Fire safety

Introduction
Employers must have operational arrangements to cover fire safety and an adequate number of competent
persons to help them carry out their obligations under the 50 or so items of legislation regulating fire safety.
Employees must also be given easily-understood, relevant information on the risks to their health and
safety in case of a fire.

People do not always react in their best interests to the first indications of fire. Such behaviour is often
interpreted as panic, but if the information available to them at these early stages is considered, such
behaviour may seem quite reasonable. This observation is particularly important for low-resourced
organisations wishing to promote fire safety; automatic fire protection systems are more reliable than
systems that rely on manual intervention, but equally a good standard of staff training can make a major
impact to fire safety at relatively low cost.

The aim of this guidance is to outline the measures that should be taken to safeguard workers in the event
of a fire, the procedures to follow, as well as indicate which technical options are available in terms of fire
prevention and protection.

Fire safety law and its enforcement

Fire safety legislation may, as a first approximation, be regarded as being sub-divided into two main
branches:

• legislation which applies to new buildings and new building work (eg, refurbishments and alterations).
Most aspects of fire safety are, in such cases, controlled by means of building regulations
• legislation which applies to existing buildings. The most significant legislation is, in this case, the 'Fire
precautions act 1971', but there is a plethora of other legislation, much of which is specific to particular
occupancies

Building regulations
There are three sets of building regulations, matching the three principal geographical areas of the UK,
namely:

• England and Wales: 'Building regulations 1991' produced under the 'Building act 1984'
• Scotland: 'Building standards (Scotland) regulations 1990' produced under the 'Building (Scotland) act
1959' as amended by the 'Building (Scotland) act 1970'
• Northern Ireland: 'Building regulations (Northern Ireland) 1994' produced under the 'Building regulations
(Northern Ireland) order 1979' as amended by the 'Planning and building regulations (amendment)
(Northern Ireland) order 1990'

Except in the case of Northern Ireland, these national building regulations do not cover fire-alarm systems
in anything other than dwellings. They are concerned primarily with structural provisions, such as means of
escape, compartmentation, fire protection of elements of structure etc.

All three sets of building regulations set out the 'functional requirements' or fire-safety objectives, and they
contain no detailed technical requirements. These are set out in supporting guidance documents, namely:

• England and Wales: Approved document B

• Scotland: Technical standards D and E
• Northern Ireland: Technical booklet E

These guidance documents themselves make reference to other documents, such as British Standards.
For example, in England and Wales, 'Approved document B' recommends that for offices and shops, an
alternative approach to the provision of means of escape is available in BS 5588:Part 3 and BS 5588:Part 2
respectively (these have been withdrawn and replaced by Part 11). In addition, for the following premises,
the Approved Document recommends that means of escape should comply with the codes of practice
given below:

• Places of assembly: BS 5588:Part 6

• Schools and other education buildings: Building bulletin 7
• Shopping complexes: BS 5588:Part 10

Fire precautions act 1971

The 'Fire precautions act 1971' as amended by the 'Fire safety and safety of places of sport act 1987'
applies primarily to the following premises:

• offices
• shops
• factories
• hotels and boarding houses with sleeping facilities for more than six occupants
• hotels and boarding houses with sleeping facilities on floors other than the ground or first floor
• railway premises

In addition, Section 10 of the Act gives the fire authority powers to issue a prohibition notice in the event of
serious risk to occupants in the event of fire in a much wider range of premises.

The Act applies in Scotland, England and Wales - but not in Northern Ireland, where very similar legislation
in the form of the 'Fire services (Northern Ireland) order 1984' applies.

The enforcing authority for the 'Fire precautions act' is generally the fire authority. However, in the case of
Crown premises, the enforcing authority is the Home Office (in Scotland the Scottish Home and Health
Department) Fire Service Inspectorate, which maintains a section that deals specifically with certification of
Crown premises.

Guidance on the fire precautions that are required in certificated and non-certificated premises is published
by the Home Office.

The fire certificate contains various duties with which those managing certificated premises must comply. It
is important to study the fire certificate carefully in each particular case to ensure that the duties that apply
to the particular premises are clearly understood.

Fire certificates
In the case of hotels and boarding houses, an application for a fire certificate must be made for all premises
within the scope of the Act. In the case of the other premises listed above, an application must be made
only if there are more than 20 persons or more than 10 persons on a floor other than the ground floor
employed to work in the premises, at any one time. Also, in the case of factories in which significant
quantities of explosive or highly flammable liquids are stored or used, the certification process applies
regardless of the number of persons employed.

For those premises to which the Act applies but which are outside the scope of certification, there are still
requirements that certain fire precautions be provided.

Fire certificates (special premises) regulations 1976

These Regulations apply to various premises in which there is a high risk of fire or explosion due to highly
flammable materials or dangerous chemicals, and to certain temporary buildings on construction sites. In
such 'special premises' fire precautions certificates are issued by the Health and Safety Executive under
these Regulations, and not by the fire authority under the 'Fire precautions act'.
Fire precautions (workplace) regulations 1997
These regulations are now amended by the 'Management of health and safety at work regulations 1999' (SI
1999/3242). They require workplace risk assessments to address fire safety, as well as general health and
safety hazards.

General fire safety provisions of the European Framework and 'Workplace directives' not dealt with by other
health and safety legislation were implemented by the 'Fire precautions (workplace) regulations 1997'.

To safeguard employees in case of fire, workplaces must, as necessary, be equipped with appropriate fire-
fighting equipment, fire detectors and alarms; and any non-automatic fire-fighting equipment provided must
be easily accessible, simple to use and signposted. Employers must take appropriate steps for fire-fighting
in the workplace, nominate employees to utilise such measures, and ensure that such employees are
trained, informed and instructed on the use of the equipment, etc. Suitable contacts with external
emergency services must be established.

Where necessary, emergency routes and exits must be kept clear at all times and:

• emergency routes and exits must lead as directly as possible to a safe place
• in times of danger, evacuation must be possible as quickly and safely as possible
• the number, distribution and size of emergency routes/exits must be adequate
• emergency doors must open in the direction of escape and sliding/revolving doors must not be
intended for use as emergency exits
• emergency doors must not be locked/secured so that they cannot easily/promptly be opened in the
event of an emergency
• emergency routes/exits must be signposted and those requiring lighting must be supplied with
adequate emergency lighting, in case of the normal lighting failing.

All fire-fighting and fire detection equipment, and emergency routes and exits must be suitably maintained.

Section 10 of the 'Fire precautions act 1971' is extended to allow fire authorities to issue prohibition notices
to immediately close down unsafe places of work in movable structures and in the open air.

The Regulations contain details of enforcement, offences, and consequential and miscellaneous
provisions.

The 'excepted workplaces' are those :

• for which a fire certificate is in force, or for which an application for a fire certificate is pending, under
the 1971 Act
• for which a safety certificate under the 'Safety of sports grounds act 1975', or Part III of the 'Fire safety
and safety of places of sport act 1987' is in force
• regulated by the 'Fire precautions (sub-surface railway stations) regulations 1989'
• covered by the 'Construction (health, safety and welfare) regulations 1996'
• which are, or, in or on, a ship, under the 'Docks regulations 1988'
• covered by the 'Fire certificates (special premises) regulations 1976'
• which form part of a mine, as covered by the 'Mines and quarries act 1954'
• which are, or are in, or on, an aircraft, locomotive or rolling stock, trailer or semi-trailer used as
transport, or a vehicle covered by the 'Vehicle excise and registration act 1994', or a vehicle exempted
from the Act
• in fields, woods or any land comprising an agricultural or forestry undertaking, which are not inside a
building and are sited away from the undertaking's main buildings

Fire precautions (workplace) (amendment) regulations 1999

The Regulations came into force on 1 Dec 99, extending the scope of the principal Regulations so that
they fully implemented the general fire-safety provisions of the European Council Framework Directive. The
Regulations, as amended, apply throughout Great Britain.

The amendments extend the scope of the Regulations so that they apply to employers of workplaces
currently excepted, namely:

• workplaces where a fire certificate exists or where an application for one is pending under the 'Fire
precautions act 1971'
• sports grounds and regulated stands where a safety certificate is in force, and which are used for the
activities specified in the certificate
• sub-surface railway stations
• ships being constructed or repaired
• workplaces covered by the 'Fire certificates (special premises) regulations 1976'
• buildings at the mine surfaces

In addition, the Regulations have been provided with a criminal sanctions only regime, in line with other fire
safety and health and safety legislation.

Local acts
As well as the national building regulations and the 'Fire precautions act', various areas of England and
Wales also have local Acts which impose additional requirements for certain categories of premises, such
as high buildings and large storage buildings.

Perhaps the most well known local legislation is that contained in Section 20 of the 'London building acts
(amendment) act 1939', as amended by the 'Building (inner London) regulations 1985'. This legislation
empowers London district surveyors to require special fire-safety measures, such as sprinkler protection, in
certain high buildings, or uncompartmented buildings of large cubic capacity used for manufacturing or
warehousing, in inner London.

Applying for a fire certificate

In order to obtain a fire certificate, you must apply to the local fire authority on the form shown in the 'Fire
precautions (application for fire certificate) regulations 1989'.

Means of escape certificates

''Means of escape certificates' were no longer issued after 1976, when offices, shops, railway premises and
factories were designated under the 'Fire precautions act'. However, existing certificates are deemed to be
'Fire precautions act' certificates, thereby satisfying the 'Fire precautions act', until such time as material
changes take place and a new certificate has to be produced. The 'means of escape' certificates did not,
however, impose all the requirements now imposed by the 'Fire precautions act' certificates.

Nevertheless, many of the requirements now contained in the latter certificates were imposed by specific
sections of the two Acts under which the former certificates were issued. These sections of the Acts have,
in fact, been repealed because they were unnecessary after suitable requirements could be imposed on
the premises to which they applied by means of the 'Fire precautions act'.

However, a complicated situation now arises whereby, if reliance is placed on a 'means of escape'
certificate (issued under the 1961 and 1963 Acts) to satisfy the requirement for a 'Fire precautions act'
certificate, various repealed sections of these Acts are also deemed to apply. The sections in question are
set out in Schedule 8 to the 'Health and safety at work etc act 1974'.

Miscellaneous legislation
It is not feasible to list all of the legislation that, in one manner or another, impinges on fire safety. However,
attention is drawn to the following legislation, which contains requirements concerning aspects of fire safety
as described below:
• the 'Housing act 1985' as amended by the 'Local government and housing act 1989' covers houses in
multiple occupation in England and Wales; similar legislation applies in Scotland
• Section 71 of the 'Building act 1984', which covers places of assembly, such as clubs, shops and
restaurants employing more than 20 persons, theatres, schools and certain churches
• Section 72 of the 'Building act 1984' deals with buildings of more than two storeys and greater than 20
feet (6100mm) in height used for various specified purposes that, normally, incorporate sleeping
accommodation
• the 'Cinemas act 1985' applies to cinemas
• the 'Theatres act 1968' covers theatres
• the 'Licensing act 1964, covers premises licensed for the sale of alcohol.
• the 'Local government (miscellaneous provisions) act 1982' enables local authorities to impose fire
safety requirements as a condition of a public entertainments licence

The above list is far from exhaustive and it is important to consult the fire authority to determine which
legislation may be relevant in the case of any particular premises.

Fire precautions
Definition and scope
Fire precautions are defined as measures taken to reduce the probability that a fire may occur, and to
mitigate the effects of any fire that does occur.

The scope of fire precautions is very wide, and extends well beyond the measures required by legislation.
There are two reasons for this.

Firstly, legislation is not generally concerned with the prevention of fire. Most fire-specific legislation is
generally based on the assumption that a fire will occur, and requires that people be protected against
injury when it does. Nevertheless, health-and-safety legislation does not permit positively unsafe situations
for employees.

Secondly, legislation is concerned primarily with the safety of life and not with the protection of property, or
the protection of a company's ability to function. Somewhat paradoxically, the measures required to protect
life are often simpler, less extensive and usually less costly than those required to protect assets and
earning capability, even though safety of life must always be the first priority. This is a natural consequence
of the fact that, in most occupancies, people can be removed quite quickly from the hazards created by a
fire, simply by evacuation of the building (although this is not, however, true of certain occupancies, such
as hospitals). The building, on the other hand, remains at risk until the fire is controlled and extinguished,
as are many critical facilities, such as computers or records etc within the building.

There is a natural distinction between fire precautions that are intended to prevent the occurrence of fire
and those that afford a degree of protection if fire does occur. It is conventional to refer to these two type of
fire precautions as fire prevention measures and fire protection measures respectively.

Fire protection
Fire protection is defined in BS 4422:Part 1 as 'design features, systems equipment, buildings, or other
structures to reduce danger to persons and property by detecting, extinguishing or containing fires'. Fire
protection measures, therefore, are also very diverse in nature, and range, for example, from a brick wall to
a sophisticated fire-detection and extinguishing installation. These measures may be intended to protect
any of three exposures - namely people, property and the ability of the organisation to function.

In fact, most fire-protection measures tend to be grouped into those required for protection of life and those
required for protection against financial loss; it is the former measures that are generally required by
legislation, while the latter measures may be a requirement or recommendation of fire insurers, or be
installed on the advice of in-house advisers.
Although it is usually possible to identify whether the primary function of a fire-protection measure is life
safety or property protection, there is invariably some overlap between the two objectives. A sprinkler
system, for example, installed for property protection will contribute to the life safety of persons in the
building, particularly in parts distant from the area of fire origin. Fire resisting doors installed to protect the
enclosure of a staircase in order to provide a safe escape route for occupants will also, at a later stage in
the fire, assist in the prevention of smoke and fire damage on floors above and below the floor on which the
fire is located.

Active fire protection

Active fire-protection measures include mechanical and electrical equipment, such as fire-detection, fire-
extinguishing and smoke-control systems. Such systems actively respond in some manner when fire
occurs. For example, in the event of fire, power is supplied to alarm sounders, water is caused to flow
through pipes or a smoke-extract fan starts up.

Passive fire protection

Passive fire-protection measures by contrast, are those which need not change in any manner in order to
perform their fire protection function; they are inherently protective in their normal, everyday condition.
Such measures are primarily associated with that part of the BS 4422 definition that relates to containing
fires, but could also include good fire-safety planning and design, adequate means of escape,
compartmentation, structural fire protection and ventilation.

In practical terms, passive fire-protection products are those which are mainly, but not solely, associated
with building construction, linings, or contents, that have the objective of containing fire, or limiting the
extent or rate of fire spread and development. The term encompasses a wide range of product types that
are not necessarily of even vaguely-similar nature. They may be as diverse as a fire-resisting document-
storage cabinet, chemicals used to treat fabrics to improve their fire performance, and paints used to
reduce the surface spread of flame of timber linings, as well as the more traditional products, such as fire-
resisting building materials.

Pre-planning
Fire-protection measures, by definition, only have a bearing on fire safety after fire has occurred and,
therefore, fire prevention has failed. While fire-prevention measures comprise both procedures and
equipment, fire-protection measures involve only equipment and materials. There is, however, a further
group of fire precautions that are concerned with the procedures, both short term and long term, that follow
an outbreak of fire. These precautions may be described simply as pre-planning.

Pre-planning covers planning for actions to be taken at the time of a fire, and planning for action after the
fire:

• planning for actions in the event of fire includes the formulation of fire procedures and the training of all
occupants, including those with special duties in the event of fire. It also includes rehearsing the
procedures by carrying out regular fire drills
• planning for action after a fire deals with the planning of salvage arrangements and the formulation of
contingency plans for continuing the business. In the case of a hotel, for example, there might be a
need to plan for accommodation of guests if the building cannot be reoccupied after the fire. In the case
of a manufacturing company, it may be possible to formulate contingency plans for production to
resume at another location.

Fire prevention
Fire prevention is defined in BS 4422:Part 1 as 'measures to prevent the outbreak of a fire and/or to limit its
effects'.

Fire-prevention measures are very diverse in nature and include procedures as well as physical measures,
to reduce the probability of the occurrence of fire. For example, fitting an earth-leakage circuit breaker to an
electrical installation may reduce the chance of a fire of electrical origin. Procedures for routine inspection
of the electrical installation may also lessen the risk by leading to early identification and rectification of
faults. Prevention of fire, if successful, is more effective than merely minimising the effects of fire. Yet fire
prevention is often a matter of simple common sense and need not always involve sophisticated measures
or high technology.

There is often a general impression that fires are inevitable, and that, therefore, only fire protection need
receive attention. In this connection it is interesting to note the views of Mr Desmond Fennell QC in his
report on the investigation into the fire at King's Cross underground station in 1987, which resulted in the
loss of 31 lives. The report states that:

'...the management remained of the view that fires were inevitable on the oldest and most extensive
underground system in the world. In my view they were fundamentally in error in their approach...'

and

'Dr. Ridley' (then Chairman and Managing Director of London Underground Limited)... 'saw London
Underground's key task as to minimise the risk of fires becoming a danger to passengers by a better
control procedure and by removing materials which posed the greatest fire hazard. In effect he was
advocating fire precaution rather than fire prevention. It is my belief that this approach is seriously flawed
because it fails to recognise the unpredictable nature of fire.'

Common ignition sources

Most fires are the result of a limited number of categories of ignition source (in order of importance):

• arson
• electrical sources of ignition
• smokers' materials

The numbers of fires that occur in the UK would be dramatically reduced if these three categories were
effectively managed. Concentration on the prevention of such fires, therefore greatly diminishes the risk of
fire in any premises. The remainder of this section deals with measures to combat these three sources of
ignition, and other significant causes of fire.

Arson
Arson is the single most common cause of large fires in industry and commerce. Protection against arson
involves measures that afford a high degree of security. Guidance on arson prevention, some of which is
general, while other guidance is specific to particular occupancies, is given in the following:

• BS 3300:1985 Specification for paraffin unflued space heating and cooking appliances for domestic
use
• Fire safety data: arson dossier AR 1; management guide to fire investigation
• Fire safety data: arson dossier AR 2; prevention and control of arson in warehouse and storage
buildings
• Fire safety data: arson dossier AR 3; prevention and control of arson in school buildings
• Fire safety data: management of fire risks MR5; security against fire raisers
• Home Office. Standing conference on crime prevention report of the working group of the prevention of
arson. 6 Dec 88

Electrical faults
Much can be done to prevent electrical fires without an in-depth knowledge of electrical engineering. Fires
of electrical origin can be divided into three groups, according to whether they involve:

• the fixed, permanent electrical installation in the building

• temporary wiring and leads to portable electrical appliances
• electrical appliances.

A modern electrical installation, installed and maintained in accordance with good practice, should not
present a risk unless it is abused, incompetently modified or mechanically damaged. It is important,
therefore, that all installation work, including the design of any new installation or modifications to an
existing installation, complies with the relevant edition of the 'Regulations for electrical installations'
published by the Institution of Electrical Engineers (currently the 16th edition, as amended). Although it is
more commonly known as the 'IEE wiring regulations', this document is now published as BS 7671. The
'IEE wiring regulations' are primarily concerned with safety, particularly in respect of protection against fire
and electric shock.

These Regulations, contrary to the implications of the title, have no statutory force in England and Wales,
although in Scotland, electrical installations are required to comply with the 'IEE wiring regulations' by the
'Technical standards' that accompany the 'Building standards (Scotland) regulations 1990'. However,
compliance with the 'IEE wiring regulations' would be likely to prove that the relevant requirements of the
'Electricity at work regulations 1989' have been satisfied. Compliance with the 'IEE wiring regulations' is
also deemed to satisfy the requirements of the 'Electricity supply regulations 1988', which prohibit an
electricity supply being provided to a consumer unless the installation is safe.

Electrical design, installation and maintenance work should only be carried out by competent, qualified
persons. The National Inspection Council for Electrical Installation Contracting (NICEIC) publishes a roll of
approved contractors who undertake to carry out work in accordance with the 'IEE wiring regulations', and
their work is subject to periodic inspection by the NICEIC. In addition, the Electrical Contractors'
Association (ECA) operates a guarantee scheme for the work of their member companies, whereby work
that does not comply with the safety requirements of the 'IEE wiring regulations' will be rectified.

Smokers' materials
It is now common for smoking to be prohibited in many workplaces purely on health or amenity grounds.
Even if no blanket prohibition exists, there may be designated areas where smoking has been prohibited as
a result of a ballot among employees.

Carelessly-discarded cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco and matches are all capable of starting a fire, but
cigarettes are a greater risk than cigars and pipes. Cigarette lighters are safer than matches, simply
because no discarded materials are involved. Ignition of various solid combustible materials by smokers'
materials is possible although, other than in the case of a match that is burning, there is unlikely to be
immediate flaming, but rather smouldering that can undergo a transition into flaming after some time.
However, a cigarette can act as an immediate source of ignition for highly-flammable vapours or gases.

Smoking should be prohibited in any areas where discarded smokers' materials are likely to act as a source
of ignition, where a fire could develop unnoticed, and where even a small fire could result in a significant
loss.

The Loss Prevention Council (LPC) produces a data sheet on the fire hazards of smoking.

Other ignition sources

Space heating
Central-heating installations appear to cause fewer fires than local-heating appliances. This is reflected in
the Loss Prevention Council's scheme for the classification of heaters for underwriting purposes. The LPC
divide methods of heating into six classes; A being the safest and F the least safe. Classes A and B are
less likely to attract any penalty in fire insurance premiums than those of lower classes; most central-
heating systems would come into Classes A and B.

Fixed heating installations are safer than portable heaters, which should be avoided if at all possible.
Electrical installations supplying electric heaters should comply with the 'IEE wiring regulations' and should
be installed by competent persons. Gas appliances should be installed in accordance with the 'Gas safety
(installations and use) regulations 1998', which do not apply to factories but may be used as general
guidance for installations in factories. The appliances should be installed by a contractor registered with the
Confederation for the Registration of Gas Installers (CORGI). Any heating appliances in areas in which
flammable liquids or gases may be present should be of a suitable type.

Cooking
Sensible use of cooking appliances is necessary if fire hazards are to be minimised. Appliances should
never be left unsupervised, and staff should be properly trained in the use of the appliances and action in
the event of fire.

Electric appliances should be installed by a competent person, such as an NICEIC-approved contractor, in

accordance with the 'IEE wiring regulations'. Gas appliances should be installed in accordance with the
'Gas safety (installation and use) regulations' and BS 6173 'Installation of gas catering appliances', by a
CORGI-registered installer. All appliances should be regularly inspected and maintained, and grease filters,
extract ductwork and grease traps should be subject to regular cleaning.

Deep-fat fryers should be regarded as a particular hazard, as these are a common cause of cooking fires in
non-domestic premises.

For further information see:

• BS 5784:Part 2:1984 Safety of electrical commercial catering equipment: specification for deep fat
fryers
• Loss Prevention Council recommendations on cooking equipment RC16
• BS EN 60335:Part 2:Section 2.13 Deep fat fryers, frying pans and similar appliances

Contractors' operations
Carelessness by contractors is a common cause of fire, including many fires that result in serious financial
loss. Cutting, welding and use of blow lamps are particular sources of ignition. It has been estimated that
perhaps 20-25% of all non-domestic fires result from 'on-going work', such as refurbishment, repair and
construction.

In 1990, a major fire occurred in part of the Broadgate development in London during the final stage of its
construction programme. This fire which, it has been suggested resulted in one of the largest insurance
claims in Europe for 10 years, is believed to have started in a sub-contractor's office facility. A report on the
fire by the Steel Construction Institute concluded that many more fires occur in temporary accommodation
on building sites than is generally recognised and that comprehensive guidance on fire-precaution
measures, adopted during the construction phase, were required as a matter of urgency.

Fire-safety requirements should form an integral part of the contract between a client and contractor.
Ideally, a company should produce its own standard fire precautions for use in all contracts. Companies
that have no such conditions may wish to cite the Department of Environment publication 'Standard fire
precautions for contractors engaged on Crown works'. The Loss Prevention Council also publishes
recommendations for fire safety during contractors' operations: see 'Fire safety on construction sites'.

Any hot work carried out by contractors should be controlled under a 'permit to work' system. A suitable
hot-work permit should be signed by a responsible person each time hot work is carried out.

The Loss Prevention Council produces recommendations for hot work which includes a sample hot-work
permit.

Industrial processes
Many industrial processes give rise to specific fire hazards. Often these hazards are unique to individual
industries, and can only be addressed in terms of specific process controls. However, some hazards are
common to a number of industrial operations. Guidance documents are available on:
• battery charging
• drying
• heat treatment
• paint spraying
• presence of combustible dusts
• shrink wrapping
• use of flammable liquids and gases

In addition, codes of practice for fire safety in the following specific industries are available:

• cake and biscuit manufacturing

• chemical industry
• construction industry
• furniture and woodworking industry
• offices
• paper and printing industry
• plastic industry
• printing industry
• retail premises
• rubber industry

Contribution of furniture and furnishings to fire prevention

In approximately 9% of non-domestic fires, the materials which ignite first comprise furniture and
furnishings, floor coverings, blinds, upholstery, bedding and textiles.

There is, therefore, a good case for controlling the ignitability and flammability of furniture, furnishings, etc
particularly as legislative control is only exercised over these items in a very limited number of premises,
such as places of entertainment. (see 'Guide to fire precautions in existing places of entertainment and like
premises'). However, purchasing specifications for new goods should include requirements on fire
performance.

Domestic furniture flammability has received much attention in recent years because of its alleged role in
domestic fire deaths, and is controlled by the 'Furniture and furnishings (fire safety) regulations 1988', as
amended. These impose requirements on the flammability of domestic furniture and beds. However, the
Regulations do not apply to non-domestic furniture. There is a need, therefore, for the purchaser to specify
appropriate requirements, examples of which can be found in BS 7176 'Specification for resistance to
ignition of upholstered furniture', and BS 7177 'Specification for resistance to ignition of mattresses, divans
and bed bases'.

These standards divide occupancies into four hazard classes - low, medium, high and very high.

Ignition resistance performance is specified for each hazard class by reference to the tests contained in BS
5852, or, in the case of bedding, BS 6807. Advice is contained in BS 7166 and BS 7177 on likely
classifications of occupancies, such as offices, hotels, public buildings, hospitals, schools, etc. Factors to
take into account in final classification of premises are also outlined.

It is possible to specify fire-performance characteristics for other items of furniture and furnishings by
reference to various British Standard and other tests. The appropriate standards to which reference may be
made in purchasing specifications are listed below:

Bedcovers and pillows: BS 7175 'Methods of test for the ignitability of bedcovers and pillows by
smouldering and flaming ignition sources'. This standard uses the ignition sources of BS 5852 to assess
the ignitability of pillows, quilts, mattress cases and covers, sheets, pillowslips, blankets, bedspreads and
quilt covers - individually and in combination.
Curtain materials and blinds: BS 5867:Part 2 'Specification for fabrics for curtains and drapes. Flammability
requirements'. This standard gives three sets of performance criteria by reference to tests specified in BS
5438 'Methods of test for flammability of vertically oriented textile fabrics and fabric assemblies subject to a
small igniting flame'. The standard relates to the fabric from which curtains and blinds are made. Reference
may also be made to two Crown Suppliers standards, which relate to made up curtains and blinds - FTS 7
'Methods of test for assessing the ignitability of curtains', and FTS 17 'Methods of test for assessing the
flammability of internal window blinds by a flaming ignition source'.

Carpets: two tests exist: BS 4790 'Method for determination of the effects of a small source of ignition on
textile floor coverings hot metal nut method', and BS 6307 'Method for determination of the effects of a
small source of ignition on textile floor coverings (methenamine tablet test)'. A further standard, BS 5287
'Specification for assessment and labelling of textile floor coverings tested to BS 4790' sets out the
requirements for a carpet to be described as low radius of effects of ignition when tested in accordance
with the hot metal nut method.

Excellent guidance on fire performance of furniture and furnishings for hospitals is contained in Health
Technical Memorandum (HTM) 87 'Firecode: textiles and furniture', available from TSO. This guidance
document recommends performance levels and safety measures for the complete range of furniture and
furnishings that may be found in a hospital. The guidance can also be of assistance in other occupancies
where high fire safety standards for furniture and furnishings are required.

Means of escape from fire

Means of escape is defined in BS 5588:Part 11 as:

'Structural means whereby a safe route or routes is or are provided for persons to travel from any point in a
building to a place of safety'.

Adequate means of escape from fire is the most fundamental and important of all fire precautions. The
provision of adequate means of escape is a requirement of all fire safety legislation. Normally, the 'place of
safety' will be the open air. The 'Fire safety and safety of places of sport act 1987' was amended the 'Fire
precautions act' to make it clear that escape must terminate in a place of safety beyond the building - it is
not adequate for occupants to discharge into a small yard from which there is no escape.

The most fundamental principle of escape-route design is that generally, people should be able to turn their
back on a fire, and walk away from the fire towards safety whenever practicable. This arrangement is, of
course, not practicable in a small room, in a building with only one staircase, or within a corridor, or area of
a building, that leads to a dead end. Such arrangements are only acceptable in limited circumstances, and
special fire protection measures, such as enclosing a dead end corridor in fire resisting construction, will
often be necessary.

In planning means of escape, there are three aspects to consider:

• travel distance: the maximum distance someone has to walk within the storey on which they are
located to reach a storey exit to open air or a staircase enclosed in fire resisting construction
• exit capacities, indicated by the widths of available exits
• the number of occupants for whom means of escape must be provided.

The exit widths must be sufficient for the anticipated number of occupants to escape quickly enough.
Staircase widths must be sufficient to enable the entire population of the building (or, in a building with
phased evacuation, the number of persons who will use the staircases at any one time) to escape safely.

There are a number of very detailed codes of practice for the design of means of escape. Some are very
general in application, while others relate only to specific occupancies. The most important of these are as
follows:
British standards
BS 5588 (Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings):
• Part 1 Code of practice for residential buildings
• Part 2 Code of practice for shops
• Part 3 Code of practice for office buildings
• Part 6 Code of practice for places of assembly
• Part 8 Code of practice for disabled people
• Part 10 Code of practice for shopping complexes
• Part 11 Code of practice for shops, offices, industrial storage and other similar buildings.

BS 5588:Part 11 replaced BS 5588:Parts 2 and 3 in 1997, and these latter parts are now withdrawn.
However, guidance documents that support building regulations still refer to these parts, and a number of
these are listed below:

Department of Education and Science

Building Bulletin 7: fire and the design of educational buildings

Department of the Environment

• Building regulations 1991: approved document B; fire safety
• Houses in multiple occupation: guidance to local housing authorities on standards of fitness under
Section 352 of the 'Housing act 1985'; circular 12/92

Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland

• Building regulations (Northern Ireland): technical booklet E; fire safety

Department of Health
• Health Technical Memorandum 81: firecode; fire precautions in new hospitals
• Health Technical Memorandum 85: firecode; fire precautions in existing hospitals
• Health Technical Memorandum 88: guide to fire precautions in NHS housing in the community for
mentally handicapped (or mentally ill) people

Department of Health and Social Services Northern Ireland

Health Technical Memorandum 84. Northern Ireland Firecode. Fire Safety in Residential Care Premises

Home Office/Scottish Home and Health Department

• Guide to fire precautions in existing places of work that require a fire certificate. factories, offices, shops
and railway premises
• Code of practice for fire precautions in factories, offices, shops and railway premises not required to
have a fire certificate
• Guide to fire precautions in premises used as hotels and boarding houses which require a fire
certificate
• Guide to fire precautions in existing places of entertainment and like premises

Scottish Office
Building standards 1990: technical standard E; means of escape from fire, facilities for fire-fighting and
means of warning of fire in dwellings

Closer inspection will reveal that each document is specific to a particular occupancy or area of the country.
There is, therefore, no problem of overlap between the areas of application, and in practice there is very
little ambiguity as to which code should be applied to any particular building.

It should be noted that BS 5588, and guidance that supports building regulations, is intended to apply only
to new buildings, or buildings undergoing extension or substantial modification, whereas the Home Office
guides apply to existing buildings. This reflects the legislative situation, whereby responsibility for fire safety
design of new buildings lies with the building control department of the local authority, but fire precautions
in most existing buildings are enforced by the fire authority, or by other agencies that will consult the fire
authority.

Means-of-escape codes are generally very prescriptive in nature. They set down relatively-rigid
requirements, although in theory at least, there should be flexibility in application.

Much of the detail in codes is based on experience, tradition and arbitrary limits to specified parameters,
such as travel distances. However, this does not detract from the fact that the existing approach to means
of escape works in practice, and possibly errs on the side of safety.

With the notable exception of the 'Code of practice for fire precautions in small factories, offices, shops and
railway premises not required to have a fire certificate', the Home Office guides listed above are intended
for enforcing authorities, although they are of value to architects, designers, consultants and others
involved in work that might affect the means of escape in existing buildings. The code for non-certificated
places of work was produced for building owners or occupiers because, in these non-certificated premises,
it is the duty of the owner or occupier to ensure that the fire precautions are adequate, and the premises
are not subject to routine inspection by the fire authority.

Emergency lighting
Emergency lighting is installed in a building to provide illumination when the normal lighting fails. The term
includes:

• escape lighting, which is provided to illuminate escape routes to an extent sufficient for occupants to
evacuate the building in safety
• safety lighting, which provides illumination to obviate danger to occupants, such as those engaged in a
hazardous activity, due to failure of the normal lighting
• standby lighting, which is sufficient to permit normal activities in the building to continue when the
general lighting fails

Most lighting failures arise from electrical faults or complete failure of the supply from the electricity supply
authority. However, fire can also lead to a failure of all or part of the normal lighting, due to the effect of
heat on the lighting circuits. Unless the cables are designed to be fire resisting, or are suitably protected
against the fire, the cable insulation can melt, resulting in a short circuit and isolation of the circuit by the
appropriate protective device (fuse or miniature circuit breaker). The failure of the normal lighting can then
make use of escape routes very difficult.

Escape lighting
Fire safety only necessitates the provision of escape lighting. The term 'emergency lighting' is commonly
used to refer to what would more properly be described as escape lighting. An element of safety lighting
may, however, be incorporated in an escape-lighting scheme, and will, by definition, form part of any
standby-lighting scheme. If standby lighting is provided in a building, it may contribute to, or constitute, the
escape lighting, providing the standby lighting on escape routes complies with the requirements for escape
lighting.

Escape lighting is one of the supporting provisions for means of escape, and may be required under the
powers of most fire safety legislation that applies to occupied buildings including, for example the 'Fire
precautions act 1971', the 'Housing act 1985', and regulations that apply to places of public entertainment.
It may also be required for new buildings under building regulations.

In premises where people sleep or the public assemble, escape lighting is an essential component of the
fire-protection measures required for safety of occupants in the event of fire. It is invariably a requirement of
the relevant enforcing authority. In premises such as offices, factories and warehouses, escape lighting
should certainly be provided if the premises are occupied during the hours of darkness, or if parts of the
escape route are devoid of natural lighting.
If these places of work require a fire certificate it is usual for the fire authority to require escape lighting. In
offices that are occupied only during normal office hours, the requirements of the fire authority in relation to
the extent of escape lighting are not usually very onerous. If a fire certificate is not required for such
premises, then escape lighting might not be required unless the escape routes are devoid of natural or
borrowed light. Nevertheless, the provision of escape lighting should be regarded as good practice in most
premises, regardless of whether it is specifically required by legislation.

It should also be noted that the 'Fire precautions (workplace) regulations 1997' require that, in premises to
which the Regulations apply, any emergency routes and exits that require illumination must be provided
with adequate emergency lighting to cater for failure of the normal lighting.

Design codes
The generally-accepted design code for escape lighting is BS 5266:Part 1:1988 'Emergency lighting: code
of practice for the emergency lighting of premises other than cinemas and certain other specified premises
used for entertainment'.

The code is not intended to apply to ballrooms, dance halls, cinemas, bingo halls, bowling halls and similar
premises although it is often used for such premises. BS CP 1007 is intended for use in cinemas, etc. In
addition, the Chartered Institute of Building Service Engineers (CIBSE) produces a technical memorandum
on the subject, and this also provides guidance beyond that contained in the British Standard.

Requirements issued by enforcing authorities usually specify that any escape lighting must comply with BS
5266:Part 1 for premises to which this code applies. However, as indicated earlier, in low-risk premises,
such as offices, some factories and warehouses, the enforcing authority may accept escape lighting that
does not comply in full with the requirements of the code in respect of, for example, area of coverage. In
licensed premises, some enforcing authorities impose requirements beyond those of the code. It is
important, therefore, that the relevant enforcing authority is consulted at an early stage in the specification
and design of an escape lighting installation.

Fire safety signs

Generally, it is necessary to provide fire safety signs, particularly those relating to fire exits and escape
routes, in order to satisfy legislation. There are five key categories of fire safety sign, according to their
purpose:

• fire equipment signs: eg, 'FIRE EXTINGUISHER'

• mandatory signs: eg, 'FIRE DOOR - KEEP SHUT'
• prohibition signs: eg, 'NO SMOKING'
• safe condition signs: eg, 'FIRE EXIT'
• warning signs: eg, 'IN CASE OF FIRE DO NOT USE LIFT'

The shape and colour of each category of sign is different, and recommendations for each type are
contained in BS 5499:Part 1:1990. This standard is based on and refers to, BS 5378 'Safety signs and
colours', and describes the colour, shape and other characteristics for each category of sign.

Many of the signs specified in BS 5499:Part 1 take the form of graphic symbols, but these may be
supplemented with 'supplementary' signs that include words - the 'fire exit' graphic should generally for the
moment, be supported by a supplementary sign. However, to comply with the British Standard,
supplementary signs can be used only with an accompanying graphic symbol. Accordingly, except where
no suitable graphic symbol exists to convey the meaning required, signs complying with BS 5499:Part 1
comprise a graphic symbol, with or without an accompanying worded sign.

The 'Health and safety (safety signs and signals) regulations 1996' affect fire safety signs.
These Regulations implement (in Great Britain but not Northern Ireland) the requirements of the relevant
EC 'Safety signs directive' (92/58/EEC). They not only require the provision, but also the maintenance, of
safety signs. In this context, safety signs include those pertaining to fire escape and fire equipment. The
Regulations also require that every employer ensure that all employees are given suitable instruction and
training in the meaning of safety signs. The Regulations contain requirements for acoustic signals, which
include audible fire alarm signals.

As far as fire escape and fire equipment signs are concerned, signs complying with BS 5499:Part 1 are
deemed to comply with the Regulations.

Guidance on the Regulations has been prepared by the Health and Safety Executive, who are responsible
for this legislation. However, where fire safety signs are provided under any enactment (other than the
'Special premises regulations'), the enforcing authority is the authority responsible for enforcing the
enactment. Thus, the fire authority is responsible for enforcing the Regulations in premises to which the
'Fire precautions act 1971' and the 'Fire precautions (workplace) (amendment) regulations 1999' apply.

Fire detection and alarm systems

In virtually all premises, there should be some means of giving a warning to all occupants in the event of
fire. In practice, most buildings require an electrically-operated fire-alarm installation that will alert all
occupants, indicate the location of the fire and, perhaps, automatically summon the fire brigade.

In the case of a manual system, the fire warning signal can be initiated only by the operation of a manual
call point by occupants. With an automatic system, the warning can be initiated by strategically-sited
automatic fire detectors. In practice most automatic fire-alarm systems are normally combined with a
manual fire-alarm system.

In premises to which the 'Fire precautions act' applies, the presence of a manual fire-alarm system will
normally be a prerequisite for certification; in the case of hotels, the system will normally be required to
incorporate automatic fire detectors. Fire-alarm systems can also be required under most other fire-safety
legislation, and automatic detection may be required, for example, in certain houses in multiple occupation
under the powers granted by the 'Housing acts'.

An automatic fire-detection system may also be required by enforcing authorities to compensate for
deficiencies in other fire-protection measures, particularly means of escape.
Fire insurers may also strongly encourage the installation of automatic fire detection in a building, in order
to reduce the likely property damage in the event of a fire. In some premises, particularly those of an
industrial nature, insurers may actually grant a small discount in fire insurance premiums if automatic fire
detection is installed throughout the premises.

Design codes
In the UK, most fire-alarm installations are designed in accordance with BS 5839:Part 1:1988. If a fire-
alarm system is required by an enforcing authority, they will normally require compliance with this code.

The Loss Prevention Council also publishes rules for automatic fire-alarm installations for the protection of
property, which are in close accordance with the recommendations of BS 5839:Part 1 for a P1 system, as
defined in the code but which also require there to be means for automatic summoning of the fire brigade
by methods defined in the rules.

Fire precautions and disabled people

There is an increasing awareness in society that disabled people should be able, as a right, to enter and
use modern buildings, whether to work, study and learn, be accommodated, or engage in leisure activities.
Equally, once in the building, disabled people must be safe from fire.

The right of access is now enshrined to some extent in the building regulations and other legislation, such
as the 'Disability discrimination act 1995', and the need for safe egress follows from this. It should be noted
that disability takes many forms but, usually this consideration in the fire safety context relates primarily to
means of escape for non-ambulant people, particularly those in wheelchairs. There is also a need to
consider facilities for blind and profoundly deaf people.
Design guidance
Guidance on this subject is contained in BS 5588:Part 8 'Fire precautions in the design, construction and
use of buildings; code of practice for means of escape for disabled people'. As in the case of other parts of
BS 5588, the code is intended primarily for new buildings undergoing substantial refurbishment. However,
an appendix to the code considers the application of the code to existing buildings. It is recognised that, in
the case of an existing building, compliance with the code is not always possible. Nevertheless, it is
recommended that alternative ways of meeting the objectives of the code should be sought. The code also
stresses that non compliance with its recommendations should not be regarded as adequate grounds for
excluding disabled people from a building.

Much of BS 5588:Part 8 is concerned with structural measures to enable escape by the physically disabled
in the event of fire. However, it stresses that management procedures are an essential part of
arrangements for escape by disabled people. The procedures recommended include:

• special arrangements for assisting wheelchair-bound people, or others with walking difficulties, along
corridors or stairways
• supervising the use of an evacuation lift if provided.

The importance attached to procedures is consistent with BS 5588:Part 11 'Code of practice for shops and
offices' which advises that building managements must make ad hoc arrangements for evacuation of
chairbound persons.

The code introduces the concept of refuges, defining a refuge 'an area that is both separated from a fire by
fire-resisting construction and provided with a safe route to a storey exit, thus constituting a temporarily
safe space for disabled persons to await assistance for their evacuation.'

The code also describes the technical requirements for evacuation lifts, which may be used by disabled
people in the event of fire. A fire-fighting lift that is intended for use by the fire brigade, and that complies
with BS 5588:Part 5, may be used as an alternative.

Blind people
Blind people quite often manage to evacuate a building with which they are sufficiently familiar with only
minimal assistance. However, the design of lighting and emergency lighting should take the possible needs
of partially-sighted people into account, particularly in respect of the uniformity of lighting level. In addition,
BS 5588:Part 8 incorporates suggested aids to the use of staircases by blind people.

Although many blind people have a remarkable ability to negotiate a building, it should be borne in mind
that, in the event of fire, they (and other occupants) may have to use (alternative) means of escape with
which they are not familiar. This should be taken into account in planning the evacuation of blind people.

Muster points
In considering the evacuation of able-bodied people, the importance of dispersal away from the building is
always stressed. Clearly, the same principle should apply to disabled people. However, special
considerations may apply, and it must be ensured that disabled people are not placed at risk by their
inability to move far enough away from the building. Furthermore, the siting of evacuation assembly points
should take disabled people into account, so that they are able to reach the assembly point and are not
placed at risk by so doing.

Additional references
• Fire safety in residential care premises: HTM 84
• Escape of disabled people from fire: BRE report

Fire alarm signals for profoundly deaf people may incorporate visual alarms and vibrating devices. Fire
alarm codes of practice rarely give any detailed guidance on this matter, although BS 5839:Part 6 does
offer some advice in the case of fire-alarm systems in dwellings.
Fire-extinguishing appliances
Fire-extinguishing appliances in buildings comprise any of the following:

• portable fire extinguishers

• trolley-mounted fire extinguishers
• fire blankets
• hydraulic hose reels

Trolley-mounted extinguishers are used only for special applications where there may be a need for trained
occupants to tackle a very large fire, such as one involving a large quantity of flammable liquids. They are,
therefore, not considered further.

Most fire-safety legislation requires there to be adequate fire-extinguishing appliances in any building to
which the legislation is relevant. In theory, either portable fire extinguishers or hose reels may be provided.
In practice, it might be appropriate to consider hose reels as supplementary to portable extinguishers,
rather than as a direct alternative.

Extinguishers offer the advantage that they can be used on a fire very quickly, while hose reels may take
longer to run out. However, hose reels provide an unlimited supply of extinguishing agent, and thus enable
a much greater degree of 'first aid' fire fighting.

Fire insurers will normally require that a building is provided with fire-extinguishing appliances. Discounts
may apply if sufficient appliances of a suitable type are provided in accordance with insurers' rules on the
subject.

Portable fire extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers may contain any one of the five recognised extinguishing agents, namely:

• water
• foam
• powder
• halon
• carbon dioxide

Water
Water is the most common extinguishing agent, and is suitable for Class A risks, which involve 'normal'
combustibles, such as wood, paper, textiles, etc. Water is not suitable for Class B fires (involving
flammable liquids, etc), nor for use on live electrical equipment.

Foam
Two types of foam may be found in portable extinguishers:

• fluoroprotein foam
• aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)

Foam extinguishes flammable liquids fires by smothering - the foam creates a barrier between the liquid
surface and the surrounding air. AFFF extinguishes Class A fires in much the same manner as water, but
the reduced surface tension created by the additive aids the wetting of the fuel surface.

Fluoroprotein foam is intended for use on Class B fires, while AFFF may be used on Class A or Class B
fires.

Powder
Powder provides very rapid knockdown of flame, and the performance ratings achieved for both Class A
and Class B fires are quite high. Powders are also quite effective on running flammable liquid fires. A
disadvantage of powder, however, is that it has no cooling effect and cannot readily prevent re-ignition of a
fire that continues to smoulder after the extinguisher is discharged. Powder may be used on live electrical
equipment, but may cause significant damage to electronic and electro-mechanical equipment.

Depending on the agent used, powder extinguishers may be suitable for both Class A and Class B fires, or
only for Class B fires.

Halon
Halon extinguishers contain an agent known as halon 1211 or bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF). Halon is
a vaporising liquid - stored as a liquid under pressure but evaporating rapidly on discharge. Unfortunately,
halons deplete the ozone layer and, under the terms of the 'Montreal protocol on substances that deplete
the ozone layer' (an international agreement), production has now ceased, although existing appliances
may remain until December 2002 and must be disposed of by 2003.

Carbon-dioxide
Carbon-dioxide extinguishers are provided mainly for use on fires involving electrical equipment. In office
areas, it is common to provide CO2 extinguishers, in conjunction with water or AFFF extinguishers, purely
for use on electrical equipment as, like halon, the gas leaves no residues.

All new portable fire extinguishers must be red with a colour code used to denote the extinguishing
medium. The area of the colour indication should be up to 5% of the body area, but in no case less than
3%. The colours are indicated below:

Extinguishing agent Colour to indicate

extinguishing material
Water Red
Foam Pale cream
Powder (all types) Blue
Carbon-dioxide Black
Vaporizing liquid (including halons) Green

Guidance on siting of fire extinguishers is contained in BS 5306:Part 3. The manufacturing standard for
portable fire extinguishers is BS EN3:Parts 1 to 6 respectively.

The Loss Prevention Council and the British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE) both publish lists of
extinguishers that have been independently tested in accordance with BS EN3, and that are manufactured
in accordance with a satisfactory quality-assurance scheme. Specification of such independently-
certificated extinguishers provides an assurance of product quality and reliability.

Fire blankets are normally made from glass-fibres or leather, and are contained in wall-mounted housings.
They are used for extinguishing fires in clothing, and can be used to smother a fire involving burning food.
Their main application is, therefore, in kitchens, but fire blankets may also be found in some laboratories or
areas in which people handle highly-flammable liquids. The fire blanket product standard is BS EN
1869:1997.

The Loss Prevention Council publishes the following data sheet: Portable fire extinguishers PE4.

Hose reels comprise a reel of rubber hose that is normally 30m in length and is permanently connected to a
water supply. The relevant design code is BS5306:Part 1. In many buildings, the water is supplied form the
building's water mains, but, in higher buildings, there is a need to provide a tank and pumps as a source of
supply.

Staff training and fire drills

Staff training and fire drills are clearly related but are not synonymous. Fire drills are both necessary and
useful, but they do not educate employees in all matters with which they should be familiar.

Section 2 of the 'Health and safety at work etc act 1974' imposes a general duty on employers to provide
instruction and training to ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, the health and safety at work of
employees.

Section 6 of the 'Fire precautions act 1971' empowers (but does not actually require) the fire authority to
impose such requirements as they consider appropriate in the circumstances to ensure that 'persons
employed to work in the premises receive appropriate instruction or training in what to do in case of fire,
and that records are kept of instruction or training given for that purpose'.

Guidance contained in the 'Guide to fire precautions in existing places of work that require a fire certificate',
recommends that instruction should be given by a competent person to ensure that everyone at work is
instructed preferably twice, but at least once, every year. It is this requirement that is normally incorporated
in a fire certificate, thereby making training mandatory. Instruction of employees in what to do in case of fire
is also one of the three 'interim duties' imposed by the 'Fire precautions act' (as amended), pending
response by a fire authority to an application for a fire certificate.

Information on fire training of employees can be found in 'Fire safety at work' and guidance documents
produced by the LPC. Further guidance on staff training is given in LPC data sheets PE5, MR9, MR10 and
MR12.

Fire drills are a useful means of reinforcing evacuation procedures and monitoring their effectiveness. Fire
certificates normally require fire drills to be carried out either once or twice a year. Sometimes,
requirements concerning the timing of drills (eg, at least one drill per annum for night shift workers) are
specified.

Guidance on fire drills can be found in Fire Safety at Work, and further guidance on procedures in the event
of fire (including fire drills) are given in LPC data sheet MR7.