shaft drives the A-end pump through
are used to position rocket launchers and reduction gears, and the after shaft drives the
missile launchers, and to drive and control such auxiliary pumps through the auxiliary reduction
equipment as windlasses, capstans, and winches. gears. The reduction gears are installed because

Figure 12-5.-Train power drive—components.

the pumps are designed to operate at a speed much
slower than that of the motor.
The replenishing pump is a spur gear pump.
Its purpose is to replenish fluid to the active
system of the power drive. It receives its supply
of fluid from the reservoir and discharges it to
the B-end valve plate. This discharge of fluid from
the pump is held at a constant pressure by the
action of a pressure relief valve. (Because the
capacity of the pump exceeds replenishing
demands, the relief valve is continuously allowing
some of the fluid to flow back to the reservoir.)
The sump pump and oscillator has a twofold
purpose. It pumps leakage, which collects in the
sump of the indicator regulator, to the expansion
tank. Additionally, it transmits a pulsating effect
to the fluid in the response pressure system.
Oscillations in the hydraulic response system help
eliminate static friction of valves, allowing
hydraulic control to respond faster.
The control pressure pump supplies high-
pressure fluid for the hydraulic control system,
brake pistons, lock piston, and the hand-
controlled clutch operating piston. The control
pressure pump is a fixed-displacement, axial-
piston type. An adjustable relief valve is used to
limit the operating pressure at the outlet of the Figure 12–6.–Main cylinder assembly.
pump.

Control Intermediate high-pressure fluid (IHP) is

transmitted to the left side of the piston, while
For the purpose of this text, control constitutes high-pressure hydraulic fluid (HPC) is transmitted
the relationship between the stroke control shaft to the right side. The HPC is held constant at 1000
and the tilting box. The stroke control shaft is one psi. Since the area of the piston upon which HPC
of the piston rods of a double-acting piston-type acts is exactly one-half the area upon which IHP
actuating cylinder. This actuating cylinder and its acts, the main piston is maintained in a fixed
direct means of control are referred to as the main position when IHP is one-half HPC (500 psi).
cylinder assembly (fig. 12-6). It is the link between Whenever IHP varies from its normal value of
the hydraulic followup system and the power drive 500 psi, the main piston will move, thus moving
itself. the tilting box.
In hand control, the tilting box is mechanically
positioned by gearing from the handwheel Operation
through the A-end control unit. In local and
automatic control, the tilting box is positioned by Assume that a right train order signal is
the stroke control shaft. As shown in figure 12-6, received. This will cause the pilot valve to be
the extended end of the control shaft is connected pulled upward. The fluid in the upper chamber
to the tilting box. Movement of the shaft will pivot of the amplifier piston can now flow through the
the tilting box one way or the other; which, in lower land chamber of the fine pilot to exhaust.
turn, controls the output of the A-end of the This will cause the amplifier piston to move
transmission. The other end of the shaft is upward, and the fluid in the right-hand chamber
attached to the main piston. A shorter shaft is of the main control valve can flow into the lower
attached to the opposite side of the piston. This chamber of the amplifier valve.
shaft is also smaller in diameter. Thus the working The main control valve will now move to the
area of the left side of the piston is twice that of the right, IHP will drop below 500 psi, and the stroke
area of the right side, as it appears in figure 12-6. piston will move to the left. Movement of the

12-7
stroke piston will cause tilt to be put on the tilt direction determined by the signal. At the same
plate, and the A-end will cause the mount to train time, B-end response is transmitted to the
right. indicator regulator and continuously combines
Figure 12-7 is a simplified block diagram with incoming gun-order signals to give the
showing the main element of the hydraulic power error between the two. This error is modified
drive system under automatic control for hydraulically, according to the system of
clockwise and counterclockwise rotation. mechanical linkages and valves in the regulator.
There are two principal problems in posi- When the gun is lagging behind the signal, its
tioning a gun to fire. One is to get an accurate movement is accelerated; and when it begins to
gun-order signal. This problem is solved by the catch up, its movement is slowed down so that
director-computer combination. The other it will not overrun excessively.
problem is to transmit the director signal promptly
to the gun so that the position and movements LANDING GEAR EMERGENCY
of the gun will be synchronized with the signals SYSTEM
from the director.
The problem of transforming gun-order If the landing gear in a naval aircraft fails to
signals to mount movements is solved by the extend to the down and locked position, the
power drive and its control—the indicator aircraft has an emergency method to extend the
regulator. The indicator regulator controls the landing gear. This text will cover the nitrogen
power drive, and this, in turn, controls the system.
movement of the gun. The nitrogen storage bottle system is a
The indicator regulator receives an initial one-shot system powered by nitrogen pressure
electrical gun-order from the director-computer, stored in four compressed nitrogen bottles
compares it to the existing mount position, and (fig. 12-8). When the landing gear control handle
sends an error signal to the hydraulic control is used to actuate the emergency landing gear
mechanism in the regulator. The hydraulic control system, a cable between the control and the
mechanism controls the flow to the stroke control manually operated nitrogen bottle opens the
shaft, which positions the tilting box in the A-end emergency gear down release valve on the bottle.
of the transmission. Its tilt controls the volume Nitrogen from this bottle actuates the release
and direction of fluid pumped to the B-end and, valves on the other three bottles so that they
therefore, the speed and direction of the drive discharge. Nitrogen flows from the manually
shaft of the B-end. Through mechanical linkage, operated bottle, actuates the dump valves, and
the B-end output shaft moves the gun in the causes the shuttles within the shuttle valves on the

Figure 12-7.—Operation of the hydraulic power drive.

12-8
 Figure 12-8.
12-9
aft doors’ cylinders and the shuttle valve on the hydraulic cylinders are attached to each JBD panel
nose gear cylinder to close off the normal port shaft by crank assemblies. (See fig. 12-9.) The
and operate these cylinders. The nose gear cylinder shaft is rotated by the push and pull operation
extends; this unlocks the uplock and extends the of the hydraulic cylinders. Shaft rotation extends
nose gear. The nitrogen flowing into the aft door or retracts the linkage to raise or lower the JBD
cylinders opens the aft doors. Fluid on the close panels. This operation is designed so that in the
side of the door cylinder is vented to return event of a failure of one of the hydraulic cylinders,
through the actuated dump valves. Nitrogen from the other one will raise or lower the panels.
another bottle actuates the shuttle valves on the Figure 12-10 is a diagram of the hydraulic
uplock cylinders. Nitrogen flows into the uplock control system of a JBD during the raise cycle.
cylinders and causes them to disengage the Hydraulic fluid from the catapult hydraulic supply
uplocks. As soon as the uplocks are disengaged, system is supplied to the JBD hydraulic system
the main gear extends by the force of gravity. through an isolation valve and a filter to the 4-way
Fluid on the up side of the main gear cylinders control valve assembly. (The 4-way control valve
is vented to return through the actuated dump assembly consists of a pilot-operated control
valves, preventing a fluid lock. valve, a direct- or solenoid-operated control valve,
and a sequence valve, which is not shown.)
JET BLAST DEFLECTORS To raise the JBD, solenoid B of the 4-way
control valve assembly is energized. The spools
Jet blast deflectors (JBD) onboard aircraft of the 4-way valve assembly shift, allowing
carriers are raised and lowered by hydraulic medium-pressure hydraulic fluid to flow into port
cylinders through mechanical linkage. Two A of the hydraulic cylinder. The cylinders extend,

Figure 12-9.—Operating gear assembly (panels raised).

12-10
 I
I
Figure 12-10.
I
I
I
I
I I
12-11
Figure 12-11.
12-12
pushing the crank assembly aft and rotating the assemblies. Fluid from port A of the piston is
shaft. The rotation of the shaft extends the directed through the 4-way valve assembly and
operating gear linkage and raises the panel back to the gravity tank.
assemblies. Fluid from port B of the piston is
To lower the JBD in the event of hydraulic
directed through the 4-way valve assembly and
control failure, each JBD panel is equipped with
back to the gravity tank.
a manual bypass valve, which allows bypassing
To lower the JBD (fig. 12-11), solenoid A of
the 4-way control valve. This allows venting the
the 4-way control valve assembly is energized. The
hydraulic pressure from the “raise” side of the
spools of the 4-way valve assembly shift, allow
cylinder back to the gravity tank.
medium-pressure hydraulic fluid to flow into port
B of the hydraulic cylinder. The cylinders retract, The three lines to port A of the hydraulic
pulling the crank assembly forward and rotating cylinders have orifice assemblies in them. These
the shaft. The rotation of the shaft retracts the orifice assemblies control the flow of hydraulic
operating gear linkage and lowers the panel fluid in both the raise and lower operations.

12-13
 APPENDIX I

GLOSSARY
A part of this glossary has been extracted from BOYLE’S LAW—The absolute pressure of a
the American Standard Glossary of Terms for fixed mass of gas varies inversely as the volume,
Fluid Power (ASA B93.2-1965) with permission provided the temperature remains constant.
of the publisher, The National Fluid Power
Association. CAVITATION—A localized gaseous
condition within a liquid stream that occurs where
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE—The tempera- the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure.
ture measured using absolute zero as a reference.
Absolute zero is –273.16°C or –459.69°F. CELSIUS—The temperature scale using the
freezing point of water as zero and the boiling
ACCELERATION—Time rate of change of point as 100, with 100 equal divisions between,
velocity. called degrees. This scale was formerly known as
the centigrade scale.
ACCUMULATOR—A device for storing
liquid under pressure. It usually consists of a CENTIGRADE—(See Celsius.)
chamber separated into a gas compartment and
a liquid compartment by a piston or diaphragm. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE—A force exerted
An accumulator also serves to smooth out on a rotating object in a direction outward from
pressure surges in a hydraulic system. the center of rotation.

ACTUATOR—A device that converts fluid CHARLES’S LAW—If the pressure is

power into mechanical force and motion. constant, the volume of dry gas varies directly
with the absolute temperature.
ADDITIVE—A chemical compound or
compounds added to a fluid to change its CHEMICAL CHANGE—A change that
properties. alters the composition of the molecules of a
substance.
AIR, COMPRESSED—Air at any pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure.
CIRCUIT—An arrangement of intercon-
nected component parts.
AMBIENT—Surrounding, such as ambient
air, meaning surrounding air.
COMPRESSIBILITY—The change in volume
BAROMETER—An instrument that mea- of a unit volume of a fluid when it is subjected
to a unit change of pressure.
sures atmospheric pressure.

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE—If a fluid COMPRESSOR—A device that converts

flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or mechanical force and motion into pneumatic fluid
narrowing of the tube, the velocity of the fluid power.
flowing through the constriction increases and the
pressure decreases. COMPUTER—A device capable of accepting
information, applying prescribed processes to the
BLEEDER, AIR—A bleeder for the removal information, and supplying the results of these
of air. processes.

AI-1
 CONDENSATION—The change from a COOLER, PRECOOLER—A device that
gaseous (or vapor) state to a liquid state. cools a gas before it is compressed.

CONTAMINANT—Detrimental matter in a CORROSION—The slow destruction of

fluid. materials by chemical agents and electromechanical
reactions.
CONTINUITY EQUATION—The mass rate
of fluid flow into any fixed space is equal to the CYCLE—A single complete operation
mass flow rate out. Hence, the mass flow rate of consisting of progressive phases starting and
fluid past all cross sections of a conduit is equal. ending at the neutral position.

CONTROL—A device used to regulate the CYLINDER—A device that converts fluid
function of a component or system. power into linear mechanical force and motion.
It usually consists of a movable element, such as
CONTROL, CYLINDER—A control in a piston and piston rod, plunger, or ram,
which a fluid cylinder is the actuating device. operating within a cylindrical bore.

CONTROL, ELECTRIC—A control actuated CYLINDER, CUSHIONED—A cylinder with

electrically. a piston-assembly deceleration device at one of
both ends of the stroke.
CONTROL, HYDRAULIC—A control
CYLINDER, DOUBLE-ACTING—A
actuated by a liquid.
cylinder in which fluid force can be applied to the
CONTROL, MANUAL—A control actuated movable element in either direction.
by the operator.
CYLINDER, DOUBLE-ROD—A cylinder
with a single piston and a piston rod extending
CONTROL, MECHANICAL—A control
actuated by linkages, gears, screws, cams, or other from each end.
mechanical elements.
CYLINDER, DUAL-STROKE—A cylinder
combination that provides two working strokes.
CONTROL, PNEUMATIC—A control
actuated by air or other gas pressure. CYLINDER, PISTON—A cylinder in which
the movable element has a greater cross-sectional
CONTROL, SERVO—A control actuated by
area than the piston rod.
a feedback system that compares the output with
the reference signal and makes corrections to CYLINDER, PLUNGER—A cylinder in
reduce the difference. which the movable element has the same cross-
sectional area as the piston rod.
CONTROLS, PUMP—Controls applied to
positive-displacement variable delivery pumps to CYLINDER, SINGLE-ACTING—A cylinder
adjust their volumetric output or direction of in which the fluid force can be applied to the
flow. movable element in only one direction.

CONVERGENT—That which inclines and CYLINDER, SINGLE-ROD—A cylinder

approaches nearer together, as the inner walls of with a piston rod extending from one end.
a tube that is constricted.
CYLINDER, SPRING-RETURN—A cylin-
COOLER—A heat exchanger, which removes der in which a spring returns the piston assembly.
heat from a fluid.
CYLINDER, TANDEM—Two or more
COOLER, AFTERCOOLER—A device that cylinders with interconnected piston assemblies.
cools a gas after it has been compressed.
CYLINDER, TELESCOPING—A cylinder
COOLER, INTERCOOLER—A device that with nested multiple tubular rod segments which
cools a gas between the compressive steps of a provide a long working stroke in a short retracted
multiple stage compressor. envelope.

AI-2
 DENSITY—The weight per unit volume of a FEEDBACK—A transfer of energy from the
substance. output of a device to its input.

DIAGRAM, COMBINATION—A drawing FILTER—A device whose primary function

using a combination of graphical, cutaway, and is the retention by a porous media of insoluble
pictorial symbols. contaminants from a fluid.

DIAGRAM, CUTAWAY—A drawing show- FILTER ELEMENT—The porous device that

ing principal internal parts of all components, performs the actual process of filtration.
controls, and actuating mechanisms, all inter-
connecting lines and functions of individual FILTER MEDIA—The porous materials that
components. perform the actual process of filtration.

DIAGRAM, GRAPHICAL—A drawing or FILTER MEDIA, SURFACE—Porous

drawings showing each piece of apparatus materials that primarily retain contaminants on
including all interconnecting lines by approved the influent face.
standard symbols.
FLASH POINT—The temperature to which
DIAGRAM, PICTORIAL—A drawing show-
a liquid must be heated under specified conditions
ing each component in its actual shape according
of the test method to give off sufficient vapor to
to the manufacturer’s installation.
form a mixture with air that can be ignited
momentarily by a specified flame.
DIAGRAM, SCHEMATIC—(See Diagram,
graphical.)
FLOW, LAMINAR—A flow situation in
which fluid moves in parallel layers (also referred
DIAPHRAGM—A dividing membrane or
to as streamline flow).
thin partition.
FLOW, METERED—Flow at a controlled
DIFFUSER—A duct of varying cross section
rate.
designed to convert a high-speed gas flow into
low-speed at an increased pressure.
FLOW, TURBULENT—A flow situation in
DISPLACEMENT—The volume of fluid that which the fluid particles move in a random
can pass through a pump, motor, or cylinder in manner.
a single revolution or stroke.
FLOW RATE—The volume, mass, or weight
DIVERGENT—Moving away from each of a fluid passing through any conductor per unit
other, as the inner wall of a tube that flares of time.
outward.
FLOWMETER—An instrument used to
EFFICIENCY—The ratio of the output measure quantity or the flow rate of a fluid
power to the input power, generally expressed as motion.
a percentage.
FLUID—A liquid or a gas.
ENERGY—The ability or capacity to do
work. FLUID FLOW—The stream or movement of
a fluid, or the rate of its movement.
EQUILIBRIUM—A state of balance between
opposing forces or actions. FLUID FRICTION—Friction due to the
viscosity of fluids.
FAHRENHEIT—The temperature scale using
the freezing point of water as 32 and the boiling FLUID, FIRE-RESISTANT—A fluid
point as 212, with 180 equal divisions between, difficult to ignite, which shows little tendency to
called degrees. propagate flame.

AI-3
 FLUID, HYDRAULIC—A fluid suitable for GAUGE—An instrument or device for
use in a hydraulic system. measuring, indicating, or comparing a physical
characteristic.
FLUID, PETROLEUM—A fluid composed
of petroleum oil. It may contain additives. GAUGE PRESSURE—Pressure above
atmospheric pressure.
FLUID, PHOSPHATE ESTER BASE—A
fluid that contains a phosphate ester as one of the GAUGE SNUBBER—A device installed in
major components. the line to the pressure gauge used to dampen
pressure surges and thus provide a steady reading
FLUID, SILICONE—A fluid composed of and a protection for the gauge.
silicones. It may contain additives.
GAUGE, BELLOWS—A gauge in which the
FLUID, WATER-GLYCOL—A fluid whose sensing element is a convoluted closed cylinder.
major constituents are water and one or more A pressure differential between the outside and
glycols or polyglycols. the inside causes the cylinder to expand or contract
axially.
FLUID STABILITY—Resistance of a fluid to
permanent change in properties. GAUGE, BOURDON TUBE—A pressure
gauge in which the sensing element is a curved
FLUID POWER—Energy transmitted and tube that tends to straighten out when subjected
controlled through the use of fluids under to internal fluid pressure.
pressure.
GAUGE, DIAPHRAGM—A gauge in which
FLUID POWER SYSTEM—A system that the sensing element is relatively thin and its inner
transmits and controls power through use of a portion is free to deflect with respect to its
pressurized fluid within an enclosed circuit. periphery.

FOOT-POUND—The amount of work GAUGE, PRESSURE—A gauge that

accomplished when a force of 1 pound produces indicates the pressure in the system to which it
a displacement of 1 foot. is connected.

FORCE—The action of one body on another GAUGE, VACUUM—A pressure gauge for
tending to change the state of motion of the body pressures less than atmospheric.
acted upon.
GRAVITY—The force that tends to draw all
FREE FLOW—Flow that encounters negli- bodies toward the center of the earth. The weight
gible resistance. of a body is the resultant of gravitational force
acting on the body.
FRICTION—The action of one body or
substance rubbing against another, such as fluid HEAD—The height of a column or body of
flowing against the walls of pipe; the resistance fluid above a given point expressed in linear units.
to motion caused by this rubbing. Head is often used to indicate gauge pressure.
Pressure is equal to the height times the density
FRICTION PRESSURE DROP—The decrease of the fluid.
in the pressure of a fluid flowing through a
passage attributable to the friction between the HEAD, FRICTION—The head required to
fluid and the passage walls. overcome the friction at the interior surface of
a conductor and between fluid particles in motion.
GAS—The form of matter that has neither a It varies with flow, size, type, and condition of
definite shape nor a definite volume. conductors and fittings, and fluid characteristics,

GASKET—A class of seals that provides a seal HEAD, STATIC—The height of a column or
between two stationary parts. body of fluid above a given point.

AI-4
 HEAD, VELOCITY—The equivalent head KELVIN SCALE—The temperature scale
through which the liquid would have to fall to using absolute zero as the zero point and divisions
attain a given velocity. Mathematically it is equal that are the same size as centigrade degrees.
to the square of the velocity (in feet) divided by
64.4 feet per second square. KINETIC ENERGY—The energy that a
substance has while it is in motion.
HEAT EXCHANGER—A device that
transfers heat through a conducting wall from one KINETIC THEORY—A theory of matter that
fluid to another. assumes that the molecules of matter are in
constant motion.
HYDRAULICS—Engineering science pertain-
ing to liquid pressure and flow. LINE—A tube, pipe, or hose that is used as
a conductor of fluid.
HYDROMETER—An instrument for deter-
mining the specific gravities of liquids. LIQUID—A form of matter that has a
definite volume but takes the shape of its
HYDROPNEUMATICS—Pertaining to the container.
combination of hydraulic and pneumatic fluid
power. LOAD—The power that is being delivered by
any power-producing device. The equipment that
uses the power from the power-producing device.
HYDROSTATICS—Engineering science
pertaining to the energy of liquids at rest.
LUBRICATOR—A device that adds
controlled or metered amounts of lubricant into
IMPACT PRESSURE—The pressure of a
a fluid power system.
moving fluid brought to rest that is in excess of
the pressure the fluid has when it does not flow;
MANIFOLD—A type of fluid conductor that
that is, total pressure less static pressure. Impact
provides multiple connections ports.
pressure is equal to dynamic pressure in incom-
pressible flow; but in compressible flow, impact
MANOMETER—A differential pressure
pressure includes the pressure change owing to the
gauge in which pressure is indicated by the height
compressibility effect.
of a liquid column of known density. Pressure is
equal to the difference in vertical height between
IMPINGEMENT—The striking or dashing two connected columns multiplied by the density
upon with a clash or sharp collision, as air of the manometer liquid. Some forms of
impinging upon the rotor of a turbine or motor. manometers are U tube, inclined tube, well, and
bell types.
IMPULSE TURBINE—A turbine driven by
a fluid at high velocity under relatively low MATTER—Any substance that occupies
pressure. space and has weight.

INERTIA—The tendency of a body at rest to MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE—The ratio

remain at rest, and a body in motion to continue of the resisting weight to the acting force. The
to move at a constant speed along a straight line, ratio of the distance through which the force is
unless the body is acted upon in either case by an exerted divided by the distance the weight is
unbalanced force. raised.

INHIBITOR—Any substance which slows or METER-IN—To regulate the amount of fluid

prevents chemical reactions such as corrosion or into a system or an actuator.
oxidation.
METER-OUT—To regulate the flow of fluid
INVERSE PROPORTION—The relation that from a system or actuator.
exists between two quantities when an increase in
one of them produces a corresponding decrease MICRON—A millionth of a meter or about
in the other. 0.00004 inch.

AI-5
 MOLECULE—A small natural particle of POTENTIAL ENERGY—The energy a sub-
matter composed of two or more atoms. stance has because of its position, its condition,
or its chemical composition.
MOTOR—A device that converts fluid power
into mechanical force and motion. It usually POUR POINT—The lowest temperature at
provides rotary mechanical motion. which a liquid will flow under specified con-
ditions.
MOTOR, FIXED-DISPLACEMENT—A
motor in which the displacement per unit of POWER UNIT—A combination of pump,
output motion cannot be varied. pump drive, reservoir, controls, and conditioning
components which may be required for its
MOTOR, LINEAR—(See Cylinder.) application.

MOTOR, ROTARY—A motor capable of POWER—The rate of doing work or the rate
continuous rotary motion. of expanding energy.

MOTOR, ROTARY LIMITED—A rotary PRESSURE—The amount of force distrib-

motor having limited motion. uted over each unit of area, usually expressed in
pounds per square inch.
MOTOR, VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT—
A motor in which the displacement per unit of PRESSURE, ABSOLUTE—The sum of
output motion can be varied. atmospheric and gauge pressures.
NEOPRENE—A synthetic rubber highly
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERIC—Pressure
resistant to oil, light, heat, and oxidation.
exerted by the atmosphere at any specific location.
NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER—A mea-
PRESSURE, BACK—The pressure encoun-
sure of the total acidity or basicity of an oil; this
tered on the return side of a system.
includes organic or inorganic acids or bases or a
combination of them.
PRESSURE, DIFFERENTIAL—The dif-
ference in pressure between any two points of a
OXIDATION—The process by which oxygen
unites with some other substance, causing rust or system or a component.
corrosion.
PRESSURE, HEAD—The pressure due to the
PACKING—A class of seal that is used to height of a column or body of fluid. It is usually
provide a seal between two parts of a unit which expressed in feet.
move in relation to each other.
PRESSURE, OPERATING—The pressure at
PASCAL’S LAW—A pressure applied to a which a system operates.
confined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal
intensity throughout the fluid. PRESSURE, PRECHARGE—The pressure
of compressed gas in an accumulator prior to the
PERIPHERY—The outside surface, espe- admission of a liquid.
cially that of a rounded object or body.
PRESSURE, PROOF—The nondestructive
PIPE—A type of fluid line whose dimensions test pressure in excess of the maximum rated
are designated by nominal (approximate) inside operating pressure.
diameter and wall thickness.
PRESSURE, STATIC—The pressure in a
PNEUMATICS—Engineering science per- fluid at rest.
taining to gaseous pressure and flow.
PRESSURE SWITCH—An electrical switch
PORT—An internal or external terminus of operated by the increase or decrease of fluid
a passage in a component. pressure.

AI-6
 PRIME MOVER—The source of mechanical RETURN LINE—A line used for returning
power used to drive the pump or compressor. fluid back into the reservoir or atmosphere.

PUMP—A device that converts mechanical SEPARATOR—A device whose primary

force and motion into hydraulic fluid power. function is to isolate undesirable fluids and or
contaminants by physical properties other than
PUMP, AXIAL PISTON—A pump having size.
multiple pistons disposed with their axes parallel.
SERVO—A device used to convert a small
PUMP, CENTRIFUGAL—A pump that movement into a greater movement of force.
produces fluid velocity and converts it to pressure
head. SOLID—The form of matter that has a
definite shape and a definite volume.
PUMP, FIXED-DISPLACEMENT—A
pump in which the displacement per cycle cannot SPECIFIC GRAVITY—The ratio of the
be varied. weight of a given volume of a substance to the
weight of an equal volume of some standard
PUMP, RADIAL PISTON—A pump having substance.
multiple pistons disposed radially actuated by an
eccentric element. STEADY FLOW—A flow in which the
velocity, pressure, and temperature at any point
PUMP, VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT—A in the fluid do not vary with time.
pump in which the volume of fluid per cycle can
be varied. STRAINER—A coarse filter.

RANKINE SCALE—A thermometer scale STOKE—The standard unit of kinematic

based on absolute zero of the Fahrenheit scale, viscosity in the cgs system. It is expressed in square
in which the freezing point of water is centimeters per second; 1 centistoke equals 0.01
approximately 492°R. stoke.

RATIO—The value obtained by dividing one STUFFING BOX—A cavity and closure with
number by another, indicating their relative manual adjustment for a sealing device.
proportions.
SUPPLY LINE—A line that conveys fluid
RECEIVER—A container in which gas is from the reservoir to the pump.
stored under pressure as a supply source for
pneumatic power. SURGE—A momentary rise of pressure in a
circuit.
RECIPROCATING—Moving back and
forth, as a piston reciprocating in a cylinde., SYNCHRONIZE—To make two or more
events or operations occur at the proper time with
RESERVOIR—A container for storage of respect to each other.
liquid in a fluid power system.
SYNTHETIC MATERIAL—A complex
RESPONSE TIME—The time lag between a chemical compound that is artificially formed by
signal input and the resulting change of output. the combining of two or more simpler compounds
or elements.
RESTRICTOR—A device that reduces the
cross-sectional flow area. TANK—A container for the storage of fluid
in a fluid power system.
RESTRICTOR, ORIFICE—A restrictor, the
length of which is relatively small with respect to THEORY—A scientific explanation, tested by
its cross-sectional area. The orifice may be fixed observations and experiments.
or variable. Variable types are noncompensated,
pressure compensated, or pressure and tempera- THERMAL EXPANSION—The increase in
ture compensated. volume of a substance due to temperature change.

A4-7
 TORQUE—A force or combination of forces VALVE, SELECTOR—A directional control
that produces or tends to produce a twisting or valve whose primary function is to selectively
rotary motion. interconnect two or more ports.

TUBING—A type of fluid line whose VALVE, SEQUENCE—A valve whose

dimensions are designated by actual measured primary function is to direct flow in a pre-
outside diameter and by actual measured wall determined sequence.
thickness.
VALVE, SERVO—A directional control valve
that modulates flow or pressure as a function of
TURBINE—A rotary motor actuated by its input signal.
the reaction, impulse, or both, of a flow of
pressurized fluid. VALVE, SHUTOFF—A valve that operates
fully open or fully closed.
VALVE—A device that controls fluid flow
direction, pressure, or flow rate. VALVE, UNLOADING—A pressure control
valve whose primary function is to permit a pump
VALVE, CHECK—A directional control or compressor to operate at minimum load.
valve that permits flow of fluid in only one
direction. VELOCITY—The rate of motion in a
particular direction. The velocity of fluids is
usually expressed in feet per second.
VALVE, COUNTERBALANCE—A pressure
control valve that maintains back pressure to VENTURI—A tube having a narrowing
prevent a load from falling. throat or constriction to increase the velocity of
fluid flowing through it. The flow through the
VALVE, DIRECTIONAL CONTROL—A venturi causes a pressure drop in the smallest
valve whose primary function is to direct or section, the amount being a function of the
prevent flow through selected passages. velocity of flow.

VALVE, FLOW CONTROL—A valve whose VISCOSITY—A measure of the internal

primary function is to control flow rate. friction or resistance of a fluid to flow.

VISCOSITY INDEX—A measure of the

VALVE, HYDRAULIC—A valve for con- viscosity-temperature characteristics of a fluid as
trolling liquid. referred to that of two arbitrary reference fluids.

VALVE, PILOT—A valve used to operate VISCOSITY, SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL

another valve or control. SECONDS (SUS)—The time in seconds for 60
milliliters of oil to flow through a standard orifice
VALVE, PNEUMATIC—A valve for con- at a given temperature.
trolling gas.
VISCOSITY, KINEMATIC—The absolute
viscosity divided by the density of the fluid. It is
VALVE, PRESSURE REDUCING—A
usually expressed in centistokes.
pressure control valve whose primary function is
to limit outlet pressure.
VOLUME OF FLOW—The quantity of fluid
that passes a certain point in a unit of time. The
VALVE, PRIORITY—A valve that directs volume of flow is usually expressed in gallons per
flow to one operating circuit at a fixed rate and minute for liquids and cubic feet per minute for
directs excess flow to another operating circuit. gases.

VALVE, RELIEF—A pressure control valve WORK—The transference of energy from one
whose primary function is to limit system body or system to another. That which is
pressure. accomplished by a force acting through a distance.

AI-8
 APPENDIX II

MECHANICAL SYMBOLS OTHER THAN

AERONAUTICAL FOR FLUID
POWER DIAGRAMS

AII-1
AII-2
AII-3
AII-4
 APPENDIX III

AERONAUTICAL MECHANICAL SYMBOLS

FOR FLUID POWER DIAGRAMS

AIII-1
AIII-2
 INDEX

A Basic diagrams and systems, 12-1 to 12-13

diagrams, 12-1 to 12-5
Accumulators, 9-3 to 9-7 symbols, 12-1 to 12-2
Actuators, 10-1 to 10-12 types of diagrams, 12-2 to 12-5
cylinders, 10-1 to 10-7 combination diagrams, 12-5
piston-type cylinders, 10-3 to 10-6 cutaway diagrams, 12-2 to 12-3
double-acting cylinder, 10-4 to graphic diagrams, 12-4 to 12-5
10-5 pictorial diagrams, 12-2
fluid power systems, 12-5 to 12-13
single-acting cylinder, 10-4
hydraulic power drive system, 12-6 to 12-8
tandem cylinders, 10-5 to 10-6
control, 12-7
rack-and-pinion piston-type rotary operation, 12-7 to 12-8
actuators, 10-6 to 10-7 jet blast deflectors, 12-10 to 12-13
ram-type cylinders, 10-1 to 10-3 landing gear emergency system, 12-8
double-acting ram, 10-2 to 12-10
dual rams, 10-3 Bellows elastic elements, 8-3 to 8-5
single-acting ram, 10-1 to 10-2 Bernoulli’s principle, 2-14
Bimetallic expansion thermometer, 8-7
telescoping rams, 10-2 to 10-3
Bladder-type accumulators, 9-6
motors, 10-8 to 10-11 Bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3
gear-type motors, 10-8 Boyle’s law, 11-4 to 11-5
piston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11 Brazed connectors, 5-13
axial-piston motor, 10-10 to
10-11 C
radial-piston motor, 10-10
C-shaped bourdon tube, 8-2 to 8-3
vane-type motors, 10-9
Centered internal gear pump, 4-6
turbines, 10-11 to 10-12 Charles’s law, 11-5
impulse turbine, 10-11 to 10-12 Check valve, 6-16 to 6-18
reaction turbine, 10-12 Combination diagrams, 12-5
Aeronautical mechanical symbols for fluid Compressed air, 11-7 to 11-8
power diagrams, AIII-1 to AIII-2 Compressibility and expansion of gases, 11-3
Air-pressurized reservoirs, 9-2 to 9-3 to 11-7
Connectors for flexible hose, 5-17 to 5-19
Atmospheric pressure, 2-2 to 2-3
Cork, 7-2
Axial piston pumps, 4-12 to 4-15 Cork and rubber, 7-2
Axial-piston motor, 10-10 to 10-11 Counterbalance valve, 6-14 to 6-15
Cup packings, 7-16
Cutaway diagrams, 12-2 to 12-3
Cylinders, 10-1 to 10-7
B piston-type cylinders, 10-3 to 10-6
rack-and-pinion piston-type rotary
Backup rings, 7-12 to 7-15 actuators, 10-6 to 10-7
Ball valves, 6-1 to 6-2 ram-type cylinders, 10-1 to 10-3

INDEX-1
 D Fluid lines and fittings—Continued
pipes and tubing—Continued
Diagrams, 12-1 to 12-5 selection of pipes and tubing, 5-1 to
Diaphragm accumulators, 9-7 5-3
Direct-contact gas-to-fluid accumulators, 9-6 materials, 5-2 to 5-3
to 9-7 sizing of pipes and tubing, 5-1
Directional control valves, 6-15 to 6-25 to 5-2
check valve, 6-16 to 6-18 precautionary measures, 5-20 to 5-21
classification, 6-15 to 6-16 types of fittings and connectors, 5-12 to
four-way valves, 6-20 to 6-25 5-20
shuttle valve, 6-18 brazed connectors, 5-13
three-way valves, 6-19 to 6-20 connectors for flexible hose, 5-17 to
two-way valves, 6-18 to 6-19 5-19
Dirt exclusion seals (wipers and scrapers), 7-17 hose connection side of hose
Distant-reading thermometers, 8-7 to 8-8 fitting, 5-18 to 5-19
Dual bellows indicators, 8-4 to 8-5 piping connection side of hose
fitting, 5-18
flange connectors, 5-12
flared connectors, 5-13 to 5-14
F flareless-tube connectors, 5-15 to
5-17
Filtration, 9-7 to 9-13 final assembly, 5-17
filters, 9-8 to 9-12 inspection, 5-16 to 5-17
pneumatic gases, 9-12 to 9-13 presetting, 5-15 to 5-16
strainers, 9-8 manifolds, 5-19 to 5-20
Flange connectors, 5-12 quick-disconnect couplings, 5-19
Flange packings, 7-16 to 7-17 threaded connectors, 5-12
Flared connectors, 5-13 to 5-14 welded connectors, 5-12 to 5-13
Flareless-tube connectors, 5-15 to 5-17 types of lines, 5-1
Flexible hose, 5-8 to 5-12 Fluid power, introduction to, 1-1 to 1-4
Flow control valves, 6-1 to 6-6 Fluid power systems, 12-5 to 12-13
ball valves, 6-1 to 6-2 hydraulic power drive system, 12-6 to
gate valves, 6-3 12-8
globe valves, 6-3 to 6-5 jet blast deflectors, 12-10 to 12-13
hydraulic and pneumatic globe valves, 6-5 landing gear emergency system, 12-8 to
to 6-6 12-10
needle valves, 6-5 Fluid-pressurized reservoir, 9-2
Fluid lines and fittings, 5-1 to 5-21 Forces in liquids, 2-1 to 2-17
flexible hose, 5-8 to 5-12 liquids at rest, 2-1 to 2-9
application, 5-9 to 5-10 pressure and force, 2-1 to 2-3
fabrication and testing, 5-10 atmospheric pressure, 2-2 to 2-3
identification, 5-10 computing force, pressure, and
installation, 5-11 to 5-12 area, 2-1 to 2-2
PFTE, 5-9 transmission of forces through
synthetic rubber hose, 5-8 to 5-9 liquids, 2-3 to 2-9
cure date, 5-8 to 5-9 density and specific gravity, 2-4
sizing, 5-8 Pascal’s law, 2-5 to 2-6
pipes and tubing, 5-1 to 5-8 pressure and force in fluid
preparation of pipes and tubing, 5-3 power systems, 2-6 to 2-9
to 5-8 liquids in motion, 2-9 to 2-15
tube bending, 5-5 to 5-7 Bernoulli’s principle, 2-14
tube cutting and deburring, 5-4 factors involved in flow, 2-11 to 2-13
to 5-5 inertia and force, 2-11 to 2-12
tube flaring, 5-7 to 5-8 kinetic energy, 2-12 to 2-13

INDEX-2
Forces in liquids—Continued Hydraulic fluids-Continued
liquids in motion—Continued properties—Continued
minimizing friction, 2-14 to 2-15 lubricating power, 3-3
relationship of force, pressure, and minimum toxicity, 3-4
head, 2-13 viscosity, 3-1 to 3-3
static and dynamic factors, 2-13 to measurement of viscosity, 3-1 to
2-14 3-3
streamline and turbulent flow, 2-10 viscosity index, 3-3
to 2-11 types of hydraulic fluids, 3-5 to 3-6
volume and velocity of flow, 2-9 to petroleum-based fluids, 3-5
2-10 synthetic fire-resistant fluids, 3-5 to
volume of flow and speed, 2-10 3-6
operation of hydraulic components, 2-15 lightweight synthetic fire-
to 2-17 resistant fluids, 3-6
hydraulic brakes, 2-16 to 2-17 phosphate ester fire-resistant
hydraulic jack, 2-15 to 2-16 fluid, 3-5 to 3-6
Four-way valves, 6-20 to 6-25 silicone synthetic fire-resistant
fluids, 3-6
water-based fire-resistant fluids, 3-6
G Hydraulic jack, 2-15 to 2-16
Hydraulic power drive system, 12-6 to 12-8
Gate valves, 6-3 Hydraulics, 1-2 to 1-3
Gauge snubbers, 8-8 to 8-9
Gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6
Gear-type motors, 10-8 I
General gas law, 11-6 to 11-7
Globe valves, 6-3 to 6-5 Impulse turbine, 10-11 to 10-12
Glossary, AI-1 to AI-8 Introduction to fluid power, 1-1 to 1-4
Graphic diagrams, 12-4 to 12-5 advantages of fluid power, 1-2
hydraulics, 1-2 to 1-3
development of hydraulics, 1-2 to 1-3
H use of hydraulics, 1-3
special problems, 1-2
Hand pumps, 4-9 states of matter, 1-3 to 1-4
Helical gear pump, 4-5
Herringbone gear pump, 4-4
Hydraulic and pneumatic globe valves, 6-5 to
J
6-6
Hydraulic brakes, 2-16 to 2-17
Jet blast deflectors, 12-10 to 12-13
Hydraulic fluids, 3-1 to 3-11
contamination, 3-6 to 3-10
classification, 3-7 to 3-8
fluid contamination, 3-7 to 3-8 K
particulate contamination, 3-7
contamination control, 3-9 to 3-10 Kinetic energy, 2-12 to 2-13
origin of contamination, 3-8 to 3-9 Kinetic theory of gases, 11-4
hydraulic fluid sampling, 3-10 to 3-11
properties, 3-1 to 3-5
chemical stability, 3-3 to 3-4 L
cleanliness, 3-5
density and compressibility, 3-4 Landing gear emergency system, 12-8 to 12-10
fire point, 3-4 Leather, 7-2
flashpoint, 3-4 Lightweight synthetic fire-resistant fluids, 3-6
foaming tendencies, 3-4 to 3-5 Liquids in motion, 2-9 to 2-15
freedom from acidity, 3-4 Lobe pump, 4-6 to 4-7

INDEX-3
 M Piston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15
Piston-type accumulators, 9-5 to 9-6
Manifolds, 5-19 to 5-20 Piston-type cylinders, 10-3 to 10-6
Matter, states of, 1-3 to 1-4 Piston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
Measurement and pressure control devices, 8-1 Pneumatic gases, 9-12 to 9-13
to 8-9
Pneumatics, 11-1 to 11-9
gauge snubbers, 8-8 to 8-9
characteristics of gases, 11-1 to 11-3
pressure gauges, 8-1 to 8-5
bellows elastic elements, 8-3 to 8-5 density, 11-1 to 11-2
dual bellows indicators, 8-4 to pressure, 11-3
8-5 temperature, 11-2 to 11-3
simple bellows elements, 8-4 compressibility and expansion of gases,
bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3 11-3 to 11-7
C-shaped bourdon tube, 8-2 to Boyle’s law, 11-4 to 11-5
8-3 Charles’s law, 11-5
spiral and helical bourdon tubes, general gas law, 11-6 to 11-7
8-3 kinetic theory of gases, 11-4
pressure switches, 8-5 to 8-6 contamination control, 11-8 to 11-9
temperature switches, 8-8 development of pneumatics, 11-1
temperature-measuring instruments, 8-6 to
pneumatic gases, 11-7 to 11-8
8-8
compressed air, 11-7 to 11-8
bimetallic expansion thermometer,
8-7 high-pressure air systems, 11-7
distant-reading thermometers, 8-7 to to 11-8
8-8 low-pressure air, 11-8
Mechanical symbols other than aeronautical medium-pressure air, 11-8
for fluid power diagrams, AII-1 to AII-4 nitrogen, 11-8
Metal, 7-2 to 7-3 qualities, 11-7
Motors, 10-8 to 10-11 potential hazards, 11-9
gear-type motors, 10-8 safety precautions, 11-9
piston-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11 Pressure control valves, 6-6 to 6-15
vane-type motors, 10-9 counterbalance valve, 6-14 to 6-15
pressure regulators, 6-9 to 6-10
pressure-reducing valves, 6-12 to 6-14
N
relief valves, 6-6 to 6-9
Needle valves, 6-5 sequence valves, 6-11 to 6-12
Nitrogen, 11-8 Pressure gauges, 8-1 to 8-5
Nonpressurized reservoirs, 9-1 to 9-2 bellows elastic elements, 8-3 to 8-5
bourdon tube gauges, 8-1 to 8-3
Pressure switches, 8-5 to 8-6
O Pressurized reservoirs, 9-2 to 9-3
Proportional-flow filter, 9-10
Off-centered internal gear pump, 4-6 Pumps, 4-1 to 4-15
O-rings, 7-6 to 7-12 classification of pumps, 4-1 to 4-2
operation, 4-1
performance, 4-1
P
purpose, 4-1
Pascal’s law, 2-5 to 2-6 reciprocating pumps, 4-8 to 4-15
Petrolium-based fluids, 3-5 hand pumps, 4-9
PFTE hose, 5-9 piston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15
Phosphate ester fire-resistant fluid, 3-5 to 3-6 axial piston pumps, 4-12 to 4-15
Pictorial diagrams, 12-2 radial piston pumps, 4-10 to
Pipes and tubing, 5-1 to 5-8 4-11

INDEX-4
Pumps—Continued Reservoirs, strainers, filters, and
rotary pumps, 4-2 to 4-8 accumulators—Continued
gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6 reservoirs, 9-1 to 9-3
centered internal gear pump, 4-6 nonpressurized reservoirs, 9-1 to 9-2
helical gear pump, 4-5 pressurized reservoirs, 9-2 to 9-3
herringbone gear pump, 4-4 air-pressurized reservoirs, 9-2 to
9-3
off-centered internal gear pump,
fluid-pressurized reservoir, 9-2
4-5
Rotary pumps, 4-2 to 4-8
spur gear pump, 4-3 to 4-4
gear pumps, 4-2 to 4-6
lobe pump, 4-6 to 4-7 lobe pump, 4-6 to 4-7
screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8 screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8
vane pump, 4-8 vane pump, 4-8
Rubber, 7-3

Q S

Quad-O-Dyn@ seals, 7-15 Screw pump, 4-7 to 4-8

Quad-Rings, 7-15 Sealing devices and materials, 7-1 to 7-18
Quick-disconnect couplings, 5-19 seal materials, 7-1 to 7-3
cork, 7-2
cork and rubber, 7-2
leather, 7-2
R metal, 7-2 to 7-3
rubber, 7-3
Rack-and-pinion piston-type rotary actuators, types of seals, 7-3 to 7-18
10-6 to 10-7 backup rings, 7-12 to 7-15
Radial-piston motor, 10-10 installation, 7-12 to 7-15
Radial piston pumps, 4-10 to 4-11 packaging and storing, 7-12
Ram-type cylinders, 10-1 to 10-3 cup packings, 7-16
Reaction turbine, 10-12 dirt exclusion seals (wipers and
Reciprocating pumps, 4-8 to 4-15 scrapers), 7-17
hand pumps, 4-9 flange packings, 7-16 to 7-17
piston pumps, 4-9 to 4-15 O-rings, 7-6 to 7-12
Relief valves, 6-6 to 6-9 cure date, 7-8
Reservoirs, strainers, filters, and dimensions, 7-8
accumulators, 9-1 to 9-13 identification, 7-7
accumulators, 9-3 to 9-7 replacement, 7-9 to 7-12
bladder-type accumulators, 9-6 shelf life and expiration date,
diaphragm accumulators, 9-7 7-8
direct-contact gas-to-fluid sizes, 7-8
accumulators, 9-6 to 9-7 specifications, 7-8
piston-type accumulators, 9-5 to 9-6 Quad-O-Dyn” seals, 7-15
filtration, 9-7 to 9-13 Quad-Rings, 7-15
filters, 9-8 to 9-12 storage of seals, 7-17 to 7-18
filter elements, 9-11 to 9-12 T-seals, 7-3 to 7-5
filter rating, 9-11 U-cups and U-packings, 7-16
full-flow filter, 9-8 to 9-10 leather U-packings, 7-16
proportional-flow filter, 9-10 U-cups, 7-16
pneumatic gases, 9-12 to 9-13 V-rings, 7-5 to 7-6
removal of moisture, 9-12 to Sequence valves, 6-11 to 6-12
9-13 Shuttle valve, 6-18
removal of solids, 9-12 Silicone synthetic fire-resistant fluids, 3-6
strainers, 9-8 Spiral and helical bourdon tubes, 8-3

INDEX-5
Spur gear pump, 4-3 to 4-4 Valves—Continued
Synthetic fire-resistant fluids, 3-5 to 3-6 directional control valves—Continued
Synthetic rubber hose, 5-8 to 5-9 shuttle valve, 6-18
three-way valves, 6-19 to 6-20
T cam-operated three-way valves,
6-19 to 6-20
T-seals, 7-3 to 7-5 pilot-operated three-way valves,
Temperature switches. 8-8 6-20
Temperature-measuring instruments, 8-6 to two-way valves, 6-18 to 6-19
8-8 flow control valves, 6-1 to 6-6
bimetallic expansion thermometer, 8-7
ball valves, 6-1 to 6-2
distant-reading thermometers, 8-7 to 8-8
Threaded connectors, 5-12 gate valves, 6-3
Three-way valves, 6-19 to 6-20 globe valves, 6-3 to 6-5
Tube bending, 5-5 to 5-7 hydraulic and pneumatic globe
Tube cutting and deburring, 5-4 to 5-5 valves, 6-5 to 6-6 -
Tube flaring, 5-7 to 5-8 needle valves, 6-5
Turbines, 10-11 to 10-12
pressure control valves, 6-6 to 6-15
Two-way valves, 6-18 to 6-19
counterbalance valve, 6-14 to 6-15
pressure regulators, 6-9 to 6-10
U pressure-reducing valves, 6-12 to 6-14
pilot-controlled pressure-reducing
U-cups and U-packings, 7-16
valve, 6-13 to 6-14
spring-loaded reducer, 6-13
V relief valves, 6-6 to 6-9
sequence valves, 6-11 to 6-12
V-rings, 7-5 to 7-6
mechanically operated sequence
Valves, 6-1 to 6-25
valve, 6-12
classifications, 6-1
directional control valves, 6-15 to 6-25 pressure-controlled sequence
check valve, 6-16 to 6-18 valve, 6-11 to 6-12
classification, 6-15 to 6-16 Vane pump, 4-8
poppet, 6-15 to 6-16 Vane-type motors, 10-9 to 10-11
rotary spool, 6-16
sliding spool, 6-16
four-way valves, 6-20 to 6-25
poppet-type four-way valves, W
6-20 to 6-22
rotary spool valve, 6-22 Water-based fire-resistant fluids, 3-6
sliding spool valve, 6-22 to 6-25 Welded connectors, 5-12 to 5-13

INDEX-6